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+{"metadata":{"id":"00369056a33f8ae8f6bec76ec9fa950d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/87563e35-15a5-4657-a105-4e6f3503eeb8/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Esta tendencia cobra hoy mayor importancia, debido a la gran diversidad de especies forrajeras disponibles, las cuales producen forraje durante todo o casi todo el año, y la necesidad de reducir los costos de producción, debido a:"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"(1) El alto costo alcanzado por los alimentos concentrados y otros suplementos alimenticios, (2) El escaso incremento en el precio de la carne y la leche pagado al productor y (3) el bajo poder adquisitivo de la población de menores ingresos, quienes demandan una alta proporción de la producción."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Por lo anterior, los productores se ven en la necesidad de hacer un uso racional y más eficiente de sus pasturas, como una forma económica y práctica para producir carne y leche en zonas tropicales."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"El desarrollo de la ganadería en el trópico requiere de una base científica y técnica para resolver sus problemas, por tanto, el estudio de los atributos agronómicos y de calidad nutricional de las especies forrajeras, como base para la alimentación de los animales, adquiere cada vez mayor importancia."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"En este documento se presenta una revisión general sobre algunos aspectos relacionados con las posibilidades y limitaciones de la utilización de las pasturas y los forrajes tropicales para la producción animal."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Potencial de la zona tropical para la producción de forrajes Sobre el potencial de la zona tropical para la prOducción de forrajes existen varias opiniones. Algunos investigadorelil son optimistas y consideran que el trópico dispone de abundantes recursos de energía solar yagua, y a esto se debe el éxito obtenido por los ganaderos que han aplicado tecnologías avanzadas de manejo, logrando nivelelil de producción animal por unidad de área comparables y aún superiorelil, a los obtenidos en zonas templadas."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"En la zona templada, en condiciones favorables de En consecuencia, las caracteristicas de crecimiento y desarrollo de la mayor1a de las gram1neas tropicales, incluyendo el rápido incremento que experimenta la lignina y el descenso en la digestibilidad al avanzar la edad, hacen que sea dificil proporcionar en forma continua alimentos de alta calidad a los animales en pastoreo. Los acentuados cambios estacionales que sigue la distribución de las lluvias complican, adn más, el manejo de las pasturas en las explotaciones ganaderas."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Durante la estación lluviosa la producción de forraje es alta como resultado del desarrollo de nuevos brotes o plántulas. Las plantas jóvenes son más nutritivas y el animal las consume con facilidad, pero el contenido de MS (< 20%) Y su utilidad suelen ser bajos, debido a que el volumen del tracto digestivo del animal impone un limite, que no le permite consumir la cantidad de forraje necesaria para llenar sus requerimientos de producción con base en MS (McDowell, 1975)."}]},{"head":"Importancia de las leguminosas en las pasturas tropicales","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Las leguminosas a través de la nodulación y fijación de nitrógeno atmosférico se constituyen en una fuente barata de nitrógeno para el suelo y las gramíneas asociadas y de prote1na para los animales."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"MUchos investigadores han encontrado una relación lineal, al menos dentro de cierto rango, entre la ganancia de peso vivo por hectárea y el contenido de leguminosas en la pastura. Esta relación es lineal hasta cuando la leguminosa constituye más o menos un 40% en la pastura. A valores superiores al 40%, parece que es ya el rendimiento de materia seca total en la pastura es el que no permite incrementos de peso vivo directamente proporcionales con el aumento en la cantidad de leguminosa (MUstapha y Djafar, 1980). Las mayores respuestas en producción animal por hectárea resultantes del incremento de la leguminosa en la pastura, pueden ser atribuidas a incrementos en: a) el nivel de nitrógeno en la dieta del animal, b) la producción de materia seca de la pastura y c) el valor nutritivo del forraje. Además, se ha observado que conforme la proporción de leguminosas en la dieta se incrementa de 0-100%, ocurren incrementos en el consumo voluntario y en la digestibilidad de la materia seca y la proteína cruda (Minson y Milford, 1967)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Las leguminosas tropicales son, a menudo, más digestibles para el animal que las gramineas en estados avanzados de crecimiento. Su contenido de prote1na cruda varia entre 15% y 25% de la MS. Son, por lo tanto, una fuente de alimento alto en proteína, con la ventaja de tener, además, una tasa muy baja de disminución de su contenido al aumentar la edad de la planta. Esta capacidad de conservar su nivel de proteína en el forraje ayuda, consecuentemente, a una mejor utilización de la gramínea asociada por el animal."}]},{"head":"Potencial de las pasturas tropicales para la producción animal","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Según Mannetje (1982) el nivel de producción depende del tipo de animal, su potencial genético, su salud y su ambiente. Según este autor es muy importante el consumo de energia digestible, proteínas, minerales y vitaminas y la ausencia de sustancias tóxicas o nocivas para el animal."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"El potencial genético de los rumiantes para producción nunca se logra totalmente en el trópico, aún en pasturas mejoradas, ya que el consumo de energía digestible es insuficiente. La cantidad y calidad nutritiva del forraje ofrecido a los animales, interactúan e influyen significativamente en la producción. Si la cantidad de forraje disponible no es un limitante y no se presentan problemas de aprehensión o de cosecha del forraje por parte del animal, la producción de éste, en gran parte, determinada por el consumo voluntario de MS digerible, que a su vez, determina el consumo de energía metabolizable (Whiteman, 1976)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Según stobbs (1976) en el trópico las pasturas nativas y naturalizadas se caracterizan por sus bajos rendimientos y bajo valor nutritivo. Generalmente, tienen bajo contenido de proteína, debido a la escasa o ninguna presencia de leguminosas, especies que pueden mejorar notablemente la cantidad y calidad del forraje aprovechable en pastoreo."},{"index":4,"size":261,"text":"Las pasturas tropicales son alimentos fibrosos de media a baja digestibilidad, y cuando los animales las consumen las usan principalmente para llenar los requerimientos de mantenimiento, quedando pocos nutrientes disponibles para producción. En consecuencia, la capacidad de las pasturas tropicales para producción de leche está por debajo del potencial genético del animal, como 10 muestra la Figura l. Debido a que los requerimientos nutricionales para ganancia de peso vivo son menores que para la producción de leche, estas pasturas son capaces de dar una producción de carne relativamente alta. De acuerdo con la Figura 1, la energía requerida para ganar 1 kg de peso vivo/día es casi igual a la requerida para producir 8 a 9 kg de leche/día. CUando las pasturas mejoradas no se fertilizan o cuando se utilizan pastos naturales, las producciones diarias de leche por vaca oscilan entre 5 y 7 kg, con bajas producciones por unidad de área (1300-2000 kq/ha/año), debido a la baja carqa animal/área que pueden soportar estas pasturas (García, 1983). La máxima producción diaria de leohe de vaoas, sin suplemento, en pasturas tropioales fertilizadas oon nitrógeno, es similar a la obtenida cuando pastorean en asociaoiones de gramíneas y leguminosas. Con éstas las produociones diarias alcanzan entre 8 y 9 kq de leche/vaca para razas pequeñas como Jersey y de 12 a 14 kg/vaca para razas grandes como Holstein. Esto equivale a una producción por lactancia de 2000 kq para razas pequeñas y de 3500 kg para razas grandes, con producciones entre 6800 y 15000 kg/ha/año y cargas entre 2 y 4 vacas/hectárea (Garcia, 1983)."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"La producción de carne en pasturas tropicales es variable dependienta de la época, la especie de pasto y el manejo. Whiteman (1976) reporta que para un rango amplio de condiciones ambientales de manejo, ésta puede ser de 0.35 kg/animal/dia y raramente excede a 0.60 kg/animal/dia. Estas ganancias ocurren aún con animales de alto potencial genético. Lo anterior sugiere, una vez más, que el valor nutritivo de las pasturas tropicales limita el potencial de producción animal."}]},{"head":"Factores que limitan la producción animal en pasturas tropicales","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Según Whiteman (1976) la calidad nutritiva es el factor que más limita el potencial de las pasturas tropicales para la producción animal. El principal limitante de los pastos tropicales para la producción de leche es su baja disponibilidad de energía. Sin embargo, en diferentes condiciones de manejo, otros nutrimentos, principalmente la proteína cruda, puede ser limitante para la producción de leche al disminuir el consumo de MS. Elementos como el azufre y el calcio pueden disminuir el consumo de alimentos cuando son deficientes en el pasto. Por otro lado, el fósforo generalmente se encuentra en los pastos en cantidades inadecuadas para satisfacer los requerimientos de las vacas lecheras. Además elementos como el zinc, sodio, molibdeno, cobre y cobalto, son frecuentemente deficientes en los pastos tropicales. No obstante, cuando los pastos son jóvenes y los animales pueden seleccionar las partes más nutritivas, éstos pueden cubrir las necesidades de proteina cruda y minerales (Garcia, 1983)."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"El bajo consumo de energia en los pastos tropicales está relacionado con su digestibilidad. Esta es 10 a 13 unidades inferior a la de los pastos de las zonas templadas en estados jóvenes, y puede ser menor en estados avanzados de madurez."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"La estacionalidad en el crecimiento de las pasturas es otro factor que limita la producción animal en el trópico, ya que en las épocas de minima precipitación ocurren periodos criticos de estrés nutricional. A esto hay que agregar el efecto de la estructura de las pasturas tropicales. Esta se caracteriza por una baja densidad de hojas y alta cantidad de tallos y hojas muertas, con una gran variación en la densidad de hojas entre las partes altas y bajas de la planta. Esta baja densidad de los pastos tropicales y menor contenido de hojas, se debe a una menor cantidad de rebrotes/m 2 y al continuo crecimiento de los tallos, aunque existe una gran variabilidad entre y dentro de los géneros y especies."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"La estructura deficiente de las pasturas tropicales, puede ocasionar fatiga o cansancio en los animales durante el pastoreo y limitar el consumo. Esto influye significativamente en el gasto de energia para mantenimiento, sobre todo cuando el animal pastorea durante 8 horas o más en el dia."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"Para mejorar la estructura de las pasturas tropicales se ha sugerido aprovechar la alta densidad de hojas que tienen los géneros Oiqitaria, Cynodon, Panicum y Brachiaria y emplear prácticas de manejo que faciliten su defoliación por el animal. Atributos que debe reunir una especie forrajera 1. Amplio rango de adaptación a condiciones de suelo y clima y tolerancia a plagas y enfermedades 2. Capacidad para proporcionar alto rendimiento de forraje de buena calidad. Esto supone una alta tasa de crecimiento durante la estación de lluvias, buena capacidad para recuperarse con rapidez después del corte o pastoreo en condiciones adversas y una alta relación hoja/tallo."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"3. Proporcionar una cobertura vegetal densa y asequible al animal. Esto implica un buen cubrimiento o protección del suelo, y además poseer una buena estructura dentro de la cubierta vegetal, con una alta cantidad de hojas en el estrato superior para facilitar su consumo por el animal."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"4. Buena capacidad para producir semillas viables o de propagarse por medio de material vegetativo."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"5. Rapidez de establecimiento y cubrimiento del suelo, lo cual indica habilidad para extenderse, agresividad para competir con malezas durante el establecimiento y capacidad de proporcionar rendimientos rápidos después de la siembra."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"6. Ser apetecible por los animales, lo cual indica tener una alta capacidad de consumo en presencia de otras especies."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"7. Buena capacidad para asociarse con otras especies. Esto permite tener un buen equilibrio entre gramíneas o un buen balance en mezclas de gramíneas y leguminosas."}]},{"head":"8.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Capacidad de tolerar las sequias. Indica la capacidad de conservar sus hojas durante la época seca y de recuperarse rápido al inicio de la estación lluviosa."}]},{"head":"9.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Poseer buena persistencia. Es decir, tolerancia al pastoreo (consumo, pisoteo)."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Sobre el tema tratado en este documento se concluye que el trópico posee un alto potencial para la producción animal por unidad de área, si se tiene en cuenta que se puede producir forraje todo o casi todo el año y que además se dispone de especies de alto rendimiento. Las especies forrajeras tropicales son de medias a bajas en su calidad nutritiva: por lo tanto el productor interesado en elevar sus niveles de producción animal debe esforzarse por mejorar el manejo y la utilización de sus recursos forrajeros, tratando en lo posible de incorporar leguminosas en las pasturas, en asociación ó como bancos de proteína."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" .. , POTENCIAL DE PRODUCCIOH y CALIDAD HU'l'R.ITIVA DE LAS GRAMIHEAS TROPICALES IHTRODUCCIOH En Colombia los sistemas de producción animal tienden oada vez más hacia la utilización directa de los recursos forrajeros mediante el pastoreo de los animales. "},{"text":"~ Figura 1. Representación simplificada de la utili~ación de la energía en ganado de carne y de leche. según A.R.C. 1965. Tomada de Slobbs. 1976. "},{"text":" Contenido, en porcentajes, de MS, NOT Y fibra cruda, de algunas gram1neas utilizadas en zonas tropicales concentración de nutrimentos es mayor en la dieta concentración denutrimentoses mayorenladieta puede alcanzar hasta 8S tjhajaño de MS con pasto elefante de zonas templadas, lo cual les permite un mayor potencial seleccionada por los animales que en la pastura ofrecida. 10%: en gramineas maduras el contenido de proteína cruda energéticos y proteicos, almacenados en los tej idos de la puede alcanzar hasta 8S tjhajaño de MS con pasto elefante de zonas templadas, lo cual les permite un mayor potencial seleccionada por los animales que en la pastura ofrecida. 10%: en gramineas maduras el contenido de proteína cruda energéticos y proteicos, almacenados en los tej idos de la (Pennisetum purpureum), para la producción de materia seca por ha/año. Este con una eficiencia anual de Esto se debe a la selección que hace el animal durante el puede ser inferior a 5% (Butler y Bailey, 1973). Durante planta, dando como resultado una disminución en la ESTAllO DE NOT FIBRA !i (Pennisetum purpureum), para la producción de materia seca por ha/año. Este con una eficiencia anual de Esto se debe a la selección que hace el animal durante el puede ser inferior a 5% (Butler y Bailey, 1973). Durante planta, dando como resultado una disminución en la ESTAllO DE NOT FIBRA !i conversión de la energia luminica del S% (Butler y Bailey, potencial solo puede desarrollarse bajo condiciones pastoreo. periodos prolongados de sequía el contenido de proteína de digestibilidad del forraje (McDowell, ~975). NOMBRE CIENTIFICO NCMIlRE COOJN CRECIMIENTO MS lt DE LA MS conversión de la energia luminica del S% (Butler y Bailey, potencial solo puede desarrollarse bajo condiciones pastoreo. periodos prolongados de sequía el contenido de proteína de digestibilidad del forraje (McDowell, ~975). NOMBRE CIENTIFICO NCMIlRE COOJN CRECIMIENTO MS lt DE LA MS 1973). adecuadas de manejo que incluyan el suministro de agua, y las gram1neas tropicales, generalmente es inferior a los ~dactylon Bemula Sin madurar 19.1 56.9 33.3 1973). adecuadas de manejo que incluyan el suministro de agua, y las gram1neas tropicales, generalmente es inferior a los ~dactylon Bemula Sin madurar 19.1 56.9 33.3 nutrimentos y sistemas de utilización flexibles, de acuerdo La masa (densidad x altura) y la estructura de la niveles requeridos por el animal en pastoreo. El factor climático que más influye en la calidad Madura 26.7 43',4 54.9 nutrimentos y sistemas de utilización flexibles, de acuerdo La masa (densidad x altura) y la estructura de la niveles requeridos por el animal en pastoreo. El factor climático que más influye en la calidad Madura 26.7 43',4 54.9 Como especies tropicales con las condiciones ambientales del lugar. se incluyen todas vegetación en la cubierta vegetal afectan la ingestión por las nutritiva de los pastos tropicales es la temperatura. Altas Como especies tropicales con las condiciones ambientales del lugar. se incluyen todas vegetación en la cubierta vegetal afectan la ingestión por las nutritiva de los pastos tropicales es la temperatura. Altas ~ plectostachyus Estrell. 23 DI •• 20.1 63.8 22.6 ~ plectostachyusEstrell.23 DI ••20.163.822.6 gramineas y leguminosas de la zona comprendida entre 30\"N y bocado del animal y por tanto, el consumo de forraje. Las Existe la creencia que el consumo de gramineas temperaturas durante el crecimiento aceleran el desarrollo 6D DI •• 30.4 49.4 30.2 gramineas y leguminosas de la zona comprendida entre 30\"N y bocado del animal y por tanto, el consumo de forraje. Las Existe la creencia que el consumo de gramineas temperaturas durante el crecimiento aceleran el desarrollo 6D DI •• 30.4 49.4 30.2 características agronómicas de las pasturas tropicales El hábito de crecimiento erecto de la mayoría de las gramíneas y leguminosas tropicales, ocasiona una baja densidad del follaj e en la cubierta vegetal, restringiendo la cosecha y el consumo por los animales (Norton, 1982) .Este aspecto puede explicar, bajo nivel de producción animal obtenido en pastoreo en parte, el con pasturas tropicales, comparado con el obtenido en pasturas de zonas pasturas tropicales generalmente presentan una menor densidad y menor relación hoja/tallo que las pasturas de zonas templadas (Hodgson, 1982). En resumen, los pastos tropicales tienen alto potencial de producción de biomasa por unidad de área, pero la estructura de las pasturas es más variable, su densidad es proteína; las sustancias nitrogenadas solubles; los carbohidratos solubles (glucosa, fructosa y suerosa) incluyendo almidón y pectina, ácidos orgánicos y los lipidos de las hojas; estas sustancias son totalmente digeribles y utilizables por el bovino. Los forrajes con altos tropicales puede reducirse notablemente cuando el porcentaje Digitaria ~ Par!¡ola 23 di .. 20.5 62.4 27.4 42 di .. 33.1 58.5 29.3 84 DI .. 30.7 46.6 30.0 IIyparrhenia rufa _tero Sin madurar 29.7 54.7 28.9 Madura 35.5 43.2 33.7 Melinis minutiflora Gordura S in madurar 25.6 52.1 39.5 Madura 44.8 50.6 42.5 de los tallos De acuerdo con el National Research Council (NRC) PaniCUll ..... 1 _ Guinea Sin madurar 25.1 52.3 36.4 características agronómicas de las pasturas tropicales El hábito de crecimiento erecto de la mayoría de las gramíneas y leguminosas tropicales, ocasiona una baja densidad del follaj e en la cubierta vegetal, restringiendo la cosecha y el consumo por los animales (Norton, 1982) .Este aspecto puede explicar, bajo nivel de producción animal obtenido en pastoreo en parte, el con pasturas tropicales, comparado con el obtenido en pasturas de zonas pasturas tropicales generalmente presentan una menor densidad y menor relación hoja/tallo que las pasturas de zonas templadas (Hodgson, 1982). En resumen, los pastos tropicales tienen alto potencial de producción de biomasa por unidad de área, pero la estructura de las pasturas es más variable, su densidad es proteína; las sustancias nitrogenadas solubles; los carbohidratos solubles (glucosa, fructosa y suerosa) incluyendo almidón y pectina, ácidos orgánicos y los lipidos de las hojas; estas sustancias son totalmente digeribles y utilizables por el bovino. Los forrajes con altos tropicales puede reducirse notablemente cuando el porcentaje Digitaria ~ Par!¡ola 23 di .. 20.5 62.4 27.4 42 di .. 33.1 58.5 29.3 84 DI .. 30.7 46.6 30.0 IIyparrhenia rufa _tero Sin madurar 29.7 54.7 28.9 Madura 35.5 43.2 33.7 Melinis minutiflora Gordura S in madurar 25.6 52.1 39.5 Madura 44.8 50.6 42.5 de los tallos De acuerdo con el National Research Council (NRC) PaniCUll ..... 1 _ Guinea Sin madurar 25.1 52.3 36.4 templadas. contenidos Digestibilidad. La proporción de materia orgánica de carbohidratos solubles en (McDowell, 1975) el nivel minimo de 55% de NDT, se considera agua son Madura 26.2 38.2 33.8 templadas. contenidos Digestibilidad. La proporción de materia orgánica de carbohidratos solubles en (McDowell, 1975) el nivel minimo de 55% de NDT, se considera agua son Madura 26.2 38.2 33.8 altamente digeribles. fácilmente digerible es más baja en como necesario para el crecimiento de bovinos de más de 200 altamente digeribles. fácilmente digerible es más baja en como necesario para el crecimiento de bovinos de más de 200 Brachlarla mutic.  Par' Sin madurar 25.4 49.7 54.8 Brachlarla mutic.Par'Sin madurar25.449.754.8 Hodgson (1982) señala que la composición botánica y la gram1neas tropicales que en gramineas de zonas templadas. kg de peso vivo. Este nivel es común en la mayoria de las Madura 21.6 33.7 35.1 Hodgson (1982) señala que la composición botánica y la gram1neas tropicales que en gramineas de zonas templadas. kg de peso vivo. Este nivel es común en la mayoria de las Madura 21.6 33.7 35.1 morfología de la cubierta vegetal de la pastura, influyen La digestibilidad de las gram1neas tropicales oscila entre especies de zonas templadas, excepto en estados muy morfología de la cubierta vegetal de la pastura, influyen La digestibilidad de las gram1neas tropicales oscila entre especies de zonas templadas, excepto en estados muy en; (1) la selección de la dieta por los animales en 40% y 60%, mientras que en las gram1neas de zonas templadas avanzados de maduración. El porcentaje promedio de NDT, Pemlset .... clardesti .... KIIruyo Sin madurar 25.0 69.0 20.9 en; (1) la selección de la dieta por los animales en 40% y 60%, mientras que en las gram1neas de zonas templadas avanzados de maduración. El porcentaje promedio de NDT, Pemlset .... clardesti .... KIIruyo Sin madurar 25.0 69.0 20.9 pastoreo y (2) las variaciones en estructura, arquitectura o alcanzan valores entre 55% y 75%. encontrado en gramíneas de clima tropical, en sus La lignina es el Madura 23.7 53.3 24.5 pastoreo y (2) las variaciones en estructura, arquitectura o alcanzan valores entre 55% y 75%. encontrado en gramíneas de clima tropical, en sus La lignina es el Madura 23.7 53.3 24.5 distribución vertical de sus componentes (rebrotes, hojas, principal factor que origina el descenso en la primeras fases de crecimiento es de 58.1%: entre 60 y 90 Pemisetun purpurel.l8 Elefante 23 di .. 20.5 58.3 37.3 distribución vertical de sus componentes (rebrotes, hojas, principal factor que origina el descenso en la primeras fases de crecimiento es de 58.1%: entre 60 y 90 Pemisetun purpurel.l8 Elefante 23 di .. 20.5 58.3 37.3 tallos y material muerto). digestibilidad de las gramineas. Las características anteriores días de crecimiento es de 45.2%, y en ocasiones sólo de 6D dios 21.0 48.8 36.4 tallos y material muerto). digestibilidad de las gramineas. Las características anteriores días de crecimiento es de 45.2%, y en ocasiones sólo de 6D dios 21.0 48.8 36.4 pueden influir en la oportunidad de selección de los pueden influir en la oportunidad de selección de los animales. En general, el contenIdo de hojas verdes y la animales.En general, el contenIdo de hojas verdes y la  "}],"sieverID":"eb2741b6-79c5-450c-82e1-eb69e647ce65","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"005be2a276dc25072271f73c1b10c834","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6ba244c7-a324-474c-af9d-4fd8f7cb627a/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Communications and knowledge management are essential activities to help the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) achieve its development outcomes. Strategic and complementary communication helps highlight success stories, support a change in behaviour in next-users while expanding the program's reach. This in turn will help agships and regions follow impact pathways and reach outcomes","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The CCAFS Approach to Communications","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The CCAFS Approach to Communications"}]},{"head":"What We Do","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Who We Are","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"As its foundation, CCAFS has an informed, creative and collaborative communications team","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Through strategic planning that is focused on CCAFS outcomes and impact pathways"}]},{"head":"How We Do It","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Our Vision","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"To make a strategic and signi cant contribution to delivering and communicating research outcomes As team members, CCAFS communicators are informed, engaged and collaborative; bringing a unique creative skill set to the program. Their speci c expertise helps make sure the right communications approach is identi ed, implemented, monitored and evaluated for individual projects. As e cient project-managers, they are adept to support the production of a range of communications materials including videos, information yers, blogs and infographics. As natural communicators, they re ect on messaging, framing, format, layout, and representation to ensure that products are tailored to the needs of CCAFS audiences, that they are engaging, but above all, scienti cally accurate."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"The communicators represent an important link between CCAFS and partners, as they possess a clear understanding of next users and key audiences and know how to successfully reach and in uence them. The CCAFS communicator is connected to and active in numerous networks, knowledge-sharing platforms, and keeps in touch with fellow communicators, situated throughout CCAFS and CGIAR. Through reaching out to communications colleagues, as well as research and development partners and the media, communicators ensure research products, content and ndings are shared and spread beyond the research groups' immediate networks."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"The CCAFS communicator also plays a vital role within the research team. By keeping research products well documented and organized, the communicator makes sure products are stored and managed in a structured way. This will make sure products are visible and accessible as per CGIAR open access policy."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"The CCAFS Approach to Communications"}]},{"head":"CCAFS Communications Team","index":7,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e7e13535-96ff-49ad-bb12-814f070a854f","abstract":""}

data/part_5/00741ea2857a9a4243cf3e2b4b327c65.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00741ea2857a9a4243cf3e2b4b327c65","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/23842373-773c-42f8-aca3-3e6f6388246e/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Historias de Cambios Destacables del Proyecto CIP-FIDA-Andes en Ecuador","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"La metodología se centró en la recolección y el análisis de historias de cambios producidos a partir de la intervención del proyecto. Se identificaron 12 criterios: 1) Selección participativa de variedades, 2) Selección de semilla, 3) Prácticas de manejo integrado de plagas y enfermedades, 4) Fortalecimiento de capacidades de agricultores, 5) Evaluación Participativa de la Cadena Productiva EPCP, 6) Planes de negocio, 7) Escuelas de negocio para agricultores, 8) Articulación de agricultores con otros actores de la cadena, 9) Actividades de promoción para visibilizar variedades, 10) Acuerdos con socios para ampliar la red de actores con los que se vinculan los proyectos, 11) Espacios de socialización e incidencia del proyecto, 12) Material de difusión/capacitación. La recolección de información se realizó, a través de 9 sesiones de CMS se solicitó a los participantes que escriban sus historias de cambió y las socialicen, se recolectaron 72 historias. Finalmente, por medio de votación se seleccionaron diez."}]},{"head":"RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A continuación, extractos de las 4 historias que recibieron la mayor puntuación."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Esperanza en el mañana. -Soy Gloria y soy de Píllaro, la gente nos ha criticado bastante, ahora estamos más unidas y nuestros maridos están más contentos. Actualmente ya hay un cambio porque ya pido lo que necesita mi papa, ya tenemos más criterio y con la capacitación hemos aprendido a seleccionar la semilla, desinfectar en la siembra, a fertilizar, de igual forma en los plaguicidas ya sabemos cuáles son los adecuados para esta producción y principalmente cuáles no son tóxicos. En mi lote personal también ya he puesto las trampas para el gusano blanco. Lo bueno es que los vecinos también están atentos para ver cómo sigue nuestro cultivo, ya preguntan."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"El Campeón.-Soy Angel Rea yo vivo en la comunidad de Tiutipian notamos como economizamos al usar menos semilla, antes sembrábamos papas pequeñas pero en más cantidad, hoy usamos menos y al hacer esto economizamos. Las papas que cosechamos las vendemos en el mercado, y usamos en unas campañas que hacemos en la iglesia, también nos la comemos cuando hacemos las mingas o para los refrigerios para los niños que participan en algunos talleres. Los fondos que hemos sacado de la venta nos sirvieron para pagar una parte de la deuda que aún tenemos del terreno."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Tierra Linda de Papas.-Me llamo Ana Paredes, con el proyecto aprendimos a seleccionar semilla y esto para mí fue muy importante ahora sabemos que debemos seleccionar la mejor semillita tiene que ser redonda y con ojitos para que la matita nazca mucho mejor y tengamos más producción. Ahora nos da 21 quintales por cada quintal de semilla. Además, utilizamos menos cantidad de semilla de lo que usábamos antes porque ponemos solo una papita y antes poníamos dos, tres o más. Necesitamos seguir capacitándonos para aprender más."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"La papa productiva.-Yo me llamo Carmen Sánchez y soy de Rumipamba. Lo que más me impactó fue conocer las diferentes variedades de papa que existen. Por ejemplo, yo sembré la papa Libertad y la Natividad y están engrosando súper bien. Ya vendimos la Natividad que es conocida, pero no se conoce la Libertad, le llevé un poquito de papas a una señora que tiene un salón que vende papa frita en Cevallos y me dijo que estaba muy buena y que le traiga más papa. Los cursos me han ayudado a ser organizada, hacer un calendario para fumigar, un rotativo de insecticidas, etc. Ahora registro cuándo sembramos, cuándo fumigamos y con qué fumigamos. La semilla la poníamos en sacos de plástico y se podría, ahora usamos sacos ralos o gavetas y ya no se pudre."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Las historias de cambio muestran que el mayor impacto en los agricultores está relacionado con los criterios 1,2,3 y 4. En repetidas ocasiones mencionan la selección de variedades, el uso de semilla de calidad, su tratamiento y el manejo integrado del cultivo. También se puede evidenciar que los agricultores tienen mayor criterio a la hora de seleccionar los productos químicos. Los agricultores sienten que han mejorado la productividad y han reducido costos, por menor uso de plaguicidas y mejor uso de la semilla. En lo que se refiere a la comercialización han logrado vender la producción en los mercados y algunos han intentado abrir mercado en salones cercanos a ellos. Además de la comercialización la producción obtenida ha servido para la alimentación de los socios en las mingas y en el caso de Tiupitian también la utilizaron en la alimentación para los niños."}]},{"head":"BIBLIOGRAFÍA","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Triveño, G., Flores, P., Fonseca, C., Panchi, N., Gonzales, M., y Velasco, C. 2019. Soy papa y no papá: Historias de cambios destacables del proyecto Fortalecimiento de la Innovación para Mejorar los Ingresos, la Seguridad Alimentaria y la Resiliencia de productores de papa en Bolivia, Ecuador y Perú. Centro Internacional de la Papa: Lima (Perú). 60 p."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b4d0fed2-3c52-4550-9865-009fe05c09cd","abstract":"y Perú\", cuyo objetivo fue mejorar el ingreso, la seguridad alimentaria y la resiliencia al cambio climático de familias de agricultores de escasos recursos, cuyos sistemas de cultivo están basados en la producción de papa. El proyecto contempló 3 componentes: (i) innovación tecnológica y capacitación en la producción de papa, (ii) desarrollo de la cadena de valor y capacitación, con énfasis en innovaciones comerciales, y (iii) gestión de conocimiento proyectada a la sostenibilidad y escalonamiento (Triveño et al., 2019). En Ecuador el proyecto se implementó en Tungurahua y Bolívar, al final se realizó la autoevaluación del proyecto con la metodología del Cambio Más Significativo (CMS) para el monitoreo y evaluación participativa."}

data/part_5/007b23cb9e0d6e5c7d7df51b5f9d0d92.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"007b23cb9e0d6e5c7d7df51b5f9d0d92","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6ab9edd-ad60-455f-95df-92fbcc6de8dd/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"National level policy for sustainable cattle production in Colombia","keywords":["P655 -Product Line 3.4.2: Approaches to enabling private-public-sector-producer linkages leading to accelerated innovation in the feed sector","11 -Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains Contributing Centers/PPA partners:","CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) Contributing CRPs/PTF:","Livestock -Livestock"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d68bc4e7-e82a-4ee3-80a6-05c6f30b9a78","abstract":"The policy has been drafted, with inputs from CGIAR scientists. It will be the first official document to define what environmentally, economically and socially sustainable cattle production means for Colombia."}

data/part_5/00e6e344964567c35350e01d64bb25e7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00e6e344964567c35350e01d64bb25e7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a419e88-cfec-4c70-9a0a-34fd59e9053f/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Policy Constraints and Key Drivers for Enhancing Egyptian Agrifood Systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Food security is one of the most important strategic issues for all countries, as it represents an integral part of their national security. For this purpose, all countries all over the world aim to achieve food security for their citizens to ensure the political independence and well-being of their citizens. In this framework, food security has been one of the most important issues for the Egyptian government following the revolution on the 25 th of January 2011, since one of the basic demands of the revolution was achieving food security for Egyptian citizens under the slogan \"Bread -Freedom -Social justice\", and the achievement of the dignity of humanity i . Therefore, the issue of food security represents a fundamental pillar in the Egyptian economy due to its close connection to the process of economic development on the one hand, and political and social stability on the other hand."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Currently, Egypt is still suffering a food gap in most food commodities in a way that threatens Egyptian food security, the most important of which is the food gap in grains that amounts to some 17.1 million tons ii , accounting for 41.4% of the quantity consumed. This gap represents a heavy burden on Egypt's food import bill, particularly with the foreign currency crises, which threaten Egypt's Food Security due to the currently existing global threats that may obstruct the flow of grain imports to Egypt."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"To meet the needs of the growing population, the current agricultural policy has given priority to implementing several steps to ensure enhancing self-sufficiency rate in cereal crops. This paper aims to shed light on agricultural policies adopted by the Egyptian government to curb the food gap in grains by increasing domestic production of grains, as well as rationalizing consumption ."}]},{"head":"Current Situation of Agricultural Production","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cultivated Land Area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Currently, the average cultivated area is estimated at 9.7 million acres iii (4.07 million ha), of which 11% are cultivated with perennial crops (fruits and sugarcane), while the rest of the area (89%) is cultivated twice a year, i.e., the winter and summer seasons, bringing the total cropped area to about 17 million acres. Almost 80% of the holders belong to the holding category of less than 1.26 hectare and live on around 37% of the agricultural land area (of whom nearly 42.2% fall in the holding category of less than 0.42 hectare and live on about 8.6% of the agricultural land area). "}]},{"head":"Total Cropped Area","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The total cropped area in Egypt is distributed among grains, sugar crops, vegetables, fodder crops, and other crops, in addition to orchards, palms, and perennial crops. Old Lands are the main source of agricultural production as they represent about 69% of the total cropped area, while New Lands represent only 31%. About 47% of the total cropped area is allocated for grain production, of which 81% is in Old Lands and 19% is in New Lands). However, winter grain crops are concentrated in both wheat and barley, with an average area estimated at 1.43 million hectares for wheat, and 147.1 thousand hectares for irrigated and rain-fed barley. As for grains grown during the summer season, they are concentrated in white and yellow maize, sorghum, and rice, with areas estimated at 1.1 million hectares, 151.3 thousand hectares, and 0.55 million hectares, respectively. "}]},{"head":"Agricultural Policy","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Egypt's food gap is concentrated in both wheat and maize. However, domestic wheat is mainly used for making bread loaves (Balady bread) after mixing with imported wheat, which consumers depend on for their daily food. While average domestic wheat production is almost 9 million tons iv , demand stands at some 20.4 million tons per year. In some rural areas, people mix wheat with white maize to make dry bread. However, due to insufficient domestic production of wheat, there has been a traditional reliance on imports, which has led to importing around 12 million tons of wheat per year. Besides, the shortage in yellow maize production resulted in the importation of some 8.9 million tons v , mainly utilized as feed in the poultry sector. The following are suggested options to reduce the gap between domestic supply and demand."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Inputs' Policy","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Seeds, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation water are considered the main inputs that have direct impacts on Egypt's cereal production. To maximize the benefit of these inputs, the government adopted the following policies to help farmers expand cultivations of cereal crops:"}]},{"head":"Seeds' Policy","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The availability of certified seeds is the main factor determining the increase in production. Statistics indicate that vi , except for maize, the coverage rate of base and certified seeds is estimated at about 32% for wheat, 46% for rice, 5% for barley, 40% for sorghum, and 20% for fava beans. High prices of certified seeds represent one of the obstacles to farmers' adoption of such seeds, despite their availability in some cases. Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture adopted a package of tools that aim to:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Increase the coverage rate of certified seeds to 100%."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"• Focus on genetic engineering in producing varieties that tolerate water scarcity and have less fertilizer needs. Genetic engineering can be used for pest control as well, because of the armyworm's rapid adaptation and mutation to resist the effectiveness of pesticides. • Supporting farmers by providing them with certified seeds for free, as support can be allowed within the framework of the Free Trade Agreement if it conforms to the conditions allowed in the Green Box, such as subsidizing production inputs, the agricultural extension system, and many other operations. • Abide by crop rotation (double or treble) to preserve the quality of the land and soil."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Abide by the variety map developed to match varietal demands by producers."}]},{"head":"Main Challenges Facing the Seed Sector","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"• Difficulty in finding proper sites for contracting to produce seeds."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• The high commercial price of maize that exceeded EGP 20 thousand per ton, (US$ 467.5)."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"With an average yield of 3 tons per acre (7.14 ton per hectare), total revenue per acre of maize is EGP 60 thousand (US$ 1,942). • Seed production, especially for single cross hybrids, is becoming a challenge. The yield capacity of parents is quite low because of the low traits and sensitivity to weather conditions, where yields may sometimes not exceed 2 ardab per acre (0.7 ton per hectare), and 750 kg per acre at the highest estimates (1.78 ton per hectare)."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"To address these challenges, the following are suggested:"},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"• Set a trigger procurement price for farmers for seed production and delivery that is not lower than EGP 40 thousand (US$ 1,295) as an equilibrium point. This is because seed production requires maintaining variety purity through seedbed preparation; timely completion of tillage operations; irrigation; supplementary pollination measures, if required; weed control; pest and disease control measures; identification and removal of the contaminants, off-types, obnoxious weeds, objectionable crop plants, diseases with seed-borne nature, disposal of the parents before harvesting, drying, etc."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"• To overcome the challenge, which will be very difficult in the valley and the delta, it is possible to expand maize production in the lands of East Owainat, Dabaa Axis, etc., provided that milling machines are made available due to a lack of labour in such areas."}]},{"head":"Chemical Fertilizers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Since 1995, the agricultural sector has been facing challenges in providing fertilizers. Some of these problems relate to the deficit in fertilizers, especially when the government exports fertilizers to foreign markets. In this case, farmers lack the amounts of fertilizer sufficient to add to their land. On the other hand, the fertilizer distribution policy has not been updated, as fertilizer regulations have not been updated, which requires consideration of achieving a balanced policy between nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) elements, and the necessity of providing subsidized fertilizers to farmers."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"It is worth mentioning that global fertilization balance ratios are estimated at 5: 3: 1 for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, while Egyptian ratios are estimated at 17: 2: 1. Accordingly, the goal of the Soil, Water and Environment Research Institute (SWERI) is achieving the global balance ratio via a dynamic fertilizer map that must be respond to climate changes, considering the limited land and water resources and the issue of intercropping methods, maize with soybeans for example."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Matching the global fertilization balance ratios requires educating farmers about them and about considering the elements available in their lands, whether in the valley or the delta, through farmers' field schools and national campaigns."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The Russo-Ukrainian crisis led to higher prices of natural gas, and consequently higher prices of nitrogenous fertilizers in the global market, which in turn resulted in higher prices of agricultural products all over Europe due to the higher costs of transportation, logistics, electricity, and fertilizers. To mitigate these challenges, the Agricultural Research Center vii (Soil Water and Environment Institution) has suggested some innovations:"},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"• Using liquid ammonia to mitigate the impact of pressure on nitrogenous fertilizers. To optimize the benefits of this alternative, it is critical to estimate the amount of liquid ammonia used or the recommended amount; estimate the increase in yield per acre or by hectare because of using liquid ammonia; determine the types of soil suitable for fertilization with liquid ammonia; and estimate the response of new high-yielding crop varieties to fertilization with liquid ammonia."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• Determining the needs of fertilizers for new high-yielding crop varieties."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"• Revisiting the currently applied fertilizers distribution policy so that it is based on land holding area to overcome the problem of linking the distributed fertilizers to wheat planted area (like the ration cards for individuals)."},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• Expanding viii the use of liquid fertilizers and fertilizers suitable for modern irrigation systems wherever applicable."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• Orientation ix to using organic fertilizers (compost, humus, etc.) to ease the pressure on mineral fertilizers and protect the soil from pollution."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"• Linking fertilizers' distribution policy to grain crops' delivery policy."}]},{"head":"Irrigation Water Use Policy","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Crop production mainly depends on irrigated agriculture, which constitutes around 84.5% of the total agricultural land. The surface irrigation method is considered the most common in Egypt and is applied in almost 82% of the agricultural lands. Drip irrigation is used in only 10%, while sprinkler irrigation is used in the rest area, i.e., 8%. Currently, the government is developing an irrigation system to switch from flood to drip and sprinkle irrigation in old lands. Besides, incentives have been set for farmers, represented in supporting the establishment of irrigation networks."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Egypt 2030 updated Sustainable Agriculture Development Strategy has targeted maximizing water use efficiency through promoting the adoption of water use rationalization methods; issuing ministerial decrees defining x bananas, rice, and sugarcane cultivated areas; promoting the adoption of modernized irrigation systems in new lands; and issuing ministerial decrees for modernizing irrigation systems in orchards in the Valley and the Delta."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Price Policies","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"The agricultural sector in general, and the grains sector in particular, were exposed to several external shocks that led to negative impacts on food crops' production, including the COVID-19 crisis, the Russo-Ukrainian war, and the US dollar crunch. Such negative impacts led to governmental interventions to adopt indicative cropping patterns through implementing a package of policies to mitigate the impact of such crises, the most important of which include: a) Contract farming policy. b) Expand the cultivation of yellow maize and soybeans to overcome the poultry and livestock feed crisis. c) Allocate part of the reclaimed land areas in mega projects to expand the cultivation of grain crops. d) Setting price incentives to encourage farmers to grow and deliver grain crops (wheat and rice). Farmers are late in crop planting dates (e.g., maize) due to relatively low profitability compared to competing crops. This year, the government announced remunerative procurement prices for crops, which encouraged farmers to buy approved seeds. The indicative prices announced by the government should consider the following factors:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Covering production costs and realizing a remunerative profit."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"• International prices of grains."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Equating incomes realized from grain crops with those realized from competing crops."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• Maintaining the purchasing power of farmers."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"e) Distortions in rice pricing this year occurred due to the following reasons:"},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• The government has set an indicative price for paddy rice at EGP 7 thousand per ton (US$ 226.54)."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Merchants purchased the crop from farmers directly from the field for EGP 10 thousand per ton, (US$ 323.62)."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"• The Ministry of Supply and Internal Trade then purchased rice from merchants for EGP 16 thousand per ton, (US$ 517.8)."},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"• The crop grain delivery by farmers to the government should be voluntary because there is no need to force farmers to deliver their produce when they have no desire to do that."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"• It is necessary to subsidize agricultural production because it can lead to increasing supply in the market thus reducing consumer prices, and hence alleviating burdens on consumers."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"• Applying the contract farming system where it can be feasible."}]},{"head":"Grain Trade Policy","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"In the past, the government adopted the policy of import concentration, where Egypt's wheat imports are concentrated in Russia (about 50%) and Ukraine (about 25%). As for yellow maize, Egypt's imports are concentrated in Argentina (about 35%), Brazil (about 33%), and Ukraine (about 24%)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"After the Russo-Ukrainian War, world prices of wheat and maize soared and almost doubled from US$ 150-200 to US$ 400-450 per ton, which resulted in huge negative impacts on the imports of such commodities. Therefore, the government decided to adopt the policy of diversifying grainimporting sources to hedge against the risk of banning exports by some countries (the case of Indian wheat). Currently, the government is considering activating the win-win deals mechanism with some countries; Russia, for example. The General Authority for Supply Commodities (GASC) xi actively explored this option, while also increasing planned procurement prices from domestic sources by 38% over last year's figure."}]},{"head":"Egyptian Action Plan Policies for Cereal Crops Production:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Agricultural production policies aim to curb the food gap in grains, estimated at approximately 50% for wheat and 75% for yellow maize, which the government covers through imports from abroad. However, Egypt faces challenges in increasing wheat and maize cultivated areas because the maximum possible expansion area for both crops is 500 thousand acres (210,000 hectares). Accordingly, the vertical expansion strategy comes on top of the solutions that can contribute to increasing yield per unit of land and water by focusing on improving the yields of varieties; raising farmers' awareness of the proper cultivation packages associated with such varieties and implementing modern technology."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"In this context, the government developed a strategic plan to promote expanding the production of strategic crops, which is being implemented and followed up by the Ministry of Agriculture. It focuses on curbing the gap in strategic crops, including wheat and yellow corn, by adopting the following policies:"}]},{"head":"Horizontal Expansion Policy xii","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Increasing the cultivated area of some crops (including wheat and corn), either by increasing the agricultural area in New Lands, or by deducting areas from some crops which area is intended to be reduced. Results achieved from applying the technical recommendation packages in the implemented national mega projects in newly reclaimed areas xiii revealed that wheat yield under the \"Future of Egypt for Sustainable Agriculture\" project reached 22-24 ardab per acre (7.86 -8.57 tons per hectare) in some regions, while reached 27 ardab per acre (9.64 ton per hectare) in other regions."}]},{"head":"Vertical Expansion Policy","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Vertical expansion policy aims to increase productivity per hectare by developing modern, highyielding, disease-resistant and early maturing varieties; expanding the production of certified seeds; applying good agricultural practices; activating the varieties map and expanding extension fields."}]},{"head":"Cereal Crops Policy","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wheat","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"several years ago, Egypt ranked fifth at the world level in terms of wheat yield xiii . The multistakeholder workshop revealed that a gap exists between the yield capacity of varieties planted in pilot plots and average yield at the country level xiii . Therefore, the government's agricultural policy aims to close this gap, especially since some farmers can achieve even higher yields than those realized on the pilot plots. Such policy aims to increase wheat planted area up to 1.51 million ha (3.6 million feddan), besides increasing yield up to 7.86 tons per hectare (3.3 tons /feddan) by the agricultural season 2024/2025, bringing total production to some 11.8 million tons. To achieve that goal, the government has expanded the national campaigns for grain crops so that one pilot plot is allocated for each village. It is expected that a 25% vertical increase in wheat yield can be realized without exerting additional efforts. In case more efforts are exerted, and more funds are allocated for research studies, yield can be increased by more than 40%. Implementation tools include:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• Increasing wheat planted area by 200,000 acres during the season 2024/2025 by deducting from alfalfa planted area without affecting the total production of green fodder due to expansions in planting improved alfalfa varieties, as well as expanding wheat planted area in new lands."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"• Increasing certified seeds' coverage rate to reach 50%, which will lead to an increase in productivity by 715 kg/ha (300 kg/feddan). It is worth mentioning that the Central Administration for Seed Certification (CASC) has established a mechanism to control the quality of certified seeds."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"• Promote farmers' commitment to applying good agricultural practices (planting on raised beds and adhering to planting on the recommended dates), which will lead to an increase in perarea productivity at a rate of 715 kg / hectare (300 kg/feddan)."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Promote farmers' commitment to following the variety map."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"• Expanding the establishment of extension fields to reach one field for every 210 ha (500 feddan), i.e., establishing 7,000 extension fields in which productivity is estimated at 8.8-10.4 tons/ha (3.7-4.5tons per feddan)."}]},{"head":"Yellow Maize","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The government of Egypt is expanding the yellow maize cultivated area to provide the feed required for livestock and poultry production in response to the world grains crisis, which is expected to worsen after the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam in Ukraine in early June 2023. The World Grain Program expects that Ukraine will be able to export only 40% of the volume of grains it used to export two years ago."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"In this case, the government's policy aims to increase the yellow maize planted area up to 840,000 hectares (2 million feddan), as well as increase productivity up to 8.33 tons per hectare in the agricultural season 2024/2025, which would help to bring the total production to some 7 million tons. Implementation tools include:"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Gradually increasing yellow maize planted area using those areas illegally planted with rice, areas allocated of white corn, as well as expanding yellow maize planted area in new lands ."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Limiting silage production to white maize."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Promoting farmers' commitment to applying good agricultural practices (planting on the recommended dates)."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Promoting farmers' commitment to following the variety map."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"• Expanding the establishment of extension fields until reaching one field for every 420 ha (1,000 feddan), i.e., establishing 2,000 extension fields."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"• Obliging the Union of Poultry Producers and Feed Factories to receive yellow maize from farmers, provided that sufficient storage capacities are provided to accommodate the received quantities, in addition to providing dryers."}]},{"head":"Food Losses and Waste Reduction Policy","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Loss and waste in food crops across all stages of the value chain is one of the main obstacles to agricultural food systems policy. According to the FAO, global loss in plant and animal production is estimated at 13.8%. Domestically, loss in Egyptian food production is estimated at 14.2%, which can be attributed to the low level of technology used in agricultural operations. Both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Supply have exerted several efforts to reduce losses, starting from land preparation, through the production stages, until harvesting. Besides, the development of wheat transportation methods, silos, and storage facilities led to reducing wheat losses to only 2%."}]},{"head":"Investment Policy","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The government gave special attention to the agricultural sector by increasing the value of governmental investments in the field of land reclamation and cultivation. Official statistics show a continuous increase in the value of public and private investments in the general budget allocated for implementing infrastructure projects, either new or renewal, as well as other projects in the agricultural sector. During the last executive plans, the government has expanded in implementing major national projects, including:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Field Irrigation Improvement projects, rationalization of irrigation water use and allocating the saved water to horizontal expansion areas."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Establishing several high-tech storage silos to increase wheat storage capacities and accommodate the expected increase in local production."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• Urging the private sector to pump more investment in the field of drying yellow maize grains to use in manufacturing feed for the poultry sector."}]},{"head":"Farmers Support Policies","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The government supports farmers through:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Providing production inputs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides)."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Bearing part of the cost of resisting some agricultural pests."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• Reducing seed prices."},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Providing soft loans for some agricultural purposes."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"The policy implementation tools include:"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":"• Activating the Farmer's Card System."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Providing conditional support to crop production, especially strategic crops."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"• Conditional support is focused on subsidizing the cost of agricultural production inputs, especially seeds and fertilizers."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Marketing Policy","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Wheat","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"During the past few years, the government estimated and announced wheat procurement prices to farmers during the harvest season, and farmers supplied the harvested crop optionally. During the last agricultural season:"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• The government set and announced wheat procurement prices well before planting and revisited them during the agricultural season based on international prices."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Some regulatory controls have been set for supplying to the silos of the Commodities Supply Authority."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"• Farmers were obligated to supply at least 50% of their production, and some penalties were imposed on those who did not supply the specified percentage, such as denying access to subsidized fertilizers, as well as excluding from governmental support to citizens in the future."}]},{"head":"Yellow Maize","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• The government sets and announces the procurement price well before planting. However, the government is not obliged to purchase it from farmers; rather, purchases are made by poultry production companies."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Currently, there is competition in marketing yellow maize grains for the poultry sector against marketing as green silage for dairy farms."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Private post-harvest logistics are very weak when it comes to drying, storing, and distributing the crop."}]},{"head":"Rice","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Farmers manage their rice production by retaining part of their production to cover their annual family consumption needs and storing the surplus for other purposes like selling to domestic merchants, or exporters, based on the announced price. It should be noted that domestic rice prices are mainly affected by policies adopted by the government regarding allowing or prohibiting exports or imposing extra custom duties on rice exports."}]},{"head":"Food Commodities Distribution Policies","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Food Subsidy Policy","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"• Low-income groups suffer from the high prices of food commodities, especially after the outbreak of COVID-19 and the Russo-Ukrainian war, which led the state to increase the value allocated to subsidy to enable these groups obtain their basic needs of food."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Support is provided in kind to low-income families by distributing certain amounts of subsidized local bread loaves, and providing certain rations of cooking oil, rice, sugar, and pasta through ration cards."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• To rationalize families' consumption of subsidized local bread, the government designed and adopted the program of replacing the saved value of local bread by corresponding food commodities included in the list of subsidized goods in ration cards."}]},{"head":"Strategic Stock Policy","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The key policy objectives are addressing emergency cases of food shortages and balancing price rises during supply shortage of the commodity. This can be implemented such that in case price levels fall, the government purchase additional quantities of goods and store them. When price levels rise due to increased demand and supply shortage, the government releases quantities from the stock to markets."}]},{"head":"Strategic Stock of Wheat","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• The General Authority for Supply Commodities (GASC) stores the locally purchased wheat, as well as the wheat imported to manufacture \"Subsidized Balady Bread\" in their stores and silos."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"• Private sector companies annually import wheat, or wheat flour, for their own purposes, and undertake the management, storage, and trading of the imported quantities, whether in their own stores that are attached to mills, or by renting silos that have accommodating spaces."}]},{"head":"Strategic Stock of Yellow Maize","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"• Locally produced Maize (white and yellow) is stored by farmers at their homes for family consumption and animal feed. The surplus is sold to local merchants."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"• Poultry companies purchase small quantities of the locally produced yellow maize and import the large amount of their needs on several batches according to their storage and manufacturing capacity, and their daily and monthly capacity."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• There are no reliable statistics or data available on maize crop to analyze the strategic stock in the conventional sense."}]},{"head":"Strategic Stock of Rice","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Paddy rice is usually stored and traded, either by farmers, or by the merchants in their own stores."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"• Paddy rice is milled into rice grains by local merchants to sell at local markets, or by exporters to sell to world markets."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• The government has no specific role in managing, trading, or storage of paddy or milled rice, whether intended for local or export markets, which are all carried out by the private sector."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Improving the performance of agricultural policies and achieving their desired goals requires proposing a system of executive mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the implemented policies, introduce whatever required amendments to increase their effectiveness, and coordinate between the ministries related to implementing the system, through: a) Establishing a database for strategic crops, which can be electronically accessed by relevant authorities. Main data and relevant authorities include:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• Area cultivated with strategic crops at the level of production governorates (old landsnew lands). Relevant authorities: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation; Ministry of Planning; Ministry of Finance."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• Locally produced quantities (old lands -new lands). Relevant authority: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. b) Linking the production system of strategic food commodities to demand for such commodities by implementing contract farming, because it helps in:"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Announcing the main buyer of strategic goods."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Setting the purchase price of crops well before planting."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"• Formulating indicative contracts that include specifications of the produced crops and the good agricultural practices that must be followed to obtain the required crop quality."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• Concluding contracts between the purchasing entity and farmers (individuals; cooperatives; farmers' unions)."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"• Establishing an arbitration mechanism to settle disputes that may arise between the contracting parties. c) Establishing a Monitoring and Evaluation System that includes:"},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"• Indicators to measure the state of food security, food commodity markets and food safety."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"• Long-term estimates of strategic food needs that allow policy makers to simulate the balance between local production and import requirements (i.e., when, from where and how imports will take place)."},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"d) It is also important to:"},{"index":12,"size":37,"text":"• Conduct a comprehensive review of grain import policies, whether for the government or private sector, with the aim of improving purchasing procedures in terms of quantity and import timing, as well as technical and health specifications."},{"index":13,"size":9,"text":"• Adopt proper incentive policies that help attract investors."},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"• Expand the storage capacities and improve the local supply chains of strategic crops."},{"index":15,"size":19,"text":"• Activate the purchasing mechanism through futures contracts (Stock Market Exchange) and carry out the hedging process on deals."},{"index":16,"size":19,"text":"• Establish a joint-stock company to carry out logistic operations for drying yellow maize and manufacturing local poultry feed."},{"index":17,"size":29,"text":"• Establish a joint-stock company under GASC's umbrella to collect paddy rice from farmers, mill it and then directly sell in the market, or distribute on the ration cards. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Agricultural and total cropped area in old and new land in Egypt (Million ha) Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Economic Affairs Sector, Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Various Issues. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Relative importance of cropping patterns in Egypt (%) Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Economic Affairs Sector, Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics, Various Issues. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Consumed quantities. Relevant authorities: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Supply; Ministry of Trade and Industry. • Monitoring climate change. Relevant authorities: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Environment. • Local and international prices. Relevant authorities: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Supply; Ministry of Trade and Industry. • Imports, i.e., imported quantity, import timing, main import countries, transaction prices, • Imports, i.e., imported quantity, import timing, main import countries, transaction prices, transportation freight, and local transportation cost and services. Relevant authorities: transportation freight, and local transportation cost and services. Relevant authorities: Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Supply; Ministry of Trade Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation; Ministry of Supply; Ministry of Trade and Industry. and Industry.  "},{"text":"Food Gap Dimensions of Grains and its Relationship to Egyptian Food Security\" -https Presidency of the Council of Ministers; Information and Decision Support Center, \"Strategies for Achieving Egyptian Food Security\", 2012. ii N. M. EL-kazaz, etal., \"://ajar.journals.ekb.eg/article_218475.html?lang=ar, Doi 10.21608/AJAR.2021.218475 iii Ministry of agriculture and land reclamation; Economic Affairs Sector; Agricultural statistics Bulletin, various issues. iv https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/online-reader?id=145234 v Ministry of agriculture and land reclamation; Economic Affairs Sector; Agricultural Foreign Trade Bulletin, 2021. vi Ministry of agriculture and land reclamation; Economic Affairs Sector; Bulletin of Agricultural Inputs, various issues. vii Soil Water and Environment Research Institution, unpublished working paper, Multistakeholder Workshop Report, ICARDA, Cairo, 11 June 2023. viii Mohamed Abdel-Wahab Qassem and Abdel-Rahman Al-Saghir; \"The Effect 10. References 10. References  "},{"text":"of Fertilizer Injection Methods with Irrigation Water on the Productivity and Efficiency of Water and Nitrogen Use for Wheat and Barley Crops\"; Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Engineering; Vol. (26), Issue (2), 2009, pp. 866-885. ix Refaat Sultan, Saeed Mohamed, Mohsen Bahjat; \"  "},{"text":"An Evaluation Study of the Use of Compost Technology as One of the Inputs to Organic Agriculture among Farmers in some Villages of Fayoum Governorate\"; the Second International Conference on Organic Agriculture, Cairo International Conference Center, Nasr City, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, the Central Laboratory for Organic Agriculture with Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2004, pp. 1-26. x Ministerial decree No. 123/2023, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Egyptian Gazette, Issue No. 68, 2023. egyptssp.ifpri.info/2022/03/15/the-russia-ukraine-crisis-poses-a-serious-foodsecurity-threat-for-egypt/ xii Muhammad Ali Ahmed; \"The Role  "},{"text":"of Horizontal Expansion Projects in Solving Some Economic and Social Problems in Egypt\", Al-Azhar Journal for Research in the Agricultural Sciences Sector, Al-Azhar University, Vol. (88), Issue (2), 2010.  "},{"text":"for Evidence-Based Agri-Food Policy Research; Multistakeholder Workshop Report, ICARDA, Cairo, 11 June 2023.  "}],"sieverID":"538303ba-c250-4984-ab2d-83094364438c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01221ca0b9d849d51884ce28b82287f8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/604a1217-bd2e-492f-856e-bfb271d29a32/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Genetic variation and host-parasite specificity of Striga resistance and tolerance in rice: the need for predictive breeding","keywords":["grain yield","Oryza glaberrima","Oryza sativa","photosynthesis","postattachment resistance","predictive breeding","witchweed"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Species of the Striga genus (Orobanchaceae family) are obligate hemi-parasitic plants that parasitize roots of host plants via a specialized organ called the haustorium (Musselman, 1980). Striga spp. (henceforward referred to as Striga) are most prevalent in tropical Africa, where they pose serious threats as weeds in rainfed cereal production systems (Parker, 2012). The most important species in rice are Striga asiatica and Striga hermonthica (Rodenburg et al., 2010). Together with the related but less widespread Striga aspera (Willd.) Benth., they constrain rain-fed rice production in 38 African countries, with an estimated incidence rate of 12% (Rodenburg et al., 2016). Average Strigainflicted yield losses of rice in farmers' fields range between 21% and 80% (Elliot et al., 1993;N'Cho, 2014). The extent of these losses is a function of many factors, including the Striga infestation level, environmental conditions and the genetic interaction between host-plant genotype and parasite ecotype (host-parasite specificity), which determines the level of Striga resistance and tolerance."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Host-plant resistance to Striga is defined as the ability to reduce or prevent infection (Shew & Shew, 1994), while tolerance refers to the extent to which effects of infection on the host plant are mitigated (Caldwell et al., 1958). Mechanisms that prevent or reduce Striga seed germination rates are categorized as pre-attachment resistance, while those that prevent or reduce the success of root penetration or establishment of the vascular connection between host and parasite are called post-attachment resistance (Yoder & Scholes, 2010). As a consequence of the large genetic variation within and between Striga ecotypes (populations), complete host-plant resistance (immunity) against this parasite is rare. As host damage can be inflicted by a few parasitic infections, varieties with partial Striga resistance should also have good levels of tolerance to avoid yield losses in the field (Rodenburg & Bastiaans, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"A number of studies have shown the existence of genetic variation in resistance to different ecotypes of Striga across a range of rice genotypes. For example, Harahap et al. (1993) showed that four genotypes of Oryza sativa were partially resistant to S. hermonthica in western Kenya. Riches et al. (1996) and Johnson et al. (1997), identified five genotypes of the African rice species Oryza glaberrima and two O. sativa genotypes with partial resistance against an ecotype of S. aspera and S. hermonthica in northern Côte d'Ivoire. Under controlled environments, Jamil et al. (2011) identified a number of interspecific New Rice for Africa (NERICA) cultivars with pre-attachment resistance against S. hermonthica, while Cissoko et al. (2011) identified cultivars with post-attachment resistance (within the same germplasm pool) against an ecotype of S. hermonthica and S. asiatica."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"These studies assessed either resistance among a relatively diverse group of rice genotypes against one Striga species or ecotype in the field (Harahap et al., 1993;Jamil et al., 2012), or resistence among a genetically related group of rice genotypes (i.e. the NERICAs) against different Striga species or ecotypes (Cissoko et al., 2011;Jamil et al., 2011;Rodenburg et al., 2015) under controlled environment conditions. Thus, these and other studies have resulted in a pool of known genotypes resistant to a specific ecotype of Striga, but limited information on how broadspectrum resistance is against genetically different species and ecotypes, and how expression of resistance is affected by environmental variability. Moreover, none of the previous studies has conclusively established genetic variation in Striga tolerance in rice and the potential mechanistic background of tolerance in infected hosts. Identification of genetic sources of broadspectrum resistance and effective tolerance in rice germplasm is critical for marker-assisted and conventional breeding programmes to develop useful cultivars for affected rice farmers."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"The objectives of this study were therefore to determine whether Striga resistance among a diverse set of rice genotypes (some with previously identified resistance to Striga) is specific to a particular Striga species or ecotype, or broad-spectrum; whether resistance against Striga is sufficient to maintain high rice grain yields under Striga-infested conditions in different environments; and whether genetic variation in Striga tolerance exists in rice and through which host-plant morphological or physiological traits this can be assessed. Achievement of the last objective would also shed light on the mechanisms underlying tolerance to this parasite."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field screening trials","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Twenty rice genotypes of different species and origins (Table 1), 19 of which had putative Striga resistance, were grown in Strigainfested plots at Kyela, Tanzania (Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze), and at Namutumba, Uganda, and Mbita, Kenya (both Striga hermonthica Benth.). The interspecific rice cultivar NERICA-2 was included as a Striga-resistant and high-yielding check against which the performances of all other genotypes were compared across sites, Striga ecotypes and years. The cultivar IAC165 (Oryza sativa ssp. japonica), originally from Brazil, was included as a Striga-susceptible check. Seeds of all rice genotypes were obtained from the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice), Cotonou, Benin. Seeds of S. asiatica and S. hermonthica were collected in  the previous season from plants parasitizing rice at Kyela, Tanzania (Sa-Kyela) and Namutumba, Uganda (Sh-Namutumba) and maize (Zea mays L.) at Mbita, Kenya (Sh-Mbita) in farmers' fields surrounding the experimental field sites. These seeds were used to supplement the existing soil seed bank in the field trials as well as for the controlled environment studies."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The S. asiatica field screening trials were conducted during the rainy seasons (February/March-July) of 2014 and 2015 in Mbako (9°35ʹS, 33°48ʹE; 525 m above sea level, asl), in Kyela District, Mbeya Region in southern Tanzania (Supporting Information Table S1). Kyela District is a S. asiatica-endemic upland rice-growing area. This screening trial was executed in an already infested farmer's field. Rainfall data were obtained from a rain gauge installed in the middle of the field (Table S1; Fig. 1)."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"The S. hermonthica field screening trials were conducted during the long rainy seasons of 2014 and 2015 (March-August/ September) at two locations: in a farmer's field in Nsinze, Namutumba District, Uganda (00°51ʹN, 33°41ʹE; 1125 m asl); and at the farm of the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) at Mbita (0°43ʹS, 34°20ʹE; 1141 m asl), in Suba District, western Kenya (Table S1). Both trials were laid out on heavily Striga-infested fields. Rainfall data in Namutumba were obtained from a nearby meteorological station, and in Mbita from ICIPE's meteorological station at the experimental farm (Table S1; Fig. 1)."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"All field trials were laid out in a randomized block design with six replicates. At Kyela each plot, representing an individual genotype, measured 1.25 9 3.75 m (4.69 m 2 ) and contained five rows of 15 hills with an inter-hill distance of 0.25 9 0.25 m (Table S1). At Mbita and Namutumba, each plot measured 1.25 9 2.75 m (3.44 m 2 ) with five rows of 11 hills with the same hill and row distances as in Kyela. Plots were separated by one open row of 0.25 m to avoid neighbour effects. Each replicate was separated by a 1.25-m alley."},{"index":5,"size":85,"text":"Each plot received supplementary Striga seeds that were mixed with 200 g of white sand and incorporated in the upper 5-10 cm of soil. An amount of 0.21 g of S. asiatica seed m À2 (germination rate: 70%) was provided at Kyela, in both years. At Namutumba, the S. hermonthica seed infestation rate was 0.29 g m À2 in 2014 and 0.26 g m À2 in 2015 (germination rate 90%) and at Mbita this was 0.29 g m À2 (germination rate 90%) in both years."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"For crop establishment and weed control, we followed procedures described in Rodenburg et al. (2015). At all sites, fertilizer was applied at 35 d after sowing (DAS). In Kyela, nitro-genÀphosphorusÀpotassium (N-P-K; 20 : 10 : 10) was applied at an equivalent rate of 100 kg ha À1 , while at Namutumba and Mbita, N-P-K (17 : 17 : 17) was applied at a rate of 50 kg ha À1 (Table S1)."},{"index":7,"size":138,"text":"The number of Striga plants that emerged within the central area of each plot (comprising 27 rice hills) was recorded regularly. At Kyela, counting was carried out at 71 and 88 DAS and at harvest in 2014, and at 43, 54, 71, 82 and 105 DAS and at harvest in 2015. In Namutumba and Mbita, Striga plants were counted bi-weekly, at 43, 57, 71, 85, 99/100 DAS and at harvest in both years. These data enabled the assessment of the maximum number of emerged Striga plants (NS max ), a measure of Striga resistance in the field (Rodenburg et al., 2005). At harvest, emerged Striga plants within each observation area of 27 hills in each plot were collected, oven-dried at 70°C for 48 h, and weighed on digital weighing scales, for the assessment of Striga biomass dry weight."},{"index":8,"size":121,"text":"At harvest, the height of the rice plants growing in the central nine hills was measured from ground level to the tip of the tallest panicle. Rice panicles were harvested from the same central 27 hills of each plot and air-dried for 2 wk, after which rice grains were separated from the panicles and weighed. Grain moisture content was assessed, using a digital grain moisture meter (Model SS-7; Satake Eng. Co., Tokyo, Japan), to correct rice grain dry weights to 14% moisture content. Rice straw biomass dry weights were assessed for plants from the central nine hills within each 27-hill harvest area, and included all aboveground rice biomass, except panicles. The straw was oven-dried at 70°C for 48 h before weighing."}]},{"head":"Resistance ranking of rice genotypes under controlled environmental conditions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"To determine the impact of the field environment on the resistance ranking of the genotypes, a subset of 11 genotypes were "}]},{"head":"Determining the tolerance levels of the rice genotypes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":308,"text":"A pot experiment was carried out in the screen house of AfricaRice, from October 2015 until February 2016, using natural incoming light (70% of light intensity outside the screen house). Plastic 10-l pots (height: 27.5 cm; diameter: 25 cm) were filled with a sand : soil mixture at a ratio of 2 : 1. The soil was collected from the experimental farm of Sokoine University of Agriculture, in Morogoro, and the sand was collected from the shores of the Ruvu River, adjacent to the Ruvu irrigated rice scheme. This mixture contained 0.17% N, 6.7 ppm P and 228 ppm K, and had a pH (H 2 O) of 6.8 (Crop Nutrition Laboratory Services Ltd, Nairobi, Kenya). The pot experiment comprised two Striga levels (Striga-infested and Striga-free) and nine rice genotypes, following a randomized complete block design with four replications. It included the O. glaberrima genotypes ACC102196, CG14 and Makassa, the O. sativa genotypes IR38547, WAB56-104, WAB928 and IAC165, and the interspecific genotypes WAB935 and NERICA-10. Thirty-six pots (half of the experiment) were infested with S. asiatica seeds, and the other half contained Striga-free soil (control treatments). For the Striga-infestation treatment, the upper 10 cm of soil was mixed with 0.050 g of viable S. asiatica seeds. During the 10 d after Striga infestation, the soil in each pot was kept between field capacity and saturation to allow Striga seed preconditioning. Fertilizer was applied at a rate equivalent to 100 kg of N-P-K (17 : 17 : 17) ha À1 (c. 1.2 g per pot), and mixed with the upper 10 cm of soil during Striga infestation. Rice was sown at a rate of six seeds per pot (10 d after Striga infestation) and thinned to three plants per pot at 14 DAS. Throughout the experiment, in all pots soil moisture levels were maintained between field capacity and saturation."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Rice plant height from ground level to the tip of the tallest leaf (at 43 and 57 DAS) or panicle (at maturity) was measured to assess maximum height. At maturity, rice grains obtained from the three plants in each pot were threshed, air-dried for 10 d and weighed. The grain moisture content of each sample was assessed to standardize grain weights to 14% moisture content. At harvest, rice straw (leaf, stem and rachis) was collected from each pot, oven-dried and weighed to establish total aboveground straw biomass dry weight. Emerged Striga plants were counted every 3 d starting after the first Striga emergence in each pot, to assess maximum aboveground Striga numbers (NS max )."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"Photosynthesis was measured with the Li-Cor 6400XT from Li-Cor Bioscience (Lincoln, NE, USA). Light-saturated leaf CO 2 assimilation rates (A max ) of rice were measured at 1200 lmol m À2 s À1 (photosynthetically active radiation (PAR); over the waveband 400-700 nm) at c. 30, 45 and 60 DAS (AE 2 d). On each occasion, measurements were conducted on four consecutive days, with one full replicate per day, between 11:00 and 15:00 h. The same plants were used for repeated measurements. Measurements were always made halfway along the length of the youngest fully expanded leaf. During the measurements, leaf temperature ranged between 29.1 and 39.6°C. Relative humidity in the leaf chamber was controlled to stay within the range of 35-50%. The inlet CO 2 concentration was set at 400 ppm and depletion never exceeded 20 ppm."}]},{"head":"Statistical analyses","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":258,"text":"Before analyses, data were checked for homoscedasticity and normality following Sokal & Rohlf (1995). Following these tests, field data on rice grain and Striga dry weights were analysed using a linear mixed model. We tested whether there was a significant location 9 year 9 genotype interaction effect, and, where this was the case, we fitted a model for each location (Kyela, Mbita and Namutumba) separately, and tested whether there was a significant year 9 genotype interaction effect within each location. We first performed a log-likelihood ratio test for the homogeneity of variance and, when the variance was not constant, we took into account the heterogeneity of the variances. When the year 9 genotype interaction effect was significant (P < 0.05), we fitted a model for each year separately, where genotype was considered a fixed effect and block, nested in replicate, and replicate were considered random effects. For parameters for which there was a significant cultivar effect, Dunnett's method (Dunnett, 1955) was used to compare each genotype with NERICA-2, which was used as a control. For analyses of the maximum number of emerged Striga plants (NS max ), a generalized linear mixed model (McCullagh & Nelder, 1989) was used under the assumption of a Poisson distribution. Least-squares means (LS-Means) and associated SE derived from the linear mixed model were computed. Spearman rank correlations for parameters measured in the field were calculated between LS-Means of NS max and Striga dry weight (DW Striga ), between NS max and rice grain yield, and between rice grain yield and rice plant height."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"The rhizotron and pot data were analysed following checks for homoscedasticity and normality. ANOVAs were followed by a comparison of means using Tukey's honest significant difference test. Striga-inflicted losses in plant height (Height) and light-New Phytologist (2017) 214: 1267-1280"},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Ó 2017 The Authors New Phytologist Ó 2017 New Phytologist Trust www.newphytologist.com saturated photosynthesis (A max ) were calculated relative to the Striga-free control for each genotype as ½ðX c À X s;i Þ=X c  100% (X c , the mean Striga-free control value of parameter X, calculated over four replicates; X s,i , the value of parameter X of a Strigainfected plant of replicate i.) The Striga-inflicted losses data were analysed using a generalized linear mixed model with a binomial distribution. All data were analysed using SAS/STAT software, Version 9.2 of the SAS System for Windows (SAS Institute, 2011)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resistance levels among diverse rice genotypes exposed to different Striga species and ecotypes","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Year by rice genotype interaction effects on NS max were highly significant (P < 0.001) at all sites, requiring analysis per year (Table S2). At all sites and in all years, rice genotype had a highly significant (P < 0.001) effect on NS max (Table S2). The genotype ranking showed that the resistant check NERICA-2 was always among the most resistant genotypes (Fig. 2). Highly significant (P < 0.001) correlations were found between NS max and Striga biomass in all field trials (Table S3)."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"In Kyela in 2015, a year with generally high S. asiatica infection levels, only SCRID090 and Ble Chai showed similar levels of resistance to NERICA-2. All other genotypes had significantly (P < 0.01) higher infection levels. Twelve genotypes proved moderately resistant, with Makassa, CG14, NERICA-10, NERICA-4 and Agee being the most resistant. Five genotypes were clearly susceptible: UPR, WAB935, WAB928, IAC165 and WAB56-50 (Fig. 2b). In 2014, a year with generally lower infection levels in Kyela, the genotype ranking was similar, although 11 genotypes showed resistance levels equivalent to that of NERICA-2, and two genotypes, MG12 and Ble Chai, were significantly (P < 0.01) more resistant. Six genotypes (UPR, WAB935, WAB928, IAC165, IR49255 and ACC102196) were significantly (P < 0.05) more susceptible (Fig. 2a)."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"In Mbita in 2014, a year with generally high infection levels, three genotypes, NERICA-10, WAB935 and IR49255, had similar resistance levels to S. hermonthica to NERICA-2, and three genotypes, SCRID090, IR38547 and WAB928, were significantly (P < 0.01) more resistant. Thirteen genotypes had significantly (P < 0.01) higher infection levels than NERICA-2. Four of them (NERICA-4, WAB880, Ble Chai and Anakila) proved moderately resistant, while five (IAC165, WAB56-104, WAB56-50, CG14 and Makassa) were very susceptible (Fig. 2c). The ranking in 2015, with generally lower S. hermonthica infection levels, was similar but showed less differentiation between genotypes. Five genotypes (NERICA-10, WAB935, IR49255, SCRID090 and WAB928) had similar infection levels to NERICA-2, and the remaining genotypes were all significantly (P < 0.05) less resistant (Fig. 2d). In Namutumba, the years were more similar in terms of S. hermonthica infection level (Fig. 2e,f). In 2014 only five genotypes had similar resistance levels to NERICA-2. In 2015, four of them, WAB935, SCRID090, WAB928 and NERICA-10, were as resistant as NERICA-2. All other genotypes were more susceptible (Fig. 2e)."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"In rhizotron screens (controlled environments), genotype rankings on Striga numbers and Striga biomass dry weight were similar to those observed in the field (Figs 2, 3). In both field and rhizotron screens, WAB928 showed susceptibility to S. asiatica (Kyela), but high resistance against both S. hermonthica ecotypes (Mbita and Namutumba) (Figs 3, 4). Similarly, although less pronounced, IR38547 was generally susceptible to S. asiatica (Kyela) in both rhizotron and field screening but resistant to both ecotypes of S. hermonthica (Figs 3, 4)."}]},{"head":"Genotype-specific crop yields across environments, Striga species and ecotypes","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"At each site, significant year by genotype interaction effects on rice grain yields under Striga-infested conditions were observed (Table S4), requiring analyses per year. In each year and at each site, highly significant (P < 0.0001) genotype effects on rice grain yields under Striga-infested conditions were observed. Similarly, significant correlations between rice yield and rice plant height were observed in Kyela and Namutumba (Table S3)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Under conditions of generally low S. asiatica infection levels, at Kyela in 2014, the resistant check genotype NERICA-2 had the highest rice grain yields (Fig. 5a) but yields were generally low. In 2015, the rice grain yields were much higher overall, despite the higher overall Striga infection levels (Fig. 5b). ACC102196, Agee, Anakila, Makassa and CG14, all O. glaberrima, had significantly (P < 0.05) higher grain yields, while WAB935, IR38547 and WAB928 had significantly (P < 0.01) lower yields than check genotype NERICA-2."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"In Mbita, rice grain yields under S. hermonthica-infested conditions were comparable across years (Fig. 5c,d). A large number of genotypes (12 in 2014 and 13 in 2015) were statistically as high yielding as NERICA-2 and only one genotype (NERICA-4 in 2015) had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher yield than NERICA-2. The remaining seven (in 2014) and five (in 2015) had significantly (P < 0.05) lower yields than NERICA-2."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"In Namutumba, grain yields as high as that of NERICA-2 were obtained from six genotypes in 2014 (WAB56-104, Anakila, NERICA-10, SCRID090, WAB880 and NERICA-4) and eight genotypes in 2015 (ACC102196, Ble Chai, NERICA-10, Agee, CG14, SCRID090, WAB880 and NERICA-4) (Fig. 5d,e). All other genotypes had significantly lower grain yields. NERICA-2 and SCRID090 were the most stable in yield across years, while a number of genotypes showed high yield variation between years. Across sites and years, NERICA-2, -4 and -10, and to a lesser extent SCRID090 showed stable high yields when grown under Striga-infested conditions."},{"index":5,"size":183,"text":"In situations with generally high Striga infection levels (Kyela 2015 and Mbita 2014), genotype means of rice grain yields showed significant (P < 0.05) negative correlations with means of maximum aboveground Striga numbers (NS max ) (Table S3 reference lines (horizontal and vertical) through NERICA-2 enables the identification of genotypes in four quadrants, relative to the check genotype (Fig. 6): quadrant I comprises genotypes that are more susceptible but also higher yielding than NERICA-2 under Striga-infested conditions; quadrant II contains genotypes that are more susceptible and lower yielding than Very few genotypes were found in quadrant IV in any of the years and sites. In Kyela in 2014, there was no genotype with a better performance than NERICA-2 and in 2015, only Ble Chai had a similar resistance level and as high a yield as NERICA-2. In Mbita, in 2014, only IR38547 and SCRID090 performed similarly to NERICA-2. The performance of NERICA-10 was similar to that of NERICA-2 in terms of S. hermonthica resistance and yield in both years in Mbita and in Namutumba but none of the genotypes performed better than NERICA-2."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"Seven genotypes were identified in quadrant I in Kyela in 2015. Six of them were O. glaberrima genotypes (Makassa, CG14, Agee, ACC102196, Anakila and MG12) and the other one was an interspecific (NERICA-10). At the S. hermonthica-infested field sites, NERICA-4 was consistently as high or higher Other genotypes that featured in this quadrant under S. hermonthica infestation were WAB880, CG14, SCRID090, Makassa and Agee. WAB56-50 and -56-104, the O. sativa parents of the NERICA genotypes, were almost always in quadrant II, with higher Striga infection levels and lower yields than NERICA-2. Some genotypes were as resistant as or more resistant than NERICA-2, but had much lower yields (quadrant III), notably Ble Chai and Anakila in Kyela in 2014, WAB928 and WAB935 in Mbita and WAB928, WAB935 and IR38547 in Namutumba."}]},{"head":"Genetic variation in Striga tolerance and host-plant morphological and physiological traits depicting tolerance","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"To shed light on the role of tolerance in host-plant performance, a pot experiment was conducted with Striga-free compared with Striga-infested plants of a subset of genotypes, with CG14, ACC102196, Makassa and NERICA-10 as potential tolerant lines and with S. asiatica from Kyela as the parasite ecotype."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Given the significant correlations between rice grain yield and rice plant height in the field (Table S3), we used plant height as a proxy for crop performance in the pot experiment. Highly significant (P < 0.01) negative effects of Striga on plant height were observed on 43-d-old rice plants (Table S5). There was a significant infection by genotype interaction effect on rice plant height at 43 (P = 0.024) and 57 (P = 0.0004) DAS as well as on the maximum plant height (P = 0.0038). Significant genotypic differences were observed in Striga-inflicted (maximum) height (P < 0.0001; F = 17.6) losses relative to uninfected control plants. Height losses across genotypes ranged from 32% (ACC102196) to 63% (IAC165)."},{"index":3,"size":226,"text":"Significant (P < 0.05) negative effects of Striga infection on leaf photosynthesis were observed on 30-d-old rice plants and even more pronounced effects were observed 15 d later (Table S5). Infection by genotype effects on leaf photosynthesis were only significant at 45 DAS. When compared within genotypes, four genotypes showed a significantly (P < 0.05) lower rate of photosynthesis in leaves of Striga-infected plants compared with the Striga-free controls at 30 DAS (Fig. 7b). Photosynthesis of genotypes ACC102196, Makassa, CG14, WAB928 and WAB935 was not significantly affected at 30 DAS. At 45 DAS, all but one genotype (ACC102196) showed highly significantly (P < 0.001) reduced photosynthesis levels in Striga-infected compared with Striga-free plants (Fig. 7c). In ACC102196, the reduction of photosynthesis was also significant (P < 0.05) but less pronounced compared with other genotypes. For an accurate assessment of tolerance, the genotype-specific differences in Striga infection levels should be considered. In the pot experiment, CG14 (NS max = 10) was significantly (F = 15.7; P < 0.0001) more resistant than six other genotypes. Only NERICA-10 (NS max = 15) and IR38547 (NS max = 16) were equally resistant. With an NS max of 43 Striga plants, WAB928 was significantly more susceptible than any other genotype except ACC102196 (NS max = 31). The latter was as susceptible as IAC165, WAB935, WAB56-104 and Makassa (NS max = 22-27)."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"The extent of height losses was relatively independent of infection level (Fig. 8a). A number of genotypes with small to moderate height losses compared with controls (ACC102196, WAB928 and WAB935) had high Striga infection levels, while some genotypes with the greatest height losses (e.g. NERICA-10) were among the least infected. Comparison of relative height losses between genotypes with similar infection levels indicated genotype differentiation in Striga effects. For NERICA-10, Striga infection had a greater effect on plant height than equally resistant CG14. Given their high infection levels, ACC102196 and to a lesser extent WAB928 were less affected by Striga in terms of plant height reduction."},{"index":5,"size":135,"text":"Losses in photosynthesis were also relatively independent of infection level (Fig. 8b,c). Again, the more resistant genotypes seemed to incur higher losses than the more susceptible ones, with more pronounced differences at 30 DAS (Fig. 8b) compared with 45 DAS (Fig. 8c). At 30 DAS, NERICA-10 and IR38547 showed the greatest negative effects of Striga. Relatively low (≤ 50%) Striga-inflicted losses in photosynthesis at 30 DAS were observed with CG14, Makassa, WAB56-104, WAB935, ACC1021196 and WAB928. Most notable were ACC1021196 and WAB928, as they showed the smallest effects despite the highest Striga infection levels (Fig. 8b). Fifteen days later, at 45 DAS, Striga effects on photosynthesis were more severe, leading to near-total losses in the majority of genotypes, irrespective of Striga infection level. Only WAB56-104 and ACC102196 maintained these losses well below 80% (Fig. 8c)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Does Striga resistance occur among genotypes and is it Striga species-or ecotype-specific or broad-spectrum?"},{"index":2,"size":260,"text":"At each site, a relatively large number of resistant rice germplasms were confirmed or newly identified. However, the level of resistance of rice genotypes in the field varied with Striga species and ecotype, as well as between sites and years. Climate variations affected overall Striga infection levels across genotypes, as shown before by Johnson et al. (1997). In the current study this is illustrated by the differences in overall infection levels between 2014 and 2015 at Kyela and Mbita which were associated with clear differences in rainfall between the years. This was further supported by the observation that in Namutumba, where rainfall was comparable in the two years, Striga infection levels were similar. However, environmental effects did not alter the expression of resistance; at low infection levels, it just became more difficult to distinguish between the resistance levels of the  genotypes. In years of high infection, quantitative differences in resistance were more obvious and the resistance rankings corresponded well with those obtained in the controlled environment experiments. The genotype rankings in the S. hermonthica-infested sites at Mbita and Namutumba were similar. Consistent broad-spectrum resistance against S. hermonthica (hence against both ecotypes) was observed among a large number of genotypes including NERICA-2, -4 and -10, WAB928, -935 and -880, IR38547 and -49255, SCRID090, Ble Chai and Anakila. In Kyela, many genotypes resistant to S. asiatica were also found (i.e. Ble Chai, NERICA-2, -4, and -10, CG14, Makassa and Agee). The resistance in the NERICA cultivars confirms previous findings (Cissoko et al., 2011;Jamil et al., 2011;Rodenburg et al., 2015;Samejima et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":354,"text":"While resistance rankings at Namutumba and Mbita (S. hermonthica) were very similar, differences were observed in overall infection levels between the ecotypes at both sites. The field infection levels in Namutumba were similar and rather low in both years, while in Mbita the infection levels were similar to the levels in Namutumba in 2015 but much higher in 2014. The experiments carried out under controlled environment conditions showed similar results; higher infection levels overall were observed with S. hermonthica from Mbita than with S. hermonthica from Namutumba, suggesting that the Mbita ecotype was more virulent than the Namutumba ecotype for these rice genotypes. Between Striga species there were even more notable differences. First, against S. asiatica very few, if any, genotypes showed effective post-attachment resistance in the rhizotron experiment, to the extent shown against the two S. hermonthica ecotypes where parasitic biomass approached zero on a number of genotypes. Second, while there was some overlap in the genotypes of rice with good resistance against S. asiatica and S. hermonthica, there were also some striking differences in species-specific reaction types. For example, WAB928 and WAB935 were very resistant to both ecotypes of S. hermonthica but were among the most susceptible to S. asiatica in the field. Similarly, IR38547-B-B-7-2-2 and IR49255-B-B-5-2 were resistant to S. hermonthica ecotypes but moderately susceptible to the S. asiatica ecotype. This observation on contrasting reaction types between Striga species was confirmed with WAB928 and IR38547 under controlled environment conditions. Thus, our data show that some genotypes of rice exhibited ecotype-specific resistance, others exhibited resistance against the two ecotypes of S. hermonthica (but not the ecotype of S. asiatica) and two genotypes (NERICA-2 and SCRID090) showed very strong and reliable broad-spectrum resistance across both parasite species and ecotypes. Three others (NERICA-4 and -10 and Ble Chai) were also consistently among the more resistant to both Striga species and ecotypes. To determine whether the observed differences in the resistance of specific rice genotypes against the two S. hermonthica ecotypes and the S. asiatica ecotype reflect a Striga species difference requires follow-up studies with a wider range of ecotypes screened under controlled environment conditions."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Is resistance against Striga enough to maintain high rice grain yields under Striga-infested conditions in different environments?"},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Encouragingly, the rice genotypes that exhibited good broadspectrum resistance were among the high-yielding and farmerpreferred varieties and thus could be introduced and promoted more widely in Striga-prone areas. Moreover, they provide valuable additional sources for resistance breeding. Effective breeding, using marker-assisted selection (MAS), would, however, require the identification of the genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) underlying the Striga resistance, as demonstrated by Swarbrick et al. (2009)."},{"index":6,"size":130,"text":"Some rice genotypes, that is, WAB935 and -928 in Kyela and IAC165, WAB56-50 and WAB56-104 in Mbita, were very susceptible and had low grain yields. Conversely, a number of rather susceptible genotypes, for example O. glaberrima genotypes Makassa, CG14, Agee and ACC102196, still had good grain yields despite relatively high infection levels. The yields obtained by some of the other less resistant genotypes, including Anakila, Agee and CG14 (all O. glaberrima), appeared more variable across years. Yield stability under Striga-infested conditions seems therefore to be one of the merits of resistance, but more data are required to support such a conclusion. Yield performance of the NERICA cultivars, for instance, could also be the result of their general environmental adaptation and high yield potential (Saito et al., 2012;Sekiya et al., 2013)."},{"index":7,"size":102,"text":"Correlations between rice grain yields and Striga numbers (both S. asiatica and S. hermonthica) were only significant under situations of high parasite pressure. This confirms previous studies, both with rice (Rodenburg et al., 2015) and with sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) (Rodenburg et al., 2005). The inconsistency of this correlation indicates that resistance, responsible for reduced Striga infection levels, is not the sole determinant of high yields under Striga-infested field conditions. In years with lower Striga infection levels, tolerance and yield potential, rather than resistance, seem to be important, confirming previous studies by Rodenburg et al. (2005Rodenburg et al. ( , 2015))."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"Does genetic variation in tolerance to Striga exist in rice germplasm and which host-plant morphological or physiological traits can be used to predict tolerance?"},{"index":9,"size":138,"text":"In studies to identify tolerance in maize (Pierce et al., 2003) and sorghum (Bebawi & Farah, 1981;Showemimo, 2003), the extent of stunting of the host plant is often used as an indicator for tolerance. In our study, the usefulness of the reduction in height of the main stem of Striga-infected rice (as a percentage of the uninfected plant) could be assessed as this parameter ranged between c. 30% and 65% as a function of the rice genotype. Based on this measure, ACC102196 and WAB928 proved to be more tolerant than the other cultivars. This is in agreement with the yield data from the field trials for ACC101196, but not for WAB928 (which was very low yielding). Possibly the yield potential or environmental adaptation of WAB928 is suboptimal, causing a low baseline yield level, but this requires additional investigation."},{"index":10,"size":122,"text":"In this study, measurement of the rate of photosynthesis at 30 DAS was a better discriminator of tolerance (lower levels of Striga damage) between the rice genotypes than the reduction in height of infected plants. The ability of maize and sorghum varieties to maintain high rates of photosynthesis under Striga infection has also proved a good indicator for physiological tolerance (Gurney et al., 2002;Rodenburg et al., 2008). The rice cultivars began to exhibit the damaging effects of Striga very quickly after attachment, confirming previous findings (e.g. Cechin & Press, 1994;Watling & 2001). Measurements of the rate of photosynthesis also became less discriminating and predictive of tolerance with time after infection, illustrating the need to make these measurements early during the host-parasite interaction."},{"index":11,"size":179,"text":"The O. glaberrima genotypes Makassa, ACC102196 and CG14 showed good tolerance in comparison to many of the O. sativa genotypes used in this study. They showed no significant Striga-induced reductions in leaf photosynthesis at early stages of the host-parasite interaction when CO 2 assimilation rates of other genotypes were already severely reduced. CG14 and Makassa were also relatively high yielding in Mbita, even in a year when infection levels were generally high such as 2014. All the O. glaberrima genotypes screened at Kyela showed higher yields at higher S. asiatica infection levels than NERICA-2. As the species O. glaberrima is generally not high yielding (Dingkuhn et al., 1998), these relatively high yields, despite high infection levels, are probably indeed the outcome of effective physiological tolerance. This observation also agrees with that of Johnson et al. (1997), who found lower levels of Striga damage on Striga-infected O. glaberrima cultivars compared with O. sativa cultivars. Based on these observations, O. glaberrima germplasm may be a good source of 'tolerance' genes that could be exploited for breeding this trait into Striga-resistant cultivars."},{"index":12,"size":181,"text":"Resistance and tolerance are not often found together in the same genotype. Some susceptible cultivars show high levels of tolerance to Striga damage, for example ACC102196 and WAB928 in the current study, while some cultivars with good resistance are highly sensitive to one or two parasite attachments, for example NERICA-10. A similar combination of high resistance but high sensitivity was observed in the sorghum genotype N13 (Rodenburg et al., 2005). Thus, in order to control Striga and maintain high yields, both tolerance and resistance are required in cultivars recommended to farmers. The high genetic variability of the parasite seed bank means that even strongly resistant cultivars may be infected by a few Striga individuals, leading to yield losses if the genotypes do not possess some degree of tolerance. Conversely, tolerant genotypes will allow the build-up of the Striga seed bank if they do not possess some degree of resistance. Thus, varieties with both resistance and tolerance, grown in combination with other control measures, will provide a feasible and durable solution to farmers and delay the evolution of virulence in parasite populations."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":289,"text":"This is the first study to compare the resistance levels of the same suite of rice genotypes in three regions of Africa infested by different genetic ecotypes of S. hermonthica and S. asiatica. First, we have shown that the resistance ranking of rice genotypes in the field was very similar to that under controlled environment conditions, thus demonstrating that resistance was genetically determined. Second, some rice genotypes exhibited broadspectrum resistance to all the ecotypes of Striga, while others exhibited ecotype-specific resistance. Finally, the resistance rankings of rice genotypes at Mbita and Namutumbaboth areas infested with S. hermonthica ecotypeswere similar, suggesting that the parasite virulence genes in these populations were similar. This contrasted with the virulence profile of the S. asiatica ecotype, as some of the rice genotypes exhibited different resistance rankings. We have shown that tolerance was also genetically determined, and the level of tolerance varied across genotypes, as evident from the extent to which Striga-inflicted losses in plant height and photosynthesis were differentially mitigated across genotypes, but it was independent of the level of resistance in these genotypes. Thus, the grain yield of a given rice genotype obtained in a Striga-infested field is the result of the inherent yield potential of that genotype and the level of host resistance and tolerance against the field-specific parasite species and ecotype. These novel findings provide invaluable information for molecular and conventional rice breeders, and strongly support the need for predictive breeding strategies to be employed for affected staple crops such as rice. For such a predictive breeding approach, knowledge of the molecular genetic background of host resistance and tolerance can be coupled to that of the prevailing parasite ecotype in a specific region in order to breed cultivars with effective defence."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Rainfall data for field sites in (a) Kyela (Tanzania), (b) Namutumba (Uganda) and (c) Mbita (Kenya) in 2014 and 2015. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Maximum number of emerged Striga plants m À2 per rice cultivar for field trials at Kyela, Tanzania under Striga asiatica infestation in Kyela in (a) 2014 and (b) 2015, Striga hermonthica infestation in Mbita, Kenya in (c) 2014 and (d) 2015 and S. hermonthica infestation in Namutumba, Uganda in (e) 2014 and (f) 2015. Bars represent AE SE of the least squares (LS) means. Red boxes indicate the position of resistant check genotype NERICA-2. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Striga numbers and biomass on a subset of rice genotypes observed in the rhizotron system infected with either (a, b) Striga asiatica from Kyela (Sa-Ky), (c, d) Striga hermonthica from Mbita (Sh-Mb) or (e, f) Striga hermonthica from Namutumba (Sh-Na). Bars represent AE SE of the least squares (LS) means. Bars with different lowercase letters are significantly different (P < 0.05). "},{"text":"Fig. 4 Fig. 4 Resistance phenotypes of WAB935, WAB928, IR38547 and IAC165, screened in the rhizotron systems infected with either Striga asiatica from Kyela (Sa-Ky), Striga hermonthica from Mbita (Sh-Mb) or Striga hermonthica from Namutumba (Sh-Na). Bars: main images, 0.5 cm; inset image, 500 lm. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 Fig. 5 Rice grain weights under Striga asiatica infestation in Kyela in (a) 2014 and (b) 2015, Striga hermonthica infestation in Mbita, Kenya in (c) 2014 and (d) 2015 and S. hermonthica infestation in Namutumba, Uganda in (e) 2014 and (f) 2015. Bars represent AE SE of the least squares (LS) means. Red boxes indicate the position of resistant check genotype NERICA-2. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 Fig. 6 Rice grain yields plotted against maximum number of emerged Striga plants under Striga asiatica infestation in Kyela in (a) 2014 and (b) 2015, Striga hermonthica infestation in Mbita, Kenya in (c) 2014 and (d) 2015 and S. hermonthica infestation in Namutumba, Uganda in (e) 2014 and (f) 2015. Red boxes indicate the position of resistant check genotype NERICA-2. Roman numerals in (a) refer to different quadrants with groups of genotypes relative to NERICA-2. "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 7 (a) Maximum rice plant height and (b, c) light-saturated photosynthesis at (b) 30 and (c) 45 d after sowing (DAS) for a subset of genotypes grown in Striga asiatica-infested (grey bars) and Striga-free control (white bars) pots. Significant within-genotype differences between infected and uninfected plants are indicated: *, P < 0.05; **, P < 0.01; ***, P < 0.001; ns, not significant. Error bars indicate AE SE. "},{"text":"Fig. 8 Fig. 8 Striga asiatica-inflicted losses (%) in (a) maximum rice plant height and (b, c) light-saturated photosynthesis at (b) 30 and (c) 45 d after sowing (DAS), relative to the Striga-free control plants, plotted against the maximum number of emerged Striga plants, for a subset of genotypes grown in the pot experiment. Genotypes are indicated by different symbols. "},{"text":"Table 1 Upland rice genotypes used in the study; their full names, species, origins, presumed reaction types to Striga and literature sources   Reaction  Reaction Genotypes Species and origin type Source GenotypesSpecies and origintypeSource ACC102196 Oryza glaberrima (Liberia) R 1, 2 ACC102196Oryza glaberrima (Liberia)R1, 2 Agee O. glaberrima (Ghana) R 3 AgeeO. glaberrima (Ghana)R3 Anakila O. glaberrima (Mali) R 3 AnakilaO. glaberrima (Mali)R3 CG14 O. glaberrima (Senegal) R 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 CG14O. glaberrima (Senegal)R4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Makassa O. glaberrima (Sierra Leone) R 1, 2 MakassaO. glaberrima (Sierra Leone)R1, 2 MG12 O. glaberrima (Mali) R 2 MG12O. glaberrima (Mali)R2 Ble Chai Oryza sativa ssp. indica (Thailand) R 9 Ble ChaiOryza sativa ssp. indica (Thailand)R9 IAC165 O. sativa ssp. indica (Brazil) S 3, 4, 5, 6 IAC165O. sativa ssp. indica (Brazil)S3, 4, 5, 6  "},{"text":" ). No significant correlations were observed in other experiments. Comparing NS max to rice grain yields, per genotype, with  "}],"sieverID":"4f0f42ca-7a75-4f56-8cb9-ddb100799fe2","abstract":"The parasitic weeds Striga asiatica and Striga hermonthica cause devastating yield losses to upland rice in Africa. Little is known about genetic variation in host resistance and tolerance across rice genotypes, in relation to virulence differences across Striga species and ecotypes.Diverse rice genotypes were phenotyped for the above traits in S. asiatica-(Tanzania) and S. hermonthica-infested fields (Kenya and Uganda) and under controlled conditions.New rice genotypes with either ecotype-specific or broad-spectrum resistance were identified. Resistance identified in the field was confirmed under controlled conditions, providing evidence that resistance was largely genetically determined. Striga-resistant genotypes contributed to yield security under Striga-infested conditions, although grain yield was also determined by the genotype-specific yield potential and tolerance. Tolerance, the physiological mechanism mitigating Striga effects on host growth and physiology, was unrelated to resistance, implying that any combination of high, medium or low levels of these traits can be found across rice genotypes.Striga virulence varies across species and ecotypes. The extent of Striga-induced host damage results from the interaction between parasite virulence and genetically determined levels of host-plant resistance and tolerance. These novel findings support the need for predictive breeding strategies based on knowledge of host resistance and parasite virulence."}

data/part_5/015ca2139b3545a74393012c9d5157b1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"015ca2139b3545a74393012c9d5157b1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3eac433d-619e-431e-b28b-5990409e8d11/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Feeding decisions for the newly weaned pigs in east Africa are weight dependent","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objective:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"To describe the weaning weights of local and crossbred Ugandan pigs purchased from smallholder farms and to compare the growth rate of the lightest 1/3 of pigs fed forage-or silage-based or commercial diets."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Pigs born within 3 days of one-another and raised on the sow until the start of the study were randomly assigned to diet (commercial, forage-based, silage-based) and pen."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Mean starting bodyweight at the pen-level did not differ between diets (p>0.5); Commercial 6.8 + 2.12 kg; Foragebased 7.0 + 3.2 kg and Silage-based 6.7 + 1.9 kg. Average daily gain (ADG) for the smallest 1/3 of the pigs by individual starting weight was compared using linear regression after controlling for starting weight, breed type (local versus cross bred), and gender."}]},{"head":"Local breed","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Cross breed"}]},{"head":"Results:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Although pigs were born within 3 days of one another, at 65 days of age, local breed pigs weighed between 2.8 kg and 10.2 kg. Cross bred pigs ranged in weight between 3.9 and 11.4 kg. Typically there was 2 to 4 kg weight range within a litter. This prompted the researchers to look at growth of the lightest 1/3 of the pigs based on their weight at 65 days. While the smallest pigs grew well on the commercial ration (154 gm/d), they did very poorly on the forage based ration (18 gm/d) and also on the silage-based ration (-8 gm/d). These small pigs kept on forage or silage diets were not able to attain significant growth or body weight even at 140 days of age (10 and 9.2 kg respectively)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Feeding commercial diet to those newly weaned pigs with a low body weight is essential to ensure they grow to a sufficient size where they can metabolize local forage-or silage-based diets."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"While the commercial ration is thought to be too expensive for smallholder farmers, the small pigs do not consume large quantities of feed. It is cost-effective to use commercial ration to boost their initial post-weaning growth. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1  Diet Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean DietMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMeanMean  BW BW ADG BW ADG BW ADG BW ADG BWBWADGBWADGBWADGBWADG  (kg) (kg) 86 65 -86 (kg) 86 - (kg) 107 - (kg) 127 - (kg)(kg) 8665 -86(kg)86 -(kg)107 -(kg)127 -  65 days days days 107 107 127 127 140 140 65 daysdaysdays107107127127140140  old old old days days days days days days oldoldolddaysdaysdaysdaysdaysdays     old old old old old old oldoldoldoldoldold Com- 4.6 7.9 154 15.0 342 22.8 371 26.3 268 Com-4.67.915415.0 34222.8 37126.3 268 mercial          mercial Forage- 5.1 5.5 18 6.2 30 8.5 111 10.0 115 Forage-5.15.5186.2308.511110.0 115 based          based Silage- 4.7 4.5 -8 5.1 30 7.4 107 9.2 142 Silage-4.74.5-85.1307.41079.2142 based          based  "}],"sieverID":"5193a7aa-1ba9-44a0-b9e2-d3d6319f6bc0","abstract":"Pigs are important livestock for many smallholder farmers in east Africa because they form a source of financial savings, grow quickly, can be marketed at 8-10 months and provide income in times of need such as for school fees, medicine, or when there are food shortages. Traditionally, pigs run free to scavenge food. Commercial diets are considered too expensive for most farmers so confined pigs are fed high fibre, low protein diets resulting in an ADG of 130 gm/day."}

data/part_5/01e49c02c21bee68b90f0bb77a31eece.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01e49c02c21bee68b90f0bb77a31eece","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/79029e4c-93ce-4a4e-9e7a-fdd4c868ecb3/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"What did we sign up to?"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Can our research:"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":" More effectively contribute to meeting the challenge of feeding 9 billion people in 2050?"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":" Demonstrate that smallholders and the poor-and especially women--can contribute to and benefit from producing a share of that food?"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":" Establish the strategic role animal-source foods can play?"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":" Increase productivity of small-scale production and marketing systems? "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"- 'by the poor'  poverty reduction -'for the poor'  food security How do we propose to reach there?  Pool together more effectively our resources  Partners rather than subcontractors  Integrated teams rather than work packages  4 key features to change 'the way we do our business'  Addressing the whole value chain  Working to design an integrated intervention at scale  Partnership with development actors  Focus on selected value chains 1. Bangladesh: small and mediumscale aquaculture value chains 2. Burkina Faso: small ruminant value chains in mixed crop-livestock systems 3. Egypt: small and mediumscale aquaculture value chains 4. Ethiopia: small ruminant value chains in mixed crop-livestock systems 5. India (selected states): smallholder dairy value chains 6. Nicaragua: dual-purpose cattle value chains 7. Tanzania: smallholder dairy value chains 8. Uganda: smallholder pig value chains 9. Vietnam: smallholder pig value chains Objectives of the Workshop Objectives of the Workshop  Communicate and validate the program's intervention logic, clearly identifying the roles of different stakeholders in the value chain.  Question and clarify the program's potential for achieving impact on the intended beneficiaries and map out the key risks and assumptions of the program.  Begin to lay the building blocks for designing a framework for subsequent monitoring, evaluating and learning of the program.  Site selection for program implementation CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish aims to increase the productivity of small-scale livestock and fish systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and fish more available and affordable across the developing world. CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and Fish livestockfish.cgiar.org Thank you "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Dryland Cereals Grain Legumes Livestock and Fish Maize Rice Roots, Tubers and Bananas Wheat Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Forests, Trees and Agroforestry Water, Land and Ecosystems Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics Aquatic Agricultural Systems Dryland Systems Policies, Institutions, and Markets Agriculture for Nutrition and Health  ILRI and CGIAR research programs ILRI and CGIAR research programs About CRP-Livestock and Fish About CRP-Livestock and Fish \"More Meat, Milk and Fish by and for the Poor\" \"More Meat, Milk and Fish by and for the Poor\"  "}],"sieverID":"79dbb409-fcd5-4d8f-acd6-2a1610f9b66d","abstract":"30+ scientific disciplines. 120 senior scientists from 39 countries. 56% of internationally recruited staff are from 22 developing countries. 34% of internationally recruited staff are women. Large campuses in Kenya and Ethiopia. 70% of research in sub-Saharan Africa."}

data/part_5/020126e57bbeffb9d8ac0a80a75aa1e9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"020126e57bbeffb9d8ac0a80a75aa1e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9b8fa3c1-c510-459d-b81d-5ef3365bd2b3/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Development and validation of a novel core set of KASP markers for the traits improving grain yield and adaptability of rice under direct-seeded cultivation conditions","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Rice (Oryza sativa) is the staple food for more than 3.5 billion people which comprises around 50% of the world's population [1]. According to an estimate, a yield increases of around 1.5 to 2.4% per year is required to sustain the growing demand [2] On the contrary, the studies indicated that the rice yield increases seem to have plateaued around various parts of the world [2]. Limited water supplies, reduced cultivation area, fluctuating climatic conditions, and labor shortage are the major challenges faced by conventional puddled transplanted rice."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Direct-seeded rice (DSR) is a feasible alternative to conventional puddled transplanted rice (PTR) [3] having a potential for sustaining the future rice demand due to low water requirement, reduced labor requirements, mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, adaptation to climatic risks, and the yield comparable with that of transplanted rice [4]. The DSR cultivation method has not gained the required popularity because of certain issues such as the poor crop stand, low yield [5], weeds [4], poor adaptability, reduced nutrient uptake (especially of phosphorus, nitrogen, and iron) [6], and lodging [7]. The inefficient uptake of water and nutrients under aerobic cultivation conditions resulted from the poor root architecture [8] leading to yield reduction [4] DSR cultivation system is generally more favorable for the growth of weeds that compete with rice for nutrients, moisture, and sunlight, and can cause large yield losses compared to the transplanted system of rice cultivation [9]."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"In order to improve the crop establishment during the initial stages, DSR adapted rice varieties with higher germination and faster seedling emergence with more vigorous growth are needed to minimize the risks encountered in direct seeding [10][11][12][13]. This could help in reducing soil evaporation and accelerate root access to soil water and nutrients [14]. The development of DSR adapted rice varieties depends on the selection of suitable traits, identification, and introgression of genomic regions associated with those particular traits of interest in different genetic backgrounds. The traits reported to play an important role in providing yield stability and adaptability under DSR include anaerobic germination (ability to germinate under water) [15], early uniform seedling emergence [6,16], vegetative vigor, root phenotypic plasticity, proper nutrient uptake [6], and lodging resistance [17][18][19]. The biotic stress (disease and insect) resistance includes blast [20], brown spot [21], bacterial blight [22], sheath blight, brown planthopper [23], gall midge [24], and nematode resistance [25]."},{"index":4,"size":188,"text":"To meet the gaps between rice crop yields and global rice consumption, rice breeders need to continuously release new rice varieties with better yield potential, adaptability under DSR, acceptable grain quality traits, high nutrient-use efficiency, and resistance to various biotic/abiotic stresses. Breeding methods such as QTL (quantitative trait loci) /gene pyramiding and multiparent application have been reported to be effective in development of rice varieties [18,26,27]. The conventional breeding approach suffers from the problem of linkage drag, leading to the transfer of undesired traits closely linked with traits of interest. The use of molecular markers in breeding programs improves the efficiency of traditional breeding by enabling breeders to select traitlinked molecular markers [28]. Molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) combined with conventional breeding approaches, is a good strategy to identify individual genotypes associated with different economically important traits, which can dramatically improve rice breeding efficiency [29]. The development and utilization of genetic markers play a pivotal role in marker-assisted breeding of rice cultivars during pyramiding of valuable genes. High polymorphism, co-dominant inheritance, high density, high throughput, and easy automation and data exchange are the characteristics of ideal DNA markers [30]."},{"index":5,"size":149,"text":"Recent advancements in next-generation sequencing (NGS) and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping can help to accelerate crop improvement provided their proper integration and deployment into breeding programs [31]. To date, the marker-assisted breeding programs attempting to use these QTL/genes have almost universally relied on old SSR (simple-sequence repeats) marker systems. SSRs are not so useful in marker-assisted introgression program involving multiple donors as there is possibility of getting same allelic pattern for multiple parents. The explosion in genomics resources and the low-cost genome resequencing approaches now enables the development of highly accurate SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) marker systems. SNPs are the markers of choice for most highthroughput genotyping applications as they are abundant, codominant and evenly distributed along the genome. Also, highthroughput SNP genotyping platforms based on Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) and other methods have provided routine, rapid and cost-effective genotyping solutions for the targeted MAS (markerassisted selection) [32][33][34][35]."},{"index":6,"size":232,"text":"The next generation sequencing methods ranged from whole genome re-sequencing/skim sequencing [36] to the reduced representation sequencing [37]. A number of SNP arrays such as GoldenGate 1536 SNPs [38], 384-plex BeadXpress [39], Illumina Infinium-based 6 K arrays, RiceSNP6K [40], C6AIR (Cornell_6K_Array_Infinium_Rice) [41], HDRA700K (High Density Rice Array) [42], RiceSNP50K array and Affymatrix 50 K array [43,44], 44 K array [45] have been developed for rice and their utility has also been demonstrated across a range of applications. Instead, all these tremendous efforts, a large gap between the development of SNP markers and their application in marker-assisted breeding still exists. In 2005, total of 408,898 SNP based DNA polymorphisms were identified using the draft genome sequence of rice cultivars Nipponbare (japonica) [46]. Non redundant SNPs were identified using the sequencing data of 20 different cultivars in 100 Mb genomic region [47]. Various databases have been constructed for SNP markers in rice, e.g., the Gramene database (http://ensembl.gramene. org/genome_browser/index.html), the Rice Diversity Project database (https://ricediversity.org/), the Rice Genome Annotation Project database (http://rice.plantbiology.msu.edu/), and the Rice SNP-Seek Database (http://snp-seek.irri.org). Considering this, the present study was designed keeping the following objectives in mind (i) to develop SNP/ allele specific trait-linked markers for the traits improving grain yield and adaptability under DSR (ii) to validate the targeted SNPs in parental lines and different mapping populations (iii) to develop a trait linked SNP set targeting specific QTL/genes of interest."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotyping","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":368,"text":"A total of 108 F 3 introgression lines having genes/QTL for early uniform emergence (qEUE 3.1 , qEUE 11.1 ), anaerobic germination (qAG 9.1 , qAG 9.2 ), seedling vigor (qEVV 9.1 ), high nutrient uptake (qNR 5.1 ), root density (qRHD 1.1 ), culm strength (qCS 1.1 ), lodging resistance (qLDG 3.1 , qLDG 4.1 ), grain yield under DSR (qGY 1.1 , qGY 6.1 , qGY 9.1 , qGY 10.1 ), and biotic stress (blast-Pi9, gall midge-Gm4, Gm8, BPH-Bph3, Bph17) tolerance were tested for agronomical performance under DSR in 2019WS (wet season) (Fig. 1A). The grain yield of selected single plant ranged from 14.9 to 48.5 g/plant whereas for PR126 single plant yield was 29.3 g/plant (Table S1), the days to 50% flowering ranged from 68 to 91 days and plant height ranged from 95 to 125 cm (data not shown). Based on plant and grain type, a total of 599 single plants were selected and advanced under controlled conditions in 2020DS (dry season) (Fig. 1B). The 599 F 5 introgression lines were tested for agronomical performance under DSR (Fig. 1C). A total of 54 breeding lines performed better in terms of grain yield and yield related traits over the best yielded local check (PR126). In addition, the seeds of 42 advanced breeding lines developed using 12 donors, including donors for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and DSR-adapted traits were procured from IRRI, Philippines and multiplied/evaluated at ISARC-Varanasi in 2019WS and evaluated at PAU in 2020WS (Fig. 1D). Both the sets of introgression lines were evaluated for capability of anaerobic germination (Fig. 1E, 1F), resistance to bacterial blight (Fig. 2G), blast (Fig. 2H) and for root traits improving nutrient uptake (Fig. 1I) (Table S2). The advanced introgression lines were evaluated for agronomic traits at ISRAC, Varanasi in 2019WS (Table S2). Analysis of variance to study genotype × location interactions (Table S3) indicated significant differences among genotypes suggesting the presence of variability among genotypes and among locations. The breeding lines IR 129477-1510-100-7-5-4, IR 129477-1510-100-7-5-6, IR 129477-1629-14-1-4-2, IR 129477-3343-109-13-1-1, IR 129477-4026-249-15-1-7, IR 129477-4139-439-1-1-2, IR 129477-4139-439-2-4-2, IR 129477-991-430-1-9-4 and MTU1010 were identified as stable yielder across three tested locations i.e. PAU (Ludhiana), ISARC (Varanasi) and BAU (Sabour) (Fig. S4)."}]},{"head":"Genome wide discovery of polymorphism among different donors and recipients","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"The whole genome resequencing of twenty diverse genotypes (14 donors, 6 recipient background) resulted in a total of 840,724,425 paired end reads of 150 bp (Table S4). The read based GC content estimate ranged from 42 to 45%. A total of 98% of the filtered reads were mapped on the Nipponbare reference genome. The average genome coverage was 98% with the highest in Tadukan (98.55%) and lowest in IR 94225-B-82-B (96.74%). From the high-quality sequences, a total of 96,56,366 SNPs and 13,06,524 InDels were detected. The largest number of variants at 10× was detected in oryza nivara accession (46,92,725) and minimum in Tadukan (23,30,227). The largest number of SNPs and InDels were identified on chromosome 7 (1,03,511), whereas chromosome 8 harbored the least number of variants (34,819). The chromosome wise distribution of mapped SNPs across whole genome of rice is presented in Fig. S5. The genome sequence of each of the donor for particular traits was compared with each of six recipient backgrounds for the discovery of the SNPs. The designed KASP markers were explicitly informative for the O. sativa L. ssp. indica rice germplasm constituting 14 donors and 6 recipient backgrounds."},{"index":2,"size":165,"text":"A total of already identified 81 polymorphic SSR markers, one indel, eight gene-specific markers (Sandhu et al. 2021) and 110 polymorphic KASP markers were used for the genotyping and validation purpose (Table S5). Further, the detailed information on the KASP markers associated with particular trait of interest showing polymorphism to each of the six recipient backgrounds is presented in the Table S6. The average physical distance between the two validated KASP markers across the whole genome was 260 kb or ~ 1.066 cM considering 1 cM equal to ~244 kb (Chen et al. 2002). Of the total 110 KASP markers identified and validated from a set of 171 KASP markers designed initially, 107 KASP markers were localized within the MSUv7 gene models (http://rice.plantbiology.msu.edu), and 7 KASP markers were located within the intergenic regions (Table S7).  KASPs were not well separated properly in the 20 diverse genotypes in parental polymorphism survey and not validated on the F 1 genotypes, therefore not considered in the further analysis."}]},{"head":"Quality control assessment of the KASP markers","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The quality control parameters such as the KASP utility, KASP false positive rate (FPR) and the KASP false negative rate' (FNR) were estimated for each of the 110 trait-specific KASP markers (Table 1) on a population size of 384 samples. The utility of the KASP markers ranged from 16.7 to 100%, FPR from 0.00 to 19.20% and FNR from 0.00 to 12.20%. The detailed description of the validated KASP marker analysis results and their allelic interpretation for the selected KASP markers is presented in Table 1. The allelic effects on the phenotypes of the segregating and advanced breeding panel are described for each of the biotic/abiotic stress resistance/tolerance traits, root traits improving nutrient uptake, agronomic, grain yield and yield related traits in Table 1."}]},{"head":"Genetic diversity analysis and Principal component analysis (PCA)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The genetic relationships among donor and recipient parents as determined by UPGMA (unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean) cluster analysis showed that the 20 rice genotypes were divided into two major groups (Fig. 2A). All the recipients except MTU1010 along with IRBB60, IRBB8, PR114-Xa38, IR 74371-46-1-1, IR 96322-34-223 and IR 91468-B-289-B were present in Group I. The remaining donors along with MTU1010 constituted the Group II, which is further divided into two subgroups. The subgroup I had MTU1010, IR 94225-B-82-B and IR 93312-30-101-20-13-66-6 where, the subgroup II had oryza nivara accession, IR 94226-B-177-B, Rathu Hennati, IR 91648-B-32-B and Tadukan."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"To determine the ability of the KASP markers to access the genetic diversity among the 322 segregating breeding lines and 42 advanced breeding lines derived from the crosses involving multi-parent and to validate the KASP markers, a PCA was performed using the 110 KASP markers. The first principal component (PC1) explained 12.3% and the second principal component (PC2) explained 11.1% of the total genetic variations (Fig. 2B). The segregating and the advanced breeding lines were well distributed across both the principal components (Fig. 2C). "}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":271,"text":"The quality control assessment results and allelic effects of the 110 trait-specific KASP markers validated on the phenotypes of the segregating and advanced breeding panel. Chr: chromosome, bp: base pair, Ref allele: allele present in the reference genome, positive allele: allele present in the donor parent, negative trait: trait present in the recipient parent, positive trait: targeted trait present in the donor parent, FPR: false positive rates, FNR: false negative rates, frequency (%) negative trait: number (percent to the total) of the breeding lines possessing recipient parent allele, frequency (%) positive trait: number (percent to the total) of the breeding lines possessing donor parent allele, phenotypic mean negative trait: mean value of the breeding lines possessing recipient parent allele, phenotypic mean positive trait: mean value of the breeding lines possessing donor parent allele, SNP utility: the percentage of a prospective breeding pool across which the SNP marker could be used to introgress a QTL/gene or the proportion of the breeding pool which does NOT carry the donor allele of the SNP marker. It was calculated as: number of breeding lines without favorable allele/Total number of breeding lines assessed, False Positive Rate' (FPR): the proportion of breeding lines with recipient allele but identified as not having an unfavorable/recipient allele of the SNP marker. It was calculated as the number of breeding lines withOUT recipient allele/Total number of breeding lines with recipient allele, False Negative Rate (FNR): the proportion of breeding lines with donor allele but identified as not having the desired QTL/donor allele. It was calculated as: # number of breeding lines with-OUT favorable allele/Total number of breeding lines with donor allele."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The most of the advanced breeding lines grouped exclusively in the upper left side of the PC1 vs. PC2 scatter plot while the segregating breeding lines were scattered across the scatter plot (Fig. 2C)."}]},{"head":"Comparison of the KASP markers with conventional SSR markers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The detailed information on the conventional SSR markers and KASP markers used in the present study is presented in Table S5. The 110 KASP assays produced consistent results when compared to the conventional PCR based SSR markers in 20 diverse rice genotypes (Fig. S6). The similar allelic pattern was observed in the parental polymorphism assay and during the genotyping of the segregating and advanced breeding lines when tested with both SSR and KASP markers."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic validation of the KASP markers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":331,"text":"All the KASP markers which produced satisfactory results in the 20 diverse genotypes in parental polymorphism survey were validated against the phenotypes except assays for the Gm4 as phenotypic screening data was not available. The allelic patterns of the 20 diverse accessions for the identified KASP associated with biotic stress resistance/tolerance traits; anaerobic germination, early-uniform seedling emergence, root traits associated with nutrient uptake, lodging resistance; and grain yield under reproductive stage drought stress, under DSR are presented in Figs. 3A, 3B and 3C respectively. The allelic effects on the mean phenotypic values of the segregating and advanced breeding lines panel are described in Table 1. The effects of all the alleles were significant at P ≤ 0.05 in segregating and the advanced breeding panel. The 110 phenotypically validated KASP assays include 36 assays for biotic resistance genes (6 for Bph3, 4 for Bph17, 5 for Gm4, 1 for Pita2, 9 for Xa4, 5 for xa5, 2 for Xa21, 1 for xa13, 3 for Xa38), 2 assays for anaerobic germination (qAG 9.1 ), 19 assays for the root traits (7 for qNR 4.1 , 4 for qNR 5.1 , 6 for qRHD 1.1 , 1 for qRHD 5.1 and 1 for qRHD 8.1 ) (Table 1, Fig. 4). The remaining assays include 11 assays for grain yield under reproductive stage drought stress (2 for qDTY 2.1 , 5 for qDTY 3.1 , 5 for qDTY 12.1 ) and 14 assays for grain yield under DSR (4 for qGY 1.1 and 10 for qGY 10.1 ), 18 assays for lodging resistance trait (11 for qLDG 4.1 and 7 for qLDG 3.1 ) and 10 assays for the early uniform emergence trait (6 for qEUE 1.1 and 4 for qEUE 11.1 ) (Table 1, Fig. 4). The few examples of KASP assays on the 20 diverse accessions including parents that were used to develop the breeding panel and KASP assays on the breeding panel (segregating and advanced breeding lines) are presented in Fig. 5."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"On average, the assays for biotic resistance genes clearly distinguished the resistant (1: highly resistant, 3: resistant) and susceptible (7: susceptible, 9: highly susceptible) breeding lines (Table 1). The breeding lines carrying the alleles for anaerobic germination tolerance showed improved germination (83 to 96%) compared to breeding lines carrying reference alleles (34 to 37%) (Table 1). The phenotypic effect of the alleles associated with root traits showed significant variations in number of nodal roots and root hair density (Table 1). The alleles  1, Fig. 6)."}]},{"head":"Reliability of the developed KASP markers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"The identification and validation of KASP markers is necessary for the high-throughput and cost-effective screening of large population developed involving multiple parents for different biotic and abiotic stress resistance. Therefore, it is very much important to validate the KASP markers in different ways. In the present study, the developed KASP markers were validated first on a set of 20 diverse parents followed by the second level validation on a set of segregating breeding material and third level validation on advanced breeding material. Further, at the fourth level, the KASP markers were checked on the 10 predicted F 1s plants developed for each trait considered in the present study. At the fifth level, the KASP markers were validated by comparing the KASP assays with the already available gel-based PCR markers associated with the DSR traits. In addition, the repeatability of the KASP assays was accessed on a set of random 70 samples using 10 random markers."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"An increase in rice productivity through the introgression of multiple traits for abiotic/biotic stresses as well as traits improving adaptability under DSR cultivation conditions is a feasible breeding strategy to adapt with changing climate, limited resources and to develop high-yielding DSR varieties. The development of marker-assisted derived DSR breeding lines with pyramided QTL/genes with different specificities or broad-spectrum QTL may be expected to increase grain yield, durability and adaptability under DSR. The newly identified QTLs/genes for traits related to DSR adaptation [6,18,19,48,49] shall provide opportunities to develop new rice varieties with higher yield potential of 6.0-6.5 tha − 1 in the background of popular recipient varieties and broader adaptability to diverse DSR situations. This means that substantial opportunities exist for the exploitation of these QTL/genes in the modern breeding programs, and efforts are underway to achieve this. To date, the genomicsassisted breeding programs attempting to use the identified QTL/genes have almost universally relied on the old SSR marker systems [50]. SSRs are not so useful in marker-assisted introgression programs involving multiple donors as there is possibility of getting the same allelic pattern for multiple parents. The identification of a cost-effective, highthroughput and straightforward genotyping approach that does not jeopardize the prediction accuracies is must."},{"index":2,"size":246,"text":"The introduction of new genomics tools and markers offer great solution in meeting the challenge of genetic gain improvement [39,43] ensuring productivity under DSR. The explosion in genomics resources and the low-cost genome resequencing approaches now enables the development of highly accurate SNP marker systems. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study targeting development of trait-based SNP panel for the traits improving yield and adaptability of rice under DSR. The concepts of marker-assisted selection are now transformed into the high-throughput and cost-effective whole genome sequencing platform to maximize the genetic gains especially for complex traits [51,52]. While a multiple of genotyping platforms have been developed, very less efforts have been made in developing informative, cost-effective and high-throughput genotyping solution specifically designed for applied DSR breeding programs. The existing SNP databases such as the Rice 3 K project provides about 18 million different types of SNP information which creates difficulty for the breeders to get quick analysis and useful information about the SNPs [35]. Consequently, it is very much important in the genomics-assisted breeding to identify the core traitlinked SNPs representing the key information. Not much research work has been done in developing tightly linked, functional and diagnostic SNP markers to be used directly in molecular breeding except the development of diagnostic markers such as ALK [53,54], Wx [55,56], GS3 [57], Pikh, GW5, and CHALK5 [34], rtsv1 [58], Xa4 [59], xa5 [60,61], xa13 [62], Xa23 [63], Xa21 [64], Xa7 [61,65], and Sub1A [66]."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"The KASP-SNP genotyping panel underpinning polymorphism among different rice genera [67], linked with genes associated with the economic traits in crop breeding [68], and disease resistance have been developed. The approach of the present study was to bring in a large number of molecularly characterized strains amenable to rapid transfer and consolidation along with high-throughput genotyping solution. We demonstrated here the effectiveness of newly developed KASP assays for QTL/genes conferring adaptability, biotic and abiotic stress resistances and grain yield stability of rice under DSR. Unlike the previously developed SNP arrays [39][40][41]43], the set of KASP markers developed in the present study target specific QTL/genes of interest, and first provide a platform for the foreground MAS for multiple DSR related QTL/genes. The. The 110 phenotypically validated KASP assays include 36 assays for biotic resistance genes, 2 assays for anaerobic germination, 10 assays for the early uniform emergence trait, 19 assays for the root traits improving nutrient uptake, 11 assays for grain yield under reproductive stage drought stress, 14 assays for grain yield under DSR, and 18 assays for lodging resistance trait."},{"index":4,"size":220,"text":"One hundred and seventy-one KASP markers classified into five subsets including biotic stress resistance, early seedling establishment (anaerobic germination, early uniform emergence), root traits improving nutrient uptake (number of nodal roots, root hair density), plant type (lodging resistance) and grain yield (reproductive stage drought stress and DSR conditions) were designed. The designed 171 markers fulfilled the criterion of quality control, allelic variation of targeted donor to other 13 donors and to 6 recipient backgrounds, key/functional genes targeting sites and strong association with the important DSR trait. The major challenge in designing KASP markers was to identify the SNPs Fig. 5. The pictorial representation of the KASP assays conducted on the 20 diverse accessions including parents used to develop the breeding panel and KASP assays on the breeding panel constituting segregating and advanced breeding lines. PS: polymorphism survey on the 20 diverse accessions; BP: breeding panel. Blue colour indicates the donor allele, red colour indicates the recipient allele and green colour indicates the heterozygotes. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) specifically linked with the particular donor and trait of interest as the marker-assisted introgression program involve multiple parents. Finally, 110 out of the 171 successfully-designed SNPs were able to display diversity at the particular loci."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"The KASP assays analyzed in the present study were validated for their robustness and reliability at five different levels using diverse germplasm, segregating population, advanced breeding lines, comparison with PCR based markers and on the developed F 1s . Overall, the newly developed KASP assays worked for most of the targeted genomic regions with few exceptions like qEVV 9.1 (early uniform emergence) and the genomic regions associated with nematode tolerance. Several KASP assays may need to be developed to reveal the good clusters and to get reliable results. All the 110 KASP assays being reported here showed significant association with the relevant phenotypes in the diverse germplasm, segregating and advanced breeding populations panel, thus revealing their potential application in DSR breeding programs."},{"index":6,"size":263,"text":"The KASP array developed in the present study may be useful in constructing a set of nearly isogenic lines (NILs) suitable for the DSR trait evaluation because the identified SNPs can be used to select favorable alleles in a wide range of genetic backgrounds. The tightly linked set of SNPs such as the SNPs detected for Gm4, Xa4, xa5, xa13, Xa21, Xa38, qAG 9.1 , qDTY 3.1 , qDTY 12.1 and qGY 1.1 can also be used for dissecting the \"linkage drag\". The detection of haplotypes around the target QTL/genes can further be utilized for the fine genetic dissection of the genomic regions near the targeted QTL/genes. As we have large segregating population available with us, the validated KASP array can be readily used to construct a NIL with a very small introgressed chromosome segment from the respective donor parents and a MAGIC (multi-parent advanced generation inter-cross) population with multiple useful genes. The simultaneous detection of multiple useful alleles using KASP arrays potentially allows a dramatic decrease in the time required and labor cost to develop pyramid lines. In addition, the direct pyramiding of multiple abiotic and biotic stress tolerance/resistance related genes will contribute in increasing the genetic diversity in the breeding pool. However, the cost for KASP assay is still expensive but the multiplexing of both samples and markers may reduce the cost. The versatile KASP array developed in the present study will largely contribute in facilitating the DSR breeding activities. Both the plant materials and the KASP arrays are available for the rice breeders to improve the already existing rice varieties."},{"index":7,"size":203,"text":"KASP technology has recently emerged as a single-plex highthroughput genotyping technology and this is the first report on high throughput screening of KASP markers associated with traits improving adaptability, grain yield and biotic/abiotic stress resistance/tolerance under DSR in a major crop. A set of core SNPs was built via targeting variations in the already identified genomic region associated with DSR traits. Development and validation of such 110 KASP assays may provide useful ways to deploy these important QTLs/genes in DSR breeding programs in a timely and cost-effective manner. The development of trait-based SNP panel may strengthen DSR breeding programs and enable the broader distribution and the active use of SNP based markers for both the public and private sectors marker-assisted DSR breeding programs. It may allow the access of trait-based markers to the DSR breeders to screen their germplasm for the DSR adapted traits, including traits providing grain yield improvement and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Building on these achievements, development of DSR rice varieties and the development of trait-based KASP-SNP markers can provide opportunities for significant increase in DSR productivity. Hence, we believe that this toolkit can significantly accelerate the efforts to select and pyramid favorable alleles/genes in DSR breeding programs."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":382,"text":"The study on the development and validation of KASP markers was carried out at School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab (India). In the past decades, efforts have been made in the identification of donors/genomic regions associated with the traits improving grain yield and adaptability of rice under DSR cultivation conditions. A panel of diverse accessions consist of 14 donors (listed in Table S8) and six recipient backgrounds (PR126, PR121, PR128, PR129, PB1509, and MTU1010 were chosen to test the diagnostic ability of SSR and KASP markers. Two marker-assisted derived breeding populations (segregating and advanced breeding populations) were also used for the validation of markers. A total 108 marker-assisted derived F 3 breeding lines developed through forward breeding approach were procured from IRRI, South Asia Hub, Hyderabad in 2019WS. These breeding lines were evaluated and advanced to F 4 generation under DSR at PAU and a total of 599 single plant selection were selected in 2019WS. The 599 single plant selection were sown in controlled screenhouse conditions during 2020DS and advanced to F 5 generation. The 599 breeding lines and the local and upland adapted checks were evaluated under DSR cultivation conditions and advanced to F 6 generation in 2020WS. The 599 breeding lines were genotyped using the identified polymorphic SSR markers. Considering the genotyping cost of KASP Fig. 6. The heat map indicating the frequency of favorable alleles associated with different biotic/abiotic resistance/tolerance trait, root traits improving nutrient uptake, seedling establishment, yield and yield related traits in (A) the segregating and (B) the advanced breeding lines panel. markers in mind, a total of 322 breeding lines segregating for different combinations of QTLs/genes were screened for KASP assay along with the 14 donors and 6 recipient backgrounds. The detailed information on the donors and the breeding strategy used to develop the breeding lines at IRRI-SAH is presented in Fig. S1. In addition, seeds of 42 advanced breeding lines developed at International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines (Sandhu et al. 2021) were procured and evaluated at PAU, ISARC (IRRI-South Asia regional center), Varanasi and BAU, Sabour under DSR. The F 1 s were developed utilizing the donors possessing the particular trait of interest in six recipient backgrounds to further check the efficacy of designed markers in determining the heterozygosity (Fig. S2)."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic characterization of the breeding populations","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":328,"text":"To combine traits providing grain yield and adaptability under DSR, true F 1 s were selected using trait-linked markers. A plot size of 3.2, 1.6, 1.6, 2.0 and 3.6 m 2 was maintained at F 3 , F 4, F 5 , F 6 and in advanced generations, respectively; maintaining 20 cm (hill to hill) × 20 cm (row to row) distance across the two replications. The complete package of field management used was described in detail in Sandhu et al. [18]. Depending on the generation, six plants were randomly chosen to record data on days to 50% flowering (days), plant height (cm, at physiological maturity), panicle length (cm), number of grains/panicles, number of tillers/0.5 m 2 and grain yield of single plant selection (g). The plot yield was measured in kg ha − 1 . The method for the measurement of all the observed agronomic traits was followed from Sandhu et al. [18]. The root traits measurement on six random plants were attempted following the procedure described in detail in Sandhu et al. [6] at 60 days after sowing was done. At F 5 and advanced generation stages, screening for bacterial blight (6 plants per breeding lines), brown planthopper (BPH) (7 to 10 seedlings per breeding lines) and anaerobic germination (7 to 10 seeds per breeding lines) were attempted. Mixed inoculum for the races presents in Punjab was used for the blast inoculation. For the bacterial blight screening, the most prevalent pathotypes PbXo-7 and PbXo-8 were used. The pure virulent culture of each pathotype was inoculated separately at the maximum tillering stage using clip inoculation technique [69]. The scoring for bacterial blast was carried out following Narayanan et al. [70] and for BPH following Heinrichs [71]. The screening for anaerobic germination was carried out in screenhouse as well as in the field following Angaji et al. [72]. Already identified donors and local check varieties were used for positive and negative control in each of the screening experiments."}]},{"head":"Genotyping","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Whole genome resequencing","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Genomic DNA of the 14 donors and 6 recipient backgrounds were prepared using modified CTAB method [73], integrity was analyzed on gel electrophoresis and then subjected to high throughput whole genome ReSequencing using Illumina HiSEQ 4000. In the sequencing analysis, gDNA library was constructed using Illumina Truseq protocol v3 and 150 bp paired-end short reads were generated in fastq format. A total of 4 Gb raw sequence data was generated. The obtained raw data were processed using the following procedure. The schematic representation of the complete workflow used for the development of core trait-linked KASP marker panel to be further used in genomics-assisted breeding program is presented in Fig. S3."}]},{"head":"Sequencing, read processing and read alignment","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Paired-end sequencing, using the Illumina HiSeq 4000 platform, and read processing were carried out at NGB Diagnostics Private Limited, New Delhi (India). For bioinformatics analysis, Illumina adaptor sequences were removed and quality trimming of adaptor-clipped reads was performed, removing reads containing Ns and 3 ′ -end trimming reads to get a minimum average Phred quality score of 20 over a window of ten bases. Reads with a final length of less than 20 bases were discarded."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The reference genome sequence used was of O. sativa (version 7.0), retrieved from Rice genome annotation project (http://rice.plantbiology .msu.edu/ pub/ data/ Eukaryotic Projects/osativa/ annotationdbs/ pseudomolecules/version_7.0/all.dir/). Sequencing reads were mapped against this reference using bwa (version 0.7.17-r1188). Discordant or mixed paired-read alignments were not permitted, with all other alignment parameters kept as default. Only read pairs with both reads aligning in the expected orientation were used in subsequent analyses."}]},{"head":"Variant calling","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"SAMtools (version 0.1.19) [74] were used for conversion of mapping files from Sam alignment format into bam binary format and the duplicates were marked for the sorted bam files using Picard software (version 1.48). Bam file generated was then used for variant calling using software Unified Genotyper of GATK pipeline (Genome Analysis Toolkit, version 3.6). For comparative analysis and identification of unique SNPs in the donor parent variant files for all samples were merged using Bcftools (version 1.9) and samples with MAF 2% and 80% were kept and finally, filtering for variant calling was done using Vcftools (version 0.1.17)."}]},{"head":"Designing of KASP markers","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"KASP markers were designed using offline Polymarker software [75]. MAFFT, Primer3, Exonerate and, Blast software's, Samtools, Bamtools, Bio-samtools and, Glib 2.0 were used in the system's path. Database for the reference genome was generated using BLAST tool and indexing of reference genome was done using samtools to generate an index file for the genome. Variant calls for the specified gene/QTL regions were retrieved from the VCF files generated for SNP calling. Flanking region for the SNPs extracted from the reference genome using bedtools and the final files for marker designing were created in the format desired for the Polymarker softer, containing ID, chromosome number, and the variant call having flanking region of 100 bp at each side in the CSV (Commaseparated values) format. These files were used as input files for the Polymarker software."}]},{"head":"Filtering and selection of KASP markers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The markers located in the earlier identified genomic region associated with the traits considered in the present study were screened. All gene files for the reference genome were retrieved from Rice Genome Annotation Project. Selected markers then screened for high donor specificity using the merged variant file created using BCF tools. All the markers shortlisted were aligned with the reference genome using BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) and markers showing alignment at multiple loci were rejected. High specificity markers aligning at the desired locus with low e-value were selected."}]},{"head":"SSR and KASP assay","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"To test the utility and accuracy of the SSR and KASP markers, the genomic DNA of both sets of the breeding lines was extracted. Parental polymorphism survey using the SSR and KASP markers was performed. A total of already identified 81 polymorphic SSR markers, one indel, eight gene-specific markers [48] and 171 newly designed KASP markers were used for the polymorphic survey of the donor and the recipient backgrounds used in the present study. SSR marker assay was carried out following the procedure as described by Sandhu et al. [48]. The KASP genotyping assays were tested and further validated in a 384-well format having a total reaction volume of 4 μl (2 μl of template DNA (25 ng), 0.056 μl of primer mix and 1.944 μl of Kasp mix). Touchdown PCR was performed with the following configuration: Initial denaturation at 95 • C for 15 min, 10 touchdown cycles (95 • C for 20s, touchdown at 65 • C, − 1 • C per cycle, 25 s) and then 20 cycles of amplification (95 • C for 10 s; 57 • C for 60 s). Fluorescence data was collected using the infinite F200 pro micro-plate reader and analyzed using the Tecan i-control 1.11 software and clusters were marked (XX, XY, YY) based on their graphical location using the KlusterCaller."}]},{"head":"Hierarchical clustering and principal component analysis","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Hierarchical clustering of the diverse accessions based on whole genome resequencing data was generated. The genetic distance matrix was calculated using TASSEL v.5.2.37 (Bradbury et al., 2007) and the tree was visualized using iTOL [76]. The principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using prcomp command of the R statistical software (http://www.R-project.org) [77]."}]},{"head":"Quality assurance of the KASP markers","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The SNP quality control methods and variables [(i) utility (ii) false positive rate; FPR (iii) false negative rate; FNR)] as described by Platten et al. [78] were used to check the ability of the newly designed trait linked KASP markers. It leads to the accurate identification of the plant samples with desirable alleles. The parameters (utility, FPR and FNR) were measured and analyzed separately for each individual trait associated marker and/or for trait associated haplotypes in case the trait with more than one KASP marker associated with it."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA), experiment and experiment-wise mean was calculated using mixed model analysis in PBTools V 1.4.0. To evaluate the phenotypic stability and grain yield adaptability of the breeding lines across seasons and locations, the yield stability analysis was performed. The location effect was considered as an \"environment (E).\" The best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) values of the G (genotype) and G x E (genotype x environment) effects were calculated. The multiplicative model in PB tool version 1.3 (bbi.irri.orgbbi.irri.org) was used to explain the relationship between genotype and seasons. The stability models were fitted into the genotype × environment means within a mixed-model framework where the effect of the genotypes was considered as fixed and the trials were random [79][80][81]. The allelic effect of all the significant markers associated with all the traits measured in the present study was determined comparing the mean phenotypic values and the significant allelic variations for the particular traits were determined performing the Kruskal-Wallis test in \"R\"."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The highest quality SNPs were detected for the KASPs, K_10,607,281 (T -> C 10607281), K_8,791,450 (A -> G 8791450), K_18,666,765 (A -> G 18666765), K_1,029,593 (T -> C 1029593), K_628,981 (C -> T 628981), K_788,995 (T -> A 788995) and K_4,974,371 (G -> C 4974372) in IRGSP1.0 (International Rice Genome Sequencing Project. The clusters for the 61 "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Phenotypic evaluation of segregating breeding lines and advanced breeding lines for different traits improving biotic stress resistance/tolerance, establishment, grain yield and adaptability of rice under direct seeded cultivation conditions (A) Field view of phenotypic evaluation of F 3 breeding lines (B) Screenhouse view of advancing F 4 generation under controlled conditions (C) Field view of phenotypic evaluation of F 5 breeding lines (D) Field view of phenotypic evaluation of advanced breeding lines procured from IRRI, Varanasi (E) Screening of segregating and advanced breeding panel for anaerobic germination under screen house conditions (F) Screening of segregating and advanced breeding panel for anaerobic germination under field conditions (G) Screening of segregating and advanced breeding panel for bacterial blight under field conditions (H) Screening of segregating and advanced breeding panel for blast in blast nursery (I) Screening of segregating and advanced breeding panel for root traits under field conditions and scanning of roots using WinRhizo STD4800. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. (A) Genetic diversity analysis of the 20 diverse accessions using the whole genome resequencing data (B, C) Principal component analysis of the 364 breeding lines (322 segregating lines +42 advanced breeding lines) used for the validation of the 110 KASP markers. "},{"text":"Fig. 3A . Fig. 3A. The allelic constitution of the 20 diverse accessions for the identified KASP associated with the biotic stress resistance/tolerance traits such as brown plant hopper (Bph3, Bph17), gall midge (GM4), bacterial blight (Xa4, xa5, Xa21, xa13, Xa38) and blast resistance (Pita2) traits. The accessions in the red box represents the six recipient backgrounds (PR126, PR121, PR128, PR129, Pusa Basmati 1509, MTU1010) and every seventh accession in each Fig. is the donor for the respective trait. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 3B . Fig. 3B. The allelic constitution of the 20 diverse accessions for the identified KASP associated with the anaerobic germination (qAG 9.1 ), early-uniform seedling emergence (qEUE 1.1 , qEUE 11.1 ), root traits associated with nutrient uptake (qNR 5.1 , qNR 4.1 , qRHD 1.1 , qRHD 5.1 ) and lodging resistance (qLDG 3.1 , qLDG 4.1 ) traits under direct seeded cultivation conditions. The accessions in the red box represents the six recipient backgrounds (PR126, PR121, PR128, PR129, Pusa Basmati 1509, MTU1010) and every seventh accession in each Fig. is the donor for the respective trait. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Schematic representation of the distribution of validated KASP assays associated with different biotic/abiotic resistance/tolerance trait, root traits improving nutrient uptake, seedling establishment, yield and yield related traits along the 12 chromosomes of rice. The alternate SNP ID (K_followed by numeric value) showing genomic position in base pairs representing the physical position of the SNPs on the chromosome. The numbers below each chromosome indicate chromosome numbers. The. The 110 phenotypically validated KASP assays include 36 assays for biotic resistance genes, 2 assays for anaerobic germination, 10 assays for the early uniform emergence trait, 19 assays for the root traits improving nutrient uptake, 11 assays for grain yield under reproductive stage drought stress, 14 assays for grain yield under DSR, and 18 assays for lodging resistance trait. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"a60d5d9b-3d84-4a25-b896-752e7cfe7217","abstract":"The development and utilization of molecular-markers play an important role in genomics-assisted breeding during pyramiding of valuable genes. The aim of present study was to develop and validate a novel core-set of KASP (Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR) markers associated with traits improving rice grain yield and adaptability under direct-seeded cultivation conditions. The 110 phenotypically validated KASP assays out of 171 designed KASP, include assays for biotic-resistance genes, anaerobic germination, root-traits, grain yield, lodging resistance and early-uniform emergence. The KASP assays were validated for their robustness and reliability at five different levels using diverse germplasm, segregating and advanced population, comparison with SSR markers and on F 1s . The present research work will provide (i) breeding material in form of anticipated predirect-seeded adapted rice varieties (ii) single improved breeding line with many useful genes and (iii) KASP assay information for the useful QTL/genes providing grain yield and adaptability to rice under direct-seeded cultivation conditions."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02180c9da2d3215a1b04b9de4414011a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1545/22%20salah%20Meselhy.pdf"},"pageCount":20,"title":"EFFECT OF GARLIC ON THE SURVIVAL, GROWTH, RESISTANCE AND QUALITY OF OREOCHROMIS NILOTICUS","keywords":["Garlic","survival","growth","resistance","challenge","shelf life","Oreochromis niloticus"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Disease outbreaks were recently identified as a major constraint to aquaculture production and trade, with a consequent effect on the industry's economic development (Yunxia et al, 2001). The use of disinfectants and antimicrobials has shown limited success in preventing or curing aquatic diseases (Subasinghe 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Furthermore, there is a growing concern about the use and abuse of the antimicrobials in aquaculture, as they increase the selective pressure exerted on the microbes and encourage the emergence of resistant bacteria by transferring resistant-genes to bacteria not exposed to antibiotics. Moreover, the antimicrobials lead to drug residues in the treated fish, besides having a negative impact on the environment (FAO/WHO/OIE 2006). Antimicrobials can generate cross-resistance against human antimicrobials, which could pose a hazard (Witte et al, 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Moreover, commercial vaccines are expensive for fish producers, and may not be available against the encountered and emerging diseases (Raa et al, 1992)."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Currently, the concern about bacterial resistance to antibiotics in livestock industry has led to legislation minimizing/eliminating the use of such compounds. The use of the immunostimulants in aquaculture is becoming popular, enhancing the activity of the non-specific defense mechanisms and increasing disease resistance (Dalmo and Seljelid 1995;Raa 1996)."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"In addition to sensory evaluation, total psychrotroph and mould counts are key indicators in the determination of fish quality and consumer acceptability (Shewan et al, 1953). Harvested fish exhibited collapse of the immune system, which allows the proliferation and colonization of bacteria and fungi on the skin surface, followed by invasion of the fish-flesh (Murry and Shewan 1979). These microorganisms are the major cause of the edible fish spoilage."},{"index":6,"size":336,"text":"Garlic can help in the control of pathogens, especially bacteria and fungi, and increase the welfare of fish (Corzo- Martinez et al, 2007;Adetumbi et al, 1986;Ress et al, 1993). Garlic, Allium sativum L., has been used for the treatment of many diseases since ancient times as reported in the Codex Ebers (1550 BC), where an Egyptian medical papyrus described several therapeutic formulas based on the garlic as a useful remedy for a variety of diseases such as heart problems, headache, bites, worms and tumors (Block 1985). Cloves of garlic were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen and in the sacred underground temple of the bulls of Saqqara. It has long been considered that garlic (Allium sativum) has several beneficial effects for human and animals, exhibiting antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antihypertensive properties (Konjufca et al, 1997;Sivam 2001). Previous research suggested that those functions are mainly attributed to the bioactive components of garlic, including sulphur containing compounds, such as allin, diallylsulphides and allicin (Amagase et al, 1993). Many beneficial health properties of garlic are attributed to organosulphur compounds, particularly to thiosulfinates (Block 1992). Allicin (diallythiosulfinate) is the most abundant compound representing about 70% of all thiosulfinates present, or formed in crushed garlic (Block 1992;Han et al, 1995). Garlic has proven to be hypolipidemic (Sumiyoshi 1997), antimicrobial (Kumar and Berwal 1998), antihypertensive (Suetsuna 1998), hepatoprotective (Wang et al, 1998) and insecticidal (Wang et al, 1998). Garlic extract has also been shown to reduce serum cholesterol levels (Bordia et al, 1975;Augusti 1977) and increase blood coagulation time (Bordia et al, 1975). An antifungal activity has been identified in garlic bulbs (Fromthing and Bulmer 1978). S-allyl cysteine, present in the crushed garlic, was found to inhibit tumor metabolism and enhance the immune response (Sumiyoshi 1997). The allyl sulfides enhance the glutathione S-transferase enzyme systems, which through their dependent biochemical pathways enhance the liver's detoxification of carcinogenic substances. The allium species show immune enhancing activities that include promotion of lymphocyte synthesis, cytokine release, phagocytosis and natural killer cell activity (Kyo et al, 1998)."},{"index":7,"size":40,"text":"The present study was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of the garlic (Allium sativum L) in improving the immune response, survival, growth and disease resistance in Nile tilapia (O. niloticus).The effects on quality and shelf-life of fish were also considered."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fish","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"A total of 1600 Nile tilapia (O. niloticus) fry (mean individual initial weight = 6.5 ± 1.0 g) were divided into five equal treatments, including the control. Each treatment and the control consisted of four equal replicates (80 fish per replicate) that were randomly assigned to 20 hapas (3 x 2 x 1 m, each) fixed in earthen pond in four rows of 5 hapas each. Fish were fed on a base diet of 25% protein at 3% (summer) and 1% (winter) body weight per day, divided into two feeding times."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Feed was placed in plastic trays fitted in hapas (one per hapa)."}]},{"head":"Garlic","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Garlic (Allium sativum L) was procured from the local market, crushed and two doses, i.e. 10 and 20 g of garlic kg -1 feed were mixed with the balanced diet in pellets. The pellets were prepared biweekly, air-dried at room temperature for 24 hours and stored in a refrigerator (4ºC). The chemical analyses of garlic cloves revealed sulfer-containing amino acids (1-3%) named alliin which is the stable precursor that is converted to allicin by the action of allinase enzyme which represent 10 mg/g garlic cloves fresh weight (Ellmore and Feldberg 1994)."}]},{"head":"Diets","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"A balanced ration was prepared (Table 1). The ingredients were obtained from several specialized suppliers and prepared locally in the WorldFish Center in the form of pellets. The basal diet was prepared by grinding the corn to granules using 0.5 mm mesh (Thomes-Willey Laboratory Mill Model 4). The ingredients were mixed mechanically by horizontal mixer (Hobart model D300T) at a low speed for 30 min."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Oil (vegetable & cod liver) was added gradually to assure the homogeneity of the ingredients. The mixing speed increased for 5 min during the addition of water (600 ml) until the mixture began to clump. Pellets were then prepared using a pellet machine (CPM California pellet mill Co.) with 0.5 cm diameter. Batches of feed were prepared every two weeks and pellets left for 24 h to air dry, and stored in a refrigerator (4°C) for daily use."}]},{"head":"Experimental design (Table 2)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The study was conducted over an eight-month period (September 2005 to April 2006) to evaluate the efficacy of garlic in promoting production of the cultured Oreochromis niloticus. Sixteen hundred O. niloticus fry were divided into five equal groups (groups 1-5; see above). Group 1 was fed a base diet for 8 months (control)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Garlic supplemented base diets (10 and 20 g kg -1 diet fed) were given to groups 2 and 3 for 1 month and to groups 4 and 5 for 2 months, respectively. Four replicates were used in each group and were randomly assigned to hapas fixed in four rows of earthen bottom ponds in such a manner that each row represented the replicate of each treatment group. Hapas were observed daily and any dead fish removed."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"The trial was conducted in three stages, (first, second and third phases). Fish were given the garlic-supplemented basal diet for one and two months, phase 1 and 2 respectively. The base diet was fed to all treatment and control groups throughout the third phase until the end of the experiment (8 months). The third phase was designed to evaluate the possible continuity of the efficacy of the garlic, administered in the first and second phases. At the end of the feeding period, the fish were examined in the laboratory for the various parameters.  "}]},{"head":"Laboratory tests (i). Body weight gain:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"All fish from all treatment replicates were weighed individually after 1, 2 and 8 months."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"(ii). Survival: Survival rate was recorded during the course of the feeding experiment for all treatment replicates."}]},{"head":"(iii). Some hematological and immunological parameters:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The packed cell volume, total and differential leukocytic counts (TLC & DLC) were carried out according to the method of Stoskoph (1993). Nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) was measured after Siwicki at al. (1985). These parameters were determined from blood samples, collected after the first and second phases from the caudal vein of 20 fish from each treatment group (5 from each replicate) using sterile syringes with saturated EDTA."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"(iv). Challenge infections: These were carried out three times on the treatment groups: after feeding on the test diets for one and two months and at the end of the experiment (month 8). Twenty fish from each treatment group and from the control (5 from each replicate), were clinically examined and blood samples bacteriologically tested and determined to be free from bacterial infection, were then artificially infected by intraperitoneal injection with 0.5 ml of culture suspension of pathogenic Aeromonas hydrophila containing 10 8 bacteria ml -1 that were previously isolated from moribund fish and studied for pathogenicity. A culture suspension of Aeromonas hydrophila was prepared by culturing in agar for 24 h, washed and suspended in saline (0.85%) and counted using MacFirland standard tubes (No.1). The relative level of protection (RLP), among the challenged fish was determined according to Ruangroupan at al., (1986) using the following equation. RLP = 100 -percentage o immunized mortality ÷ percentage of control mortality x100."}]},{"head":"(v). Sensory evaluation:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The sensory evaluation was done to detect the consumer acceptability for fish odor or taste. Ten fish from each garlic supplemented and control groups were evaluated for odor and taste by three panelists after roasting at an internal temperature of 48 o C in a 165 o C oven. Odor and taste were evaluated by 5 point scale; 1(very bad), 2 (bad), 3 (fair), 4 (good) and 5 (very good). The fish were considered unacceptable when their sensory score was below 3, according to Shewan et al, (1953)."},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":"(vi) Shelf-life: This was determined for all fish groups at harvest time where 20 fish per group (5 fish per replicate) were used to determine the total psychrotroph and mould counts in the fish-flesh 0, 48, 96 and 144 h after harvest. Throughout this period, fish were stored in an ice-container, the crushed ice being replaced daily. For determining total psychrotrophs, 10 g sample of the fish-flesh was transferred to a sterile blender with 90 ml sterile peptone water. The blender was operated at a high speed for 2 min. Decimal dilutions were prepared and 1 ml from each dilution of muscles was inoculated into duplicate plates, on standard plate count agar. The inoculated plates were incubated at 20 o C for 48 h. The total colony count was calculated (Thatcher and Clark, 1975). Fish-flesh samples (50 g) were homogenized in a warning blender with 450 ml sterile peptone water to give 0.1 dilutions for counting the total mould. Serial dilutions to 10 -6 were then made. One ml of each dilution was poured in a sterile Petri dish and mixed carefully with 15 ml acidified malt extract agar (pH 4.5). The inoculated plates were incubated at 25 o C for 5-7 days. Incubated plates were examined daily by stereomicroscope in order to enumerate the characteristic star shaped mould growths (APHA 1992)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"One way and two way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's Multiple Range Test (Duncan 1955) were used to determine differences among treatments (mean at a significant level of P<0.05). Standard errors were also estimated. Analysis was carried out using the SAS package (SAS 2005)."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"In the first phase of the experiment, groups 2 and 3 revealed a non significant increase in the hematocrit values without any significant change in the NBT when compared with the control (group 1). A statistically non significant change in total leukocytic counts was seen in groups 2 and 3 when compared with the control group."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"However, a significant increase in monocytes was evident in both the treatment groups. In the second phase, groups 3 and 4 revealed a non-significant increase in hematocrit values. The NBT value was significantly elevated in groups 4 and 5 when compared to the control. The total leukocytic count of groups 4 and 5 showed no change despite the significantly elevated monocytes, compared to controls (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"A trend of increased growth rates among experimental fish (groups 2 and 3) was apparent. . The relative level of protection, after challenge infection, was the highest in group 3 (62.5%) followed by group 2 (50%). At the end of the second phase of the experiment, a non-significantly increased growth rate was observed in groups 4 and 5 (Graph 1). The relative level of protection after challenge was best (44.4%) in group 5 followed by group 4 (33.3%) (Table 4, Graph 2)  A significant increase, in survival rate was seen in fish of groups 2 -5 during the third phase of the experiment. The growth rate was significantly increased in groups 3, 4 and 5. The relative levels of protection, after the challenge infection was 5.3% for groups 2 and 3. It was higher in group 4 (10.53%) and highest in group 5 (15.79 %) (Table 5 and Graph 2). "}]},{"head":"Graph (2) Relative level of protection in Oreochromas niloticus supplemented with garlic and challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila after three phases of the study RLP* (%)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":242,"text":"The sensory evaluation of the harvested fish revealed mean odor values of 5, 4.9, 4.5, 4.5 and 4.0 for groups 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively) and mean taste values of 5.0, 4.8, 4.5, 4.4 and 4.1 for the same groups, respectively (Graph 3). The mean value for the total psychrotroph and mould counts of the harvested fish showed a non-significantly deceased values in the garlic supplemented groups for 1 and 2 month when compared with the control. This effect was maintained till the 9 th and 12 th day of ice storage, for the psychrotrophs and moulds respectively. A significant decrease in the mean value of the total psychrotroph count was noticed in all the garlic supplemented groups, except group 2 (10 g kg -1 for 1 month), from the 12 th until the 18 th day of ice-storage. A significant decrease in the mean value of the total mould count was noticed in all garlic supplemented groups (2-5) from the 15 th until the 18 th day of ice-storage, in comparison to controls. The mean value of the total psychrotroph and mould counts, in all groups including the controls, was increased by prolonging the period of the ice-storage. Groups 1 & 2 exceed the permissible limit of the Egyptian standard for the total psychrotroph count after 15 day ice-storage while groups 3, 4 and 5 exceeded that limit on the 18 th day of icestorage (Tables 6 & 7).   "}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":261,"text":"The hematocrit values of the experimental fish showed a non significant increase during the first and second phases of the experiment, which support the contention that the garlic doses tested were both safe and efficacious. Sahu (2004) also observed an increase in erythrocytic count after administering garlic. A marked increase in the total leukocytic count was seen in group 2.and was associated with a high number of monocytes and lymphocytes during the first phase. Iranloye (2002) also reported increases in total white blood cell count, neutrophils, lymphocytes and monocytes following 30-day of feeding garlic, illustrating the anti-infection properties of garlic. Fish sampled during the second phase in the present study showed a non significant change in TLC as well as significant increases in monocytes. This suggests that the feeding of garlic-supplemented diet for 2 months may be less effective in improving the TLC but may improve the monocytes. Hematological findings showed that small doses of garlic (10 g kg -1 ) administered for one month were sufficient to induce the most promising results. Heo et al, (2000) reported that the only changes in fish blood profiles, observed when l-carnitine was included in diet, were increased concentrations of WBC and lymphocytes, although there is no direct evidence from the literature on the effect of l-carnitine supplementation on immune-related blood cell counts. However, many previous reports have suggested that l-carnitine supplement may influence lipid metabolism. Dietary lipid may affect a great number of immune parameters, such as lymphocyte proliferation, cytokine synthesis, natural killer cell activity and phagocytosis (De Pablo and De Cienfuegos 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"The NBT test is used to determine phagocyte activity as an indicator of immune response, especially neutrophils and monocytes (Jabs et al, 1980). A significant increase in NBT values was detected in fish during the second phases of the experiment compared with the control group. This suggests that the effect of garlic in enhancing the phagocytic activity of the leukocytes is dependent on the period of application. Many investigators have reported enhanced bactericidal activity by the phagocytic cells of different fish species treated with immunostimulants (Jorgensen et al, 1993). For example, serum bactericidal activity was enhanced in groups treated with garlic (Sahu et al, 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"The significant increases in total leukocytic count and monocytes of group 2 (low dose of garlic for 1 month), in the present study, did not seem to be associated with any significant increase in the NBT values, suggesting that the feeding of garlicsupplemented diet for one month may promote the phagocytic activity of neutrophils more than that activity of monocytes. Neutrophil activity can be an indicator of fish response, as they adhere to the endothelium by adhesion molecules, thereby facilitating their emigration from the capillaries to the site of injury (Kishimoto et al, 1989;Magnuson et al, 1989). Neutrophils also exhibit increased production of oxygen radicals which are potentially capable of destroying invading pathogens (Hassett and Cohen 1989)."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"While no significant increase in total leukocytic count was seen in groups 4 and 5, the monocyte numbers significantly increased. The latter seem to be associated with the significant increase in NBT values, suggesting that the application of garlic for two months may be more effective on the phagocytic activity of the monocytes."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"However, other studies claim that the protective effect of garlic may be associated with its antioxidant properties (Pedraza-Chaverri et al, 2000; Rahman 2003)."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Several herbs have been tested for their growth-promoting activities in aquatic animals (Jayaprakas and Eupharsia 1996;Citarasu et al, 2002;Sivaram et al, 2004)."},{"index":7,"size":171,"text":"Our observations showed non-significant increases in growth rates after one or two months of feeding with garlic. Horton et al, (1991) reported no effects of feeding 1 or 10 g garlic kg -1 diet on the growth performance of pigs. Other studies have shown that garlic did not affect growth performance of broilers (Freitas et al, 2001) or growing lambs (Bampidis et al, 2005). The pungent smell of garlic, may lead to lower diet palatability. However, in the present study a marked increase in growth rate was noticed after the third phase (8 months) in groups 2-5. The increase, after 8 months, was significant in groups 3, 4 and 5. Cullen et al, (2005) also found improved feed conversion rates when garlic was added to the diet for grower-finisher pigs at the level of 1 or 10 g kg -1 diet. Khalil et al, (2001) mentioned that garlic contains allicin, which promotes the performance of the intestinal flora, thereby improving digestion, and enhancing the utilization of energy, leading to improved growth."},{"index":8,"size":72,"text":"Reduced mortalities following pathogenic challenges in the presence of a low dose of herbal principals, have been reported by Kim et al, (2001) and Jain and Wu (2003). The relative level of protection against challenge infection was fairly good during both phases 1 & 2 of the present study. However the response during the first phase (groups 2 & 3) was better than that of the second phase (groups 4 & 5)."},{"index":9,"size":82,"text":"Immunostimulants can increase non-specific immunity by either increasing the number of phagocytes or activating phagocytosis (Shoemaker et al, 1997), as seen in stimulating peptides for 3 weeks, then challenged with V. anguillarum (10 7 ml -1 , for 1 h). The fry showed reduced mortality. In the present study the relative level of protection of fish, challenged after 8 month of experiment (third phase), was better than that of the control group, but lower than that of the first and second phase."},{"index":10,"size":134,"text":"Garlic has been used for centuries in many societies against parasitic, fungal, bacterial and viral infections. The recent chemical characterization of their sulphur compounds has promoted claims that such compounds are the main active antimicrobial agents (Rose et al, 2005). However, the level of protection, during the 3 rd phase, was higher in groups 4 and 5 than groups 2 and 3. Moreover, the high garlic dose afforded greater protection than the low dose. These findings can be used to explain the low levels of protection seen during the third phase (8 months), when compared with the first and second phases in the current experiment. Feeding of the garlic-supplemented diet for one month was effective against the immediate challenge infection while feeding for 2 months proved more effective against the later challenge (8 months)."},{"index":11,"size":24,"text":"The survival rate was significantly greater in all garlic-supplemented groups when compared with the control group at the end of the experiment (8 months)."},{"index":12,"size":63,"text":"However, it was significantly higher in group 5 than the other groups. Although the use of garlic resulted in good survival rates, feeding the higher doses of garlic for extended periods gave better results. Using a combination of five herbs developed an Artemia-enriched herbal diet for Penaeus monodon, which significantly increased survival rate during stress conditions (Citarasu et al, 2002). The current results"},{"index":13,"size":46,"text":"showed the stimulatory effect of garlic on the immune system that correlates with improved fry survival. The improved survival rate may be due to the enhanced immune response resulting from increased numbers of monocytes (groups 2-5), increases in phagocytic activity (groups 4-5), or other defense mechanisms."},{"index":14,"size":28,"text":"Immunostimulants can also increase serum lysozyme activity by increasing the number of phagocyte-secreting lysozyme, or by increasing the amount of lysozyme synthesized per cell (Engstad at al., 1992)."},{"index":15,"size":90,"text":"Many studies on garlic product have been published; however, there are very few reports on its effects on flesh quality. Kwon et al, (2005) reported that garlic improved the meat quality of growing-finishing pigs. Sensory evaluation is used as an indicator for sea-food quality and consumer acceptability. Both the odor and taste of groups 2-5 were within acceptable limits when compared with the control. Groups 3-5 achieved higher evaluation grades than groups 1 and 2. Total psychrotroph and mould counts increased in all groups (1-5) with increasing periods of storage."},{"index":16,"size":271,"text":"However, the total psychrotroph count was still within the accepted level of the Egyptian Standard (2000), when the fish were stored on ice until day 12 for groups 1 & 2 and day 15 for groups 3, 4 and 5. Garlic is known to have medicinal properties and is useful in combating bacteria (Ress et al, 1993) and fungi (Adetumbi at al., 1986). Garlic contained 1-3% alliin which converted to allicin by the action of allinase (10 mg/g garlic cloves) (Ellmore and Feldberg 1994). It is also known that, garlic powder contain 99% pure dimethyl trisulfide and a mixture of diallyl sulfides, DASS (33% diallyl sulfides DADS, 16% diallyl trisulfide DATS and 17% diallyl tetrasulfide DATTS). Many efficient organization ensures that clove defense mechanism is only activated in a very small location and for a short duration, whereas the rest of the alliin and allinase remain preserved in their respective compartments and are available for interaction in case of subsequent microbial attacks. These phenomena explain the efficiency of garlic in improving the fish quality and shelflife, as it is well accepted that allicin which possesses a variety of biological activities (Miron et al, 2004), is the bioactive substance. However, several reports suggest that garlic also has a lipid-lowering action. On the other hand, Yeh and Liu (2001) suggested that garlic inhibits the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids in the liver; however, the exact mechanisms are not well understood. Therefore, further studies should be done to establish the relationship between the dose used, period of application and time of withdrawal to obtain the best evaluation for the fish quality and shelf-life."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"It can be concluded that garlic improves the immune response of O. niloticus through a rapid increase in monocytes and over a longer time frame enhanced phagocytic activity which affords increased protection against immediate challenge infection. High doses also appear to enhance growth rate, particularly after 8 months, dietary inclusion. A significant improvement was seen in the survival of all treatment. It seems beneficial to use garlic at lower doses for one month, in short-term operations, such as in the hatchery, and for two months to improve aquaculture production. Post-harvest flesh quality and shelf-life of fish fed on garlic supplemented diets for both 1 month or low dose for 2 month was improved. More extensive field trials and economic studies are, however, necessary before large scale, commercial use could be recommended."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Graph ( 1 ) The body weight gain of Oreochromas niloticus supplemented with garlic (g/kg) after three phases of the study Growth (g) "},{"text":"Graph ( 3 ) Sensory evaluation in the flesh of Oreochromis niloticus supplemented with garlic at end of the third phase of the studyOdour Taste "},{"text":" our study. Many defense mechanisms activated by garlic counteract the challenge infection including the production of superoxide anions against the A. hydrophila infection. It has been found that the aqueous extract of raw garlic and dried powder scavenge hydroxyl radicals (Yang et al, 1993; Kim et al, 2001), and superoxide anions (Kim at al., 2001). Similar phagocytic activities may have occurred in the present work and enhanced protection against the challenge infection. Gildberg and Mikkelsen (1998) fed Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) fry on a commercial feed, supplemented with Carnobacterium divergens alone or combined with immuno- "},{"text":"Table 1 . Composition of the basal diet used throughout the experiment.   Protein (%) Metabolic energy (Joules) Protein (%)Metabolic energy (Joules) Ingredients Diet (%)     IngredientsDiet (%)   ingredients feed Ingredients feed ingredientsfeedIngredientsfeed Fish meal 8.00 0.72 5.76 4000 32000 Fish meal8.000.725.76400032000 Soybean meal 52.9 0.48 25.392 2870 151823 Soybean meal52.90.4825.3922870151823 Ground corn 29.1 0.109 3.1719 1240 36084 Ground corn29.10.1093.1719124036084 Wheat flour 5.00 0.134 0.67 2700 13500 Wheat flour5.000.1340.67270013500 Vegetable oil 2.00 0.00 0.00 9100 18200 Vegetable oil2.000.000.00910018200 Cod liver oil 2.00 0.00 0.00 9100 18200 Cod liver oil2.000.000.00910018200 Di calcium phosphate 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0000 Di calcium phosphate1.000.000.000.000000 Mineral mix. 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0000 Mineral mix.0.070.000.000.000000 Vitamin mix. 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0000 Vitamin mix.0.050.000.000.000000 Vitamin C 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0000 Vitamin C0.030.000.000.000000 Total 100.15 0.00 34.9939 0.00 269807 Total100.150.0034.99390.00269807 Ingredients were obtained from local markets.    Ingredients were obtained from local markets.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Design of experiment and parameters measured along the experiment.  Treatment (phases) & duration in Hematology  Growth   Challenge  S, Q & Sl Treatment (phases) & duration inHematologyGrowthChallengeS, Q & Sl   months   (phases)   (phases)   (phases)  (phases) months(phases)(phases)(phases)(phases) Group              Group * 1 st 1st month 2 nd 2nd month 3 rd 6 more months 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 1 st 2 nd 3 rd 3 rd *1 st 1st month2 nd 2nd month3 rd 6 more months1 st2 nd3 rd1 st2 nd3 rd1 st2 nd3 rd3 rd Each group had 320 Oreochromis niloticus with 4 replicates ie; 80 fish/replicate. Group 1 served as a Each group had 320 Oreochromis niloticus with 4 replicates ie; 80 fish/replicate. Group 1 served as a control.              control. dose of garlic/ kg of feed. B.D = basal diet; M= measured; nm= not measured; D= done; nd= not done, . dose of garlic/ kg of feed. B.D = basal diet; M= measured; nm= not measured; D= done; nd= not done, .   t            t  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Hematological and immunological parameters of Oreochromis niloticus at the end of the first (1 month) & second phase (2 months) of garlic supplement compared with the control.   One month   Two months  One monthTwo months Parameters Control Garlic 10g/kg Garlic 20g/kg Control Garlic 10g/kg Garlic 20g/kg ParametersControlGarlic 10g/kgGarlic 20g/kgControlGarlic 10g/kgGarlic 20g/kg  (gp. 1) (gp. 2) (gp. 3) (gp. 1) (gp. 4) (gp. 5) (gp. 1)(gp. 2)(gp. 3)(gp. 1)(gp. 4)(gp. 5) HCV (%) 30.6 A ±2.09 32.1 A ±1.77 32.7 A ±1.33 28.8 A ±1.03 31.7 A ±1.57 32.3 A ±1.54 HCV (%)30.6 A ±2.0932.1 A ±1.7732.7 A ±1.3328.8 A ±1.0331.7 A ±1.5732.3 A ±1.54 NBT (mg/ml) 0.26 A ±0.04 0.26 A ±0.02 0.26 A ±0.03 0.11 B ±0.02 0.13 A ±0.03 0.13 A ±0.01 NBT (mg/ml)0.26 A ±0.040.26 A ±0.020.26 A ±0.030.11 B ±0.020.13 A ±0.030.13 A ±0.01 TLC (10 3 /µl) 36.5 AB ±1.45 37.7 A ±1.25 32.8 B ±1.74 41.6 A ±1.09 37.4 B ±0.76 41.2 A ±0.79 TLC (10 3 /µl)36.5 AB ±1.4537.7 A ±1.2532.8 B ±1.7441.6 A ±1.0937.4 B ±0.7641.2 A ±0.79 Neutrophils (10 3 /µl) 11.85 A ±0.15 11.63 A ±0.23 11.29 A ±0.20 12.35 A ±0.14 12.06 A ±0.36 12.1 A ±0.24 Neutrophils (10 3 /µl)11.85 A ±0.1511.63 A ±0.2311.29 A ±0.2012.35 A ±0.1412.06 A ±0.3612.1 A ±0.24 Lymphocytes (10 3 /µl) 23.4 AB ±1.14 24.42 A ±0.93 20.21 B ±1.45 27.62 A ±0.91 23.77 B ±0.61 27.13 A ±0.62 Lymphocytes (10 3 /µl)23.4 AB ±1.1424.42 A ±0.9320.21 B ±1.4527.62 A ±0.9123.77 B ±0.6127.13 A ±0.62 Eosinophils (10 3 /µl) 0.31 A ±0.08 0.31 A ±0.08 0.18 A ±0.06 0.6 A ±0.08 0.45 A ±0.08 0.49 A ±0.06 Eosinophils (10 3 /µl)0.31 A ±0.080.31 A ±0.080.18 A ±0.060.6 A ±0.080.45 A ±0.080.49 A ±0.06 Basophils (10 3 /µl) 0.04 A ±0.04 0.15 A ±0.06 0.08 A ±0.05 0.09 A ±0.06 0.19 A ±0.09 0.25 A ±0.07 Basophils (10 3 /µl)0.04 A ±0.040.15 A ±0.060.08 A ±0.050.09 A ±0.060.19 A ±0.090.25 A ±0.07 Monocytes (10 3 /µl) 0.9 B ±0.12 1.19 A ±0.18 0.97 A ±0.11 0.95 B ±0.14 1.31 A ±0.09 1.19 A ±0.11 Monocytes (10 3 /µl)0.9 B ±0.121.19 A ±0.180.97 A ±0.110.95 B ±0.141.31 A ±0.091.19 A ±0.11 Mean ± S.E having the same letter in the same row are not significantly different at P<0.05 . . Mean ± S.E having the same letter in the same row are not significantly different at P<0.05 ..  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Growth and relative level of protection after challenge infection ofOreochromis niloticus at the end of the first and second months on garlicsupplemented diet compared with control.   One month   Two months  One monthTwo months  Control   Control   ControlControl Parameters  Garlic 10g/kg Garlic 20g/kg  Garlic 10g/kg Garlic 20g/kg ParametersGarlic 10g/kgGarlic 20g/kgGarlic 10g/kgGarlic 20g/kg   (gp. 2) (gp. 3)  (gp. 4) (gp. 5) (gp. 2)(gp. 3)(gp. 4)(gp. 5)  (gp. 1)   (gp. 1)   (gp. 1)(gp. 1) Growth (g) 22.81 A ±0.76 25.08 A ±2.77 24.61 A ±0.93 29.12 A ±1.1 31.93 A ±1.23 31.57 A ±1.26 Growth (g)22.81 A ±0.7625.08 A ±2.7724.61 A ±0.9329.12 A ±1.131.93 A ±1.2331.57 A ±1.26 RLP* (%) 0 50.0 62.5 0 33.3 44.4 RLP* (%)050.062.5033.344.4  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Growth and survival rates besides the relative level of protection after challenge of Oreochromis niloticus at the end of the third phase (8 months) compared with the control group.   One month   Two months  One monthTwo months Parameters Control Garlic 10g/kg Garlic 20g/kg Control Garlic 10g/kg Garlic 20g/kg ParametersControlGarlic 10g/kgGarlic 20g/kgControlGarlic 10g/kgGarlic 20g/kg  (gp. 1) (gp. 2) (gp. 3) (gp. 1) (gp. 4) (gp. 5) (gp. 1)(gp. 2)(gp. 3)(gp. 1)(gp. 4)(gp. 5) Growth (g) 54.1 B ± 1.48 57.3 AB ±0.86 59.14 A ±1.06 54.1 B ± 1.48 59.6 A ±1.97 61.2 A ±1.07 Growth (g)54.1 B ± 1.4857.3 AB ±0.8659.14 A ±1.0654.1 B ± 1.4859.6 A ±1.9761.2 A ±1.07 Survival (%) 68.9 B ± 2.24 79.56 A ±1.47 78.31 A ±1.64 68.88 B ± 2.24 76.88 A ±6.05 80.13 A ±3.17 Survival (%)68.9 B ± 2.2479.56 A ±1.4778.31 A ±1.6468.88 B ± 2.2476.88 A ±6.0580.13 A ±3.17 RLP* (%) 0.00 5.26 5.26 00.00 10.53 15.79 RLP* (%)0.005.265.2600.0010.5315.79 Mean ± S.E. having the same letter in the same row are not significantly  Mean ± S.E. having the same letter in the same row are not significantly different at P<0.05.      different at P<0.05. RLP*= Relative level of protection.     RLP*= Relative level of protection.  "},{"text":"Table . 6 . Mean value of the total psychrotroph count in the flesh of Oreochromis niloticus at the harvest time (end of the third phase = 8 month), compared with the control group. Capi al le ter for comparison between control and garlic t eated group (gp. 5). Small letter for comparison between times of storage within same treatment. Ice storage (in day) Control (gp. 1) One month Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 2) Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 3) Control (gp. 1) Two months Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 4) Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 5) Ice storage (in day)Control (gp. 1)One month Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 2)Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 3)Control (gp. 1)Two months Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 4)Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 5) 0 0.14 Af x10 2 ± 0.02 0.14 Af x10 2 ± 0.01 0.11 Ae x10 2 ± 0.03 0.44 Af x10 2 ± 0.12 0.12 Ae x10 2 ± 0.01 0.12 Ae x10 2 ± 0.03 00.14 Af x10 2 ± 0.020.14 Af x10 2 ± 0.010.11 Ae x10 2 ± 0.030.44 Af x10 2 ± 0.120.12 Ae x10 2 ± 0.010.12 Ae x10 2 ± 0.03 3 2.53 Ae x10 3 ± 0.14 1.90 Ae x10 3 ± 0.12 1.17 Ad x10 3 ± 0.18 2.73 Ae x10 3 ± 2.22 2.10 Ad x10 3 ± 0.12 2.17 Ad x10 3 ± 0.18 32.53 Ae x10 3 ± 0.141.90 Ae x10 3 ± 0.121.17 Ad x10 3 ± 0.182.73 Ae x10 3 ± 2.222.10 Ad x10 3 ± 0.122.17 Ad x10 3 ± 0.18 6 7.87 Ae x10 4 ± 0.20 5.72 Ae x10 3 ± 0.55 5.20 Ad x10 3 ± 0.75 6.89 Ad x10 4 ± 0.25 5.6 Bd x10 3 ± 0.55 4.31 Bd x10 3 ± 0.79 67.87 Ae x10 4 ± 0.205.72 Ae x10 3 ± 0.555.20 Ad x10 3 ± 0.756.89 Ad x10 4 ± 0.255.6 Bd x10 3 ± 0.554.31 Bd x10 3 ± 0.79 9 8.33 Ad x10 4 ± 2.44 7.00 Ad x10 4 ± 4.57 6.00 Ac x10 4 ± 2.35 9.13 Bd x10 4 ± 2.07 8.80 Bc x10 4 ± 2.57 8.60 Bc x10 4 ± 3.35 98.33 Ad x10 4 ± 2.447.00 Ad x10 4 ± 4.576.00 Ac x10 4 ± 2.359.13 Bd x10 4 ± 2.078.80 Bc x10 4 ± 2.578.60 Bc x10 4 ± 3.35 12 7.31 Ac x 10 5 ± 0.64 5.20 Ac x 10 5 ± 0.55 3.0 Bc x 10 4 ± 0.33 8.30 Ac x 10 5 ± 0.64 6.6 Bc x 10 4 ± 0.52 6.0 Bc x 10 4 ± 1.03 127.31 Ac x 10 5 ± 0.645.20 Ac x 10 5 ± 0.553.0 Bc x 10 4 ± 0.338.30 Ac x 10 5 ± 0.646.6 Bc x 10 4 ± 0.526.0 Bc x 10 4 ± 1.03 15 5.6 Ab x 10 6 ± 3.14 2.90 Ab x 10 6 ± 0.01 4.7 Bb x 10 5 ± 0.28 6.16 Ab x 10 6 ± 3.54 8.2 Bb x 10 5 ± 1.19 7.4 Bb x 10 5 ± 1.73 155.6 Ab x 10 6 ± 3.142.90 Ab x 10 6 ± 0.014.7 Bb x 10 5 ± 0.286.16 Ab x 10 6 ± 3.548.2 Bb x 10 5 ± 1.197.4 Bb x 10 5 ± 1.73 18 4.23 Aa x 10 7 ± 3.44 2.70 Aa x 10 7 ± 0.12 5.2 Ba x 10 6 ± 0.39 6.63 Aa x 10 7 ± 2.24 6.1 Ba x 10 6 ± 0.72 6.2 Ba x 10 6 ± 1.97 184.23 Aa x 10 7 ± 3.442.70 Aa x 10 7 ± 0.125.2 Ba x 10 6 ± 0.396.63 Aa x 10 7 ± 2.246.1 Ba x 10 6 ± 0.726.2 Ba x 10 6 ± 1.97 Mean ± S.E having the same letter in the same row are not significantly different at P<0.05 . . Mean ± S.E having the same letter in the same row are not significantly different at P<0.05 .. t t  r    ttr  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Mean value of the total mould count in the flesh of Oreochromis niloticus at the harvest time (end of the third phase = 8 months), compared with the control group.   One month   Two months  One monthTwo months Ice storage in day Control (gp. 1) Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 2) Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 3) Control (gp. 1) Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 4) Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 5) Ice storage in dayControl (gp. 1)Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 2)Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 3)Control (gp. 1)Garlic 10g/kg (gp. 4)Garlic 20g/kg (gp. 5) 0 2.2 Ae x10 1 ± 0.01 2.0 Ad x10 1 ± 0.51 1.8 Ad x10 1 ± 0.75 2.5 Ae x10 1 ± 0.22 1.6 Ad x10 1 ± 0.01 2.1 Ad x10 1 ± 0.05 02.2 Ae x10 1 ± 0.012.0 Ad x10 1 ± 0.511.8 Ad x10 1 ± 0.752.5 Ae x10 1 ± 0.221.6 Ad x10 1 ± 0.012.1 Ad x10 1 ± 0.05 3 4.0 Ad x10 2 ± 0.17 3.6 Ac x10 2 ± 0.42 2.8 Ac x10 2 ± 1.21 2.3 Ad x10 2 ± 0.43 2.8 Ac x10 2 ± 0.17 2.5 Ac x10 2 ± 0.06 34.0 Ad x10 2 ± 0.173.6 Ac x10 2 ± 0.422.8 Ac x10 2 ± 1.212.3 Ad x10 2 ± 0.432.8 Ac x10 2 ± 0.172.5 Ac x10 2 ± 0.06 6 6.6 Ad x10 2 ± 0.25 6.4 Bc x10 2 ± 0.21 6.2 Bc x10 2 ± 0.79 6.3 Ad x10 2 ± 0.13 5.6 Bc x10 2 ± 0.23 5.8 Bc x10 2 ± 0.81 66.6 Ad x10 2 ± 0.256.4 Bc x10 2 ± 0.216.2 Bc x10 2 ± 0.796.3 Ad x10 2 ± 0.135.6 Bc x10 2 ± 0.235.8 Bc x10 2 ± 0.81 9 5.0 Ac x10 3 ± 0.74 4.2 Ab x10 3 ± 0.23 3.5 Ab x10 3 ± 1.45 6.1 Ac x10 3 ± 0.36 3.7 Ab x10 3 ± 2.61 3.0 Ab x10 3 ± 6.37 95.0 Ac x10 3 ± 0.744.2 Ab x10 3 ± 0.233.5 Ab x10 3 ± 1.456.1 Ac x10 3 ± 0.363.7 Ab x10 3 ± 2.613.0 Ab x10 3 ± 6.37 12 6.6 Ac x 10 3 ± 0.55 5.4 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.37 4.2 Bb x 10 3 ± 1.57 5.9 Ac x 10 3 ± 0.22 4.6 Ab x 10 3 ± 0.42 4.1 Ab x 10 3 ± 1.07 126.6 Ac x 10 3 ± 0.555.4 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.374.2 Bb x 10 3 ± 1.575.9 Ac x 10 3 ± 0.224.6 Ab x 10 3 ± 0.424.1 Ab x 10 3 ± 1.07 15 3.2 Ab x 10 4 ± 0.54 7.2 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.54 5.7 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.87 5.4 Ab x 10 4 ± 0.12 6.6 Bb x 10 3 ± 2.12 5.2 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.69 153.2 Ab x 10 4 ± 0.547.2 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.545.7 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.875.4 Ab x 10 4 ± 0.126.6 Bb x 10 3 ± 2.125.2 Bb x 10 3 ± 0.69 18 2.5 Aa x 10 5 ± 0.34 6.6 Ba x 10 4 ± 0.37 4.6 Ba x 10 4 ± 1.28 7.5 Aa x 10 5 ± 0.17 4.8 Ba x 10 4 ± 0.76 4.4 Ba x 10 4 ± 0.95 182.5 Aa x 10 5 ± 0.346.6 Ba x 10 4 ± 0.374.6 Ba x 10 4 ± 1.287.5 Aa x 10 5 ± 0.174.8 Ba x 10 4 ± 0.764.4 Ba x 10 4 ± 0.95  "}],"sieverID":"81b1eee7-ea13-4a59-92fa-024492edd599","abstract":"Sixteen hundred Oreochromis niloticus were divided equally among five groups, each comprising four equal sized replicates, to evaluate the efficiency of a garlic-supplemented diet (10 and 20 g kg -1 diet fed) in the performance of O. niloticus. Group (1) was the control (fed on base diet). Groups (2 & 3) were fed on garlicsupplemented diet (10 and 20 g kg -1 diet fed) for one month, respectively, and groups (4 & 5) were fed on same doses of garlicsupplemented diet for two month, respectively. All groups were fed on the base diet after the periods of garlic-supplementation until Month 8. Body weight and blood parameters were recorded.Challenge infection with pathogenic Aeromonas hydrophila, was carried out immediately after feeding the test diets as well as Month 8. Survival and individual body weights were recorded at the end of the trial. Studies on fish quality and shelf-life were also carried out. A non-significant increase was seen in the hematocrit values among all treatment groups. Statistically significant increases in total leukocytic count in treatment group 2 were also observed. Moreover, the nitroblue tetrazolium value was significantly elevated after 2 month and the monocytic count was significantly increased in groups 2-5. There was no statistically significant increase in mean individual body weights of treatment groups 2-5 after one and two months, but there was a statistically significant increase after eight months in all treatments except group 2. Survival rates were significantly higher in all treatments compared to the control. The relative level of protection against the challenge infection was higher in all treatment groups than in the control. The quality and shelf-life of the garlic supplemented tilapia was better than those of the control. Both dose rates of garlic induced a similar effect, enhancing immunity and health status. Consequently garlic improved the growth performance. Moreover, fish quality and shelf-life were improved. However, further extensive testing, including full commercial cost benefit analysis, is necessary before recommending its application in aquaculture."}

data/part_5/029d5b90dd7f8802c6dca8453d1f1a38.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"029d5b90dd7f8802c6dca8453d1f1a38","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.cimmyt.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=hdl:11529/10548016/1"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Sustainable and resilient farming systems intensification in the eastern Gangetic Plains Project Highlights 1 (March 2015)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Millions of smallholder farm men and women in the eastern Gangetic Plain region of Nepal, Bangladesh and India are set to benefit from a four-year AU$11 million integrated research and development initiative that is helping to make agriculture more productive, profitable and sustainable."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"The region has the greatest remaining concentration of rural poverty in the world, and faces low productivity, weak institutions and intense threats from climate risk, including extreme events such as floods, drought and cold snaps. It is dominated by small farms, many of which are run by women owing to the number of men migrating for paid work. Most farmers have limited access to credit, quality seeds, fertilisers, irrigation or formal extension services and suffer water and labour shortages."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Currently rice and wheat productivity is low and diversification is limited, so new crop management and institutional innovations are critical. There is significant potential to boost agricultural and food production, so effective scaling out of the new innovations is also essential. At the moment markets are poorly developed and volatile, while agricultural knowledge and service networks are sparse. There is great potential to introduce and scale out more sustainable production practices which reduce rural poverty and boost water use efficiency."}]},{"head":"The project","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The Sustainable and resilient farming systems intensification in the eastern Gangetic Plains (SRSFI) project started with a field research component which aims to enable at least 130,000 farmers to adopt technologies to improve their crop yields with a complementary component on scaling out (under design) to boost agricultural production and reduce rural poverty within the next ten years. The project is initially targeting 7,000 farmers in eight districts: two in north-west Bangladesh, two in the eastern Terai of Nepal, and two each in the Indian states of Bihar and West Bengalwith five research hubs or communities in each district."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Innovations being tested in the field include conservation agriculture (CA) systems and ways to improve water use efficiency. Strengthening farmers' ability to adapt and link to markets and support services is also a high priority. The project is piloting inclusive approaches that benefit small and marginal households with a particular focus on women-headed households."}]},{"head":"Progress report","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The project was officially launched by Australian Ambassador to Nepal HE Glenn White in Dhulikhel, Nepal, at an event on 4 July 2014 attended by some 90 people from partner institutions in Australia, Bangladesh, India and Nepal. It was widely reported in the media following media releases being issued by the Australian Embassy in Nepal and the Australian High Commission in India. The project has more than 20 partners across Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Australia. Considerable effort has gone into consultation and building teams across institutions and creating a shared vision and understanding of participatory multi-stakeholder"}]},{"head":"R&D approaches","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The pre-project activities undertaken in 2013 (see below) involved high level consultations, training local stakeholders in innovation platforms, assessing farmer livelihood options and hydrological resources (by the International Water Management Institute), along with launching winter trials in Bangladesh and Bengal. A significant challenge remains to reach large numbers of farmers, and particularly female farmers and small operators. Traditional linear approaches to technology transfer from researchers to extensionists to farmers have not been sufficient to reach these beneficiaries. Alternative approaches are being trialed including innovation platforms, which are multi-stakeholder forums for farmer-to-farmer learning and grounding public-private partnerships for research extension linkages at village level."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The project is taking a gender-sensitive approach by involving women in all aspects of the research and scaling out, building an understanding their perspectives and gender roles, gathering disaggregated data and including women in technology development."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"The project team has also established links with other regional projects including the Cereal Systems Initiative for South Asia, funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and USAID, and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security to enable the sharing of research outcomes and experiences in the region and globallyas well as sharing information other ACIAR and CSIRO projects."}]},{"head":"Surveys","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":193,"text":"The SRSFI project includes a comprehensive program of surveys and discussions. These are building an understanding of the cropping systems, the natural and economic resources, people's livelihood strategies, their attitudes to risk and undertaking technical innovation, along with an understanding the status and requirements of the women farmers. Discussions have been held with male and female Socio-economic surveys are being conducted in two nodes in each district to gather household baseline data. For example, a rich data set on farming communities in two districts of West Bengal (Malda and Coochbehar) has been collected and analysed. This has provided a wide range of detailed information, such as the incidence of women-headed households in various socio-economic groups, scope to introduce crops to the cropping season, the potential for a 'mechanical hub' to overcome the lack of availability of machinery, the preferred means of receiving information and on women's role in decision-making. The project team is using this information to characterise the various areas in terms of their cropping systems, access to water and farming types to determine the types of technical options being tested in on-farm research trials, and to provide input into innovation platforms."}]},{"head":"Experiments with farmers","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"An important component of the project is the establishment of coordinated field trials in multiple locations. These are being conducted to explore a range of technological options for the different cropping systems in the nodes/villages including (1) opportunity cropping such as growing additional crops in the systems, for example intercropping with maize, vegetables of other short duration cultivars and relay planting; (2) diversifying crops and ways to intensify the cropping system e.g. through advanced planting or supplementary irrigation with energy efficient axial flow pumps and (3) longterm conservation agriculture with small-scale mechanisation."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"The pre-project 2013/14 Rabi (winter) season trials completed in four of the eight project districts demonstrated the potential for increasing productivity and promoting prosperity in the region. In West Bengal and Bangladesh there were 55 and 99 on-farm participatory research trials respectively conducted to test various tillage practices and hybrids in different environments. Preliminary results of the Bangladeshi trials showed a 8-11% benefit of growing maize by reduced tillage, with labour savings of 30 days/ha, compared with farmers' conventional practices. The intercropping trials showed that farmers could almost double their net income by intercropping maize with leafy vegetables compared with growing solely maize. Some of the data will validate the Maize Crop Manager which will be made available to farmers through smart phones and web-based tools. Preliminary results of wheat and chickpea trials indicated up to 17% improved productivity for wheat under minimum tillage, as well as savings in water and labour usesimilar trends were also observed in the chickpea trials. In West Bengal, CA-based trials on wheat and lentil were more productive. However, for maize and mustard, while the yield was similar in CA and conventional tillage, there were savings on inputs and labour."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Opportunity trials are continuing on 120 farmer's fields across the sites testing different technological options depending on local needs; some 212 participatory farmer cropping systems trials have been targeted across sites and nodes; and there are now 370 core trials (10 in each node) on conservation agriculture. Winter season trials are now underway in targeted areasthe third season in Bangladesh and West Bengal districts. Long-term trials with rice continue with more trials added in the winter season. Results available for the Bangladesh trials showed that direct seeded rice and unpuddled seeded rice provided a similar yield with less labour and lower fuel and input costs."}]},{"head":"Private sector engagement","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The SRFSI project has initiated engagements with the private sector at national and district levels to build their participation in research and the scaling out of the technologies. They will form a part of the innovation platforms. The project will explore innovative partnerships with business for fine tuning technologies to meet farmer and support service demand, e.g. nutrient blends, timing and quality of agricultural produce for different markets, for participating in machinery development and adaptation, and for evaluating other proto-technologies."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Agribusiness representatives participated in the May 2014 SRFSI strategic planning workshop in New Delhi, which offered some strategies for private sector investments. The experiences of a U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) east India agri-business facilitation project and the globally recognized IDE model of commercialisation were also shared with the workshop participants. In addition, two other ACIAR projects have a decade or more of engagement with small-scale farm equipment commercialisation in India and Bangladesh respectively. Already some local West Bengal entrepreneurs are negotiating with Bangladesh equipment suppliers with a view to developing local manufacturing of two wheel tractor attachments for CA. The SRFSI project will focus particularly on local entrepreneurs/service providers of inputs, machinery and marketing. Training materials targeted to service providers are already being developed. "}]},{"head":"Gender","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The increasing feminisation of agriculture in the eastern Gangetic Plain region was documented in a pre-project background study now available as an ACIAR publication. The survey of women-headed households showed that male out-migration affected more than 50% of households, creating new classes of de facto women-headed households in the region and diversifying household livelihoods to include remittances."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Gender will be the focus of continual analysis during the SRSFI project, in order to develop suitable technologies for these households. Moreover, the leaders of women's self-help groups will be targeted for on-farm research and dissemination of results. As described above some focus group discussions have been divided into separate female, male and mixed groups in an effort to gather women's views. In each node 30% of the participating farmers are women. Some remarkable women have come forward to conduct on-farm trials in their fields. For example, in Baluwa node in Sunsari on the Terai in Nepal, Mrs Sanju Chaudhary has been selected as a project field technician. She is also the leader of a self-help group of 40-45 women. Similar interest has been shown by women in other areas of Nepal, in West Bengal and Bangladesh."}]},{"head":"Knowledge sharing and capacity building","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"About 20 field days, exchange visits and exposure visits have been organised by project partners to date. In Bangladesh some 1000 people, including 400 women, attended various events during the rice season including farmer field days and exposure visits. The exposure visits involved stakeholders, including extension agents/officers, service providers, male and female farmers, researchers, local manufacturer, input dealers and local NGOs. In Nepal project staff, service providers and progressive farmers took part in an exposure visit to four districts to generate the awareness of farm mechanisation and agricultural marketing options. In West Bengal some 180 beneficiaries attended four events, including training on operation of machinery for tractor operators. While these numbers are impressive for this early stage of the project, further work is still required."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Project participants have also organised or attended some 30 events related to advanced courses, training and planned meetings. At the project inception in July 2014 scientists from a wide range of countries made scientific presentations to share their experiences and knowledge, along with their contribution to the project. Prior to the project inception meeting six scientists from partner institutes attended advanced training on conservation agriculture, farm machinery and on-farm research and data management."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Country planning meetings have since been held to design the on-farm participatory research (farmer field) and on-station research (in the research institute) to address the various issues of intensifying farming/cropping systems, soil health, surface and ground water access and management, nutrient management, conservation agriculture, crop modelling and various experimental protocols."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"During November 2014, 50 staff were trained in innovation platform procedures during two workshops in Bagdogra and Patna. The formulation workshops not only strengthened team building, but also augmented competencies for integrated agricultural research for development of a further 75 staff of the 20 partners."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"In addition, five South Asian scientists from partner institutes attended an advanced conservation agriculture course at Ludhiana for three weeks to enable them to become CA experts for the project; eight researchers from partner institutes participated in a theory of change and impact pathways course in Brisbane; partner institutes conducted short courses and training on small-scale mechanisation, hands-on experience with conservation agriculture equipment, data collection and management for project staff and service providers; and recently Dr Peter Brown of CSIRO undertook training sessions on innovation platforms in Nepal and West Bengal in India for partner institutes."}]},{"head":"Partners","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Female farmer, Bhuluwa, Terai, Nepal "},{"text":" As at December 2014 the project had established 40 nodes of research across the targeted areas. A node consists of one or more villages in a district. The number of sites (farmer field experiments/trials) on new conservation agriculture technologies in a node range from 15 to 50 across the region. A comprehensive program of long-term, Kharif (summer) crops and Rabi (winter) crops research has been established, and skills have been built through a range of training and demonstration events (detailed below). "},{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 1 Launch of the SRSFI project in Dhulikhel, Nepal "},{"text":"Figure 3 Figure 3 Discussions with farmers at trial sites, Coochbehar, West Bengal "},{"text":"Figure 6 Figure 5 Figure 6 Zero till machine provided by the project "},{"text":"Figure 7 Figure 7 Female and male farmers at a field day in Rajshahi, Bangladesh "},{"text":" Sustainable and resilient farming systems intensification in the eastern Gangetic Plains project involves a large number of complementary research and development partners including national and state research institutions, extension services, nongovernment organisations and private sector partners across the three countries and in Australia. The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) project is being led by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) with support of the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs (DFAT). Australian project partners are CSIRO, Curtin University, University of Queensland and University of New England Bangladeshi project partners include Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) and Rangpur-Dinajpur Rural Services, Department of Agricultural Extension and Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC) Indian project partners are the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Bihar Agricultural University, Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya University, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, JEEViKA (Bihar Rural Livelihoods Project) and Sakhi Bihar Nepal's project partners are the Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agricultural Development and Government of Nepal and International Development Enterprises (iDE) International agricultural research centers include the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) KEY CONTACT POINTS KEY CONTACT POINTS Bangladesh Bangladesh Dr. Mahesh K Gathala, SRSFI Project Leader Dr. Mahesh K Gathala, SRSFI Project Leader Regional Cropping Systems Agronomist, International Maize and Wheat Regional Cropping Systems Agronomist, International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Dhaka, Bangladesh Improvement Center (CIMMYT), Dhaka, Bangladesh Contact: +880-1755577390; [email protected] Contact: +880-1755577390; [email protected] Dr. Rafiqul Islam Dr. Rafiqul Islam  "}],"sieverID":"3fda7459-9b7d-4255-8bc7-710bf021507b","abstract":""}

data/part_5/02b668f2298ffc5e8cb675f58be203d9.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02b668f2298ffc5e8cb675f58be203d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ba1f21aa-03e9-49f1-84ce-b8a4cf4395fe/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Field boundary delineation and cropped area measurement SOP ID: 002 Version: 1 Crop: Not applicable Relevant KPI: Productivity -yield; Resource use efficiency -nutrient use efficiency, water productivity and labor productivity R&D stage (example of activities): • Discovery stage (yield decomposition) • Pilot stage (on-farm participatory trials, randomized control trial) • Scaling stage (panel studies, ex-post impact assessment) This work was financially supported by the Excellence in Agronomy for Sustainable Intensification and Climate Change Adaptation Initiative (EiA)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Module description","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":218,"text":"Accurate measurement of crop cultivated area and corresponding field boundary is essential for assessing various agronomic key performance indicators (KPIs), including yield, profitability and resource use efficiency. In the past, household surveys have relied heavily on farmer-reported plot areas. However, it has been frequently noted that farmer-reported plot area is often inaccurate for various reasons. In addition, field boundary information -which is crucial for various agronomic analytics purposes -is rarely available. Here, we describe the procedure for a global positioning system (GPS)-based field area measurement using a smartphone/tablet application. We describe GPS Fields Area Measure, 1 an Android application freely downloadable from Google Play Store, as an example. The module describes the procedures for downloading and performing the measurements using this app. Many other apps with similar functions can also be used to measure field/plot area. Users need to refer to the corresponding user guides when using other Android applications. GPS Fields Area Measure is also available on the Apple App Store, 2 but the description below is only for the Android system. This GPS Fields Area Measure user guide was created using a smartphone running Android version 13, with which the app is compatible. Please check the compatibility of the GPS Fields Area Measure app with the smartphone/tablet you will be using before going to the field."}]},{"head":"Module 1: Use of application software for field area measurement 1.1 Required equipment/materials","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"• Android-based device (e.g. smartphone or tablet)."}]},{"head":"Procedure for downloading and installing GPS Fields Area Measure app","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Step 1: Search for \"GPS Fields Area Measure\" in the Google Play Store and install it on your device."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Step 3: Settings can be accessed by pressing the menu icon at the top left (triple bar). Press the \"Settings\" options to change default measurement units."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Step 4: The default measurement units are in \"Metric\" system, but can be changed to \"Imperial\" if needed. To ensure consistency, users are requested to use the \"Metric\" system. The unit for area measurements can be in the form of m 2 , ha and km 2 ."}]},{"head":"Measurement procedure","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Step 1: Go to one corner of the field to be measured. Mark your starting point with a range pole so you can identify the point when you return."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Step 3: From the three popup options, select the \"Area\" icon (highlighted in the red)."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Step 4: Select the \"GPS measuring\" option from the following page."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Step 5: The corner of the field where the range pole is located should coincide with the GPS location on the smartphone/tablet. Press the \"Start measuring\" button at the bottom left, then walk around the perimeter of the field."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Step 6: The surveyor must walk on the edge of the field (not a meter outside or inside the plot). At every corner, you must stop for 5 seconds (counting slowly 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and then continue walking. You must walk all the way around the field until you return to the location of the range pole. You should be able to see the boundaries of the field marked as you walk along. Now press \"Stop measuring\" and click \"Done\". Step 7: The next popup option will show perimeter and area estimates of the surveyed field. Press \"Save\" (disk) icon located second from top right to save the surveyed field on the device."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"Step 8: Provide a unique \"Measure name\" such as the Field ID used in Excellence in Agronomy for Sustainable Intensification and Climate Change Adaptation Initiative (EiA) and an appropriate description. You can take a photograph of the field using the \"Camera\" option to ensure a pictorial reference for later use. (This is optional.) Press the \"Save\" (disk) icon at the top right corner."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"Step 9: Now the surveyed field populated with relevant information can be seen on the screen. Press the \"Share\" icon located third from the top right and in the resultant window select \"Save to device\" to export the surveyed field to KML, KMZ, shape file, etc. Provide a unique name such as the Field ID used in EiA and an appropriate description."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"The data can now be opened in any GIS software."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"GPS Fields Area Measure will also work offline (but with no background map layers). The procedure is exactly the same as described above."}]},{"head":"Contributors","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Karthikeyan Matheswaran (International Water Management Institute [IWMI]) and Ali Ibrahim (Africa Rice Center [AfricaRice])"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b015ae58-e4a1-469f-aca5-cdd42f0c219c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03984f5aa7989e3a1d6fbf1735a41515","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/143d4242-245c-42e4-9670-e015a13b1c58/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Sustainable Food security with beekeeping [Tigrigna]","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part three","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sound effect","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sustainable Food security with beekeeping","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"I have different customers. Some buy honey for personal consumption, some others to sell it in other cities. And also to send it to their families who live abroad. (With market background)","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"How many do you buy it?","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"It depends on the seasons. At this time its price is relatively cheap it is around 70to90 birr per kilo but in October and December the price is getting high because the honey that produced in these seasons is extremely white which has high demand in the","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" to recently, in every diligent farmer of Tigray's house there is a pot preserved somewhere in the corner of the house. It contains honey that may be used sometimes or to well come guests/visitors. It has been for long time honey production practiced in Tigray. However, it simply served as either as dessert in addition to the main meal. It has never been considered as product for sell. As the information obtained from experts of beekeeping indicate, ten years ago, in some parts of Tigray honey started to be sold with cheap price. After 1990 things started to be changed. The price of honey getting expensive, better honey products started to be providing in market places. Some producers are looking beneficiary. These days the price of honey is almost the same as a gram of gold during the past years. Farmers of Tigray, currently, are not only considering beekeeping as additional farming activities. Many are considering it as a source of income, the way to make their living better.Transitional musicNowadays, it becomes normal to see in some markets a special area that honey productions are buying and selling. The transaction is hot.We visited a hot honey marketplace in Atsibewonberta woreda. Even though the time was not honey harvesting time, the product is available.Sound effect of market (people negotiating in marketplace)A merchant whose name is Gebrecherqos Aregawi engaged in honey trade for the past eight years. He has many known dealers as customer in Mekelle town that sells honey. He has also individual customers. He uses his own way of buying honey. He collects honey from different marketplaces checking the quality. It seems he doesn't concern much that producers of honey have not organized way of supplying their product to the market. He believes that the market should regulate the supply. "},{"text":" buy honey in the market by negotiating. I am beneficiary in this business. After I started this business my life has changed. I have my own home and I have enough money to run my business. Thanks to god. I give value for quality therefore I have many customers. We met a woman selling her honey product in the market. She informed us that there is no institution/body that creates market link or to deliver to the market their product. And she said no one can give you what the market gives you.My name is Birhan Berhe. I am selling two types of honeys. This is that I harvested some time ago and stored. The other is that I harvested recently. I stored some of the product harvested some time ago thinking that the price will increase. But the merchants seized from buying with better price. So I decided to bring it to the market if I am not going to get better money. Recently harvested honey is the yellow one. The color of the honey creates price difference. Honey products get their color due to seasonal flowers of the area. (With market background)Have you ever met any consumer that you can sell your product directly? Other than the merchants? "}],"sieverID":"0d5536e4-7079-476d-94ab-98b3ec674605","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03bc0163d9f1e75f06ff343bec54613e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef0c093b-db2e-4c02-84d4-647ffa6bfb07/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Plan de Resiliencia al Cambio Climático de la comunidad Buenos Aires","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"CIAT","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"III. INTRODUCCIÓN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"En el presente documento presenta el Plan de Resiliencia al Cambio Climático de la Comunidad Buenos Aires del municipio de San Juan Intibucá, se detalla el proceso participativo, el cual fue orientado a identificar las principales amenazas climáticas que impactan los medios de vida agroalimentarios de las familias, los factores de sensibilidad, las causas y las acciones que se deben implementar, en el territorio para poder así adaptarnos y ser más resilientes al cambio climático y poder producir."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Se realizó un análisis de las necesidades y recursos locales existentes para ser utilizados al momento de la implementación y seguimiento, alineando dicho proceso a una estrategia municipal, a través de la cual facilite su ejecución de forma coordinada con las distintas entidades municipales, sociedad civil, mancomunidad y otros actores."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"De forma más precisa a continuación es descrito el objetivo de dicho plan, así como su justificación, metodología empleada para su construcción, resultados obtenidos, contiendo cada una de las medidas propuestas; las cuales se encuentran alineadas con los principales medios de vida agroalimentarios que sustentan a las familias de la comunidad Buenos Aires."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"IV. OBJETIVOS 4.1. Objetivo General  Contribuir a la resiliencia climática de las familias de la comunidad Buenos Aires, municipio de San Juan, departamento de Intibucá."}]},{"head":"Objetivos específicos","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":" Identificar los medios de vida de la comunidad Buenos Aires y sus amenazas climáticas."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":" Identificar acciones que contribuyan a la adaptación al cambio climático en los medios de vida de la comunidad."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":" Promover el empoderamiento de la comunidad para la acción climática que contribuyan al bienestar de la comunidad y su entorno."}]},{"head":"V. CARACTERIZACIÓN BIOFÍSICA DE BUENOS AIRES","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"La comunidad de Buenos Aires está ubicada a 3.9 km del casco urbano, perteneciente al Municipio de San Juan departamento de Intibucá, con dirección al Norte colinda con el Portillo al Sur colinda con el Zarzal, al Oeste colinda con Loma alta, al Este colinda con Azacualpa."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Según coordenadas el caserío se encuentra ubicado a 14°21'55\" N 88°33'33\" O a una elevación de 1500 a 1749 msnm, presenta suelos profundos de textura arcillosa a franco arcillosa, limosos, excelentes para la producción, con una pendiente de 30 a 45%."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Se encuentra influenciado por la microcuenca Parte alta del rio Azacualpa, Buenos Aires históricamente no tenía nombre, era perteneciente a la comunidad de Azacualpa, en 1975 eran pocos los habitantes del mismo, eran como diez viviendas encontradas en el barrio, dichas viviendas eran construidas de madera con techos de zacate, entre otras eran de teja, se encontraban con muy pocos recursos económicos."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"Muchas mujeres acostumbraban a mano a costurar la ropa para cubrir a sus hijos en ese entonces no había facilidad. En 1988 se hizo la apertura de la calle de la comunidad por ejecución de Don Gonzalo Deras, por amor al transporte de madera que se preparaba en el aserradero, en ese año solo tenían acceso a algunos lugares, los niños viajaban a peloncitos para estudiar porque no contaban con Escuela, esta comunidad fue bautizada con el nombre de Buenos Aires por don José Reyes Aguilar."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Buenos Aires presenta un clima subtropical con temperatura promedio anual de 15°C con máximas de 25°C durante los meses de marzo, abril, y parte de mayo, mininas durante los meses de Noviembre Diciembre, Enero y Febrero a 12°C."}]},{"head":"Climograma","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fuente: WorldClim -aclimatar","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fuente: WorldClim -aclimatar","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Respecto a las lluvias inician a finales de Abril, presentando un pico en junio, de Julio a inicios de Agosto se da lo que es la Canícula luego vuelve el invierno siendo el mes más lluvioso Septiembre con acumulados de 400mm Nuevamente las lluvias continúan hasta octubre y primera quincena de noviembre, siendo en este periodo donde se alcanzan la mayor saturación de humedad en suelos, respecto al promedio acumulado anual se alcanzan unos 1800 mm de lluvia."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"La vegetación prevaleciente en este caserío es bosque mixto: consiste en árboles de hoja ancha como el Roble, liquidámbar, encino. De hoja estrecha como el pino. Existiendo frutales como el naranjo, Limón, mangos, aguacates, arboles medicinales, y una variedad de matorral. También existe musáceas en parcelas de productores, como ser también existencia de pastos y leguminosas."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"La fauna existente en el barrio que se ha conservado, ardillas, conejos, tacuazines aves diversas, anfibios, reptiles y venados."}]},{"head":"VI. 5.1 ASPECTOS INSTITUCIONALES","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Población","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"La población es la siguiente, 60 familias población de 11 femeninas y 107 masculino"}]},{"head":"Educación","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"No contamos con una escuela en la comunidad, nuestros hijos asisten a la escuela de Azacualpa, de Kinder a sexto grado, otros jóvenes no estudian por muy poco recurso económico, o no les gusta estudiar."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"En edad escolar: 107. Femenino 57 y masculino 50. Hoy en día por la Pandemia COVID 19, las clases son virtualmente quienes tiene acceso a internet y teléfonos lo pueden hacer y quienes tiene poco recurso económico no lo hacen es una limitante."}]},{"head":"Salud","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"La mayoría de las personas se enferman de infecciones respiratorias agudas, dengue hemorrágico, en niños Diarreas y neumonías, las personas que se enferman asisten al centro de salud de San Juan Intibucá. La pandemia COVID 19 ha causado desafíos y temor a contagios y la fuerte desconfianza entre los mismos vecinos."}]},{"head":"Vivienda","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Material de construcción de las viviendas son de: Adobe, bloque, y madera con techo de teja y aluzinc, Problemas en las viviendas, sin repello, piso de tierra, falta de cielo, techo en mal estado. Posesión de Tierra Hogares que trabajan la tierra propia 29 Hogares que trabajan la tierra pagada 28 Hogares que trabajan la tierra alquilada 1 Hogares que no tienen tierra 2 Economía La mayor parte de ingreso económico es de rubro de café, granos básicos, y remesas."}]},{"head":"Caja Rural","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Se organizó 8 de mayo del 2015, la caja rural La Bendición de Buenos Aires, es considerada eficiente, muchas ayudas llegan a los socios y al caserío, aquí se realizan actividades productivas y sociales."}]},{"head":"Patronato","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Existe la organización de patronato que se organizó la primeva ve en el año de 2014. Para la gestión y ejecución de proyectos del caserío."}]},{"head":"VII. JUSTIFICACIÓN","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Honduras es un país altamente expuesto y vulnerable a los efectos negativos del cambio climático. La mayor frecuencia e intensidad de eventos climáticos extremos, como sequías prolongadas, precipitaciones torrenciales, huracanes e incremento en las temperaturas medias, han convertido al país y especialmente al Corredor Seco, en uno de los territorios más susceptibles a los efectos del cambio climático."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"San Juan Intibucá, se encuentra expuesto a amenazas climáticas, y al pasar del tiempo el clima está cambiando, debido a las intervenciones humanas, existe un recalentamiento global, las temperaturas muy variables, lluvias intensas y fuertes sequias, incremento de plagas y enfermedades en los cultivos como ser: café, maíz, frijol, etc.,"},{"index":3,"size":168,"text":"El medio de vida de las familias de Buenos Aires es la agricultura familiar , donde su principal cultivo de producción es el café aunque ha habido ciertos desafíos como el problema de la roya, también se produce lo que son granos básicos como ser el frijol rojo, el maíz zarco y el amarillo en mínimas cantidades y se cultiva en zona alta (montaña se produce frijol negro en mínimas cantidades y frijol grande llamado chinapopo) también ciertos productores se dedican a ganadería en baja escala, predominando también la crianza de aves criollas y peces en mínima cantidad. Los rendimientos en granos básicos rondan entre 5-20 quintales por manzana, en los cultivos hay incidencia de plagas y enfermedades, así como la ausencia de calidad en las semillas; son algunos de los factores que condicionan la seguridad alimentaria nutricional y demás recursos productivos generadores de ingresos, un problema es que la semilla es de largo periodo para la cosecha lo cual hay problemas de acame y pudrición de mazorca."}]},{"head":"VIII. METODOLOGÍA","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"A continuación, se detallan 4 pasos a través de los cuales se identifican i) los principales medios de vida que sustentan a la comunidad, ii) las amenazas climáticas, iii) los factores locales de sensibilidad y iv) las capacidades y recursos locales como medios de resiliencia. A partir del diagnóstico se proponen y priorizan las medidas de adaptación con base a la vulnerabilidad local, finalmente se plantean elementos de guía para su implementación como son el tiempo de ejecución, recursos disponibles, responsables y fuentes accesibles de financiamiento."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Paso 1: Mapa Parlante."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Consiste en dibujar un mapa que represente la comunidad, aldea o territorio de interés; incluyendo la infraestructura, recursos naturales, áreas de producción y otros posibles elementos de importancia. Permite identificar/ ubicar de forma gráfica y participativa los medios de vida y zonas vulnerables."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"El mapa estará siendo utilizado durante todo el ejercicio de planificación, para validar las amenazas climáticas, zonas de implementación de medidas o prácticas que serán propuestas durante el ejercicio, entre otros aspectos."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Paso 2: Análisis de Amenazas en Medios de Vida."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Los medios de vida son objeto de análisis identificando su afectación por amenazas climáticas, según factores locales que contribuyen a la vulnerabilidad siendo de origen humanos, ambiental, social, cultural, políticos o económicos. A partir de ello se determinan los impactos que determinaran las prácticas por implementar."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Paso 3: Sensibilidad en los Medios de Vida y Capacidades locales existentes."},{"index":8,"size":31,"text":"Aquí se analizan los factores locales que atribuyen sensibilidad en los medios de vida ante la influencia de amenazas climáticas. De igual manera se detallan las acciones y capacidades locales existentes."},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"Paso 4: Propuesta de Medidas o Soluciones."},{"index":10,"size":58,"text":"Se procede con la identificación de medidas de forma participativa, considerando limitantes locales, capacidades y recursos existentes. El planteamiento de las medidas debe ser preciso, realizable y estar en coherencia con las políticas de desarrollo local, potenciando el uso sostenible de los recursos asegurando la viabilidad de los servicios ecosistémicos como parte de la construcción de resiliencia climática."}]},{"head":"IX. RESULTADOS","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Durante los ejercicios de planificación participativa en el caserío de Buenos Aires asistieron 30 personas de las cuales 21 fueron mujeres y 6 hombres y 3 niños, entre ellos miembros de junta de agua potable, patronato, iglesia católica y evangélica y como ente central Caja Rural La Bendición de Buenos Aires Según la metodología propuesta y con la ayuda de los participantes se utilizó un papelógrafo para graficar la comunidad de Buenos Aires,"}]},{"head":"Mapa Parlante, comunitario","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Identificando 60 familias, su carretera principal, accesos a las zonas de residencia y áreas de producción, dentro de la cual se estimaron unas 25 manzanas en producción de granos básicos con rendimientos aproximados de 20 qq/Mz en maíz unos 15 qq/Mz producidos."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Dentro del ejercicio fueron priorizados 4 medios de vida con base agroalimentaria que son afectados por variaciones del clima, relacionadas al comportamiento de las lluvias y temperaturas durante los ciclos productivos, lo que permitió identificar múltiples causas locales generadores de impactos relacionados con la productividad, incidencia de plagas, enfermedades, perdidas en la producción y generación de ingresos. Para mayor detalle se muestra a continuación el siguiente cuadro."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"Cuadro 1. Análisis de Amenazas en Medios de vida Incidencia de por el mal manejo como ser: cogollero Spodoptera frugiperda. Gallina ciega (Phyllophaga spp), gorgojo (Sitophilus zeamais) en almacenamiento o palomilla del maíz y enfermedades como ser: Mancha de asfalto (Phyllachoramaydis Maublanc), pudrición de la mazorca (Stenocarpellas ,achaparramiento de la planta(Corn Stunt Spiroplasma). Uso de variedades de largo periodo (8 meses) y susceptibles a enfermedades. Quema y tala de los bosques para siembra de maíz por lo cual hay suelos pobres de materia orgánica. Uso inadecuado de productos químicos (herbicidas, funguicidas e insecticidas), contaminando el agua, suelo y ambiente. No se practican las prácticas de conservación de suelos. Acame de maíz por fuertes vientos y no hacer barreras rompe vientos. Siembra en laderas sin manejo, y erosión de los suelos por falta de cobertura vegetal. Mala selección de semilla para sembrar. "}]},{"head":"Producción de frijol rojo","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"No se practica la preparación de suelo y no se conocen los requerimientos nutricionales del suelo. Las densidades de siembra son las tradicionales."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"No se realiza la fertilización adecuada ni en la fase que necesita cada elemento. Semilla tradicional, o uso de variedades no aptas para la zona. No se siembra cultivos de cobertura, no se practica rotación de cultivos. Suelos erosionados por que no se realizan prácticas de conservación de suelos Siembra en época de primera sin el conocimiento de las condiciones climáticas (pronostico del tiempo para siembra). "}]},{"head":"Varias instituciones presentes en la comunidad","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacitación y practica","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"En parcela de cada productor, preparación de suelo (en surco, distanciamiento del cultivo de 70 a 80 cm entre surco y 25 30 cm entre planta 2 semillas/postura)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Fertilización al momento de siembra o al germinar, segunda fertilización a 25 días y la tercera a los 40 días) 12-24-12-+ urea, 12-24-12 y 12-24-12 + kcl. 25,000Lps/mes/capacita ción Uso de silos metálicos para almacenamiento de granos."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Capacitación en manejo de silo para almacenamiento de maíz."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Realizar prueba de secado del grano."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"Con una botella de vidrio seca y limpia, se le agrega sal muy seca y maíz del que se va almacenar, si se adhiere la sal a las paredes de la botella le falta secado al maíz si no se adhiera la sal ni a la botella ni al maíz está en su punto de 12% de humedad listo para almacenar."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Selección de semilla de calidad criolla para siembra y manejo de cosecha y post cosecha."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Evaluar nuevas variedades resistentes como Dicta Esperanza(blanco) y Marshall (Amarillo) Capacitación en manejo de selección de semilla de la misma cosecha 2,000 a 2,800 Lps el quintal. 25,000 L ps/mes/capacitación Utilización de productos orgánicos para fertilización y control de plagas y enfermedades."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"Capacitación y Elaboración de los productos como ser: Caldo sulfocalcico, biofertilizante de plátano, madreadol, MM, Bocashi. Utilización de melaza para control de cogollero."},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"Hacer rotación de cultivos. "}]},{"head":"Manejo adecuado de sombra, y tejidos","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Capacitación y práctica de manejo de sombra, tipos de poda, quita de chupones, en parcela de cada productor. Siempre teniendo en cuenta la regulación de luz que debe ingresar al cultivo."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Elaboración de pilas para manejo de aguas mieles."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Capacitación y construcción de pilas para manejo de aguas mieles y manejo de la pulpa. 7,000 cada pila."}]},{"head":"Producción de aves criollas","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Realización de planes y campañas de vacunación Vacunación contra Newcastle y viruela aviar cada 6 meses desde un día de nacido."}]},{"head":"Municipalidad","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Cajas rurales INFOP PROLEMPA CIAT FUNDER 1,000 Lps, para compra de dosis."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Elaboración de concentrado casero haciendo uso de recursos locales."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Capacitación y práctica con grupos de productores para elaboración de concentrado."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"5,000 Lps en compra de maíz, sal mineral, sal común, melaza, los demás productos locales como ser: casulla de frijol, ceniza, cascaras de huevo, hojas de leguminosas."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Capacitaciones 25,000 Lps/mes. Uso de productos medicinales o practicas caseras para manejo de aves Capacitación sobre medicinas naturales para prevención de enfermedades, como ser: Jugo de Curarina, licuado de cebolla, ajo y ruda, limón etc."},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":"Capacitaciones 25,000 Lps/mes."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Construcción de galpones mejorados, con materiales locales, y comederos y bebederos artesanales."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"Capacitación y que al menos 30 productores construyan galpones, comederos y bebederos haciendo uso de recurso local como ser: bambú, madera, adobe, llantas usadas, tubos pvc, y botellas grandes."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"Material local y mano de obra. 5,000 Lps por galpón."},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"Materiales como ser: Lamina y maya Gallina, 5,000.00 Lps."}]},{"head":"Selección de buenas razas criollas","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Capacitación y práctica de una buena selección de razas y sus diferencias."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Capacitaciones 25,000 Lps/mes."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Reproducción de pollos en incubadoras caseras."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Capacitación sobre elaboración de incubadoras caseras para una mayor reproducción de pollos."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"Capacitaciones 25,000 Lps/mes."}]},{"head":"X. DIFUSIÓN Y SEGUIMIENTO DEL PLAN","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Desde el momento que se entregue el presente Plan de Adaptación al Cambio Climático de la comunidad Buenos Aires, se tiene que dar a conocer a responsables del desarrollo, para así poder alcanzar y facilitar la implementación."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Se realizarán presentaciones y avances a nivel de las distintas instancias oficiales de comunicación de la Alcaldía Municipal de San Juan Intibucá, como ser cabildos abiertos, reuniones de mesas institucionales y eventos ligados al desarrollo, donde participan representantes de MANCURISJ, sectores como salud, educación, infraestructura etc."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"A nivel de la Comunidad con el apoyo de Caja Rural la Bendición de Buenos Aires, con el apoyo del Comité de Emergencias Local (CODEL), Junta de agua, Patronato, Miembros de Iglesia Católica y Evangélica, entre otras instancias locales, se deberán desarrollar acciones de difusión y seguimiento a la implementación del Plan, con la finalidad de promover su implementación."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Gestionar con diferentes instituciones encaminadas al desarrollo, que existen en el Municipio de San Juan Intibucá y con la Unidad de Desarrollo Económico Local, para realizar alianzas y estrategias."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"USAID Agencia de los Estados Unidos para el Desarrollo Internacional "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Cuadro 2. Ejemplo identificación de factores de sensibilidad de los Medios de Vida. Mala selección de semilla para siembra. Uso de productos químicos como ser funguicidas, herbicidas, e insecticidas. Tala y quema de bosque para siembra de café. Sin manejo de sombra ni tejidos. Suelos erosionados y pobres de materia orgánica por malas prácticas.     Inadecuada nutrición en semillero y Deudas Inadecuada nutrición en semillero yDeudas     vivero. costarricenses). requemazón hierro (Cercospora del fruto (Colletotrichum coffeanum), mancha de (Phoma coffeicola), (Mycena citricolor), antracnosis (Hemileia vastatrix), ojo de gallo enfermedades como ser la roya minador de la hoja (Leuconptera y tallo (Plagiohammus maculosus), (Dactylopius coccus), barrenador del (Hypothenemus hampei), cochinillas incidencia de plagas, broca Por el manejo inadecuado, Alta Fincas en Producción Resistencia de `plagas y Perdidas del cultivo Menos de grano aflatoxinas. con humanos por consumo Enfermedades en los Escases y desnutrición suelos. Erosión y deslave de los enfermedades Resistencia de plagas y capital. económicos y pérdida de ingresos Bajos rendimientos enfermedades vivero. costarricenses). requemazón hierro (Cercospora del fruto (Colletotrichum coffeanum), mancha de (Phoma coffeicola), (Mycena citricolor), antracnosis (Hemileia vastatrix), ojo de gallo enfermedades como ser la roya minador de la hoja (Leuconptera y tallo (Plagiohammus maculosus), (Dactylopius coccus), barrenador del (Hypothenemus hampei), cochinillas incidencia de plagas, broca Por el manejo inadecuado, Alta Fincas en ProducciónResistencia de `plagas y Perdidas del cultivo Menos de grano aflatoxinas. con humanos por consumo Enfermedades en los Escases y desnutrición suelos. Erosión y deslave de los enfermedades Resistencia de plagas y capital. económicos y pérdida de ingresos Bajos rendimientos enfermedades Crianza de Altas y bajas Incidencia enfermedades como ser: New Muerte de aves CrianzadeAltas y bajasIncidencia enfermedades como ser: NewMuerte de aves aves criollas temperaturas  castle, viruela aviar, gumboro, gripe No hay disponibilidad aves criollastemperaturascastle, viruela aviar, gumboro, gripeNo hay disponibilidad     aviar. de alimento aviar.de alimento Producción de frijol rojo Periodos largos de sequía y mucha cantidad de lluvia. Mal manejo de plagas mosca blanca (Bemisia tabaci), afidos o pulgones (Aphis sp), babosa (Sarasinula plebeya), y enfermedades virus del mosaico Dorado BYMV, antracnosis, (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), mustia hilachosa (Thanatephorus cucumeris), y mancha angular Contaminación por no dar uso adecuado a la gallinaza. para elaborar concentrados caseros. No se aprovechan los recursos locales alimentación. Baja producción por una limitada proliferación de virus. Muerte de aves por enfermedades y Bajo Perdida de plantación ingresos económicos Mala calidad de grano Bajos Escases del grano Suelos pobres enfermedades Resistencia de plagas y económicos ingresos Escases Producción de frijol rojoPeriodos largos de sequía y mucha cantidad de lluvia.Mal manejo de plagas mosca blanca (Bemisia tabaci), afidos o pulgones (Aphis sp), babosa (Sarasinula plebeya), y enfermedades virus del mosaico Dorado BYMV, antracnosis, (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), mustia hilachosa (Thanatephorus cucumeris), y mancha angular Contaminación por no dar uso adecuado a la gallinaza. para elaborar concentrados caseros. No se aprovechan los recursos locales alimentación. Baja producción por una limitada proliferación de virus. Muerte de aves por enfermedades yBajo Perdida de plantación ingresos económicos Mala calidad de grano Bajos Escases del grano Suelos pobres enfermedades Resistencia de plagas y económicos ingresos Escases     (Phaeoisariopsis griseola ). Altos precios en los (Phaeoisariopsis griseola ).Altos precios en los     Uso de productos químicos para control mercados Uso de productos químicos para controlmercados     de plagas y enfermedades Perdidas de capital de plagas y enfermedadesPerdidas de capital     Variedades susceptibles Variedades susceptibles Medios de Malas prácticas de siembra, fertilización, Factores de sensibilidad Capacidades existentes y acciones Medios deMalas prácticas de siembra, fertilización, Factores de sensibilidad Capacidades existentes y acciones vida    y preparación de suelo. realizadas viday preparación de suelo.realizadas Producción Inadecuada Quema de parcelas para sembrar. nutrición del cultivo, Varias instituciones presentes en la ProducciónInadecuadaQuema de parcelas para sembrar. nutrición del cultivo, Varias instituciones presentes en la de Maíz No se limpia al contorno de la parcela y inadecuada densidad de plantas. comunidad deMaízNo se limpia al contorno de la parcela y inadecuada densidad de plantas. comunidad Zarco  sirve de hospedero de insectos Uso inadecuado de agroquímicos Zarcosirve de hospedero de insectos Uso inadecuado de agroquímicos Criollo  transmisores de enfermedades. Semilla de siembra de una baja calidad Socios de Caja Rural, ha recibido Criollotransmisores de enfermedades. Semilla de siembra de una baja calidad Socios de Caja Rural, ha recibido   Mal llenado y cuaje de fruto por no Practica de almacenamiento inadecuadas talleres de metodología PICSA( Mal llenado y cuaje de fruto por no Practica de almacenamiento inadecuadas talleres de metodología PICSA(   fertilizar en la etapa correspondiente o No se cosecha el maíz a tiempo por lo cual servicios Participativos de Clima para la fertilizar en la etapa correspondiente o No se cosecha el maíz a tiempo por lo cual servicios Participativos de Clima para la   hay pudrición.  mal uso de productos. Agricultura), y Practicas ASAC hay pudrición.mal uso de productos.Agricultura), y Practicas ASAC Producción de Periodos largos de No se utilizan productos orgánicos Mal manejo en semillero causando (practicas adaptadas al Clima) Perdidas de plantación Producción dePeriodos largos de No se utilizan productos orgánicos Mal manejo en semillero causando (practicas adaptadas al Clima) Perdidas de plantación café  sequía, exceso de Existe una mala de preparación de suelo al marchitez y muerte como ser el damping Existe un Pluviometro en la Semilla de baja calidad cafésequía, exceso de Existe una mala de preparación de suelo al marchitez y muerte como ser el damping Existe un Pluviometro en la Semilla de baja calidad   lluvia y eventos momento de sembrar. off Comunidad Precios bajos para venta lluvia y eventos momento de sembrar. offComunidadPrecios bajos para venta   extremos Poca adopción de variedades mejoradas. Mala selección de semilla para siembra Existencia de Patronato y Junta de Agua del productor extremos Poca adopción de variedades mejoradas. Mala selección de semilla para siembra Existencia de Patronato y Junta de Agua del productor   (huracanes y Sustrato de mala calidad utilizar para Implementación Desempleo de Productos (huracanesySustrato de mala calidad utilizar para ImplementaciónDesempleo deProductos   deslizamientos)  vivero. Pobreza Orgánicos ciertos Productores. deslizamientos)vivero.Pobreza Orgánicos ciertos Productores.  "}],"sieverID":"e27d39ae-e6ea-42f7-8400-d0bdb8e27003","abstract":"Este documento fue financiado en parte por una subvención del Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos, bajo los términos del acuerdo S-LMAQM-16-GR-1290 \"Climate and Food Security in Central America\".Los contenidos, opiniones y conclusiones aquí expresadas son las del autor y no reflejan necesariamente las del Departamento de Estado de los Estados Unidos."}

data/part_5/03c7a13e2c9ab42d192fc207e0db6da1.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"03c7a13e2c9ab42d192fc207e0db6da1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/29798f69-34c1-4371-9162-5fffa080363d/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Ag-D a t a H u b W e b i n a r w i t h S e n e g a l ' s A g r i c u l t u r a l E x t e n s i o n a n d A d v i s o r y S e r v i c e P r o v i d e r s","keywords":["Senegal","data","agriculture","climate change","climate variability","food security","capacity development","climate-smart agriculture"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The open-source Ag-Data Hub is incorporated into the Multidisciplinary Working Group (GTP) web page of the Agence Nationale de l'Aviation Civile et de la Météorologie (ANACIM).   Towards these ends, the AICCRA project has been working to co-design and co-implement curricula targeting the agricultural extension systems in each of the six AICCRA target countries to build foundational knowledge and skills to manage climate risk, including Senegal. These curricula aim to help EAS providers to take advantage of best-available and location-specific climate information products and tools in their countries to better plan for, manage, and respond to a changing and varying climate."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"They also aim to pragmatically support the tailoring and communication of such information to meaningfully inform on-farm agricultural decision-making and build wider resilience of the agricultural sector.   Educational Institutions"}]},{"head":"1: Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• University of Sine Saloum El-Hâdj Ibrahima Niass (USSEIN)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Alioune Diop University of Bambey (UADB)"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"• Ecole Supérieure des Sciences Agricoles et de l'Alimentation (ESSA) of L'Université Amadou Mahtar Mbow (UAM)"},{"index":4,"size":3,"text":"The Private Sector"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"• MLouma"}]},{"head":"• Jokalante","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Development Partners (International Organizations)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"The list of trainers and support staff for the workshop can be found in Box 2. "}]},{"head":"Recording of the Webinar","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"A recording of the webinar can be accessed on the AICCRA project's YouTube channel here (AICCRA CGIAR, 2023)."}]},{"head":"General Comments and Feedback","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Adaptation of the Ag-Data Hub for Research","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The EAS providers present on the call appreciated the many functionalities and practical nature of the Ag-Data Hub."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Participants from ISRA inquired as to whether the dashboard might be adapted more to support research purposes, since ISRA is generating agricultural data for various research aspects. The AICCRA team responded that while the Ag-Data Hub was designed with the primary purpose of supporting agricultural advisories and the dissemination of this information, if ISRA has sufficient data, this kind of adaptation could be supported, funding permitting."}]},{"head":"Modalities of Collaboration between Ag-Data Hubs and Ag-Techs","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Some of the private sector participants including MLouma wanted to know how those working in agricultural technical organizations might fully leverage the data in the ag-data hub. The AICCRA team responded and clarified that the CNSC website and portal on which the ag-data hub sits is an open-source portal. However, if any organization wants to access the same data through and API, it will need to establish an agreement with ANACIM which owns and hosts the portal."}]},{"head":"Language","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"While the EAS providers on the call were concerned about the Ag-Data Hub platform being in English, it was clarified that the platform is also available in French for ease of use by Senegalese extension staff or others."}]},{"head":"3: Key Results and Findings","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Ram Dhulipala of ILRI shows participants how to navigate around Senegal's newly launched Ag-Data Hub, and in particular its Agriculture dashboard with crop production data. The hub integrates data, such as climate and agricultural data, from many sources to help inform climate-sensitive decisions."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"In terms of next steps, the recording of the webinar was made available to the public and private EAS providers present on the call, for reference and wider sharing during the May 2023 pilots with extension staff at the respective sites (Thies, Bambey, Kaolack)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Participants explore the various kinds of historical climate data available in the Ag-Data Hub dashboard during the webinar. Beyond future (forecast) climate information, the portal also provides access to past historical (climatological) and monitoring data.  "}]},{"head":"4: Conclusions and Recommendations","index":10,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"2 On April 27, 2023, a webinar on the topic of Senegal's newly launched Ag-Data Hub was convened with Senegal's main public and private agricultural extension and advisory service (EAS) providers, in preparation for the pilot of the new Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) curriculum in which information on the Ag-Data Hub has been integrated. "},{"text":" Senegal's EAS providers are current on the latest digital innovations is important for supporting ************************************************************* "},{"text":" To advance these goals in Senegal, the AICCRA project guided the co-development and training of trainers (ToT) on a newly developed Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) curriculum from March 6-15, 2023, with Senegal's main public and private EAS providers.While the workshop covered many topics and digital innovations including ANACIM's Maprooms (ANACIM, 2023) and the SIMAGRI decision support tool (IRI, 2023) as part of Module 2 of the new curriculum (See Figure 1) covering Climate Information and Tools Available for Agriculture, limited availability of training personnel at the time did not allow sensitization and skills-building on two major AICCRA-initiated innovations which are incorporated in the curriculum, namely Senegal's new national Ag-Data Hub (CNSC, 2023) and iSAT advisory tool. As such, the IRI team organized a webinar on the topic of the Ag-Data Hub with those EAS providers trained in March who are responsible for leading the pilot of the curriculum. Ensuring Senegal's EAS providers are current on the latest digital innovations is important for supporting Senegal to advance its Digital Senegal 2025 Strategy in line with its national Emergent Senegal Plan (PSE). "},{"text":" ************************************************************* Workshop Structure and Participation The workshop, which was organized by AICCRA-Senegal, was facilitated by Dr. Ram Dhulipala of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) who led the technical co-design and co-development of Senegal's national Ag-Data Hub (CNSC, 2023), officially launched in March 2023 with national and international partners. Language support (in French), moderation, and discussion facilitation was provided by the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) of the Columbia Climate School. The workshop aimed to expose public and private EAS providers who would lead the pilot of Senegal's new Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) curriculum in May 2023 to the Ag-Data Hub, provide an overview of its main functions, give opportunity for participants to practice navigating the ag-data hub platform to answer common climate-related agricultural questions, and allow EAS providers who are a main target user of the platform to interact with its developer. A full list of the 14 participants is available in Box 1, though in brief, representation included: National Institutions • The National Agency for Civil Aviation and Meteorology (ANACIM) 2: Approaches and Methods Those who work closest with farmers must be current on the latest digital innovations to support decision-making in a changing climate. Towards this end, AICCRA-Senegal hosted a webinar with Senegal's main public and private extension and advisory service (EAS) providers on its newly launched national Ag-Data Hub. Pictured here, Melody Braun of the IRI opens the webinar with a brief explanation of the Ag-Data Hub and its aims. ** AICCRA Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension Refresher Training • 10 • The Senegalese Institute of Agricultural Research (ISRA) Farmer Organizations • The Network of Farmer and Pastoral Organizations of Senegal (RESOPP) "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: CRMAE curriculum modules. The four component modules of the Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension curriculum targeting extension staff build upon and reinforce each other. "},{"text":" *********************************************************** "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" In partnership with AICCRA, Ag-Data Hubs are currently being established by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Kenya, Zambia, Mali, and Senegal to be jointly owned by the government's meteorological and agricultural departments. The hubs integrate data from multiple sources The hubs integrate data from multiple sources to help farmers make informed decisions to help farmers make informed decisions about which crops or varieties to plant in a about which crops or varieties to plant in a given location, when to sow them, and more given location, when to sow them, and more (AICCRA, 2022). (AICCRA, 2022). In Senegal, the Ag-Data Hub is incorporated In Senegal, the Ag-Data Hub is incorporated into Multidisciplinary Working Group (GTP) into Multidisciplinary Working Group (GTP) web page-Cadre National des Services web page-Cadre National des Services Climatiques (CNSC) in French-hosted by the Climatiques (CNSC) in French-hosted by the national meteorological service, Agence national meteorological service, Agence Nationale de l'Aviation Civile et de la Nationale de l'Aviation Civile et de la Météorologie (ANACIM). Météorologie (ANACIM).  "},{"text":" There were a total of 14 trainees, one of whom was a woman (7%) and 4 (29%) of whom were youth (under the age of 35). No. Name Gender Organization/ Contact No.NameGenderOrganization/Contact    Structure  Structure 1 Ababacar Sy Diallo M RESOPP [email protected] 1Ababacar Sy [email protected] 2 Ousmane Sarr M RESOPP [email protected] 2Ousmane [email protected] 3 Yakhya El Hadji Thior M ISFAR/UADB [email protected] 3Yakhya El Hadji ThiorMISFAR/[email protected] 4 Sadibou Sow M UADB [email protected] 4Sadibou [email protected] 5 Thierno Aliou Tall M ANCAR [email protected] 5Thierno Aliou [email protected] 6 Aboubacar Sidy Sonko M MLouma [email protected] 6Aboubacar Sidy [email protected] 7 Diabel Ndiaye M ANACIM [email protected] 7Diabel [email protected] 8 Cheikh Thiaw M USSEIN [email protected] 8Cheikh [email protected] 9 Babacar Faye M USSEIN [email protected] 9Babacar [email protected] 10 Babacar Seck M Jokalante [email protected] 10 Babacar [email protected] 11 Nogaye Gaye F ANCAR [email protected] 11 Nogaye [email protected] 12 Bassirou Sine M CERAAS/ISRA [email protected] 12 Bassirou SineMCERAAS/[email protected] 13 Adama Faye M ISRA [email protected] 13 Adama [email protected] 14 Amadou Ndiaye M ESSA of UAM [email protected] 14 Amadou NdiayeMESSA of [email protected]  "}],"sieverID":"760c8541-50b4-40b6-a592-c3a2dbb989b8","abstract":"A webinar on the topic of Senegal's newly launched Ag-Data Hub was convened with Senegal's main public and private agricultural extension and advisory service (EAS) providers on April 27, 2023. The webinar, which was organized as part of the World Bank's Accelerating the Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) project, brought together EAS providers who were involved in the coproduction, training of trainers (ToT), and upcoming pilot of the newly developed Climate Risk Management in Agricultural Extension (CRMAE) curriculum to learn more about the Ag-Data Bub incorporated within the curriculum's Module 2 covering climate information and tools available for agriculture in Senegal. The Ag-Data Hub integrates data from multiple sources to help farmers and those who support them such as EAS to make informed decisions such as about which crops or varieties to plant in a given location, when to sow them, and more."}

data/part_5/0445282734a43cdb54a72ddce209ce6e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0445282734a43cdb54a72ddce209ce6e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/257a8e33-de71-4378-bbeb-60bc09980ba1/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"À qui appartient la société civile ?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The Index on Africa, le site costaud d'infos 16 ETDI : un réseau d'information sur l'enseignement technique et la formation professionnelle 16","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Site Web : www.cta.nl"}]},{"head":"D","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"urant ces dix dernières années, l'expression \"société civile\" s'est brutalement engouffrée dans le langage du développement et parmi les priorités des bailleurs avec beaucoup de bruit, comme quand un vide est subitement rempli par un courant d'air. Dans l'histoire récente, c'est exactement ce qui s'est passé."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Dans bien des pays ACP, les politiques d'ajustement structurel ont amené les États à abandonner de nombreuses positions sur la ligne de front du développement : ce vide de pouvoir et d'activités a été partiellement rempli par diverses composantes de la société civile. Dans les pays dits \"en transition\" de l'ancien bloc soviétique qui, il y a dix ans, se sont trouvés du jour au lendemain sans gouvernement, ni système de valeur, ni sécurité alimentaire, le vide a été occupé par des programmes destinés à renforcer la société civile."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Bien que la société civile soit bien plus que la somme totale de toutes les organisations non gouvernementales d'un pays, c'est parmi les ONG que beaucoup ont d'abord cherché les organes des sociétés civiles d'aujourd'hui. Mais, selon l'anthropologue Chris Hann*, \"cette réduction récente au monde des ONG par les gouvernements et les agences d'aide constitue une vue appauvrie de la vie sociale\"."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"Les ONG ont connu un boom phénoménal ces vingt dernières années, mais sont peut-être sur le déclin. Dans les seuls pays ACP, leur nombre est estimé à plus de 50 000, dont plus de 10 000 impliquées dans l'agriculture et le développement rural. Une étude réalisée pour le CTA en 1997 a calculé qu'il y a plus de 2 000 ONG et associations à Madagascar, dont 600 dans la seule capitale Antananarivo. Au Burkina Faso, plus de 25 organisations sont membres du service national d'appui aux ONG, et on estime à 6 000 le nombre d'associations locales de développement. L'Éthiopie compte 280 ONG enregistrées, dont plus de 10 % dans le domaine agricole."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"Dans certains pays, des mesures législatives ont été prises pour limiter l'influence d'un grand nombre d'ONG étrangères. À Madagascar, les ONG étrangères -c'est-àdire celles dont le conseil d'administration comprend au moins un membre non mal-gache -ont un statut plus précaire. En Ouganda, le collectif des agences nationales (Development Network for Indigenous Associations : réseau de développement des associations autochtones) est fier de compter 438 membres, dont au moins 50 sont impliqués dans l'agriculture et la sécurité alimentaire. Une telle discrimination positive \"patriotique\" incite les institutions locales à se renforcer, mais nécessite la compréhension de bailleurs étrangers bienveillants qui reconnaissent que leur rôle est de financer sans interférer -qualité peu fréquente."}]},{"head":"Pas seulement les ONG","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"La récente domination des ONG a cependant laissé dans l'ombre l'essentiel de la société civile, et ce n'est que maintenant qu'une vue moins partielle commence à prendre forme. Dans L'Émergence du rôle de la société civile, Bruce Shearer décrit avec enthousiasme comment \"de nouveaux éléments de la société civile ont émergé avec une rapidité et une énergie sans équivalent à travers l'Amérique latine, l'Afrique, l'Asie, le moyens financiers de participer, mais aucun autre mandat que leur propre personne. Il faut dire que cela s'applique aussi à beaucoup d'ONG des pays ACP, qui sont de flagrantes tentatives individuelles de se brancher sur les systèmes de financement des bailleurs (voir encadré sur la Zambie)."},{"index":2,"size":190,"text":"D'autres composantes de la société civile peuvent avoir plus de représentativité que les ONG. Les organisations communautaires de base peuvent facilement faire la preuve de leur soutien populaire. Les caisses de crédit sont une des formes les plus actives d'organisations communautaires locales dans bien des pays. Le Ghana seul en compte 237. Les syndicats ont fondamentalement foi en la démocratie authentique et sont de plus en plus impliqués dans un partenariat global avec les employeurs pour mettre en oeuvre des pratiques meilleures pour l'environnement et le développement du Sud. À titre d'exemple, on peut citer l'accord entre les géants de l'alimentaire Nestlé et Danone et l'Union internationale des travailleurs de l'alimentaire, qui regroupe les employés de la chaîne alimentaire. Construire des partenariats avec les organisations de la société civile est aussi bien sûr une politique de nombreuses organisations internationales, telles que le CTA et le Groupe consultatif pour la recherche agricole internationale (GCRAI). Ce dernier s'est souvent ému de la position critique prise par beaucoup d'OSC à l'encontre des priorités de la recherche agronomique, par exemple les biotechnologies. Il a reconnu la nécessité du dialogue et le défi qu'il constitue."}]},{"head":"Voyez-moi, sentez-moi, comptez-moi","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"La responsabilité et la transparence sont les deux clés qui peuvent permettre aux OSC de lever le verrou de la crédibilité et d'être prises au sérieux par le secteur public comme partenaires dans la gouvernance. Ce n'est pas que la volonté politique manque totalement : au plan national, certains pays acceptent leur rôle dans des assemblées officielles, comme le Sénégal et l'Afrique du Sud. À la Chambre des députés du Burkina Faso, 30 des 150 sièges sont attribués à des OSC représentant divers intérêts spécifiques (voir \"Point de vue\", page 11)."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"Régionalement, les OSC sont de plus en plus impliquées dans le processus de décision de la Commission économique des Nations unies pour l'Afrique, à travers son Centre régional sur la Gouvernance, et dans le Forum de la Société civile du Grand Bassin caraïbe. Au niveau mondial, la Commission sur la Gouvernance globale a plaidé, en 1997, auprès des Nations unies \"pour réévaluer les relations entre les Nations Unies et l'ensemble impressionnant et croissant d'activités organisées non étatiques\". Le secrétaire général, Kofi Annan, a répondu en appelant les OSC à organiser une Conférence du Millénaire, ou un Forum de la Société civile. Plusieurs initiatives dans ce sens se sont brisées sur l'écueil du manque de fonds."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"La transparence de la société civile doit aussi venir de la démonstration de son autonomie financière, mais, dans beaucoup de pays ACP, c'est en fait très difficile à réaliser. La dépendance vis-à-vis de fonds extérieurs n'est pas la meilleure garantie de l'indépendance du message."},{"index":4,"size":157,"text":"Une autre voie qui s'offre aux OSC, si elles sont réellement et visiblement responsables devant un collectif, est de se transformer en \"entreprises sociales\". Là, les principes des affaires sont appliqués à des activités générant des revenus, comme des programmes adaptés de crédit, l'édition, les services Internet, la transformation et l'exportation de produits alimentaires, et les revenus sont ensuite utilisés pour financer les activités non lucratives de l'organisation. À ce niveau, le partenariat avec le secteur privé à but lucratif peut être bénéfique. Les organisations de la société civile, y compris du secteur agricole, produiront dans les dix ans qui viennent des leaders qui vont frayer leur voie dans la gouvernance nationale et globale. Le créneau qui demande le plus d'attention, et procure le plus de gratifications financières et sociales, se trouvera entre le Marchand et le Citoyen. Voir aussi \"Point de vue\", page 11, et \"Les agriculteurs ne parlent pas la langue de bois\", page 6."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Pacifique et le Moyen-Orient\". S'appuyant sur les organisations existantes (partis politiques, syndicats, coopératives de production, associations d'entrepreneurs, églises…), ils les complètent aussi. Ils comptent des centaines et des milliers de groupes locaux de citoyens organisés informellement (associations communautaires, mouvements citoyens, groupes de bienfaisance, clubs d'épargne ou groupes de pression), ainsi que des ONG et des milliers d'institutions de soutien actives dans la mise en réseau, le financement ou les services."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"Beaucoup d'innovations dans le développement rural et la communication dans les pays ACP se développent sur le terreau fertile des organisations de la société civile (OSC), créant de nouvelles synergies. Il en est ainsi du regain des stations de radio rurale, qui sont devenues un véhicule essentiel des messages agricoles. En Ouganda, où ces radios sont nombreuses, la jeune et active Ugandan National Farmers' Association (Association nationale ougandaise des agriculteurs) a joué un rôle moteur en signalant les émissions dans son journal mensuel et en utilisant la radio pour informer ses membres."},{"index":7,"size":103,"text":"Au Mali, le Président ne rate aucune occasion de souligner que son gouvernement est enraciné dans le mouvement populaire des OSC, qui l'ont porté au pouvoir et ont joué un rôle actif pour la mise en oeuvre de la liberté de la presse et de l'expression des citoyens au début des années 90. De même, la façon dont la question de l'égalité des sexes est maintenant centrale dans la philosophie des secteurs public et privé -un peu moins dans les pratiquesest largement due à l'insistance patiente mais implacable de groupes de femmes comme le Collectif Sistren en Jamaïque ou le journal Sister Namibia."},{"index":8,"size":147,"text":"On a reproché, de l'extérieur, à beaucoup d'OSC de signaler plus de problèmes qu'elles ne recherchent de solutions. \"On assiste à une véritable explosion du nombre d'organisations enregistrées comme associations depuis la création de la III e République en 1991. Beaucoup sont créées par d'anciens fonctionnaires dont les postes ont été supprimés du fait de la déflation de la fonction publique. Les OSC établies de longue date sont très inquiètes, redoutant que ces nouvelles organisations ne soient pas à finalité éthique -une caractéristique essentielle des OSC -mais de vulgaires tentatives opportunistes de capter tous les financements possibles dans des temps difficiles où les ressources sont rares. Bien des militants s'inquiètent que les opportunistes donnent le ton à tout le secteur, portant préjudice au travail et à la réputation des autres OSC, et limitant leur possibilité de s'engager dans des collaborations avec le gouvernement ou le secteur privé.\" "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"q* Voir Civil Society : Challenging Western Models, par C. Hann et E. Dunn (éd.), Londres, Routledge, 1996. Pour plus d'informations : CIVICUS World Conference, septembre 1999 CIVICUS, World Alliance for Citizen Participation 919 18 th Street NW, Third Floor Washington, DC 20006 -USA Fax : + 1 202 3318518 E-mail : [email protected] Site Web : http://www.civicus.org Civil Society Toolbox, par Richard Holloway PACT, 1901 Penn Avenue NW, 5 th Floor Washington, DC 20006 -USA Fax : + 1 202 466 5669 E-mail : [email protected] Site Web : http://www.pactworld.org À lire : Financer autrement les associations et ONG de développement du tiers monde (vol. I), par F. Vincent, CTA/IRED, 1994, ISBN 2-88368-004-3, 444 pages, n°CTA 626, 40 unités de crédit. Financer autrement les associations et ONG de développement du tiers monde (vol. II), par F. Vincent, CTA/IRED, 1995, ISBN 2-88368-006-X, 300 pages, n°CTA 702, 20 unités de crédit. "},{"text":" Photo M. Freeston "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"LA SOCIÉTÉ CIVILE EN ZAMBIE : HALTE À LA CROISSANCE ! Richard Holloway, Pact Zambia, PO Box 32796, Lusaka -ZAMBIE Fax : + 260 1 254858 ; E-mail : [email protected] Illustration Terry Andon Illustration Terry Andon Sommaire Sommaire  "}],"sieverID":"1ed34c82-0313-4fca-817f-e929f4648e53","abstract":"I n f o r m a t i o n p o u r l e d é v e l o p p e m e n t a g r i c o l e d e s p a y s A C P CTA SPORE N°79 FÉVRIER 1999 À qui appartient la société civile ? 1 Nouvelles technologies de l'information et de la communication : une révolution remarquable ! 4 EN BREF 6 BOÎTE POSTALE 380 10 POINT DE VUE Les organisations de la société civile se mobilisent bien elles-mêmes 11 ACTUALITÉS DU CTA 12 LIVRES ET REVUES 14 SOURCES D'INFORMATION La société civile s'organise, gagne en crédibilité et inspire confiance. Voyons comment évoluent les relations entre le Prince, le Marchand et le Citoyen, y compris le Citoyen Agriculteur."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04a6cc9f36479d34fc80fe371ef76392","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a643ae85-b59c-4d5c-acd2-22b430be4050/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"million Guatemala","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"security for almost 650 million people living in the region (The World Bank, 2021b), although availability is not a concern (except for the Caribbean); rather, access to diversified healthy food remains a problem (Intini et al., 2019). The contribution of agriculture to the region's economic growth, significant progress in diverse socioeconomic indicators, and its key contribution throughout time are undeniable. Currently, the sector represents 5% of the total GDP and 14% of the regional labor force. During the past decade, its moving average annual growth rate was higher than the total GDP growth rate that in contrast with agriculture has declined (Figure 1, Panel A). However, the agricultural GDP growth rate has wide variations year by year, making evident the sector's sensitivity to external shocks (e.g., climate change, market instability, social unrest, world health crisis) (Figure 1, Panel B)."},{"index":2,"size":533,"text":"This dynamic agricultural sector results from years of agricultural research and development (R&D) investments that have contributed to the reaping of such benefits. LAC was investing in agricultural R&D merely 1.5% of the total agricultural GDP, and this represented almost 9% of the total agricultural R&D shared worldwide in 2011 (Pardey et al., 2016). It was estimated that agricultural R&D investments have a median annual internal rate of return of 39% and a median benefit-cost ratio of 10.7 (Hurley et al., 2016). Nevertheless, maintaining these high returns requires consistent investments in agricultural R&D. Currently, a heavy concentration of R&D capacity exists. Countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico account for 76% of the R&D funding in the region and 74% of the total agricultural production value in recent decades, but during recent years, Brazil has cut its investments in agricultural R&D dramatically (Dehmer et al., 2019;Pardey et al., 2018). Other countries, such as Chile, Uruguay, and Colombia, have implemented policies to encourage private-public partnerships for R&D in earlier stages that lead to R&D systems in which private farmers' associations actively participate in the agenda (Trigo et al., 2013). These countries account for almost one-tenth of R&D funding and a similar percentage of agricultural production value (Dehmer et al., 2019;Pardey et al., 2016;Pardey et al., 2018). The remaining group of countries ( 22) accounts for the remaining percentage, but many have the potential to improve and strengthen their national R&D systems. For instance, Venezuela had strong research institutions that were decimated by their economic crisis but could recover, eventually building upon what was already available. Other countries, such as Peru, lack a strong public system for R&D; economic growth has led universities and others to take on the role to carry out R&D (Stads and Beintema, 2009;Chaherli and Nash, 2013). On the other hand, some regions have stagnated like most of the Caribbean countries that account for small agricultural production and do not have robust research systems, instead heavily depending on R&D spillover technologies from other countries and regions. Besides the regional R&D context, since the 2008 global financial crisis, most LAC economies have slowed down and stagnated. This situation has been aggravated by the current health crisis, which is expected to set back regional development by almost ten years. Projected GDP was expected to shrink by 9.1% by the end of 2020, falling to values similar to those observed in 2010 (CEPAL, 2020a). In addition, poverty has increased like never before in only one year, reaching an estimated total of 231 million people, about 38% of all the regional population, with almost two out of every five poor people living in extreme poverty, and who are more exposed to food insecurity (CEPAL, 2020a). However, the extent of the current economic crisis is quite heterogeneous among countries. For some, it is coupled with pre-pandemic conditions of political instability, social unrest, huge poverty rates, and extreme food insecurity. For example, countries such as Venezuela and those in the Central American Dry Corridor (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua) were already facing a continuing exodus of people trying to escape from precarious economic situations, which has aggravated socioeconomic conditions around the region (Soto and Saramago, 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Under this challenging context, the region faces a crossroads to invest in short-term policies, but also to consider adequate long-term measures that would strengthen regional conditions and maintain food sovereignty. Laborde et al. (2020) advise an estimated investment in agricultural R&D of an additional US$14 billion per year on average until 2030 to end hunger and increase small-scale producers' income in low-and middle-income countries across the globe. No specific recommendations exist for the region, but it is relevant to strengthen regional R&D investments in view of the aforementioned heavy concentration of R&D funds in only a few countries and the economic problems that most governments face."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Neil Palmer / CIAT Investing wisely to end hunger and strengthen agriculture, with no region left behind: Latin America |"}]},{"head":"Dissecting the region's problems","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hunger and the urban/rural poor","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Over the past five years, LAC has faced a continuous deterioration in its food security conditions: a significant increment in hunger, with almost one in every three persons affected by moderate or severe food insecurity by 2020. During this period, the number of undernourished people increased by more than 13 million, and it is expected that the zero-hunger goal (Sustainable Development Goal 2) might not be met in 2030 if this trend continues."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Estimates calculate that 67 million people will suffer from hunger by 2030, and that value has not yet taken into consideration the current health crisis. It is also worrisome that almost 75% of all deaths (2.8 million people) in 2016 were attributed to non-communicable diseases (FAO et al., 2021), which are avoidable with good nutrition and preventive measures."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Stunting and overweight in children under five years old remain a prevalent concern, even though in the past three decades stunting decreased by more than half (to 9% in 2019) and overweight barely increased (7.5% in 2019). These issues have a specific prevalence related to both the rural and urban population. For example, the former population has higher stunting levels, while the latter population is more affected by overweight, especially those poorer people that lack financial means to obtain healthier diets (FAO et al., 2021;FAO and CEPAL, 2020a). Besides children, several studies demonstrate that females are more vulnerable to food insecurity. In LAC, food insecurity prevails in 32% of all females, with only 26% for males, representing almost 20 million more females affected than males (FAO et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"Another relevant aspect of ending hunger relates to the composition of diets. Traditionally in the region, most countries rely on cereals, roots, and tubers as the main sources of energy (39% of the average calorie intake), but with notorious differences across countries. Even though cereals remain the main source of energy, most countries have evolved their diets to incorporate other products into them, and have diversified energy sources, with heterogeneous diets across countries. For example, in Bolivia, Haiti,"},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"The origins of agricultural R&D in Latin America trace back at least two centuries, when the Portuguese established the first botanical garden in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1808. However, it wasn't until the beginning of the twentieth century that R&D systems became institutionalized in the region, primarily led by the public sector, with incipient efforts that lacked cohesion. It was not until World War II that the region revamped its agricultural R&D efforts with the support of the United States, which considered the region a strategic target given its natural resource endowment and food production capacity during periods of conflict. Countries such as Mexico (1943)   (Byerlee, 2016;Lynam and Byerlee, 2017). The region's historical contribution to global R&D in agriculture is undeniable, and it continues to have critical potential to provide lessons and innovations for all the world."}]},{"head":"History of agricultural R&D in LAC","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Nicaragua, and Peru, cereals and roots and tubers provide more than half of the calorie intake (Rapallo and Rivera, 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"Most countries should focus on investing in agriculture to diminish hunger and its related problems. They should take immediate actions and keep in mind that R&D investments generate returns in the long term, and an integrated portfolio of solutions will be required. Usually, it takes decades before returns are sought, but not investing could have extreme lag effects on the whole system. It is also important that future investments be concentrated in supporting small-scale producers since they are responsible for about one-third of the global food supply (Laborde et al., 2020) and have been undercapitalized during the current health crisis."}]},{"head":"Social unrest, political instability, and climate change","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Migration in LAC is not a recent problem, but it is quickly becoming one of the most pressing concerns to be addressed. While the millions who have left Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua) have headed for the United States (and Costa Rica in the case of Nicaragua), the millions who have fled Venezuela have settled in other countries within LAC. These countries already had high levels of poverty and food insecurity, which has exposed them to a greater risk under the current exodus and health crisis (FAO et al., 2021). In addition to these migratory events between countries, an important migratory component within countries is related to seasonal migration for agriculture. Although national figures are not available, the flow of people is mainly composed of females and children, with even entire families confronting informal labor and lower wages, and exposing themselves to health risks (Soto and Saramago, 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"In the case of Venezuela, its migration process is considered the largest migratory flow in history. It is estimated that almost 5.4 million people fled Venezuela from 2015 to 2020, moving mainly into Colombia, Peru, Chile, Brazil, and Ecuador (WFP, 2020). Most of these migrants work informally and are therefore often excluded from national social protection and health systems, which deteriorates their conditions and exposes them to acute food insecurity (WFP, 2020). It is therefore urgent to find alternatives that offset or diminish the effects of migration on food systems."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"To do this, it is necessary to have more sustainable and dynamic food systems that integrate better the different actors in the value chain and benefit smallscale producers by providing them with innovations."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"In addition, in 2016, after four decades of internal conflict, Colombia signed a peace agreement with the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). One crucial chapter was rural development and the substitution of illicit crops. Four years later, around 60,000 hectares continue under these types of crops, with all the consequences that illegal activities have brought to rural communities (UNODC, 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":209,"text":"Another major migration hotspot is the Central American Dry Corridor, where El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua face a double burden of problems related to highly unpredictable climate, political instability, and violence. In 2019, 1.6, 1.2, 0.8, and 0.7 million migrants left from El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, respectively, mainly heading to the United States (WFP, 2020). Also, agricultural production is of high risk because of the erratic climate conditions, with smallholders being the most vulnerable. Members of families affected by drought in the Dry Corridor are 1.5% more likely to emigrate than similar households elsewhere, in addition to the clear link between food insecurity and migrating communities, with a higher propensity to migrate among the younger and more vulnerable people (WFP et al., 2017). Furthermore, the region was recently hit by hurricanes Eta and Iota, affecting about 8 million people in Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua and causing devastating effects on the production of staples. FAO is pledging US$14.4 million to support 333,000 smallholders in these countries (FAO, 2021b). Hence, investing in agricultural innovations to cope with the extreme climatic conditions and to increase food availability and access for the population is urgent, especially when considering that the region's food supply relies on imports (FAO and CEPAL, 2020b)."}]},{"head":"The COVID-19 ripple effect","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"The region was not well prepared for the current world health crisis. Most countries had decreasing GDP growth rates during the past decade (Figure 1, Panel A) and many were suffering from political instability, social unrest, and harsh natural disasters before the pandemic. Under these fragile conditions, COVID-19 disrupted the whole economic system, challenging governments to take immediate action and rethink their policy approaches. The latest series reports suggest that the agricultural sector has been the most resilient during this health crisis. In the short run, there was no direct evidence of food shortages, and good harvests in the South and previous stocks assured the food supply during the strictest quarantine period (FAO and CEPAL, 2020c). Nonetheless, it is necessary to be cautious since agriculture is most likely to be affected in the long term because of its biological processes. Every minor effect can have harmful impacts that compromise food security in the region, with small-scale producers being the most vulnerable (FAO and CEPAL, 2020d)."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"In the region, most farmers have not reported major limitations to their production and harvesting systems. Still, they have warned that selling became a significant hurdle for certain crops because of transportation restrictions, while others took this crisis as an opportunity to improve their exports (CEPAL, 2020c; Salazar et al., 2020;Urioste et al., 2020). It has been mentioned that most of the effects are heterogeneous across countries and more information is needed to assess the impact of COVID-19 on the food systems. Nevertheless, it is important to be alert that some farmers (small-scale producers) have started to report liquidity constraints for the next planting season. Labor shortage (for large-scale producers/intensive crops such as fruits and vegetables) and lack of inputs for the next cycle are other relevant aspects already affected (FAO and CEPAL, 2020e;Salazar et al., 2020). This could further shrink the road to food availability in several countries and threaten national food systems, thus transforming the current health crisis into a food and humanitarian crisis."},{"index":3,"size":139,"text":"Besides COVID-19 effects on agriculture, the pandemic measures have threatened economic conditions and food security. Unemployment is projected to increase to 11.5% (3.4% more than in 2019) and the total value of remittances is expected to contract by 10% to 15%. This puts the capability of affected families to access safe and nutritious food at great risk, with the urban poor and migrant communities being particularly vulnerable (FAO and CEPAL, 2020b;2020c;2020f). Beyond the evident effect that quarantine measures have had on informal employment and income availability, there has been a substantial dent in children's food security in the region. With the closure of many schools, 85 million children have ceased to receive their governmental school meals, although some countries have compensated for these programs through other measures (CEPAL, 2020b). Nonetheless, children's nutrition is compromised in most of these countries."},{"index":4,"size":174,"text":"Most institutions consider that the current health crisis is an opportunity to reshape our current production systems in all areas, especially by strengthening intraregional relations and supporting small-scale farms. Family farming accounts for 81% of all farms and generates around 50% of employment in agriculture in the region (FAO and CEPAL, 2020e). It is important to deal with the short-term problems. It is relevant to invest in medium-and long-term solutions through a green recovery based on social equity and economic sustainability, taking into account a multidimensional approach to find solutions. It is necessary that investments in R&D respond to users' needs and consider the importance of combating climate change and improving ecosystem conditions (CEPAL and OPS, 2020;FAO and CEPAL, 2020e;Laborde et al., 2020). The pandemic hit particularly hard the most vulnerable populations and territories, where there are a significant number of informal jobs, lower incomes, and limited access to safe and nutritious food. The COVID-19 pandemic's impact on the economy suggests a substantial increase in hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition in the coming years."}]},{"head":"JP Marín/CIAT","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Cassava is a crop with high potential to attain environmental and socioeconomic targets, including several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Cassava resilience to extreme climate conditions, its potential to restore degraded lands, and its multiple uses for the industry make it a perfect, simple, and low-cost solution (Villarino et al., 2020). An excellent example is how cassava became one of the most important cash crops in Asia. Producers have largely benefited from adopting innovations such as improved varieties, specifically KU50, a material bred jointly by the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT and Kasetsart University in Thailand. The adoption of KU50 generated almost US$400 million in Vietnam and Thailand from 1992 to 2010. These economic returns to agricultural R&D increased farmers' gross annual income per family by US$51 in Vietnam and by US$460 in Thailand (CGIAR, 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"The industry in LAC is not yet that advanced. Nonetheless, processors and farmers have a growing interest in strengthening the cassava value chain. Recent agreements signed between Ingredion and the Alliance to develop a new generation of waxy cassava varieties confirm that regional interest (Alliance Bioversity-CIAT, 2020). In Colombia, the industrial cassava area planted increased almost twofold from 2010 to 2018. Furthermore, LAC has 8.3% of the world cassava area and represents 9.7% of the production. In the region, cassava covers 1.3% of the crop area and is the seventh most consumed plant-based food. Regarding yield, LAC has had an average yield of 11.2 t/ha in the past five years, similar to the world average (11.1 t/ha) but still quite far from Asia's average of 21.7 t/ha, showing that there is room to continue to improve in this sector."}]},{"head":"The \"Rambo root\" war in the region","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"C. / CIAT","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experience matters","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Iron (Fe) deficiency is one of the most prevalent forms of malnutrition worldwide. In 2019, it had a global prevalence of 14%, accounting for 28.5 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) globally (IHME, 2021a). One of the many consequences of iron deficiency is anemia, which affects 33% of the world's population (Pasricha et al., 2021), especially pre-school children (aged 0-5 years), women of childbearing age, and pregnant women. Another relevant micronutrient is zinc (Zn), which is necessary for normal pregnancy and child growth, immune system function, and neurobehavioral development (Hotz and Brown, 2004). However, millions of people have inadequate zinc contents in their diets because of limited access to foods rich in zinc. It is estimated that 17% of the global population is at risk of inadequate zinc intake (Wessells and Brown, 2012). In 2019, zinc deficiency was responsible for 0.3 million DALYs and almost 3,000 deaths (IHME, 2021b). Iron and zinc deficiencies are prevalent because of inadequate food sources and dietary factors that inhibit absorption of the two nutrients (Gupta et al., 2020). Therefore, their control should represent a global health priority."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"There is strong evidence that biofortified crops can significantly diminish nutrient deficiencies and improve the health of consumers (Bouis et al., 2011;Finkelstein et al., 2017). Moreover, biofortification has the potential to help offset decreases in the nutritional quality of plants due to climate change. For these reasons, since 2004, CIAT (now part of the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT) has included germplasm of beans with more iron and rice with more zinc in its breeding programs for LAC. In 2010, the maize breeding program of CIMMYT (for all of the breeding programs based in Latin America) began to contribute sustainably to decreasing nutritional deficiencies through the development of biofortified germplasm with high iron and zinc contents."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"The Alliance has been the hub for sending material to various countries beyond the LAC region. A total of 47 highly competitive advanced lines were sent for registration and commercial release in 14 countries around the world (e.g., Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Colombia, DR Congo, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe) representing 61% of the world's ironbiofortified beans. In addition, 6,000 experimental rice lines are developed and evaluated every year at the Alliance and sent to national breeding programs in Latin America and Africa. Three highly competitive advanced lines are currently ready for commercial release in Bolivia, Colombia, and Nicaragua. CIMMYT's maize breeding program has developed biofortified maize germplasm with high zinc content. Every year, 4,000 experimental biofortified maize lines are developed and evaluated. These advanced lines are sent to national breeding programs in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and North America. In fact, all the biofortified maize materials in the world with zinc have been developed in LAC."}]},{"head":"Neil Palmer / CIAT","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"NUTRITION AND HEALTH BECAME BIOFORTIFIED","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Fe Fe","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Zn","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lessons for the future","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Latin America is set to become the next big supplier of food in the world. The availability of natural resources and a great potential to improve could transform the region into a major agricultural power; however, important improvements need to be made. Production gaps themselves represent a big space for improvement. Gaps in adoption of technologies, land tenure, availability and access to services, access to markets and information, improved supply chains, and financial opportunities are areas for intervention where differences should be assessed."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Guaranteeing the region's food security is more important than ever. LAC is facing its biggest outmigration flow in history and is particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Being one of the epicenters of the COVID-19 pandemic and considering the impact that it has had on the economy, millions in the region could fall into poverty and suffer from hunger if no immediate actions are implemented."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Although smallholders remain vulnerable, special attention should be given to the urban poor, particularly the migrant communities, women, children, and indigenous communities."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Countries characterized by political instability and social unrest are likely to suffer more from the uncertainty in their economic systems and their people are prone to leave, while areas with erratic climate conditions have to deal with high-risk agriculture and face similar consequences. If no immediate actions are taken, the problem could be exacerbated, creating an even greater flow of outward migration, thus risking the region's stability and its potential to become a major food producer for the world."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Furthermore, this becomes an opportunity to change to more sustainable, inclusive, and climate-resilient food systems. There is no need to start from scratch. A growing agricultural sector, successful cases of publicprivate partnerships for agricultural R&D funding, already established institutions through the national research systems and private endeavors, active and continuous presence of CGIAR in the region, and close collaboration with research centers and donors from the United States and around the world are important pillars upon which investments can be made."}]},{"head":"Private-public partnerships, hand in hand","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The introduction of variety IR8 in LAC in the late 1960s is one of the main rice research milestones in the region. The legacy of semi-dwarf IR8-related varieties being widely adopted by farmers throughout the continent catapulted rice production across the continent. CIAT, alongside local partners and under the guidance of Peter Jennings, laid the groundwork for a new approach to delivering this germplasm through the national agricultural research and extension systems (NARES) in LAC, with the stepwise participation of breeding programs from the private sector over the years."},{"index":2,"size":276,"text":"Under the umbrella of the International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER), this initiative established a strong network of rice breeding programs throughout the region, which was affected by shortages of funding for rice research in the early 1990s. This, along with the noticeable effects of the ongoing transformation toward irrigated rice production in LAC to increase yields, led to the creation in 1995 of the Latin American Fund for Irrigated Rice (FLAR) (https://flar.org/), a public-private partnership of rice-related institutions, with CIAT as a strategic partner. Through FLAR, LAC public and private rice research programs maintained and strengthened their network of scientists, with a focus on inter-institutional collaboration, a bottom-up approach to define priorities, and a collaborative model to fund research. To date, FLAR members in 17 LAC countries have released 86 rice varieties, in addition to a broad set of technologies to improve production and the establishment of a strong network of professionals who were trained for the goodwill of the sector. Furthermore, by 2017, it was estimated that nearly 300 varieties based on CIAT advanced lines had been released in LAC (Lynam and Byerlee, 2017). In 2017, the adoption of CIAT-related rice varieties in the region was estimated to have generated US$10.8 billion in economic benefits. Even though LAC lost some of its relevance for international donors during the past decade, undeniably LAC has played a significant role in developing and disseminating agricultural innovations that have spillover around the world, generating larger impacts on producer and consumer well-being. These achievements result from years of investments that strengthen and transform the research sector, and under current conditions the region cannot let its guard down."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"The innovations developed in this sector are still far from being fully exploited and they have to ensure the lives of 650 million people in the region and contribute to benefiting many more around the world."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figures in billions "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Annual growth rate of agricultural GDP and total GDP excluding agricultural GDP in Latin America. Calculated and prepared by authors. Data source: World Bank open-access datasets. Growth rate % Figure 1: Panel B. Annual growth rate Growth rate % 6.00% 3.00% 0.00% -3.00% -6.00% Panel A. Moving average (10-years) 4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% Total GDP excluding Ag GDP Agricultural GDP Agricultural GDP Total GDP excluding Ag GDP Growth rate % Figure 1: Panel B. Annual growth rate Growth rate % 6.00% 3.00% 0.00% -3.00% -6.00% Panel A. Moving average (10-years) 4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00% Total GDP excluding Ag GDP Agricultural GDP Agricultural GDP Total GDP excluding Ag GDP  "},{"text":" invited the Rockefeller Foundation to support and guide the innovation process in agriculture. Similar events took place in CostaRica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua (1942); Bolivia,  Ecuador, and Paraguay (1943); Guatemala (1944); Chile (1948);Panama (1953); Colombia (1955); and the Dominican Republic(1962). The United States government and private foundations (e.g., Rockefeller and Ford) helped create 23 new research institutions to strengthen R&D capacity in the region. During the 1960s, LAC became the epicenter of the Green Revolution led by Norman Borlaug and the introduction of dwarf wheat varieties. In 1971, global initiatives focused on food security and hunger reduction, which led to the consolidation of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Two of the four founding centers, the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo and the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIMMYT and CIAT), were based in LAC, and a third one, the Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), joined the consortium one year later  "}],"sieverID":"85825f25-1865-464b-8fb9-153351de9b31","abstract":"Latin America and the Caribbean economies began to slow down and stagnate during the 2008 economic crisis. This situation has been aggravated by the current health crisis, which is expected to set back regional development by almost ten years. Projected gross domestic product (GDP) was expected to shrink by 9.1% by the end of 2020, falling to values similar to those observed in 2010. In addition, poverty has increased like never before in only one year, reaching an estimated total of 231 million people, about 38% of all the population, with almost two out of every five poor people living in extreme poverty, and who are more exposed to food insecurity. However, the extent of the current economic crisis is quite heterogeneous among countries. For some, it is coupled with pre-pandemic conditions of political instability, social unrest, high poverty rates, and extreme food insecurity. Countries from the Dry Corridor (El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, and Guatemala) were already facing a continuing exodus of people trying to escape from their precarious economic situations aggravated by environmental disasters such as the recent hurricanes. Countries facing political instability and social unrest are likely to suffer more from the uncertainty in their economic systems and their populations are prone to leave, while areas with erratic climate conditions have had to deal with high-risk agriculture and face similar consequences. If no immediate actions are taken, this problem could be exacerbated, creating an even greater flow of outward migration, risking the region's stability and its potential to become a major food producer for the world. Agriculture is one of the most relevant sectors for its potential to continue contributing to food security, poverty reduction, and resilience to counteract external shocks such as climate uncertainty or the current health crisis."}

data/part_5/05ca41f82504933019efd12b978ecc88.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05ca41f82504933019efd12b978ecc88","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0c51dcb2-2772-463c-8a23-e7711894ec69/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Ficha #08 Ficha #04 Ficha #06"}]},{"head":"Aprendizaje basado en proyectos SIG participativo","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Listado rojo cuantitativo","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Herramientas de Rikuy Agrobio que se pueden combinar Ficha #01"}]},{"head":"Descripción","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":240,"text":"Entender el estado de la agrobiodiversidad de un área de interés es crítico para poder conservarla o usarla en el futuro. Sin embargo, en ocasiones, el tiempo y la falta de recursos limitan el entendimiento profundo de las dinámicas de la agrobiodiversidad. De allí la necesidad de tener una herramienta que permita obtener esta información de manera rápida y confiable. El Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad, como el nombre lo indica, permite tener un panorama general expeditivo de cómo se encuentra la agrobiodiversidad de un cultivo o de grupos de cultivos en un área de interés o estudio (Delaquis y de Haan, 2019). Para ello se vale de una serie de cuestionarios que se aplican a diferentes actores. Una de las características de esta herramienta es que está estandarizada por lo que también permite Esta herramienta te ayudará a responder las siguientes preguntas de investigación: comparar diferentes casos de estudio y obtener lecciones más profundas. Asimismo, permite saber cuánto de su agrobiodiversidad conocen y usan las personas. La información obtenida a través de esta herramienta puede usarse para estimar índices de diversidad (ejemplo: riqueza de la agrobiodiversidad) (Sthapit et al., 2006) o priorizar lugares donde se deben establecer proyectos de conservación. De esta manera, el Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad contribuye a obtener un inventario inicial y ágil, reduciendo así los impactos de la falta de tiempo y de recursos que limitan la posibilidad de hacer un inventario más exhaustivo."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"A continuación se describe cómo implementar el Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad."}]},{"head":"Ejemplos de uso","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Esta herramienta se ha usado para conocer la agrobiodiversidad de yuca (Manihot esculenta) en la zona de selva del departamento de Pasco, en Perú (Delaquis y de Haan, 2019), donde se pudo identificar 166 tipos de yuca usadas por los agricultores en 12 comunidades. La expresión \"tipos de yuca\" se refiere a materiales que necesitan investigaciones adicionales para ser reconocidos como variedades. Estos tipos de yuca se venden en los mercados locales o regionales, usualmente para uso doméstico, sea cocinados, asados o fritos, y para elaborar masato, una bebida fermentada que tiene significado social y espiritual para el pueblo Yanesha."}]},{"head":"Duración de la implementación Materiales","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Realizar un Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad va a depender de los objetivos del proyecto, del área, del número de agricultores y agricultoras involucradas en el estudio y del número de cultivos. Sin embargo, se puede implementar en un lapso de:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Esta herramienta se puede usar a través de celulares, tabletas u hojas impresas en papel. Los materiales que se necesitan son:"},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"Un incentivo pequeño para las personas que serán encuestadas y que brindarán su tiempo. Consultar a las partes interesadas locales sobre el tipo de incentivo más apropiado. Realizar una visita al área de estudio y conversar con sus líderes. En esta visita se deben presentar los objetivos del proyecto e intercambiar ideas acerca de cómo éste puede alinearse con los intereses y expectativas de las autoridades locales y la población. Además, esta visita es para encontrar objetivos comunes ya que, en ocasiones, los objetivos del proyecto no se encuentran alineados con los de los participantes del estudio. En caso de que los impulsores del sondeo aún no conozcan la región, esta visita también es una oportunidad para familiarizarse con la geografía, la historia del área (incluyendo aspectos políticos, sociales y económicos), las condiciones agrícolas de la zona y las formas como los participantes del estudio se refieren a la agrobiodiversidad."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"Luego de concertados los objetivos, se seleccionan diferentes \"personas clave\" del área de estudio. Dependiendo del objetivo del proyecto, estas personas pueden ser aquellas que tengan más experiencia con la agrobiodiversidad de la zona, confianza de la población o mayor conocimiento del territorio. Pueden existir otros criterios para seleccionar a las personas clave, incluido el género. Se invitará a estas personas clave a participar de una encuesta corta para obtener información preliminar acerca del estado de la agrobiodiversidad en el área de estudio. En Usando la información de la visita al área de estudio y las respuestas de las personas clave, se realizará un cuestionario para hacer el Sondeo Rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad y encuestar a los participantes del proyecto. Se puede seguir como ejemplo el cuestionario del Anexo 2 de esta guía. Antes de implementar el Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad se debe obtener la evaluación de un Comité de Revisión Interna de los siguientes documentos: (1) plan de investigación, (2) manejo y acceso a la información, y (3) uso de los resultados. Para elaborar el cuestionario se deben tener en cuenta las siguientes secciones del Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad:"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Reunión con agricultoras y agricultores para compartir los objetivos del proyecto y encontrar puntos de interés con las autoridades locales. ©Luz Bernardo. "}]},{"head":"Información básica de los participantes","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"TERCER PASO","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Posteriormente se debe validar el cuestionario del Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad. Para esto, se sugiere encuestar primero a un grupo pequeño de participantes. Los encuestadores deben reconocer qué preguntas (u opciones de respuestas) fueron difíciles de entender por los participantes. Estas preguntas (u opciones de respuestas) deben ser replanteadas para facilitar la recolección de la información. Después de esto, el Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad está listo para ser utilizado con todos los participantes de las áreas de estudio."}]},{"head":"CUARTO PASO","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Agrobiodiversidad: Variación de cultivos y ganado en la agricultura y en los sistemas agroalimentarios que resultan de factores heterogéneos (ej. factores económicos, ecológicos y tecnológicos). Este concepto también involucra los procesos dinámicos entre seres humanos y la naturaleza a múltiples escalas y niveles de organización (Zimmerer et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Comité interno de revisión: Estos comités tienen el objetivo de evaluar la parte ética de las investigaciones que involucran personas (Grady, 2015). A menudo se requiere la aprobación de todo el plan de investigación para obtener la autorización de instituciones como universidades o institutos de investigación para realizar el estudio. Esta autorización es importante especialmente si las personas que van a ser entrevistadas son menores de edad o pertenecen a poblaciones marginadas o vulnerables."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Listado rojo cualitativo: Herramienta que mide las variedades y su estado de conservación, desde \"escasa\" hasta \"abundante\" (incluso las que se han perdido en el área de estudio) (Herramienta en Rikuy Agrobio)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Riqueza de la Agrobiodiversidad: Número total de cultivos, variedades, características o genes (Sthapit et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Conceptos utilizados en esta guía","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Delaquis, E., de Haan, S. (2019). Views, experiences and best practices as an example of possible options for the national implementation of Article 9 of the International Treaty. FAO, Italy. • Obtener un buen panorama de la diversidad varietal local de yuca y de los componentes de manejo y uso asociados  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Características generales del hogarCaracterísticas generales del cultivo a estudiar en cada hogar Sondeo varietal del cultivo a estudiar en cada hogar Características del sistema de semilla del cultivo a estudiar Características del uso del cultivo Taxonomía local o nombres locales de las variedades usadas por los agricultores Reconocimiento de parientes silvestres Reconocimiento de áreas de alta diversidad Reconocimiento de posibles variedades perdidas Factores de conservación de variedades ancestrales incluye un cuestionario que puede usarse como ejemplo para encuestar a las personas clave. Se sugiere que el cuestionario contenga las siguientes secciones: "},{"text":" Institutional review boards: Purpose and Challenges. Chest 148, 1148. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.15-0706 Sthapit, B., Shrestha, P., Upadhyay, M. (Eds.) (2006). On-farm management of agricultural biodiversity in Nepal -Good practices. NARC/LI-BIRD/ Bioversity International, Nepal. Zimmerer, K.S., de Haan, S., Lupp, J.R. (2019). Integrating agrobiodiversity knowledge for a sustainable future, in: Zimmerer, K.S., de Haan, S. (Eds.), Agrobiodiversity: Integrating knowledge for a sustainable future. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/ mitpress/11989.001.0001Referencias AnexosAnexo 1. Cuestionario para el Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad de yuca para personas clave Cuestionario para personas clave (líderes, autoridades, adultos mayores, etc.)1 Información básica 4.1 ¿En qué comunidades o localidades se pueden encontrar mayor cantidad y diversidad de variedades de yuca? 4.2 ¿Qué familias / agricultores conoce usted que mantienen muchas variedades diferentes de yuca? 4.3 ¿Qué otras observaciones quisiera usted que se consideren antes de implementar el Sondeo rápido de la Agrobiodiversidad? "},{"text":" FuenteSI -(marcar con X) Jerarquizar importancia (1,2,3)1. Propias parcelas / semilla propia 2. Amigo / vecino / pariente dentro de la comunidad 3. Amigo / pariente fuera de la comunidad 4. Mercado rural local 5. Mercado rural regional 6. Mercado urbano regional 7. Vendedor de insumos (también proveedor de agroquímicos) 8. Comerciantes 9. Grupo comunal 10. Agencia de extensión gubernamental 11. Municipalidad (gobierno) 12. Organización de investigación gubernamental (ejemplo: INIA) 13. ONG internacional / organización de desarrollo 14. ONG nacional / organización de desarrollo 15. Otros agricultores que no conozco personalmente 16. Otros (especificar _____________) "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"a775708a-9846-4cbf-ae27-afcdc13d226e","abstract":"Este trabajo fue realizado y financiado por el programa de Investigación en Raíces, Tubérculos y Bananas (RTB), y apoyado en su continuidad por la iniciativa NATURE+ del CGIAR (https:// www.cgiar.org/initiative/12-nature-positive-solutionsenhancing-productivity-and-resilience-safeguarding-theenvironment-and-promoting-inclusive-community-growth/). Además, este trabajo se realizó con el apoyo de Instituto del"}

data/part_5/05dc6212dbd4558dab31736af41b63d1.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05dc6212dbd4558dab31736af41b63d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ed556365-8a12-409a-bb55-8d7cfa29473e/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":["Value chains","rice","marketing","storage","post harvest","4Ps"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"actors, including producers, processors, marketing associations, input agro-dealers, the local government and millers. As part of these efforts, many steps have been taken to provide capacity building through training, coaching and mentoring of farmers' groups."}]},{"head":"Strategy: learning by doing","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"There is a considerable demand for the high quality paddy rice produced in Mbarali -both in Tanzania and in neighbouring countries. Buyers operating as individuals or as corporations continue to stimulate this demand. However, in general, the price smallholders receive for their rice is determined by the middlemen who link supply with demand."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"I n the Southern Highlands of Tanzania, the livelihoods of many smallholder families depend heavily on the cultivation and marketing of paddy rice. In 2013, four wards in the Mbarali district of Mbeya -Chimala, Igurusi, Ihahi and Mapogoro -an area rich in paddy production -were integrated into the Marketing, Infrastructure, Value Addition and Rural Finance (MIVARF) programme. This programme is being implemented by the Government of Tanzania and is supported by the African Development Bank and the International Fund for Agricultural Development. Its major objective is to encourage the development of marketing skills among small-scale paddy producers to reduce poverty and increase incomes and food security. The programme's implementation strategy was based on the 4Ps approach (or Public, Private Producer Partnerships) and a service provider from the private sector -Ruvuma Commercialization and Diversification of Agriculture (RUCODIA) -was contracted by the Mbarali District Council to facilitate interventions."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"MIVARF works with different actors along the value chain, including producers, processors and marketing associations. Reducing farmers' dependence on middlemen and bringing them in direct contact with potential buyers is the major objective. To reduce transaction costs along the value chain and increase smallholder rice producers' profit margins, MIVARF brought together different value chain"},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"To reduce poverty and increase food security for smallholder paddy farmers in Tanzania, the national government started the Marketing, Infrastructure, Value Addition and Rural Finance programme. The programme uses the Public, Private Producer Partnership approach to bring together different actors to reduce transaction costs along the value chain, and puts paddy farmers in direct contact with potential buyers."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Cover Usangu Rice products displayed in the shop at Tabata Mawenzi, Dar es Salaam, owned by the Usangu Marketing Company Ltd."}]},{"head":"Right A group of farmers in one of the coaching meetings","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"The first objective of the MIVARF programme was to increase the value of the rice being offered for sale. Smallholders used to sell paddy, but with the cooperation of a local miller, MIVARF began encouraging farmers to mill their paddy into pure grain so that they could attract a better price. At the same time, the decision was taken to set up a limited company. Its objective would be to look for potential buyers, identify their requirements and offer them quality certified and packaged rice. This involved identifying those who would most benefit from such activities. Working with local ward leaders and interested parties, MIVARF initially identified 46 farmer groups as likely beneficiaries and subsequently, 36 of these groups became involved in project activities."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"The next step was to establish such a company. Once established, the company would explain to farmers and the other partners involved how it would work to improve the financial position of its beneficiaries. Establishment took some time as all 36 farmer groups had to be consulted. Eventually in August 2015 it was decided to register the company as Usangu Marketing Company Limited (UMACO). In addition, the Usangu Rice brand had to be formalised, obtaining a taxpayers' identification number (TIN), business licence and barcode."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"By 2015, these formalities had been completed. A continual review of common understanding and consensus between individual groups played an important role. It was decided that the milled rice husks would be packaged in quantities appropriate for different categories of buyers. Each package would display the brand name USANGU RICE and its logo. The name Usangu was chosen because Mbarali's Usangu valley produces up to 30% of Tanzania's rice and potential buyers are well aware of the superior quality of rice produced in this area."},{"index":4,"size":108,"text":"Among the difficulties MIVARF encountered during company development was the selection of 50 shareholders (required by law) from more than 150 individuals interested in becoming shareholders. Selected shareholders would have five shares worth TZS 10,000 (€3.86) per share, which meant they would have to pay in total €19.30. Initially, some shareholders were slow to meet these costs, causing funding problems for the company. UMACO's board was formed with nine members. MIVARF coached and advised them on the general principles of company management and marketing procedures. This was not always easy. Capacity building efforts had to take into account the different levels of education and experience of those involved."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"MIVARF also supported UMACO staff in dealing with local authority laws and regulations, as well as with the marketing procedures. In doing so, it took into account the fact that many of those involved in the company had yet to develop the confidence to actively take part in company decision-making. The process of decision-making was also affected by the fact that company meetings were often poorly attended."}]},{"head":"Consolidating market identity","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"a. Milling and quality procedures: UMACO applied for rice safety and quality certification from both the Tanzania Food and Drugs Authority and the Tanzania Bureau of Standards to comply with food quality and safety issues. MIVARF had facilitated the identification and engagement of a rice miller who would cooperate with nine millers working at the Igurusi Rice Market in Mbeya. At Igurusi, MIVARF also took steps to ensure that the premises being used by UMACO were kept clean and that millers followed quality management procedures. This included ensuring that Usangu Rice did not get mixed with other varieties during the grading process."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"b. Packaging: Milled rice grain is packaged according to the amounts required by the buyer. Buyers' preferences were assessed to determine the type of packaging materials that should be ordered from selected packaging producers. For example, it was found that 5kg and 10kg bags that were made of non-transparent and transparent materials were preferred by customers who would store the rice they bought in their homes. Rice could also be delivered in 20kg, 25kg and 50kg packages."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Although care had been taken in identifying where rice bags could be obtained, not all bags delivered complied with UMACO specifications. Some were poorly printed or did not have the necessary bar code, while others were larger than what had been ordered. Delays in delivering the bags during the harvest season when they were most needed also led to difficulties."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Left A bag of 5 kg Grade I whole rice ready for sale c. Marketing: Efforts made to market Usangu Rice included promoting it at agricultural trade fairs held at key locations: Arusha, Dar-es-Salaam, Lindi, Mbeya and Morogoro. At least two carefully chosen and trained UMACO representatives attended these events. They were responsible for establishing contact with potential buyers and were often able to sell considerable quantities of rice."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"In July 2016, as part of ongoing market development activities, a UMACO store was opened in Dar-es-Salaam, and between October and December of that year, about 4 t of rice was sold. Market reach subsequently widened significantly, and increasing numbers of people have now become familiar with the USANGU brand."},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"Whilst there has been substantial market progress, there have also been difficulties. These include a lack of reliable transport to carry rice from Igurusi to market, the high cost of promoting USANGU at trade fairs, and the expense of opening new shops. In addition, a positive but complex problem arising from promoting Usangu Rice is that demand is now greater than supply."}]},{"head":"Assessing impact and sustainability","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The impact of the Mbarali agro-enterprise project can be assessed in several ways. In analysing project experience, MIVARF has been careful to note the problems that need to be addressed if progress is to be sustained."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The agro-enterprise approach to training, coaching and preparing farmers for agri-business initiatives has been successful in reaching both men (60%) and women (40%) farmers. It has helped them see their farm as an enterprise and to understand the dynamics of marketing and price fixing. Smallholders came to understand the importance of knowing about market prices, buyers' requirements and regional demand. This information can help them decide how and at what price to sell their rice. It also reduced their dependence on middlemen and small-scale traders who they tended to see as their only market outlet."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"MIVARF encouraged farmers to explore the advantages of collective marketing, storage in public warehouses where buyers could see their product, and to adopt standard weights and measuring procedures."}]},{"head":"Farmers agro-enterprise strategy on board","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Kennan Sanga is a small-scale farmer living in the Lunwa village, in the Mbarali district in Mbeya. Since 1999, his main occupation has been paddy farming. A person with standard level seven education, Sanga is also married with six children."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Previously, while farming, he used to get 10 bags of 100 kgs per paddy acre and sold this at TZS 30,000 per bag (€11.50). After the training provided by the MIVARF programme, Kennan Sanga transformed himself into a commercial farmer. Further, Kennan reported his ability to do rice business without involving rice brokers and as a result, he has had a significant increase in income which he will use to pay his children's school fees, buy a motorcycle and complete the building of his seven roomed house. \"What contributed to my income increase and change is the result of the training I received from the MIVARF programme on paddy value addition,\" he says."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Kennan appreciates MIVARF as it has given him the opportunity to own a share in the company and he is now the UMACO board secretary. With this company he has gained business marketing knowledge and is better able to identify business opportunities."}]},{"head":"Mr Kennan Sanga","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Its agro-enterprise training and coaching efforts also contributed to stimulating support for UMACO and its efforts to negotiate between USANGU farmers and those interested in buying their rice."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"However, there are still many farmers who are unable to negotiate a fair price for their rice because middlemen know that if they offer to buy it at harvest time, there will be farmers who urgently need money to meet family expenses like school fees or loan repayments, and therefore will accept a very low price. Connecting these farmers -who often have little confidence in their ability to negotiate better prices -with those with more experience in dealing with buyers and middlemen is seen as a problem that needs attention."}]},{"head":"UMACO and company sustainability","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Among the factors that will affect the sustainability of production and future marketing activity is the sustainability and effectiveness of UMACO itself. As a company, it still relies heavily on funding contributed by shareholders. While this has been sufficient to cover the initial cost of establishing the company, funds must now be found to cover ongoing operational expenses. Currently, external sources as well as shareholders are being approached for financial support. In addition, MIVARF continues to train and support members of the UMACO board and management to enable them to deal with the complexities of business operations, including government regulations and taxation procedures."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"The MIVARF project, which was programmed for the period 2013-2016 for Mbarali district council, came to an end in March 2017. The project is being handed over to the Mbarali local government and other development partners to ensure sustainability. At the same time, RUCODIA initiatives will continue to encourage an agro-enterprise approach."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Savior Mbele works as Programme Coordinator at Ruvuma Commercialization and Diversification of Agriculture, RUCODIA. This is a nongovernmental organization based in Songea. E-mail: [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Conclusion: From concept to reality","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Smallholders can become pioneers of their own business once they realise future potential. \"I have realised that we can do rice business ourselves instead of depending on the middlemen, because by working through our company it became easier and profitable,\" said Mrs Kuruthum Mickdadi Abdallah, a farmer and UMACO shareholder."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The groundwork facilitated by MIVARF has provided an opportunity for agro-enterprise development. Indeed, smallholder farmers become the marketers of their own produce through UMACO in collaboration with contracted farmer groups. Continued collective selling through UMACO empowers farmers in terms of bargaining power and income aggregation."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"To draw farmers out of poverty and improve their incomes, UMACO needs to be supported to increase its capacity to purchase large volumes of paddy/rice directly from farmers at affordable prices. Further, apart from operating in a single focal area, it should scale up its operations to cover the whole district. Lastly, UMACO has to open up more selling points or use agents in different parts of the country to access potential buyers."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"\"I have realised that we can do business ourselves...\""}]}],"figures":[{"text":"\" Training helped me to do commercial farming by starting keeping all farming records as well as establishing short-and long-term action plans on farming and business activities. All of these are a result of MIVARF training. For instance this year, I have managed to cultivate 2 hectares instead of less than one and as a result, the yield was 780 kg instead of the 260 kgs. With paddy value addition I have successfully managed to sell rice instead of paddy whereby in 2014/2015 I sold 6,343 kg of rice at TZS1750 (€0.67) per kg resulting in TZS 11,100,000 (€4,280).\" "}],"sieverID":"9777583a-bc60-487e-97f9-f5e0721518aa","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06138e42b8849bf806dff26f9f90f1ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6816bc1c-a5a5-4584-b3b9-e66c5d3ce798/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Figures","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Tables","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Summary of chain constraints and strategic objectives to address them .IV "}]},{"head":"E x E c u t i v E S u m m A r y","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"This document is structured in three main parts. The first part consists of an overview of the current coffee market at the international and national level as well as a description of the importance of agriculture and coffee in Haiti. The next two parts are a product of interviews and workshops with almost all actors of the coffee chain in southern Haiti; these parts include a description of the coffee chain for the region and its actors, constraints analysis and recommendations."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"Priority was given to nine objectives that are considered strategic leverage points for three different links in the chain. These objectives were prepared together with chain actors during constraints and solutions identification workshops. Each objective includes general activities that if implemented can facilitate compliance with them. Table 1 briefly shows the constraints and objectives of the coffee chain to the south of Haiti. CRS is in the process of developing strategies to support the recovery of Haiti, after the devastating earthquake of January 2010. As part of this work, CRS together with CIAT developed an assessment of the current state of Haitian coffee and mango chains. CIAT worked, together with CRS, partners and main chain actors during August 2010, to gather information in the field. The present document is the final report of the assessment of the southern Haitian coffee chain."}]},{"head":"r E L E vA n c E o f c o f f E E i n H A i t i","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Haiti is predominantly a rural country, with 53 percent of its population living in rural areas (The World Bank, 2010). Agriculture participation in total GDP has been decreasing steadily; nonetheless, the sector employs around 50 percent of the total labor force of the country, compared with 12 percent employed by the industrial sector. "}]},{"head":"Percentage (%)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Source: The World Bank (2010)."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Of the remaining forest coverage in Haiti, which corresponds to less than 2 percent of total land area, coffee farms represent about 50 percent of this coverage. Vegetation has been lost since the colonial period, when it was cleared to enlarge plantations (such as sugarcane and others). Since independence, deforestation has increased because of timber exploitation, land colonization and charcoal demand for cooking. This pattern of vegetation loss has resulted in accelerated erosion, decreased soil natural fertility, reduced water retention and waterways sedimentation. According to Arias, Brearly and Damais (2006), Haiti loses 10,000 to 15,000 fertile hectares per year due to erosion."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"About 150,000 to 200,000 farm families obtain an important part of their revenues from coffee in the country. Varieties of Arabica (Typica and Borbon) are most commonly grown. More than 90 percent of coffee produced corresponds to natural (or dry-processed) coffee."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Due to cultivated varieties and specific microclimates, some authors suggest potential production areas for high-quality coffee, as shown below: Current production is estimated to be between 350,000 to 450,000 bags (60 kg/bag), with yields of about 350 to 450 kilograms per hectare. Major threats to coffee production are old coffee plantations (almost 70 percent of all planted coffee corresponds to old stands); increasing incidence of the coffee borer (Hypothenemus hampei), coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and root rotting; and low/null use of fertilizers."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Traditionally, coffee was marketed through the voltigeur-spéculateur-exporter system. Regional networks were created as alternative marketing structures in Haiti. There are five regional networks (FACN, RECOCARNO, COOPCAB, UCOCAB and FECOCAS) and two grassroots organizations (COOPACVOD and UPAB) that are currently exporting coffee, even though exported volumes are still low and a large fraction of coffee is still going to the local market as it does not meet export quality requirements."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Processing capacity in organizations/regional networks is frequently underutilized due to low volumes of available coffee."},{"index":7,"size":75,"text":"Before the International Coffee Agreement breakdown in 1989, 1 coffee was one of the main agricultural products exported by Haiti. After this breakdown, the total surface under cultivation started to decrease as an effect of low and highly volatile prices.  As a strategy to overcome the effects of the breakdown, USAID, IADB and other donors supported the creation of Haitian Bleu coffee brand and FACN (Fédération des Associations Caféières Natives). The latter owns the brand."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":"Current coffee exports are minimal compared to those before 1989. Internal demand has increased at a steady rate of 2 percent to 3 percent annually."},{"index":9,"size":43,"text":"In addition, since 1995 an important flow of coffee exports to the Dominican Republic-a flow that is currently estimated to be about 26 percent to 28 percent of total production-has emerged in the hands of informal actors whose transactions are unregistered (LARHEDO, 2005)."},{"index":10,"size":50,"text":"Less than 5 percent of total production corresponds to washed coffee. Fifty-nine percent to 65 percent of total production is consumed locally, 10 percent to 12 percent is legally exported (whether as natural coffee or washed coffee) and 26 percent to 28 percent is exported informally to the Dominican Republic."},{"index":11,"size":94,"text":"4 m A r k E t S 4.1 coffee domestic market Domestic coffee consumption has been increasing at an annual rate of 2 percent to 3 percent based on urban population growth. This local demand largely corresponds to milled coffee (café pile). According to Arias, Brearly and Damais (2006), this demand for café pilé inhibits the production of higher-quality coffees, since the high-quality coffee export channel is constrained by financing considerations that require the sector to offer advance payments to producers while revenues are generated only when green coffee reaches the final market."},{"index":12,"size":16,"text":"On the other hand, the domestic market offers immediate payments upon the sale of coffee cherries. "}]},{"head":"international coffee market","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Based on the latest data from the International Coffee Organization (ICO, 2010), total production for 2009/10 is estimated to be 123.1 million bags, which represents a decrease of 3.9 percent compared with the last harvest (2008/9). Decreases of about 10.3 percent and 6.3 percent are foreseen in South America and Africa, respectively. Production in Asia is increasing, and a significant 26 percent decrease is expected in El Salvador. "}]},{"head":"c o f f E E c H A i n A n A Ly S i S","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"coffee chain description","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Coffee producers in Haiti can be divided into two large groups according to the size of their plantations' cropped surface. The first group, with a surface area of 5-20 hectares per farmer, is composed of less than 200 producers. They are located across the country. These types of farms are frequently named Grand domaine, or large estate. The second group, the biggest, is composed of producers with cropped areas of fewer than 3 hectares per farmer. The common factor for these two groups is the low to null use of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides. Total production was about 21,000 metric tons (MT) to 27,000 metric tons (350,000 to 450,000 60-kg bags) in 2009."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Some farmers' cooperatives have nurseries to grow coffee plants and obtain seedlings. Women work filling bags with soil and planting seeds on them, men gather and transport soil to the nursery and prepare the terrain where bags will be placed. Men and women water the new seedlings together. Men also prepare the plot where plants will be definitely established and maintain the crop year by year. Women, as well as men, participate in the harvest. During the harvest, green and red coffee beans are picked, hampering the quality of the final coffee."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Low yields in Haiti (200 to 300 kg/ha/year) are caused by old trees and the high incidence of pest and disease that result in part from poor fertilization, inappropriate farming practices and inadequate new planting materials. Costs of production are 186 to 420 USD per hectare, about 0.47-0.7 USD per pound, according to INCAH (personal interview)."}]},{"head":"figure 4 coffee chain in southern Haiti","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"There are two coffee processing methods in Haiti. The dry process is the most common. (Almost 95 percent of all coffee in Haiti is processed with this method.) Coffee beans are spread over a concrete surface or fibers (e.g., bags or sacks) after harvest and are left to dry in the sun for a period of three to four months. When the coffee is dry, it is milled by rudimentary means (e.g., mortar and pestle) at a farm, thereby producing café pilé. Women are usually in charge of this task. Alternatively, the coffee may be milled in facilities that are equipped to produce natural coffee. Almost 95 percent of Haiti's coffee production uses the dry process. The wet process is used by very few farmers' organizations in the south. The process requires specialized equipment and a qualified workforce as well as clients willing to recognize the quality of this type of product. The following steps produce washed coffee:"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"• Pulping. The coffee beans' skin and part of the pulp are removed by mechanical means. • Fermentation. The pulp remainder is eliminated by immersing the beans in clean water for several hours. (Time varies according to environmental conditions.) • Washing. Final impurities are removed with water."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"Wet processing is conducted at cooperatives' facilities (not on individual farm premises), but few organizations in the south own infrastructure to produce washed coffee. (Exceptions include some organizations from Beaumont, KAPKAB in Baradères, CACVA in Cavaillon and COCAM in Cavaillon.) Men are in charge of pulping and fermentation. Women are in charge of drying. Men lift coffee bags and take them to trucks that will transport coffee to Tombe Gâteau (Southeast department) or Port-au-Prince, where the milling process occurs."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Café pilé and natural coffee reach the local market, where 59 percent of this coffee is commercialized through the retail channel. Coffee also reaches speculators who may sell coffee to exporters, local roasters or agents along the border with the Dominican Republic. Twenty-eight percent of the total coffee production is exported to the Dominican Republic as unregistered exports. (This behavior is accentuated in coffee-growing areas along the border, such as Baptiste.)"},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"Washed coffee is mainly commercialized through regional networks (secondlevel organizations that gather grassroots organizations) as a means to collect significant volumes of the product. In the south, washed coffee is commercialized with FACN, RECOCAS and UCOCAB. Cooperatives in other regions in the country sell washed coffee directly to exporters or local roasters. Before FACN's bankruptcy, coffee was collected by each organization, transported to Tombe Gâteau (Southeast) where it was milled, and then taken to Port-au-Prince to be sent abroad. However, since current FACN operations were reduced, some cooperatives send their coffee directly to Port-au-Prince, where exporters offer the service of milling and oversee shipping. At dry-milling stations (whether those of FACN or exporters), coffee is hand sorted exclusively by women."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"FACN classifies coffee into three categories: big beans for Haitian Bleu (a registered brand that is commercialized through exclusive distributors abroad, reaching prices of 3 USD/lb.), average-size beans for Max Havelaar (which has fair trade certification for Europe) and rejected beans that stay in the local market."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"An aspect to highlight is the role of women in commercialization of coffee, which includes selling coffee in the local market, selling natural coffee to middlemen or associations, and usually, buying coffee at the associations."},{"index":8,"size":69,"text":"Identified support services in this chain are technical assistance, financial services, and agricultural suppliers. Technical assistance is provided by ORE and RECOCAS (principally, through the MarChE project) targeting seedlings production, plantations renewal, dissemination of coffee borer traps and training for farmers on washed coffee production. Other service providers under this same category are INCAH and ICEF; however, their work is more focused in the Center, West and Southeast Departments."},{"index":9,"size":33,"text":"Financial services are mainly offered by informal lenders. There are different banks, microfinance institutions and credit unions in the region; however, none of them offers an exclusive product adapted for agriculture or coffee."},{"index":10,"size":40,"text":"Agricultural inputs suppliers based in Les Cayes (Gerly Distribution) offer coffee seeds (Arabica) and pesticides to control coffee rust and the coffee borer, but most farmers are not interested in perennials (like coffee). They prefer short-term crops (legumes and vegetables)."}]},{"head":"coffee chain actors","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Coffee chain actors include agricultural input providers, coffee farmers, cooperatives and regional networks, middlemen, local roasters, exporters and service providers."}]},{"head":"Agricultural input providers","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"These actors sell agricultural inputs, such as pesticides, fertilizers, seeds and tools. Gerly Distribution (located in Les Cayes, Port-au-Prince and Port-à-Piment), Darbouco (located in Port-au-Prince) and Agrotechnique (located in Port-au-Prince) offer technical support to their clients. Highly specialized support for coffee farmers is not available."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Currently, farmers dedicated to growing short-term crops (e.g., vegetables, beans and rice) are considered by input providers to be their most interesting market segment, due to these farmers' consistent demand for inputs. Coffee is widely recognized as a low to null input crop in Haiti, thus reducing the interest of input suppliers in this sector. In interviews, Gerly Distribution mentioned some pesticides that are in demand to control coffee borer (lambda cihalotrin, malathion, profenofos) and coffee rust (mancozeb, benomyl)."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Normally, pesticides come from the Dominican Republic as well as from Venezuela and China, among other countries. During some periods, fertilizers are directly imported and subsidized by the Haitian government."}]},{"head":"Coffee farmers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Southwestern Haiti includes the Southern and Grand-Anse Departments. Land tenure in the country is highly atomized, and southwestern departments are not an exception to this trend; more than 60 percent of southwestern land plots are smaller than 2 hectares."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Coffee-producing areas in the south are mostly concentrated in the Grand-Anse Department. By 1995, the Grand-Anse, South and North Departments included 47 percent of the total national coffee plantations."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Six municipalities in the southwest are potential regions to produce high-quality coffee (see Table 1): Beaumont, Roseaux, Jérémie, Tiburon, Les Anglais, Port-à-Piment."}]},{"head":"figure 5. Potential high-quality coffee municipalities in Haiti","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Red points represent populated places for each coffee organization included in the assessment. These points do not represent the actual locations of these co-ops. Coffee crops are usually grown together with other food crops (e.g., plantain, yam, taro, citrus, avocado) as well as tree species in random spatial arrangements."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Coffee is mostly grown in diversified farms (ferme diversifiée) ranging from 0.5 to 1 hectare and in jardins familiaux (plots occupying less than 1 ha of coffee bushes around farmers' houses)."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Practices such as pruning and crop regeneration are not widespread among farmers. Neither are the use of agricultural inputs nor the use of strict control or monitoring of pests (particularly the coffee borer-Hypothenemus hampei)."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Farmers located close to pulping facilities use composted coffee pulp as fertilizer in their farms. "}]},{"head":"Cooperatives and regional networks","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Cooperatives buy coffee cherries directly from farmers. Cooperatives then process and sell dried coffee either to an exporter, or they send it abroad through a regional network. Only a small percentage of coffee follows this path-some 5 percent of total production-while the rest is marketed as natural coffee via local market channels."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Generally, coffee farmers deliver their produce in the cooperative, and they receive a price close to the local market price. After the coffee is sold and delivered abroad, they receive a price premium based on the price differential at final sale. However, after various negative experiences, an important segment of Haitian coffee growers no longer trust this process. For example, coffee associations mentioned during interviews that farmers who contributed to the 2008-9 harvest, marketed through FACN, had not been paid as of the time of our visit in August 2010."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The following cooperatives are currently operational: KATI (Tiburon), KAPKAM (Cavaillon), CCR (Rendel), KAPKAB (Baradères), COCAM (Cavaillon), CACEM, CACVA (Camp-Perrin), KOKAP (Plaisance), KAPKAK (Plaisance), KAPKAD (Dory), APK2 (Beaumont), AMNMD (Beaumont), FNDPS (Beaumont), ODEB (Beaumont). Only three co-ops in the south are currently producing washed coffee: CACVA (Camp Perrin), KAPKAB (Baradères) and COCAM (Cavaillon). CACVA and KAPKAB have facilities to produce washed coffee. COCAM has pulping facilities and a drying patio, but the organization ferments and washes coffee in plastic containers."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"CACVA sells coffee through FACN and UCOCAB (L'Union des coopératives caféières de Belladère), which export coffee to Japan. CACVA also owns a plot where they produce plantains and fruits for sale. While the cooperative processing capacity is assessed to be 60,000 pounds, CACVA produced only a fraction of this capacity, 1,263 pounds, during the 2008-9 coffee harvest. RECOCAS (Réseau des Coopératives Caféières du Sud) is a regional network that encompasses 10 coffee producers' organizations in the region, for a total of 1,910 members. This network is a member of the Plateforme Nationale des Producteurs de Café d'Haïti (PNCPH). RECOCAS has started pilot marketing exercises, with support of ICEF, to directly export their coffee like other regional networks in the country. In 2010 they sold fewer than 20 bags (60 kg/bag) in France."}]},{"head":"Middlemen","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"In the traditional coffee chain, there are two types of intermediaries: upperlevel (speculators) and lower-level (voltigeurs, sous-marins and madam sarahs)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"However, in the southwestern region these actors are changing their roles and modes of action. In the past, and still in some areas, speculators had a network of lower-level intermediaries that directly bought coffee from farmers; they had a direct relationship with exporters and could give farmers credit during nonharvest seasons. At present, voltigeurs and madam sarahs are found in the local market. They do not offer credit anymore, and they store coffee until reaching an acceptable volume to sell to speculators who then resell to local roasters and private exporters or act as informal exporters by sending coffee to the Dominican Republic."}]},{"head":"Local coffee roasters","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Local coffee roasters commonly buy coffee from speculators and occasionally from farmers' associations. Small and medium enterprises are involved in coffee roasting and grinding."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"REBO is one of the local coffee roasters, located in Port-au-Prince, that mostly sells this type of product in the domestic market, though some sales abroad have been made. They offer four different types of roasted coffee:"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Café deluxe: roasted natural coffee • Café classique: roasted natural coffee (small beans)"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Café gourmet espresso: roasted wet-process coffee • Café li pi bon: roasted coffee (smallest beans)"}]},{"head":"Exporters","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"After experiencing profound changes since the 1970s, when there were 20 private exporters, the coffee chain currently has four private exporters including REBO and WIENER. These two exporters are the only ones marketing natural and washed coffee abroad."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"REBO offers the services of coffee dehusking and packaging to farmers' organizations. Separately, REBO distributes imported food products in the country."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Regional networks (FACN, RECOCARNO, COOPCAB, UCOCAB and FECOCAS) and grassroots organizations (COOPACVOD and UPAB) also export. Volumes shipped account for about 1 percent of total coffee exports."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"The Fédération des Associations Caféières Natives (FACN) brings together 25 farmers' organizations operating in the Southeast, North and Grand'Anse Departments. This federation receives parchment coffee from its associates, dehusks the coffee, sorts it, blends it and exports it directly to overseas clients as fair trade and Haitian Bleu coffee (LARHEDO, 2005;Lenaghan, 2005). The Haitian Bleu business model follows this plan:"},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"• Roasters act as exclusive distributors. They set up contracts to buy directly from FACN on a multiyear basis at fixed prices. The best coffee is sold as Haitian Bleu (2 to 3 USD per pound) and secondcategory coffee is sold as Max Haavelar (fair trade coffee) in Europe."},{"index":6,"size":38,"text":"Since its creation, FACN has faced several managerial and institutional issues. FACN's current debt is estimated to be about 920,000 USD. Nowadays, Haitian Bleu exports are made through other actors (such as REBO) with FACN certification and approval."}]},{"head":"Support services","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Financial service providers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The main activity of these providers is to grant credit to organized producer associations and individual farmers to enable them to produce coffee. Few providers in the region have special lines of credit targeting the agricultural sector. Others offer diverse services that are not financially related. The rate of interest in the country was about 30 percent in 2010."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Lending to the agriculture sector in Haiti is commonly perceived as a high-risk activity, due to climatic events (hurricanes, storms, floods) and, therefore, crop failures."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Caisse Populaire (CAPOSAC). Located in Camp-Perrin, CAPOSAC was founded in 1949 as an initiative of a Canadian priest. The organization currently has assets worth 240 million gourdes (approximately 6 million USD) and offers services to almost 13,000 people. Among their services are currency exchange, current and savings accounts, money transfers, credits and check cashing."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"CAPOSAC offers four lines of credit: consumption, commercial, construction and agriculture. There are several advantages of an agricultural credit: After repaying the whole credit, the client receives 20 percent of the total paid interests at a differential rate. The grace period before repayment is flexible and can be extended by a month, though the length depends on the type of crop grown, perennial or annual. The minimum credit loan is 2,500 gourdes (about 62.50 USD) up to 750,000 gourdes (about 18,750 USD)."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Fonkoze. This organization was founded in Haiti in 1994 and has 41 offices in Haiti (including Les Cayes). It is recognized as Haiti's Alternative Bank for the Organized Poor and is the largest microfinance institution offering services to the rural poor in the country. They offer small loans, saving products, currency exchanges and direct deposits from overseas. They also offer nonfinancial services such as basic literacy instruction and basic life skills training (including training for business skills and sexual and reproductive health)."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Fonkoze has four main credit programs:"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• Chemen Lavi Miyò, an 18-month program to strengthen productive assets and asset management skills. "}]},{"head":"Nonfinancial service providers","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Organization for the Rehabilitation of the Environment (ORE). ORE is a nonprofit local organization located at Camp Perrin. ORE's team, made up of technical, management and support staff, includes up to 30 people, depending on the current activities and projects the team is implementing. ORE promotes high-value fruit tree grafting as a mean to improve livelihoods and protect the environment. ORE also has extensive experience in propagating quality-improved seeds, soil conservation techniques and farmers' training as well."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"In the South and Grand-Anse Departments, ORE has supported coffee associations in the implementation of coffee nurseries; given technical support to produce washed coffee and to implement coffee borer management techniques (such as installing traps and producing wasps for biological control); and helped associations build capacity in management and business."}]},{"head":"l'Institut de Consultation, d'Evaluation et de Formation pour le Développement","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Agricole (ICEF). ICEF was founded in 1996. It is located in Port-au-Prince and works with coffee producers. Currently led by a former Haitian minister of agriculture, ICEF coaches coffee associations in topics such as production and commercialization. ICEF has worked with RECOCAS and supported them in a coffee exporting exercise, as mentioned previously. ICEF also offers a coffee dehusking service (as an intermediary)."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Agronomes & Vétérinaires sans frontières (AVSF). Founded in 2004 as a merging of Vétérinaires sans frontières (VSF) and the Centre International de Coopération pour le Développement Agricole (CICDA), AVSF manages projects related to agricultural development around the world. They also raise funds and offer technical assistance according to the expertise required by the project. In Haiti, they have worked with coffee associations in Thiotte (Southeast Department) and Baptiste (Bas Plateau Central)."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Oxfam-Italy (formerly, UCODEP). Oxfam-Italy is currently starting a three-year project on coffee in the South and Grand'Anse Departments. It will focus on the following areas:"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Strengthening farmers' cooperatives through legal framework, statutes, accounting and transparency."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"• Fostering advocacy activities of the Plateforme Nationale des Producteurs de Café d'Haïti (PNPCH). • Renovating coffee plantations to produce about 800,000 coffee seedlings and 100,000 tree species seedlings. • Improving coffee quality through equipment and processing facilities (eight in total). A dehusking facility and a quality lab are planned for Les Cayes. Fair trade certifications are currently being explored by Oxfam as an alternative way to add value to the coffee. • Increasing commercialization through international market training (quality, certifications requirements). • Promoting diversification at the farm level as a means to achieve food security."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Beneficiaries of this project will be members and associations involved in RECOCAS. • Formulate national policy, strategies and action plans for the coffee subsector."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Draft and upgrade coffee legislation as needed."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• Promote, regulate and coordinate actions on behalf of the coffee chain."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• Manage the National Coffee Fund (not yet operational)."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"• Keep records of coffee chain actors (exporters, roasters, speculators, producers)."},{"index":11,"size":11,"text":"• Provide statistical data and economic analyses of the coffee subsector."},{"index":12,"size":10,"text":"• Provide training and disseminate technical data to chain actors."}]},{"head":"Plateforme Nationale des Producteurs de Café d'Haïti (PNPCH).","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The PNPCH is composed of six regional networks: RECOCANO, northern regional network; RECOCARNO, northeastern regional network; APCAB and COOPCAB, southeastern regional network; UCOCAB, center regional network; RECOCAS, southern regional network; FACN and COHIMRU, Grand'Anse network. PNPCH's principal objective is to organize advocacy activities in favor of the coffee chain, mainly for coffee producers and their organizations."}]},{"head":"c o n S t r A i n t S A n A Ly S E S","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Constraints were identified and validated together with all chain actors for each link of the chain (production, transformation and commercialization). Steps followed were: (1) participative chain diagram construction, (2) semistructured interviews with chain actors, (3) chain diagram validation, (4) identification (brainstorming) of probable constraints, (5) participative constraints prioritization per link of the chain, (6) selection of main constraints and (7) cause and effect analysis for each main constraint using problem trees (see annexes)."}]},{"head":"Production link constraints","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"No effective state policy toward coffee subsector","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Efforts made by the Haitian government to enable a more competitive environment for coffee production remain insufficient due to the low levels of resources (financial, infrastructural, staff) invested and lack of a clear joint competitiveness agenda among government, NGO and farmers' associations and among regional networks, cooperation agencies, speculators, exporters and other chain actors."}]},{"head":"Low access to capital","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Rates of interest offered for coffee production are high compared with the low productivity of farms. Taking loans under this circumstance leads to low profitability rates for farmers. A lack of guaranteed funds for agriculture in the region (particularly for coffee) is reflected in the low amount of existing credit lines. This lack of cash flow at the farm level reduces the capacity of farmers to hire coffee pickers during harvest, thus leaving unharvested coffee beans on the bushes and providing a clear incentive to sell coffee as soon as possible to the highest bidder, usually within the local market, which can offer prices of 35-60 gourdes per pound. Meanwhile co-ops may immediately offer prices of 37.50-50 gourdes per pound plus a price premium that could take more than a month to be paid."}]},{"head":"Insufficient technical assistance","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"At present, the technical assistance offered by governmental institutions and local NGOs does not cover all coffee producers. There have been projects from the government and international cooperation to identify and control the coffee borer in different coffee-producing regions; however, because of current financing mechanisms, technical assistance strategies are not consistently transferring knowledge to producers. Technical assistance is supported through individual projects, and there is no orientation to create a sustainable local service."}]},{"head":"High incidence of pests and diseases","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"A high incidence of pests such as the coffee borer (Hypothenemus hampei) and diseases such as coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and root rot have strong negative effects on yields and coffee quality. The prevalence of these problems is a result of an absence of crop management technology packages that are adapted to different coffee producing areas, low technical assistance coverage, use of low-quality seeds, and climatic hazards (such as hurricanes and floods)."}]},{"head":"Soil erosion","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Poor soil management techniques have promoted continuous soil erosion, reflected in depleted soil nutrition, poor development of coffee crops and low yields."}]},{"head":"transformation link constraints","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Inadequate infrastructure for processing washed coffee","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Inadequate infrastructure and skills to maintain coffee quality from harvest (farm) through processing (pulping, fermentation, washing, drying and storage), results in coffee being sold in lower-value channels. Farmers therefore receive less revenue. Few organizations have facilities where coffee can be wet processed (exceptions are CACVA, KAPKAB, COCAM and associations in Beaumont)."}]},{"head":"Disincentives for producing washed coffee","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The price for exportable washed coffee is higher than the price for natural coffee. But organizations with facilities for wet processing do not often make punctual payments for delivered harvests, and in some cases, they do not make any payments at all. (The 2008-9 harvest still has not been paid for as of August 2010.) This situation has discouraged farmers from delivering their coffee to processing associations and encouraged them to produce natural coffee for the local market, where payment is smaller but delivered on time."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Along the border of the Dominican Republic, the offered prices for coffee cherries or wet pulped coffee are more attractive than the regular price for washed coffee, and payments are received more quickly than they are for dry-washed coffee."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Weak business and organizational management leads to low negotiation skills at the moment of coffee sales and a low responsiveness to threats and opportunities."}]},{"head":"r E c o m m E n dAt i o n S","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Plantation renewal will allow growers to introduce more productive plants and boost coffee production in stands younger than 10 years old. Strategies that encourage farmers to implement such renewals in jardins familiaux and diversified farms are the promotion of associated local tree species and crops focused on food security (e.g., beans, plantains, corn, tree fruits, legumes and vegetables), soil conservation, charcoal production (energy forests) and multipurpose forages. We suggest that plantation renewal should be gradual. Plots could be divided into four areas. During the first year, one of the plots could be completely cleaned and coffee seedlings could be planted on it together with associated crops. In the second plot, coffee trees could be cut back. Coffee trees in the third plot could be pruned, and trees could remain untouched in the fourth plot."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"We recommend adapting and evaluating crop technology packages per region. For the case of the coffee borer, we recommend establishing the elevation range in which coffee is economically profitable. Lowlands usually have a high incidence of this pest, and the cost of production, including pest management, may exceed incomes gained from the sale of coffee. After economically profitable regions have been identified, farmers and associations should work together to implement practices to reduce pest and disease incidence. These practices should include weed control and weekly removal of ripened, over-ripened and infested coffee beans from the tree. Growers should also pick beans from soil."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"We suggest that local schools are needed in order to train qualified personnel from the region. Curricula should include in-field training, internships and specializations. This could be achieved through alliances between national universities and international agricultural schools (e.g., CATIE). Field trips to successful smallholders who produce quality coffee under similar environmental conditions (e.g., smallholders in the Dominican Republic) may contribute as a training activity as well as a way to benchmark production systems at the farm level. In an enabled environment, technical assistants can start small businesses to offer their services to producers. It will be necessary for co-ops to determine financial contributions needed to at least partially cover the cost of technical assistance."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Desirable objectives for production include ensuring an increase of at least 20 percent of current coffee production and a growth of at least 15 percent of the current price. This will allow a producer with only one third of a hectare to earn an income close to 50 percent the current per capita GDP. Associated crops (beans, fruits, tubers) will increase food security for coffee farmers and their families, and surplus could be exchanged or sold in the local market to also increase livelihood security."},{"index":5,"size":167,"text":"We recommend that CRS should select areas with the highest potential to produce high-quality coffee (especially areas with less incidence of pests and diseases). CRS will need to perform a thorough analysis of each of these productive clusters to determine current available volumes, number of producers, genera, cropped area and elevation, among other variables that are related to quality and quantity potential. Dry coffee samples from these zones should be taken for physical quality assessment as well as for cupping, with the aim of obtaining coffee profiles for each geographic area. Together with the private sector (including allied roasters abroad), CRS should identify the current quality of plantations' coffee and the specific aspects in the coffee production process (e.g., production, harvest, coffee processing, drying) that should be improved to obtain an acceptable quality for specialty markets. A step to ensure inclusion, transparency, development of co-innovation and adoption of technologies is to involve different chain actors (roasters, importers, certifiers, grassroots, CRS, others) at the outset of each project."},{"index":6,"size":97,"text":"Institutions such as Oxfam-Italy can support the implementation of quality improvement activities in the south; by the time of our August 2010 visit, they were identifying which organizations have potential for producing washed coffee. ICEF is well known in Haiti for its work with coffee grassroots organizations in providing technical assistance, in strengthening local production and processing, and in supporting washed coffee commercialization. Developing and improving the infrastructure for washed coffee (infrastructure for storing, depulping, fermenting, washing and drying) and evaluating current practices for producing natural coffee are necessary to produce interesting flavors that will add value."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"Building local capacities should enable co-op personnel to maintain coffee quality in processes such as fermentation and coffee drying. Training could be offered by national and international experts. During this phase, process standardization is also necessary to allow coffee to reach its potential. This will require the support of a cupping laboratory."},{"index":8,"size":54,"text":"Fostering local cupping laboratories in those areas with the highest potential for quality and quantity will enable cooperatives to control their own quality and give feedback through technical assistance to each farmer. Cupping labs will need to train at least four local cuppers with support from external roasters who are involved in the process."},{"index":9,"size":146,"text":"Certifications may have a role in training grassroots participants during the first stages of implementation. Fair trade could play a fundamental role during implementation, as fair trade requires associations to be strengthened in associative, business and organizational ways that enable fair trade importers to assist during negotiations and sales. Fair trade also fosters networking between the participants of a negotiation. Additionally, Rainforest Alliance could promote conservation in coffee-growing regions, thereby improving coffee quality, fostering edible tree plants, improving soil fertility and increasing long-term biodiversity. Fair trade certification requires hard work in organizational aspects. Organic certification could be an immediate alternative for adding value due to farms' current low/null use of pesticides; however, organizations must meet other requirements such as internal audits (which might not be sustainable in the long run, as the high effort demanded for renewing annual certifications may not always match received price premiums)."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"Before implementing any certification process, a market for these products must be targeted. This is reachable by different strategies, such as working together with interested roasters, ensuring that clients support the total or a fraction of the certification costs and negotiating each part through a contract of sale."},{"index":11,"size":27,"text":"Business development and organizational strengthening should start with farmers' organizations. Focus should be given to leadership development, roles definition, orientation to markets, financial skills and participatory markets."}]},{"head":"g L o S S A r y","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Café pile Natural coffee dehusked by rudimentary means (e.g., mortar and pestle)."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Coffee borer A coffee pest (Hypothenemus hampei) that feeds and reproduces in fruits of coffee plants. Affected fruits receive lower prices in the market due to the direct injury to quality."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Coffee cherry Ripened coffee fruit that is ready for harvest. Colors may vary from yellow to red, depending on the variety. Also called coffee berry, coffee cherry is composed of (1) the bean (or endosperm), which is edible after roasting; (2) the parchment, which protects the bean; and (3) the pulp and skin, which are the most external layers of the fruit."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Coffee rust A coffee disease caused by a fungus (Hemileia vastatrix). It is considered to be the most destructive disease of coffee. In 1870-80, it destroyed all coffee crops in southeast Asia."}]},{"head":"Dehusking (milling)","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The process of removing the coffee parchment from the bean."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Ferme diversifiée (diversified farm) Productive units ranging from 0.5 to 1 hectare in which coffee is grown together with other food crops (e.g., plantain, yam, taro, citrus and avocado)."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Grand domaine Large estate, with about 5 to 20 hectares."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Green coffee Dried coffee without skin or parchment."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Haitian Bleu Specialty coffee brand, developed with support of USAID and IABD and owned by FACN."}]},{"head":"Hulled coffee Coffee without parchment.","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Jardin familial A Haitian spatial arrangement in which a few coffee bushes grow around the farmer's house. The bushes occupy less than 1 hectare and produce small volumes of the bean."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Madam sarah Female retailers who sell different basic products in the local market. They may sell café pilé as retailers and in some cases may gather large volumes of the product and act as a wholesaler."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Natural coffee Coffee produced through the dry (or natural) method, in which harvested cherries are directly dried under the sun for about four weeks."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Price premium The difference between the final price given and the coffee stock price. The price premium is assigned according to the coffee quality, origin and/ or certifications."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"Root rot Plant disease that largely affects coffee plantations in Haiti. Root rot and coffee rust are the main diseases of this crop."}]},{"head":"Sous-marin See voltigeur.","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Spéculateur An upper-level middleman who gathers significant volumes of coffee to sell directly to local roasters or coffee sellers along the border."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Torréfacteur A local coffee roaster."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Voltigeur A low-level middleman, acting as retailer in the local market."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Washed coffee Coffee produced through the wet (or washed) method."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Wet process Coffee processing method that requires specific equipment and clean water availability in order to remove the pulp and skin from each coffee bean. "}]},{"head":"Effects Causes","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Activities","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"• Produce and plant seedlings to reforest main basins."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Disseminate best planting practices (e.g., contour planting) among producers."}]},{"head":"recommendations","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The following recommendations are not directly reflected in the problem tree; still, they are included here because of their importance in supporting value generation and distribution along the chain."}]},{"head":"Production","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"This study agrees with the five objectives proposed by chain actors. It also provides contributions to each one of the objectives:"},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"• Policies objective: Foster activities that enable the participation of grassroots organizations and regional networks from the southwest, as presented in INCAH's and PNPCH's plans. • Technical assistance objective: Create local schools to train qualified personnel (through in-field training, internships and specialization). This could be achieved through alliances between national universities and international agricultural schools (e.g., CATIE). Field trips to successful smallholders who produce quality coffee under similar environmental conditions (e.g., smallholders in the Dominican Republic), may contribute as a training activity as well as a way to benchmark production systems at the farm level. • Low incidence of pests and diseases objective: Adapt and evaluate technology packages per region. In the case of the coffee borer, we should establish the altitude above which coffee is economically profitable."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"(Lowlands usually have a high incidence of this pest, and the cost of production, including pest management, may exceed incomes gained from the sale of coffee.)"}]},{"head":"Strategic objectives for the transformation link","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Objectives of this link should be assessed in alliance with Oxfam-Italy given their current focus on improving coffee quality. This topic could also be explored with one or more international coffee roasters. Their vision may provide guidance to support this process as well as help to build trust-based relationships."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Promote basic infrastructure for storage, depulping, fermentation, washing and drying of coffee, according to production clusters:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"• Prioritize major coffee production areas in the region with quality coffee potential. • Strengthen and renew existing infrastructure owned by producers' co-ops."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• Prioritize these co-ops/associations for business and organizational strengthening that is focused on marketing."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : FiguresFigure 1: Agricultural sector participation in total GDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 2: Coffee production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 3: Haitian coffee exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 4: Coffee chain in southern Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 5: Potential high-quality coffee municipalities in Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "},{"text":" figure 1. Agricultural sector participation in total gdP "},{"text":" figure 3. Haitian coffee exports "},{"text":" l'Institut National du Café d'Haïti (INCAH). INCAH is a national institution established in 2003. It is in charge of overseeing coffee production in Haiti and coordinating projects promoting the coffee chain in the country. INCAH is partially funded by the central government and by projects from the European Union and IADB. INCAH's functions include the following: "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Principal coffee growing areas and their potential to produce quality coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Grassroots organizations and exporting regional networks . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Land distribution by plot size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Coffee crop area per department in 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Organizations in potential high-quality coffee municipalities . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Current and potential washed coffee production in the region . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Haitian Bleu exclusive distributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Average loan per program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  "},{"text":"table 1 . Summary of chain constraints and strategic objectives to address them L i n k S i n t H E c o n S t r A i n t S S t r At E g i c o b j E c t i v E S L i n k S i n t H Ec o n S t r A i n t SS t r At E g i c o b j E c t i v E S c H A i n  t o A d d r E S S c H A i nt o A d d r E S S   c o n S t r A i n t S c o n S t r A i n t S Production No effective state policy Define state policies toward ProductionNo effective state policyDefine state policies toward  toward coffee subsector coffee subsector toward coffee subsectorcoffee subsector  Low access to capital Improve access to capital for Low access to capitalImprove access to capital for   coffee producers coffee producers  Insufficient technical Make technical assistance Insufficient technicalMake technical assistance  assistance available, efficient and appropriate assistanceavailable, efficient and appropriate  High incidence of pests and Reduce incidence and spread of High incidence of pests andReduce incidence and spread of  diseases pests and diseases diseasespests and diseases  Soil erosion Foster soil protection Soil erosionFoster soil protection Transformation Scarce infrastructure and Promote basic infrastructure for TransformationScarce infrastructure andPromote basic infrastructure for  local skill available for processing washed coffee local skill available forprocessing washed coffee  processing washed coffee Local capacity building (focus on processing washed coffeeLocal capacity building (focus on   maintaining quality) maintaining quality)   Foster the development of cupping Foster the development of cupping   labs in selected cooperatives labs in selected cooperatives Commercialization Weak business management Strengthen regional networks CommercializationWeak business managementStrengthen regional networks  skills in grassroots level (and co-ops) in organizational and skills in grassroots level(and co-ops) in organizational and   business management skills with a business management skills with a   strong market orientation strong market orientation  "},{"text":"table 2 . Principal coffee growing areas and their potential to produce quality coffee d E PA r t m E n t m u n i c i PA L i t i E S d E PA r t m E n tm u n i c i PA L i t i E S High-quality coffee zones • Beaumont, Roseaux, Jérémie High-quality coffee zones• Beaumont, Roseaux, Jérémie • Grande Anse • Tiburon, les Anglais, Rendel • Grande Anse• Tiburon, les Anglais, Rendel • South • Thiotte, Belle Anse, Marigot • South• Thiotte, Belle Anse, Marigot • Southeast • Baptiste, Savanette • Southeast• Baptiste, Savanette • Centre • Les Cahos • Centre• Les Cahos • Artibonite  • Artibonite Average-quality coffee zones • Dondon, Plaisance, Pilate, Borgne, Grande Average-quality coffee zones• Dondon, Plaisance, Pilate, Borgne, Grande • North riviére du nord, Bahon, Mermelade • Northriviére du nord, Bahon, Mermelade • Northwest  • Northwest • Northeast  • Northeast • Nippes  • Nippes  "},{"text":" • The FACN does not sell Haitian Bleu to other roasters in the same geographical area of any exclusive distributor. • Exclusive distributors do not resell green Haitian Bleu coffee. table 8. Haitian bleu exclusive distributors table 8. Haitian bleu exclusive distributors c o u n t ry d i S t r i b u t o r c o u n t ryd i S t r i b u t o r United States Barnie's Coffee & Tea Company, Orlando, Florida United StatesBarnie's Coffee & Tea Company, Orlando, Florida  Coffee Bean International, Portland, Oregon Coffee Bean International, Portland, Oregon  Coffee Masters, Spring Grove, Illinois Coffee Masters, Spring Grove, Illinois  Heritage Coffee Company, Juneau, Alaska Heritage Coffee Company, Juneau, Alaska Denmark Coffee Masters-AQUA VELOX Aps, Skovlunde DenmarkCoffee Masters-AQUA VELOX Aps, Skovlunde France Cafés Malongo, Nice FranceCafés Malongo, Nice Germany Kaffee-Compagnie Gourmetkaffees weltweit Rosterei, Mössingen GermanyKaffee-Compagnie Gourmetkaffees weltweit Rosterei, Mössingen Japan Hamaya Company, Ltd. JapanHamaya Company, Ltd. Haiti Compagnie Haitienne de Café, Port-au-Prince HaitiCompagnie Haitienne de Café, Port-au-Prince Source: Lenaghan (2006).  Source: Lenaghan (2006).  "}],"sieverID":"ea659cb4-93b0-41d3-a57b-9ff356d30010","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06b2a723ee1e0e86fb60601dfd1c15e5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2e58a767-9980-4389-98c8-7867b311e3b8/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Superior feeds/forages improve livelihoods while reducing negative environmental impacts."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• Feeds/forages work involves diagnosing constraints/ opportunities, developing novel feed/forage options and assessing ways of using existing resources better."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Work spans the discovery to delivery continuum."}]},{"head":"Livestock-based solutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Results and evidence from the Livestock and Fish CGIAR research program (2012-16)"}]},{"head":"Multiplier effects","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The Feeds and Forages Flagship is organized in 4 clusters:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Development of learning materials on smart feed interventions that can be applied at scale (e.g. FEAST)."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Knowledge tool for forage selection (SoFT)"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"with 300,000 users annually."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Open access journal Tropical Grasslands-Forrajes Tropicales with 90,000 users annually."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Seed production and dissemination through private sector for food-feed crops and selected forage grasses."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• Incorporation of feed traits into cereal and grain legume breeding with wide-spread impacts on feed availability and quality."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"• Pilot to scaling approaches to be studied with improved forages, rangeland and food-feed crops."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"• Critical points for moving from pilot to scale: seed systems, institutions, capacity development."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"• There are over 200 million ha of improved forages planted across the tropics, with Brachiaria spp., Panicum maximum spp. and Pennisetum spp. the most widely distributed."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"• Brachiaria hybrids bred are now planted on over 700,000 ha in 35 countries."},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"• Enhanced productivity and quality-of forages combines with reduced GHG emissions and improved carbon balance."},{"index":13,"size":29,"text":"• Research in India has shown that improved sorghum residue, combined with feed fortification, could more than triple average daily milk yields from 5 to 15 litres per animal."},{"index":14,"size":21,"text":"• Stover from pipeline maize hybrids specifically bred for grain yield and stover fodder quality can raise this to 20 litres."},{"index":15,"size":36,"text":"• Genotypes that combine superior grain yield and straw traits have been identified in lentil, chickpea and faba bean. The potential exploitable genotypic range in nutritive parameters was greater that the improvements due to conventional treatments."},{"index":16,"size":13,"text":"• Ethiopian highland sheep breeds show positive but variable fattening responses to supplementation."},{"index":17,"size":21,"text":"• Cactus can be used as supplementary feed during feed gap andlocally produced manual cactus choppers reduce work load for women."},{"index":18,"size":24,"text":"• Seed and feed processing creates job opportunities, e.g. pellets, feed blocks, concentrates, mash, silage and hay. 2.Facilitating the delivery and uptake of feeds/forages."},{"index":19,"size":5,"text":"3.Using existing feed resources better."}]},{"head":"4.Development of feeds and forages options.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"The Program thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"7th Multi-Stakeholder Partnership Meeting Achieving multiple benefits through livestock-based solutions, Addis Ababa, 8-12 May 2017. Contacts: Michael Peters, Alan Duncan, Barbara Rischkowsky, Jane Wamatu, Michael Blummel, Chris Jones, Udo Rüdiger, Stefan Burkart, Paul Schütz, Ewa Wredle; Tom Randolph. [email protected]; [email protected] This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Atiribution 4.0 International Licence. May 2017 Livestock feeds and forages flagship 1.Diagnosis of feed constraints/opportunities and development of decision-support tools for prioritizing and targeting feed and forage interventions. "}],"sieverID":"1ac2aadf-73fc-41f0-b8b8-dc9c30ec90a4","abstract":""}

data/part_5/07297e3879afcc939765c1a1533ae499.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07297e3879afcc939765c1a1533ae499","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ac305c22-5795-44e3-8f3b-c8846996b509/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"","keywords":["Baseline","Kenya","village study","participatory mapping","organisations","access to information Community resourcesparticipatory satellite imagery interpretation and"],"chapters":[{"head":"About the Authors Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is a strategic ten-year partnership between the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and the Earth System Science Partnership (ESSP) to help the developing world overcome the threats posed by a changing climate, to achieving food security, enhancing livelihoods and improving environmental management. In 2010, CCAFS embarked on a major baseline effort at household, village and organisation levels across its three target regions, namely East Africa, West Africa and South Asia (more information about CCAFS sites is available on our website http://ccafs.cgiar.org/where-we-work). CCAFS trained survey teams from partner organisations in the three regions to conduct the baseline."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"The baseline effort consists of three componentsa household survey, village study and organisational survey. The household baseline survey, a quantitative questionnaire on basic indicators of welfare, information sources, livelihood/agriculture/natural resource management strategies, needs and uses of climate and agricultural-related information and current risk management, mitigation and adaptation practices, was implemented by CCAFS partners in 15 sites (105 villages) with nearly 2,100 households in 12 countries to date. CCAFS partners are implementing village baseline studies (VBS) and organisational surveys in one out of the seven villages within each CCAFS site where the household survey was implemented. The plan is to revisit these villages in roughly 5 years, and again in 10 years, to monitor what changes have occurred since the baseline was carried out. The goal is not to attribute these changes to the program, but to be able to assess what kinds of changes have occurred and whether these changes are helping villages adapt to, and mitigate, climate change."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The focus of this site analysis report is the village baseline study (VBS). To date, fifteen VBS were conducted in the three CCAFS regions. The VBS aims to provide baseline information at the village level about some basic indicators of natural resource utilisation, organisational landscapes, information networks for weather and agricultural information, as well as mitigation baseline information, which can be compared across sites and monitored over time."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"The objectives of the village baseline study are to:"},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":" Provide indicators to allow us to monitor changes in these villages over time. In particular, changes that allow people to o Manage current climate risks, o Adapt to long-run climate change, and o Reduce/mitigate greenhouse gas emissions  Understand the enabling environment that mediates certain practices and behaviours and creates constraints and opportunities (policies, institutions, infrastructure, information and services) for communities to respond to change  Explore social differentiation: o Perceptions of women and men will be gathered separately to be able to present different gender perspectives. o Focus group participants will be selected to present perceptions of groups differentiated by age."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"The detailed tools and guidelines used for the implementation of the village baseline study across all CCAFS sites, as well as the manuals, data and analysis reports can be accessed on our website (http://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys)."},{"index":7,"size":133,"text":"This report presents the results of the Village Baseline Study (VBS) conducted on June 11 th -14 th , 2012 in the village of Kithoni, Kenya (Map 1). The village's geocoordinates are -1.836; 37.671. Kithoni was chosen for the baseline survey because of its relative central location in the block, among other criteria. There is reasonable accessibility to the village although the roads can be difficult to navigate in the event of heavy rain. The survey team arranged a visit to the village to prepare for the fieldwork. The team was composed of two facilitators, two note takers, two translators and one site coordinator. Each pair was male and female. The team consulted with the village authorities concerning the time and place of meeting. It selected the Mulaani shopping centre for both meetings."},{"index":8,"size":144,"text":"The site coordinator sent out invitations to sets of participants who were chosen using random sampling. Each group was composed of 15 participants, men and women respectively. Three consecutive days were selected for the survey and on each day only one set of participants were expected to participate in the survey. On the first day of the survey the whole community was invited to participate in an introductory session where the team explained the survey to them and shared with them the results of an earlier household survey. After the introductory session the rest of the community was set free and only the invited group of 15 men and 15 women remained to carry on with the survey. The whole community was again invited at the end of the third day to attend a debriefing session where a summary of the findings was shared."},{"index":9,"size":95,"text":"The survey used participatory methods of data collection. Throughout the data collection process groups of male and female members of the community worked separately. The team used a satellite image of the block and worked with each group to identify and map/sketch resources that are important to the community, their current state, past state and what caused the changes. The outputs were maps and sketches. The process of working with the community to identify the resources that are important to them depended entirely on how well they are able to understand and interpret the image."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"The task on day 2 was to work with each group to understand the organisational landscape and the links that exist in relation to food security in a normal year, in a year of crisis, and in relation to natural resource management. The outputs were diagrams showing the organisational landscape. Information on each organisation was also captured in cards."},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"There were two main tasks on day 3. The first task was to work with each group to understand information networks in relation to weather issues and farming activities. The outputs were diagrams."},{"index":12,"size":40,"text":"The second task was to bring the male and female groups together and generate a vision of what the community would like their village to be in the future. The output was a map/sketch showing \"the vision of the community.\""},{"index":13,"size":65,"text":"Information generated from the survey was captured on sketches, maps, flip charts, information cards and notes. All these needed to be brought together in one debriefing report from which this final report is written. The debriefing report was prepared in the field so that it could benefit from the presence of the site team. The photographed sketches and maps were inserted in the debriefing report."},{"index":14,"size":16,"text":"In this site analysis report proper maps and diagrams derived from the field outputs replaced them."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Topic 1: Community resourcesparticipatory satellite imagery interpretation and visioning"},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Community infrastructure and resources and gender-differentiated access and utilisation of those resources have been analysed, based on a process of participatory visual interpretation of high resolution satellite imagery (RapidEye). The aim was to create a basic understanding of existing community resources, as well as of community dynamics in relation to its environment. The participants discussed the current state of those resources, in terms of quality, access, management, history and potential drivers of change. Later on, a mixed group developed a vision of village resources and human well-being into 2030 to understand opportunities, constraints and aspirations for the future. The detailed approach to this exercise is outlined in the CCAFS Village Baseline Study Implementation Manual (follow the link to the baseline study from our website http://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys)."}]},{"head":"A. Current resources","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Men's and women's groups met separately to discuss the current resources in the community. The groups were provided with a satellite image of the area and asked to locate the various resources and identify the current land uses. An example of the current resources as traced onto the satellite image can be seen in Photo 1."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Photo 1. Current conditions mentioned by women regarding natural resources and infrastructure"}]},{"head":"Land resources","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Farmland: All households own a piece of land which is cultivated. The average family size is 6 and the average land holding is 3-4 acres. Part of the land is cultivated and part used for pasture. Crops cultivated include maize, cow peas, pigeon peas, green grams, mangoes, citrus and pawpaw (papaya). Crop residue is used as fodder for livestock. The incidence of crop failure is very high in relation to maize production. In every 10 years, the crops fail 8 times due to inadequate rainfall. The community indicated that their farm produce can only feed them for 2 months in a year. The rest of the year the community depends on relief food which comes after 4 months. In between, the community has to purchase food. They get money for purchasing food from selling ropes, eggs and hens. They also get money from remittances. Inadequate rainfall was identified by both men's and women's groups as the main challenge to agriculture and not soil fertility."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"The choice of crops is changing. The community has stopped growing some crops because of less land, less labour and less rainfall. The preferred crop is maize but it performs poorly. There is also a move to cultivate horticultural crops, as promoted by the Machakos Integrated Development Programme (MIDP) that started 20 years ago and established cooperatives such as the Makueni Farmers Cooperative Society, which is still operational. Horticulture was also promoted by the Makueni Agricultural Programme (MAP), a 10 year program by the government of Kenya and the Danish foreign development agency, DANIDA. In terms of marketing, there are cartels within the market that hinder sales. The cooperative is not operating efficiently, and farmers do not have confidence in cooperatives. There is a marketing cooperative in Makueni for the sale of mangoes but the middlemen/brokers are the main beneficiaries. Farmers breech contracts with the cooperatives when the middlemen offer a better deal. Marketing groups are structures that are in closer contact with the farmer. They meet only when they need to market and all farmers are free to register with them. Livestock keeping is becoming less prominent due to inadequate water and pasture. Family labour is reduced because most children go to school. Most of the men have gone to the cities to look for work since the households cannot subsist from the food they produce on the farm and need additional income."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Bush lands: There are no forests in Kithoni village; however there are scattered bushes from which the women obtain fuel wood. The bushes are punctuated by occasional trees which are not very large. The bush areas are not expansive and are in between cultivated fields. There is very little evidence of tree planting. The women report that they rarely cut down the whole tree but obtain fuel wood from trimming the branches of the trees."}]},{"head":"Pasture:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"The community keeps goats and cattle which graze in the open. The pasture is limited and is improved through bush clearing. There is no communal pasture. Every household provides pasture for its livestock on the family land holding. Crop residue is also used as animal feed. There have been efforts to train the community on improving pasture, hay making and pasture establishment through the Ministry of Livestock and its programmes but very few households have invested in improving pasture. Dairy farming was introduced in the area and is being practiced by a few farmers. The region is able to meet its needs for dairy products during the rainy season. The community has access to improved livestock breeds such as the zebu and white goats. Chicken keeping is on the increase while other forms of livestock keeping are on the decrease. Sorghum is planted for chicken. Most people do not like keeping sheep and pigs however. They say this is because sheep and pigs eat a great deal and interfere with the practice of witchcraft. Their market is also poor since many people do not eat mutton or pork. Livestock keeping is constrained by the inadequate supply of water. Farmers are discouraged because they lose large numbers of livestock during dry spells, which are very common."}]},{"head":"Water resources","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Rivers: There are no permanent rivers in the site; however there are a few seasonal streams which only exist immediately after the rains. The women identified two rivers located outside the site: River Kwa Vita and River Thwake. River Kwa Vita is a seasonal river and water from this source is mainly used for domestic purposes. The river valley supports more vegetation than the rest of the landscape. River Kwa Vita is seasonal because it gets very limited recharge from rainfall. River Thwake is a permanent river but it is far from the village and takes 4 hours walking to walk there. It was a source of water for the community when they first settled the area in the 1950s. "}]},{"head":"Dams","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Roads","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Kithoni is connected with its hinterlands by an elaborate network of roads. Not all the roads, however, are in good condition. Road transport is the main mode of transport in the area. The road to Makindu (nearest large town) is tarmacked and is in good condition. There are smaller roads which are not in very good condition, for example the roads to Kikumini, Kwa Kavisi, Kasambani and Musini. The roads provide employment through Kazi kwa Vijana (Work for Youth programme), and they also ease the transportation of goods and services. However there are some roads that are impassable during the rainy season and cause breakdowns of vehicles, bicycles and motorcycles."}]},{"head":"Infrastructure","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Schools: There are several schools in the area which the children from the village attend. Kambi Mawe Secondary has adequate classrooms and enough staff and is 1 hour away from the village. Kambi Mawe primary has adequate classrooms, a good playground, and is 1 hour away. Kingutheni Primary has poor infrastructure and has old buildings with classrooms that lack doors and window shutters. It is 30 minutes away from the village. This set of schools is managed by the community and owned by government. St. Emanuel Academy is a boarding school. It has enough facilities and teachers and is 1 hour away from Kithoni. It is owned and managed privately."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The women identified additional schools such as Chamusoyi Primary, West Ngosini, Makueni Boys, and Makueni Youth Polytechnic, many of which were farther away. Women in the community visit children in school more often than the men."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The schools provide easier access to education due to their close proximity to the community. They also create local employment and a market for goods and services."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"However many of them have only basic infrastructure and too many students. This leads to congestion of facilities. Most of the schools do not have enough teaching staff, and this compromises the quality of service delivery. The private schools have better infrastructure but cost more. They can be accessed only by those who have enough money to pay the relatively higher school fees."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"Churches: Churches in the area include Kambi Mawe Catholic church which has a large seating capacity and is an hour and a half away from the village. There is a Salvation Army church which is not so large but is very old and about an hour's walk from the village. Churches are associated with the provision of social services such as education and health services. They also support orphans and vulnerable children especially in paying school fees. Other churches include the African Inland Church and Seventh Day Adventists. They reduce incidences and fear of witchcraft."}]},{"head":"Markets:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"There are many markets used by the community. Mulaani market, which was the venue for the village baseline study meetings, is small with only a handful of shops offering very basic supplies. Kwa Kathoka and Kyemole markets are about 45 minutes by foot from the village. West Ngosini is further away. Markets supply the community with goods and services but the community is very superstitious and this scares away investors. There is a strong belief in witchcraft. Kambi Mawe market is like a ghost market, closed and abandoned due to some local superstition."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Dispensaries: Kambi Mawe Community dispensary is the closest health facility. It is an hour's walk from the village and has adequate staff and affordable charges. It is managed and owned by the community. It provides employment and health care services. The population is too large for its limited resources."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Maps 2 and 3 are digitized versions of what was drawn by the men's and women's groups and represent the current conditions in the community regarding natural resources (water, forest, grazing, farmland, and degraded land) and infrastructure (roads, markets, education, and health) according to, respectively, male and female participants. The maps lay out information prepared by the community participants super-imposed on a satellite image. "}]},{"head":"B. Gender-differentiated comparison of current conditions","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Male and female participants had differing views of their community's resources. Men viewed the low rainfall totals as the main limitation on farmland while women viewed the small land holding as the main limiting factor. The women were concerned about the depletion of vegetation cover on the farm holdings because this was their man source of wood fuel. The small size of the farm holdings also limited their ability to increase the tree population on the land. Men identified beekeeping as an opportunity presented by the bush land. The women brought out the link between business and witch craft and the role played by the church to reduce the negative impacts of local superstitions."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Map 4. Overlay of current conditions, comparing men's and women's maps"}]},{"head":"C. Major changes of resource conditions","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Participants were asked to consider the resources they had in their community, to discuss the history of land use, and to identify major changes that had occurred in the landscape. In addition, participants were to examine how the resources got to the current condition and the major drivers of those changes, as well as the opportunities and constraints for the future."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The men reported that this area was initially a wildlife reserve before people settled here in the 1950s."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"In the past there were fewer people living here, however there has been a steady population growth causing pressure on the land resources. The women noted that natural sources of water were initially further away from the people when the area was first settled. Both groups indicated that there were more trees in the area in the past. Animals such as monkeys and birds inhabited the forests and woodlots that previously existed. Women noted that land holdings used to be larger and farm production was better. The rivers used to have more water that was cleaner than it is today. Less rainfall was cited as the reason for reduction in the amount of water in the rivers. Hospitals and churches were smaller in the past, but with more resources they have grown."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Maps 5 and 6 compare past and present resource conditions for men and women, respectively. Table 2 summarizes the information provided during the discussion. "}]},{"head":"D. Vision of the future","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"With a mixed group of men and women, the goal was to develop an image of village resources and human wellbeing into 2030 to understand the opportunity and constraints, as well as aspiration for the future. This exercise built upon all the work completed in the previous sessions. In addition, the exercise took into account the photographs of the landscape, including things they are proud of and things that need to be improved upon in the future, that a group of young people had produced following instructions given on day 1. In the section below we include the map that encapsulates Kithoni village's vision of the future (Map 7)."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Map 7. Future map of the community"}]},{"head":"Roads:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"The community indicated that the condition of roads was very important for the areas development. They had a vision of tarmac on the Kwa Kathoka to Kavisi road with a bridge over River Thwake. They also envision the Makindu road as a super highway with dual carriage way. They would also like to see the Mulaani -Wote road that starts from Kithoni Village tarmacked and complete with bridges at Rivers Kivesi and Kamunyolo. Opportunities presented by construction of this infrastructure are employment creation for the local population and markets for food and other products of agriculture. Transport will be improved and the area will be opened up for trade with other parts of the country. Road construction will require murram (gravel) which will be excavated and sold to them by the locals and the resulting pits will store water. A constraints presented by the infrastructure development will be that people from other areas will be attracted to come to this area."}]},{"head":"Dams:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The community suffers perennial water shortages so they had a vision of all dams enlarged and desilted regularly to improve water availability and quality. The increased supply of water would allow irrigation of crops and the establishment of tree nurseries."}]},{"head":"Schools:","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The community values education because it provides them with hope for improving their lot. They had a vision of more schools built in the area including both primary and secondary schools. This will present opportunities, as education of their children will allow them to get employment and build a better future."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Human settlements: The community did not believe in moving out to settle in other areas even with an ever increasing population. They had a vision of an increase in the number of houses built within the community. There is an opportunity to improve living standards as result of better housing. A major constraint is the reduction in the size of land holdings and farmland for all households. Cultivated fields: Since the community did not plan to move out to settle in other areas they saw a vision of reduced farmland area and increased settlement. This causes a constraint because fragmentation of land is a result of the increasing population."}]},{"head":"Woodlots:","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The community anticipates that the area under woodlots/ bushes will reduce in size because of competition between farmland and human settlements and continuous harvesting of trees for firewood and charcoal production."}]},{"head":"Seasonal waterways:","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The community has a vision of improvement in surface water availability in the seasonal stream. This will create an opportunity for the water to be used for domestic use and irrigation. It can be channelled into dams. Constraints are inadequate rainfall and clearing of woodlots and bushes. This topic aims to show evidence of organisational capacities that help address food security and manage resources. This will inform CCAFS about how prepared the village is to respond to the challenges envisaged as a consequence of climate change or other future challenges and to engage with CCAFS partners at a collective level."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Specifically, this section presents the different formal and informal organisations involved in the community in general terms, as well as with respect to food security in different situations (i.e. average and crisis conditions), and natural resources management (NRM). It also elaborates on what types of activities the organisations are engaged in, who their members are, whether the organisations are useful, etc."}]},{"head":"A. Basic spheres of operation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Participants, separated into male and female groups, were asked to draw three large concentric circles on the The inner circle would represent the community, the middle circle the locality and the outer circle beyond the locality. Participants were then asked to name organisations working in the area, whose names were written on cards, and then place the cards in the appropriate circle. Thus, the groups placed in the inner circle the cards of organisations that worked in the community, in the middle circle the cards of organisations operating in the locality, and in the outer circle those that operated beyond the locality. See Photo 2 for an example of the activity as carried out with the study participants. The results are shown in the diagrams that follow. Throughout the activity, the men identified 17 organisations operating within the village while the women identified 27."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"In Table 4, more detailed information is provided on the five most important organisations as they were ranked by the men's and women's groups."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Photo 2. The organisational landscape activity in progress Figure 1. Organisational landscape of the men's group  "}]},{"head":"B. Organisational landscape of food security","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The goal of this exercise was to get an improved understanding of how the organisational landscape contributes to the food security of the group. Food security is mostly measured at the household level."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Nonetheless, community-level organisations and interactions influence the food security of different groups within the community differently. Male and female participants were asked to discuss the concepts of food availability, access and utilization, and then review each organisation they had previously identified by asking which of them had activities that fell under these categories."},{"index":3,"size":200,"text":"The area is generally food insecure due to its perennial water problems. Out of the total 38 organisations identified by both the men's and women's discussion 37% were involved in food security. Out of the 17 groups identified by men, 18% were engaged in addressing food security and of the 27 identified by women, 48% were involved. Only three organisations address food crisis in the community. They are the provincial administration, World Food Program and World Vision, making up 8% of the groups identified. These figures are relatively low considering the fact that this is a highly food insecure area. One would expect a higher percentage of groups to be involved in addressing food security and crisis. However it can be explained in part by the fact that over the years the government has been providing relief food and the people have become complacent and developed a high level of dependency on government food. The difference between the male and female outcomes can be explained by the fact that it is traditionally the role of the women to procure food for the family therefore they are likely to have deeper knowledge of the groups that contribute to their doing so."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"The score card in terms of how many organisations were involved in the various aspects of food security reads as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":" Production: 46%"},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":" Distribution: 23%"},{"index":7,"size":6,"text":" Exchange: 8%  Affordability: 38%"},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":" Allocation: 8%  Preference: 8%"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":" Nutritional value: 15%  Food safety: 23%"}]},{"head":" Social value: 8%","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"There were very few linkages in the organisational landscape. Most organisations do link with others in their operations. The men identified only one linkage between World Food Program, who provides World Vision with food to distribute in times of food crisis. The women identified two links. One in which Amiran supplied Jasho with greenhouses and supervised their use and another in which Africa Harvest provided Kanini Kaseo with goats. In general, most groups address the production aspects of food security. Most of the groups addressing food security operate beyond the locality (77%) while 23% operate at the community level. World Vision scores highest in terms of involvement with food security, and it is followed by Jasho."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Figures 3  and  4 show the men's and women's organisational landscapes for food security, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Figure 3. Organisational landscape of food securitymen "}]},{"head":"C. Organisational landscape of food crisis situations","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The purpose of this exercise was to understand how organisations help people to cope in times of food crisis. Participants identified a food crisis situation that they all remembered (e.g. a bad year or the lean season), and discussed how the organisational landscape of food security operated in that situation."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"The participants were asked to define a time when there was a food crisis in the community, identify the organisations that were involved in providing support during that period, and indicate their role in the diagram. The men's group defined food crisis as \"food shortage, no rains, no hope of harvesting\". The most memorable food crisis occurred in 1997 and was called Ng'ethya Ukwehaving no hope, waiting to die. Many people died of malnutrition especially the elderly and children. In Kitui (an area nearby) people ate dogs while within the community people ate snakes. The men based their diagram on this crisis, although during the discussion it became apparent that there was another food crisis in 2009 due to a prolonged drought which had severe consequences on the community such as death of livestock, starvation and death of persons particularly the old and children. However this crisis could not compare to Ngethya Ukwe of 1997. The women described food crisis as a situation where food, specifically maize, is lacking in a household, rains have failed, food prices have escalated and crops have failed in the whole region."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"The village falls in a region where crop failure is very common and the government has to come in with relief food on a very regular basis. This has created a serious dependency syndrome. It is part of the government's recurrent budget and therefore other organisations do not see the need to address the food crisis. It is generally viewed as the work of the government, although the men identified World Vision and the World Food Program as the two nongovernmental organisations that are involved during food crisis situations.  "}]},{"head":"D. Organisational landscape of natural resource management","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"In this section, the organisational landscape in relation to natural resource management (NRM) is discussed. Specifically, what organisations were actively working to protect the environment, manage natural resources, etc.? The process entailed asking the group to highlight what organisations are involved in the management of natural resources in the community; developing a list of natural resources important to the livelihoods of the community; and asking the group to decide on a symbol for each type of natural resource listed."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Kithoni village is located in an area that can be described as marginal. These are areas with fragile ecosystems of low carrying capacity and can easily degrade. Of the 17 organisations identified by men, only 18% were involved with natural resource management and for the women's discussion it was 15%. In general, 18% of the groups identified by both the men and the women were involved in natural resource management. This seems to imply that conservation is not high on the list of community priorities."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Figures 7 and 8 depict the organisational landscape as drawn by the men's and women's groups for natural resource management activities."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Table 6 below summarizes information on all the organisations identified separately by male and female participants. The organisations are classified according to their role in supporting food availability, access and/or utilization, as well as the provision of relief in times of food crisis, and the management of natural resources. Table 6. Information on highlighted organisations of men and women (unless otherwise noted, 1=yes, 0=no)"}]},{"head":"Topic 3: Information networks","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The aim of this exercise was to understand the diversity of options people use for accessing information on agriculture and weather, how people take advantage of sources of information available, and if some sources are not used and why. We want to describe networks of how people access and share information within the community."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The men's discussion group identified the following as the topics for which a farmer seeks information to help him make decisions related to his farming activities: A summary of the information networks as described by the study participants is provided in Table 7."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Local radio stations and organisations emerged as the most significant sources of information for farmers. Friends are the most significant in the category of individuals."},{"index":4,"size":151,"text":"Radio: Syokimau and Musyi FM radio stations are very popular within the community. The FM stations provide the community with information on the following issues: seed varieties available in market and their suitability; post harvest crop handling; information on effective preservatives released into the market; weather reports indicating the start of drought and updates; programmes with information concerning causes of drought; information about the start of the rains; advice to farmers to reduce their livestock during drought; information on when drought is likely to be experienced; advice to farmers on what to plant, where, how and when; and the prices of different crops in different markets on a daily basis. The radio is widely used because it relatively cheap and is readily available in the markets. The FM stations use local language which the local communities easily identify with. As a result the community trusts the radio stations and their broadcasts."}]},{"head":"Organisations:","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"The Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) has a centre not far from the village. It provides reliable and trusted agricultural information such as post harvesting handling, seed types and seed prices. Farmers observe when fields in the KARI station are being planted and know it is time for planting. The Ministry of Agriculture educates farmers on various farming methods and provides farmers with market intelligence. Individuals: Farmers get information from their friends and neighbours. Farmers share information on prices of produce as they move from one market to the next. Farmers often contact grain stockists and store keepers in various towns to provide them with reliable information regarding prevailing prices of various farm produce. This information is shared among neighbours and fellow farmers. Individual fellow farmers play a significant role in sharing information regarding post harvest handling. This is a source of reliable indigenous knowledge such as use of wood ash and hot pepper to control weevils in cereals. Individual farmers also have knowledge on the start of planting; there farmers who can predict the cycle of seasons by counting of the seasons. "}]},{"head":"Market info","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Total"}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Community Resources: The main constraint to crop production and livestock keeping is inadequate water supply. The government interventions in the area have yielded good results and the community is able to obtain a range of agricultural products in spite of the ecological challenges. The range of crop options that can do well in the area needs to be expanded. There are crops that have been introduced but are not adopted so there is a need to investigate the barriers to adoption of these crops. Soil and water conservation needs to be enhanced since water is the main constraint to farming. Rain water harvesting for crop and livestock production should be further developed."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"There are no forests in Kithoni village. The natural vegetation of the area can be described as scrub. the women obtain wood fuel. Although wood fuel is the only source of domestic fuel in the community, there is very little evidence of efforts to increase the tree population in the area. The women report that they rarely cut down whole trees but obtain wood fuel from trimming the branches of the trees. Increasing the tree population is constrained by the small size of the farm holdings and the absence of public land to plant forests. In view of the above the better option is to increase the range of agroforestry trees available and promote adoption. Termites are also a challenge to tree planting in the area therefore termite-resistant trees such as acacia albida should be promoted."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"The community is moving away from keeping larger livestock to keeping smaller stock to adapt to the problem of inadequate pasture, water and labour. Capacity building in relation to livestock should therefore focus on expanding options related to zero grazing goats, expanding poultry and use of the crop residue especially from the legumes to produce animal feed."},{"index":4,"size":258,"text":"Inadequate water for domestic use and agricultural production is the main problem in the area. There are no permanent rivers in the site and dams are the main sources of domestic water in the community. Dams are used for both livestock and households needs and are managed by committees. However most of the dams are not able to retain water throughout the year. The use of these dams is also not regulated and there are serious issues of hygiene and water quality since people and livestock use the same watering points. There are new dam designs which have a separate watering point for livestock. Such designs should be made the accepted standard design for dam development to improve water quality and hygiene. The dam committees need capacity building on water management. Hydrological surveys to identify ideal spots for dam construction can be done to ensure optimal locations so that the dams have water all year round and not just part of the year. There are a few boreholes which are piped to supply market centres through kiosks. The supply network needs to be expanded to households. There is no irrigation practiced in the area. A few farmers are using an innovative approach that waters fruit trees using bottles to conserve the little water available. Irrigation potential in the area has not been exploited. This can be done by increasing the numbers of dams to harvest and store surface runoff for use in irrigation. Roof catchment for clean water has not been adequately developed especially in schools and households."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"In terms of infrastructure, the road network is good but the condition of the earth roads not good. Bridges and culverts need to be constructed on sections of the loose surface to improve connectivity of the network. The schools are overcrowded and many of the buildings are old. There is a general need to improve infrastructure in the schools. There is a need to increase the number of health facilities."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"Organisational landscape: The area is generally food insecure due to its perennial water problems and 37% of the groups identified are involved in addressing food security. Only three organisations (8%) address food crisis in the community. These figures are relatively low considering the fact that this is a food insecure area. However it can be explained in part by the fact that over the years the government has been providing relief food and the people have become complacent and developed a high level of dependency on government food. This dependency needs to be reduced and it can be done by sensitizing the many groups on the landscape and building their capacity in the relevant areas."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"There were very few linkages in the organisational landscape. This needs to be improved to develop and make use of synergy especially at the community level. Most of the groups addressing food security operate beyond the locality (77%) while 23% operate at the community level. There is need to increase involvement at the community level."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Kithoni village is located in an area that can be described as marginal but only 18% of the groups identified were involved with natural resource management. This seems to imply that conservation is not high on the list of community priorities. This situation needs to be changed and conservation given more attention especially in the light of an increasing population. The existence of many groups is already an advantage. Sensitization, facilitation and mechanisms to sustain the gains should be undertaken."},{"index":9,"size":64,"text":"Information networks: Local radio stations and organisations emerged as the most significant sources of information for farmers. However all the organisations mentioned are those that operate beyond the locality. It is important to link these organisations with community groups and individuals especially to develop a feedback mechanism so that the flow of information is two-way and not one-way as is the case at present."},{"index":10,"size":44,"text":"The FM stations which are currently doing a good job can also be supplied with a wider range of information to disseminate. However this must be in line with the community needs which should be established beforehand. This has so far not been done."}]},{"head":"Implications for CCAFS","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Soil and water conservation needs to be enhanced since water is the main constraint to farming. Rain water harvesting for crop and livestock production should be further developed. The range of crop options that can do well in the area needs to be expanded. CCAFS can partner with other organisations to address this challenge especially building on the work that has been done by the Makueni Agricultural Programme (MAP)."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Due to the lack of forests in Kithoni village, wood fuel is the only source of domestic fuel in the community. There is very little evidence of efforts to increase the tree population in the area, however. Agro forestry trees are the best option to increase the tree population in the area. Women are very directly affected and would be the easiest to bring on board. CCAFS can work with the many women's groups that exist in the community towards this end."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Capacity building in relation to livestock should focus on expanding options related to zero grazing goats, expanding poultry and use of the crop residue especially from the legumes to produce animal feed. CCAFS can collaborate with others to build capacity in this sector."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Dams, which are the main source of water, are not able to retain water throughout the year. CCAFS can participate in hydrological surveys to identify ideal spots for dam construction so that future dams are strategically located to ensure they have water all year round. CCAFS can also participate in developing dam designs that have a separate watering point for livestock to promote water quality and contribute to building capacity of dam management committees CCAFS can collaborate with relevant organisations/groups and local radio stations to identify and disseminate information needed by the community. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Organisational landscape of food crisismen "},{"text":" Seed variety  Farming methods  Types of manure  Market for produce  Rainfall duration  Start of rainfall  Post harvest handling  Start of planting  Start of drought  Causes drought The women's discussion group came up with the following list:  Onset of the rains  Type of seeds  Price of farm produce  Construction of terraces  Weather related knowledge before planting  Choice of crops  Manure/soil fertility  Storage of farm produce  Preservation of farm produce  Soil conservation technology "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"(water ponds): Dams Dams identified by the women's discussion group include the following: Kiumoni dam, Kivani dam, Kwekaa dam, and Kithooni dam which are seasonal and have poor quality water. They indicated that the dams provide water for domestic use and for watering livestock and that they are all managed by the community. The dams store rainwater but are affected by high levels of siltation and seasonality. The maintenance of dams involves occasional de-silting by voluntary members of the community. There are dams dug by community members. Dams are the most common source of water in Kithoni village. Most are communal but there are a few private ones. The dams can collect and retain water for up to 5 months in a year. Only one dam, Kambi ya Mawe dam, is permanent and has plenty of water. Boreholes: The men did not identify any boreholes. The women identified one borehole at Kambi ya Boreholes: The men did not identify any boreholes. The women identified one borehole at Kambi ya Mawe. It provides water throughout the year. It serves four sub-locations (Kyemole, Mwambami, Mawe. It provides water throughout the year. It serves four sub-locations (Kyemole, Mwambami, Mulaani and Neema). It is an hour's  walk  away  from  Kithoni village and is managed by the Mulaani and Neema). It is an hour's  walk  away  from  Kithoni village and is managed by the community. They also identified Chamusoyi borehole which is 4 hours away from Kithoni. Water community. They also identified Chamusoyi borehole which is 4 hours away from Kithoni. Water from the borehole is pumped to supply other areas far away from the source. It is safe and protected from the borehole is pumped to supply other areas far away from the source. It is safe and protected from contamination. Kambi ya Mawe borehole was constructed in 2008 by the Red Cross. It is from contamination. Kambi ya Mawe borehole was constructed in 2008 by the Red Cross. It is managed by a committee. The members of the community group that manage the borehole pay less managed by a committee. The members of the community group that manage the borehole pay less for the water. Members buy a 20 litres can at 3 Kenyan shillings while non members pay 5 shillings for the water. Members buy a 20 litres can at 3 Kenyan shillings while non members pay 5 shillings for the same amount. The borehole has water kiosks in the 4 sub-locations that it serves. These water for the same amount. The borehole has water kiosks in the 4 sub-locations that it serves. These water kiosks are managed by community members employed by the management committee. kiosks are managed by community members employed by the management committee. identified by men include the following: Kambi dam which is one hour identified by men include the following: Kambi dam which is one hour away from the village; Kwa Muindi which is 10 minutes away from the village; Kwa Mbatha dam away from the village; Kwa Muindi which is 10 minutes away from the village; Kwa Mbatha dam which is 45 minutes from the village; Kwa Musunga which is 45 minutes from the village; Kithooni which is 45 minutes from the village; Kwa Musunga which is 45 minutes from the village; Kithooni dam which is 1 hour away from the village; Ikavi dam which is one hour form the village; and Muani dam which is 1 hour away from the village; Ikavi dam which is one hour form the village; and Muani dam which is two hours from the village. The water in these dams is of poor quality and is brown in dam which is two hours from the village. The water in these dams is of poor quality and is brown in colour. The dams are not enclosed and animals drink from them directly. They are managed and colour. The dams are not enclosed and animals drink from them directly. They are managed and owned by the communities. owned by the communities.  "},{"text":"Table 1   "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary for Layer 1: current conditions, as perceived by men (M) and women (W) Land cover Community Location Current state Time to Management and Environmental Opportunities Limitations Land coverCommunityLocationCurrent stateTime toManagement andEnvironmentalOpportunitiesLimitations class determined land Names (quality) resource ownership issues Benefits   classdetermined landNames(quality)resourceownership issuesBenefits  use        use Farmland (M) Cultivation of  Bad, not enough Kithoni Managed and owned   Inadequate Farmland (M) Cultivation ofBad, not enoughKithoniManaged and ownedInadequate  crops, source of  rainfall thus are dry village by individual   rainfall crops, source ofrainfall thus are dryvillageby individualrainfall  fodder, herding        fodder, herding  livestock        livestock Farmland (W) Crop cultivation Kithoni Average of four acres  Individual owner   Depletion of Farmland (W) Crop cultivationKithoniAverage of four acresIndividual ownerDepletion of  and livestock  per household; land is  manages plot   vegetation and livestockper household; land ismanages plotvegetation  rearing  mostly inherited     cover. rearingmostly inheritedcover. Grassland Pasture On the farm Reduced in size; all  Managed by Protects the soil Grows quickly Very limited GrasslandPastureOn the farmReduced in size; allManaged byProtects the soil Grows quicklyVery limited (W)  holding pasture is held  individual plot  even with small during the dry (W)holdingpasture is heldindividual ploteven with smallduring the dry    individually and not  owners  amounts of season individually and notownersamounts ofseason    communally    rainfall  communallyrainfall Woodlots (M) Source of  Not good, degraded Kithoni Managed and owned Control soil Bee keeping none Woodlots (M) Source ofNot good, degradedKithoniManaged and ownedControl soilBee keepingnone  firewood and  with few trees village by individuals erosion, provide   firewood andwith few treesvillageby individualserosion, provide  timber, used for     shade, source of   timber, used forshade, source of  charcoal     biomass that   charcoalbiomass that  production     improves soil   productionimproves soil       fertility, bee   fertility, bee       forage   forage Forest (W) Source of fuel On the farm Reduced in size.  Managed by Wind shield Institutions Some farm Forest (W)Source of fuelOn the farmReduced in size.Managed byWind shieldInstitutionsSome farm  (charcoal) holding   individual owners of  sensitizing and holdings do not (charcoal)holdingindividual owners ofsensitizing andholdings do not      plots.  providing have trees plots.providinghave trees        community  community        with seedlings  with seedlings Dams (M) Water sources Kambi All are bad, brown 1 hour Managed and owned   none Dams (M)Water sourcesKambiAll are bad, brown1 hourManaged and ownednone   Kwa Muindi water, not enclosed, 10 minutes by community    Kwa Muindiwater, not enclosed,10 minutesby community   Kwa Mbatha animals drink directly 45 minutes     Kwa Mbathaanimals drink directly45 minutes   Kwa Musunga from the dams 10 minutes     Kwa Musungafrom the dams10 minutes   Kithooni  1 hour     Kithooni1 hour   Ikavi  2 hours     Ikavi2 hours   Muani       Muani Dams (W) Providing water Kiumoni dam Most are seasonal with ½ hr Managed by Reduces surface Water for Siltation and Dams (W)Providing waterKiumoni damMost are seasonal with½ hrManaged byReduces surfaceWater forSiltation and  for domestic use Kambii ya poor quality water; 1hr community water flow livestock seasonality for domestic useKambii yapoor quality water;1hrcommunitywater flowlivestockseasonality  and for watering mawe dam One is permanent and 1½ hr   Rain water  and for wateringmawe damOne is permanent and1½ hrRain water  livestock Kivani dam has a lot of water 10 min   storage  livestockKivani damhas a lot of water10 minstorage   Kwekaa dam       Kwekaa dam   Kithoni dam       Kithoni dam  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Major changes and drivers of change in the last 10 years, as perceived by men (M) and women (W) Land cover class Community Location Past state (quality) Time to Drivers of change Management and Environmental Land cover classCommunityLocationPast state (quality)Time toDrivers of changeManagement andEnvironmental  determined land use Names  resource  ownership issues Benefits determined land useNamesresourceownership issuesBenefits Woodlots (M) Source of timber, Varied Many trees, wild  Population increase, Managed and owned Attract rainfall, Woodlots (M)Source of timber,VariedMany trees, wildPopulation increase,Managed and ownedAttract rainfall,  firewood and charcoal production  animals (monkeys and birds)  charcoal production by individual farmers Attract bees firewood and charcoal productionanimals (monkeys and birds)charcoal productionby individual farmersAttract bees Forest (W) Source of firewood Everywhere Thick and vast.  Increased population Colonial government Home for game Forest (W)Source of firewoodEverywhereThick and vast.Increased populationColonial government Home for game  and charcoal    resulting in depletion   and charcoalresulting in depletion Grassland (W) Pasture Everywhere Extensive grass lands  Increase in population Pastures are owned Protected the Grassland (W)PastureEverywhereExtensive grass landsIncrease in populationPastures are ownedProtected the      hence livestock and individually soils hence livestock andindividuallysoils      practices like   practices like      cultivation.   cultivation. Farmland (W) Pasture and cultivation Kithooni Households had large     Farmland (W)Pasture and cultivation KithooniHouseholds had large    parcels and production     parcels and production    was better     was better River (W) Domestic uses. River Kwa vita More water  Less rainfall in the No form of Encourages River (W)Domestic uses.River Kwa vitaMore waterLess rainfall in theNo form ofEncourages   River Thwake   area management vegetation cover River Thwakeareamanagementvegetation cover    Plenty of clean water 4hrs.    Plenty of clean water4hrs. Dam (M)  Kambi Sufficient water, 1 hour Change in weather Managed and owned  Dam (M)KambiSufficient water,1 hourChange in weatherManaged and owned    surrounded by trees  patterns (little rainfall) by colonial  surrounded by treespatterns (little rainfall)by colonial       government  government Dam (W) Providing water for Kambii mawe More water 1hr. Less rainfall less Managed by the Watering point Dam (W)Providing water forKambii maweMore water1hr.Less rainfall lessManaged by theWatering point  dams dam   pressure colonial government for livestock damsdampressurecolonial governmentfor livestock Borehole (W)  Kambi mawe Served less people 1hr. Population increase Owned communally Provision of safe Borehole (W)Kambi maweServed less people1hr.Population increaseOwned communallyProvision of safe        water water   Chamusoyi  4hrs    Chamusoyi4hrs Schools (M)  Kambi primary Bad, inadequate 1 hr Change of government Managed and owned  Schools (M)Kambi primaryBad, inadequate1 hrChange of government Managed and owned   Kingutheni primary structures/classes, few teachers 30 min  by the community  Kingutheni primarystructures/classes, few teachers30 minby the community  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Vision of the future Items Preferred condition for Opportunities Constraints Organisations to ItemsPreferred condition forOpportunitiesConstraintsOrganisations to  2030   be involved 2030be involved Roads Want tarmac on Kwa Employment by working This will also attract Government RoadsWant tarmac on KwaEmployment by workingThis will also attractGovernment  Kathoka -Kavisi road with as construction labourers people from other  Kathoka -Kavisi road withas construction labourerspeople from other  a bridge over river Thwake; besides selling food to areas  a bridge over river Thwake;besides selling food toareas  Propose that Makindu road is made a super highway with dual carriage way; Wish to have Mulaani -Wote road that starts from Kithoni Village to be tarmacked complete with bridges at rivers Kivesi and Kamunyolo road constructors; Improve ease of transport; Open up the area for trade with other parts of the country; Tarmac roads reduce thieves; Can sell murram from land and excavated ground can catch water   Propose that Makindu road is made a super highway with dual carriage way; Wish to have Mulaani -Wote road that starts from Kithoni Village to be tarmacked complete with bridges at rivers Kivesi and Kamunyoloroad constructors; Improve ease of transport; Open up the area for trade with other parts of the country; Tarmac roads reduce thieves; Can sell murram from land and excavated ground can catch water Dams Want to have all dams Irrigation of crops  Government DamsWant to have all damsIrrigation of cropsGovernment  enlarged and desilted regularly to improve water availability and quality. Establishment of tree nurseries   enlarged and desilted regularly to improve water availability and quality.Establishment of tree nurseries Schools Want to have more schools Education of their  The government SchoolsWant to have more schoolsEducation of theirThe government  built in the area. These children  and the private built in the area. Thesechildrenand the private  should include both primary and secondary schools Educated children will Employment  sector should include both primary and secondary schoolsEducated children will Employmentsector   build a better future   build a better future Human An increase in number of Improved living standard Reduction in size of Community HumanAn increase in number ofImproved living standardReduction in size ofCommunity Settlement houses built within the as result of better housing land holdings and  Settlementhouses built within theas result of better housingland holdings and s community  farmland  scommunityfarmland Cultivated The farmland area will  Fragmentation of land Community CultivatedThe farmland area willFragmentation of landCommunity fields/ reduce  as a result of the  fields/reduceas a result of the farmland   increasing population  farmlandincreasing population Woodlots/ Woodlots/ bushes will  Pressure from Community Woodlots/Woodlots/ bushes willPressure fromCommunity bushes reduce in coverage  farmland and human  bushesreduce in coveragefarmland and human    settlements;  settlements;    Harvesting for  Harvesting for    firewood and charcoal  firewood and charcoal    production  production Seasonal Improvement of water flow Water for domestic use Inadequate rainfall; Community SeasonalImprovement of water flowWater for domestic useInadequate rainfall;Community rivers/  and irrigation; Channel Clearing of woodlots  rivers/and irrigation; ChannelClearing of woodlots waterways  water into dams and bushes  waterwayswater into damsand bushes  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Information on the first five organisations ranked by the men and women  Organisation Main activities Number of Access (open or Origin Sphere of Sources of Existed how Formal OrganisationMain activitiesNumber ofAccess (open orOriginSphere ofSources ofExisted howFormal  name  members restricted  to…) (indigenous, operation: funding long (less or namemembersrestricted  to…)(indigenous,operation:fundinglong (lessor    (estimate)  state, NGO, community, (members, than 1 yr, 1- informal (estimate)state, NGO,community,(members,than 1 yr, 1-informal      project) local, external, 5, longer) project)local,external,5, longer)       beyond local both)  beyond localboth)  1 Mulaani centre Funeral organisation 200 Open to both men Indigenous Community Members Longer Formal 1 Mulaani centreFuneral organisation200Open to both menIndigenousCommunityMembersLongerFormal  group   and women, but     groupand women, but Men's  top  ranked  organisations 2 Jasho 3 World Vision 4 Red Cross Started with planting trees; Offer loans to members; Produce vegetables for sale Provision of relief food Provides clean water 24 665 membership is restricted to people from the area Open Restricted to the elderly, widows, people living with HIV/AIDS Open Indigenous iNGO National NGO Local Beyond local External Members Beyond local External 1-5 yrs Longer Longer Formal Formal Formal Men's  top  ranked  organisations2 Jasho 3 World Vision 4 Red CrossStarted with planting trees; Offer loans to members; Produce vegetables for sale Provision of relief food Provides clean water24 665membership is restricted to people from the area Open Restricted to the elderly, widows, people living with HIV/AIDS OpenIndigenous iNGO National NGOLocal Beyond local External Members Beyond local External1-5 yrs Longer LongerFormal Formal Formal  5 Mbiwangwiwe Funeral arrangements; 87 Open Indigenous Community Members Longer Formal 5 MbiwangwiweFuneral arrangements;87OpenIndigenousCommunityMembersLongerFormal   Investments; Savings       Investments; Savings Women's  top  ranked  organisations 1 World Vision 2 Mulaani centre 3 Red cross 4 Mbwiwe ngwiwe ngosini mulaani 5 Kitui wa Giving food aid; Giving farm equipment; Agricultural capacity building Making burial arrangements for members Assists during disasters; Provides sanitation facilities like latrines; Provides safe water Making burial arrangements for members Funding through merry go round Making burial arrangements; 250 250 200 Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted NGO Indigenous NGO Indigenous Indigenous Beyond local External Community Members Beyond local External Community Members Community Members Longer (10 yrs) Longer (12 yrs) Longer (12 yrs) Longer (16 yrs) 10 yrs Formal Informal Formal informal Informal Women's  top  ranked  organisations1 World Vision 2 Mulaani centre 3 Red cross 4 Mbwiwe ngwiwe ngosini mulaani 5 Kitui waGiving food aid; Giving farm equipment; Agricultural capacity building Making burial arrangements for members Assists during disasters; Provides sanitation facilities like latrines; Provides safe water Making burial arrangements for members Funding through merry go round Making burial arrangements;250 250 200Restricted Restricted Restricted Restricted RestrictedNGO Indigenous NGO Indigenous IndigenousBeyond local External Community Members Beyond local External Community Members Community MembersLonger (10 yrs) Longer (12 yrs) Longer (12 yrs) Longer (16 yrs) 10 yrsFormal Informal Formal informal Informal  "},{"text":" Organisational landscape of food crisiswomen Figure 6. Legend Figure 6. Legend 1 World Vision 1 World Vision 2 AMREF 2 AMREF 3 Africa Harvest 3 Africa Harvest 4 Farm Care 4 Farm Care 5 Jasho group 5 Jasho group 6 Kyemole Poultry Keepers 6 Kyemole Poultry Keepers 7 KWFT 7 KWFT 8 KREP 8 KREP 9 Faulu Kenya 9 Faulu Kenya 10 Equity Bank 10 Equity Bank 11 Kenya Red Cross 11 Kenya Red Cross 12 Utui wa Mulaani 12 Utui wa Mulaani 13 Kisinga 13 Kisinga 14 Muuo wa mwinga 14 Muuo wa mwinga 15 Wendo wa Mwinga 15 Wendo wa Mwinga 16 Kanini Kaseo 16 Kanini Kaseo 17 Wendo wa Kisomo 17 Wendo wa Kisomo 18 Wendo waa Ka 18 Wendo waa Ka 19 Jumwia 19 Jumwia 20 Mulaani centre 20 Mulaani centre 21 Mwamba wa AIC 21 Mwamba wa AIC 22 Mwamba welfare 22 Mwamba welfare 23 Kyemole welfare 23 Kyemole welfare 24 Ngwate ngukwate 24 Ngwate ngukwate 25 Mbiw'a  ngwiwe  ngosini Legend 26 Amiran 1 Mulaani Centre group 2 Jasho 27 Provincial Administration 25 Mbiw'a  ngwiwe  ngosini Legend 26 Amiran 1 Mulaani Centre group 2 Jasho 27 Provincial Administration 3 World Vision 3 World Vision 4 Red Cross 4 Red Cross 5 Mbiwangwiwe 5 Mbiwangwiwe 6 Ngone Mwaitu 6 Ngone Mwaitu 7 KARI 7 KARI 8 Kisinga group 8 Kisinga group 9 CDF 9 CDF 10 Ivati group 10 Ivati group 11 Wimukye 11 Wimukye 12 European Union 12 European Union 13 NALEP 13 NALEP 14 LATIF 14 LATIF 15 Kanini Kaseo 15 Kanini Kaseo 16 WFP (World Food Programme) 16 WFP (World Food Programme) 17 Ministry of Agriculture 17 Ministry of Agriculture  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Networks of information Source Topic (men)   Topic (women) SourceTopic (men)Topic (women)  Type Farming Market Rain- Drought Planting Rainfall & Type TypeFarmingMarket Rain-Drought PlantingRainfall &Type  of methods fall & post weather of ofmethodsfall& postweatherof  seed   harvest information seed seedharvestinformationseed     handling  handling  "},{"text":"Table 8 lists potential partners for CCAFS in the area.  "}],"sieverID":"9eef4e7e-5891-4cce-8214-fa6c17b823db","abstract":"The tools and guidelines used for implementation of the village baseline study across all CCAFS sites, as well as the mapping outputs at a higher resolution can be accessed on our website (http://ccafs.cgiar.org/resources/baseline-surveys)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0791759c333340006861aa8fb1a44a05","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0ea7465e-0842-411a-8725-ee825ec24293/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"TABLE OF CONTENTS","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A. INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"A dual land use/ land cover mapping exercise was undertaken to identify, interpret and analyse the landscapes of Mt. Kenya and the surrounding lowlands using Landsat ETM+ imagery acquired for 11 March, 2001. Mt. Kenya and its surrounding lowlands are characterized by extreme variations in both the physical landscape, ranging from glaciers to dryland savannahs, and in the human landscape, ranging from large paddy rice schemes to small crop/livestock farms. Due to this heterogeneity, automated supervised and unsupervised classification resulted in the misclassification of much of the study area. As a result, the LUCID team adopted a mixed approach using supervised classification and visual interpretation. The land use and land cover mapping activities were largely based on visual interpretation and transformed into a GIS through the vector digitisation of polygon features. The interpretations were corrected after ground truthing and consulting secondary sources. The team assigned separate land use and land cover classes to each polygon to better link the spatial patterns of use/ cover changes to socio-economic and biophysical driving forces and to record the vegetative characteristics for associated analyses of land degradation, biodiversity and carbon sequestration."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"This working paper was written as a general guide to conducting land use/cover interpretation of satellite imagery in heterogeneous areas where the results of automated classification systems are unsatisfactory. The paper details the conceptual approach to the classification and interpretation strategies, outlines the stages of interpretation and analysis and provides recommendations on how to adapt the approach for similar studies in Africa. The IGBP-LUCC definitions of land use, land cover, land use change and land cover change, which the team used to develop its classification scheme, are listed in Appendix 1 (IGBP, 1997)."}]},{"head":"B. THE LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION APPROACH","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":353,"text":"The land use/cover interpretation of the March 11, 2001 ETM+ satellite image of Mt. Kenya is part of the wider LUCID research project that is examining the relationship between changing land use, biodiversity and land degradation. As such, it was critical that the interpretation of the image provides an accurate rendition of the location and distribution of land use and cover types, including as much information about the type of agricultural cover. The cover information will be important for examining, for example, the relationship between changing vegetative classes, fauna, and soil characteristics. It will also be required for future examination of above ground carbon storage. The wider project is also identifying the underlying socio-economic and biophysical driving forces of land use/cover change in order to better project future changes. For this, it is vital to differentiate areas under different land ownership and management types, a differentiation that could be captured in a land use classification. Both land cover and land use classifications, therefore, are required for the purposes of this study. A hierarchical system of nomenclature was utilized for the land use/ cover classification scheme and is listed in Table 1. The land cover scheme has been adapted from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (Latham, 2001) and the Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS) classifications (Dickinson et al. 1996). The FAO land use classification scheme was refined to include land ownership and management variations. In this dual land use/ land cover classification system, every polygon is assigned both a land use and land cover attribute, resulting in separate use and cover spatial layers. More than one polygon may share the same land use code but may have different land cover codes. For example, the land use polygon 'national park' on Mt. Kenya includes two land cover polygons: the tundra/moorland/glaciers zone and the afro-montane and bamboo forest zone. Similarly, areas under the same land cover may have different land use designations; such forest cover areas with land use codes of national park, national forest reserve or unprotected forest. This dual land use/ cover coding allows for flexibility in the spatial analyses."}]},{"head":"C. IMAGE INTERPRETATION","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"C.1. Study site characteristics affecting interpretation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Mt. Kenya is the second highest mountain in Africa and is located in central Kenya. Its wellwatered slopes provide critical high potential agricultural conditions in the predominately semi-arid nation, and the mid-slopes have been intensely farmed for many years. The mountain is surrounded by a semi-arid lowland plateau. The project's study site consists of the eastern slopes of Mt. Kenya and encompasses a steep ecological gradient from the glaciers on the mountaintop at 5,199 metres above mean sea level (AMSL) to dryland grasslands at 600 metres AMSL elevation. The site covers 11,670 km 2 , or approximately one third of an ETM+ Landsat satellite image."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"The heterogeneity of the landscape of the site is extreme both between and within land use and cover classes. For example, the natural vegetation ranges from sparse tundra vegetation and afro-montane rainforest, to sparse grasslands in the lower elevation, dryland area. The human managed landscape includes irrigated paddy rice, tea and tree plantations, coffee and maize farms and scattered fields of millet and sorghum within bush. Most of the landscape is heavily influenced and closely managed by humans. Land managers include small-scale farmers whose farms are typically less than 2 hectares each, private wheat farms and sheep ranches of up to 300 hectares in size, large agricultural parastatals and parks and reserves managed by local and national governments."}]},{"head":"C.2. Automated vs. visual interpretation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The heterogeneity in land uses and covers led to our inability to rely on automated classification schemes. Traditional supervised and unsupervised classification techniques tended to produce either too many classes differentiating areas that were actually similar, or, when the number of classes was reduced, to join radically different areas such as irrigated areas with mixed bush and crops. An attempt to reduce the noise by dividing the image into separate elevation bands and classifying within those bands, was useful in defining the boundaries of some classes (e.g., forest types on the mountain, grasslands within a park, tea), but was not helpful for most of the study area such as those characterized by small scale agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"In the drylands, which are a mosaic of small and large cultivated fields, fallowed fields, grassland, and bush of varying heights, the automated classification schemes produced speckled results without differentiating broader regions, for example areas with medium versus low intensity agriculture. In the drylands, it was necessary to interpret high resolution aerial photographs (1:20,000) in sample sites to obtain estimates of the area under cultivation and under other uses (Olson, 1998). At the lower resolution (1:100,000) of the ETM+ satellite imagery, it was possible to delineate only a class of mixed bush and farms with no finer detail. The scale of 1:100,000 was arrived at by zooming to the raster resolution."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"To better understand the societal restrictions and processes in order to project future land use/cover change, it was necessary to differentiate land tenure and management types. Differentiating between large and small-scale tea producers, or between government and community managed bush land areas, for example, is critical in predicting how the use of the land will change, and whether the area under that class will expand or contract. This information was gathered from a variety of sources including ground truthing, group interviews, maps and GIS layers from different sources and by consulting experts knowledgeable of the area. The land use class information was saved as a separate variable from the land cover information. Each polygon was thus assigned a land use as well as a land cover attribute. Where the land cover and use boundaries differed (e.g., due to agricultural incursion into a protected forest), the land cover boundary has been used as the initial land use boundary (protected area and other ownership boundaries will later be added)."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"The basic approach adopted, therefore, was to conduct visual interpretation of the image and to identify both the land use and land cover of each polygon. The LUCID team also identified the boundaries of some land covers, such as between forest types using an automated classification technique known as 'seeding'."},{"index":5,"size":193,"text":"The vectorized digitising of the raster image file (also known as heads-up digitising) is similar to manual digitising of paper sources in that lines or polygons are traced by hand, but the interpreter works directly on the computer screen using the image as backdrop. With the help of the display tools of ArcView GIS, such as zoom in and out, the operator can work at the resolution of the raster data and thereby digitise at a higher accuracy level. However, the accuracy is still highly dependent on the interpreter. The tracing method automates the process by creating one line or polygon at a time on the image displayed on the computer screen. This is a significant improvement in accuracy and speed over manual digitising of interpretations placed first onto paper. The improvement is especially pronounced when fully automatic raster to vector conversions cannot be applied in cases such as low image quality or complex layers. These include, but are not limited to instances of cloud cover, or when a segment of the image contains a number of different land use or cover classes such as Shamba system interspersed with plantation and afro-montane forests."}]},{"head":"C.3. Stages of interpretation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The various stages of interpretation that were utilized as part of the land use and land cover change mapping assessment included georectification of the satellite image, initial stages of visual interpretation, ground truthing, and finally the correction of land use/land cover attributes."}]},{"head":"C.3.a. Georectification","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":367,"text":"The first stage in the interpretation of the image was to geographically rectify the raster ETM+ image so that it conforms to existing spatial data. This was conducted in Erdas © Imagine software (ERDAS, 2001) using the following parameters: the datum was set to WGS 84 and referenced to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 37 South. The image was referenced to a number of Ground Control Points (GCP's) taken from a 1:50,000 topographic maps produced by the Survey of Kenya (1962Kenya ( -1997)). The entire Landsat ETM+ Scene was georectified using approximately 90-100 GCP's distributed across the image. The GCP's were selected to be features that were visible on both the image and the topographic map sheets, such as roads, forest boundaries, towns, and other key features. The resulting output was saved as an Erdas Imagine *.img file and then opened in ESRI © ArcView as an image data source. ArcView GIS version 3.2 was used throughout most of this project (ESRI, 1999) The next stage was to overlay selected vector GIS data layers to assist in the land use/cover interpretation of the image. The team consulted layers such as roads, towns and market centres, rivers, administrative and protected area boundaries, and agro-ecological zones (ILRI, 2002, Jaetzold andSchmidt 1983). These data sets had been originally prepared at the national scale and, for this project, clipped to a bounding polygon of the study area. Following the projection conversion from decimal degrees to UTM Zone 37 South, most of the layers became spatially incorrect with errors ranging from as little as 100 metres to as much as 1 kilometre. A possible method by which this error could be reduced would be to transform the polygon with the boundary of the study area to geographic decimal degrees and a WGS 84 datum, and then use this boundary to clip the additional GIS data layers. The clipped layers should then be transformed to UTM coordinates. In this project, the supplemental GIS data layers were only used a guide to help in identification and interpretation. The scale that the supplemental data was displayed and interpreted was a minimum of 1:100,000 to maintain consistency with the scale of interpretation of the image."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Only features recognizable at that scale are thus mapped. As a result, any features that are too small to clearly visualize at that scale were not digitised, resulting in a de facto minimum mapping unit of 30 hectares."}]},{"head":"C.3.b. Initial land cover interpretation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"The next stage of the mapping activity was to label each polygon with its land cover identifiers. A new attribute record was edited to the attribute table and labelled as LC_Code. The new fields were added as a numeric variable with sufficient character spaces for the land cover type labels."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Each general land cover type was assigned a 4 digit numeric code, for example, a land cover class of cultivated land was assigned a code of 4000, within this land cover class there are a number of specific land cover types such as rainfed cultivation. Rainfed cultivation also has specific land covers such as tea. Therefore a land cover code for tea was thereby assigned a code of 4100. The full code list is given in Table 1."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"A variety of combinations of the 30 metre spatial resolution imagery bands were used to assist in the identification and interpretation process. The combinations that were most commonly used were bands [4,3,2] [5,4,3] and [7,4,2] [R,G,B]. These were used in combination with the 15-meter panchromatic band, which was added as a separate layer (typically the 15-meter panchromatic is viewed in ArcView as bands 9,9,9 unless the band has been created as a separate file as in other remote sensing software packages). The 4,3,2 band combination detects vegetation through chlorophyll content, while bands 5,4,3 reflect moisture content and bands 7,4,2 reflect irrigated surfaces. The 4,3,2 band combination was commonly used to differentiate forests and degraded forests, the tea and coffee zones, and the large farms and ranches. The combination 5,4,3 was used to examine dry woodland and riverine forests. Finally the combination 7,4,2 was used to identify large and small-scale irrigated crops such as rice and horticulture. The 15 metre panchromatic band was especially useful for identifying features distinguished by texture or shape such as the boundaries of square fields indicating the presence of farms, or rectangles indicating buildings in urban areas."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"The next stage of the mapping exercise was to visually interpret and digitise the boundaries of the land cover polygons. Figure 1 illustrates how a feature representing the Shamba systems (a government scheme where a mix of forests and cash crops are grown together) on the upper slopes of Mt. Kenya was digitised at a scale of 1:100,000. The polygon that has been digitised is then given a label identifier (ID) with a generic name representing the land cover type and a land cover code. This same process was repeated until the entire image was interpreted and a new layer created of unique polygons each with their own label identifier. Each polygon was thus surrounded by other unique ID polygons. The general and interactive snapping tolerances were enabled and set at 50 meters to permit adjacent polygons' vertexes to be joined. Snapping vertexes to nodes is an important procedure to minimize errors and to avoid polygon area miscalculations."},{"index":5,"size":89,"text":"The initial interpretation did not differentiate land uses from land covers, but instead determined just the cover types, as the mapping exercise was to provide a general identification of landscape boundaries. The initial interpretation contained twelve land cover classes, including large scale farms, small scale maize farming, small scale tea/coffee farming, tundra, afro-montane forest, riverine woodlands, shrub land, bush, deforested or bare soil, urban, and water. An additional category labeled ground truth contained polygons in which the visual interpretation was difficult and required ground truthing and/or consulting additional sources."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"A critical component of the initial land use/cover classification involved the use of the 'seed tool', a procedure available in the image analysis extension of ArcView GIS 3.2. The seed tool identifies a contiguous area of an image with spectral characteristics similar to a training area that the interpreter selects. The seed tool was mostly used to delineate the boundary between land covers. Examples of how the seed tool was used include differentiating the tea, coffee and maize small-scale agriculture zones, and bounding forests and water bodies."}]},{"head":"C.3.c. Ground truthing","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Once the polygons had been digitised and each assigned a land cover code, the resultant maps were prepared for ground truthing. The study area was divided into blocks, each corresponding to the extent of a 1:50,000 scale topographic map. The blocks, with their land cover interpretation displayed over the image, were printed and compiled into a field notebook. See Figure 2. Two key points that enhance the utility of the ground truthing maps are: 1) grid coordinates should be displayed in the correct coordinate system (e.g., in UTM they should be in metres and tic lines spaced at 5,000-metre intervals), and 2) the polygons should be displayed such that they are 'transparent' with only their boundaries visible so that the satellite image remains visible underneath the polygon boundaries. During ground truthing, the observer is then able to easily identify and correct the boundaries. Each printed map was placed in plastic sheets and compiled into folder. This permitted changes to the boundaries and identified fields to be drawn or written directly on the maps while in the field."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"During the ground truthing, Global Positioning System (GPS) units were used to identify where we were, to document the location of waypoints and to track line features such as roads or tracks. The correct parameters need to be programmed into the GPS unit, ideally the same parameters as those used to geo-reference the image, to ensure that the GPS recordings correspond to the GIS data layers. For example, the datum was set at WGS 84 and projection parameters set to UTM/UPS. When recording waypoints in the GPS, it is important to average the recordings to reduce the x and y coordinate errors by remaining at the same place for approximately 60-90 seconds."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The point and line data recorded on the GPS was downloaded onto a laptop computer every night to prevent the accidental overwriting of the data in the GPS. The downloading was done using OziExplorer GPS Software (downloadable at www.oziexplorer.com). This easy-to-use software exports data to ESRI format shape files, which can be read by ArcView. The coordinates should first be exported in decimal degrees or latitude/longitude coordinates, and then if necessary transformed into UTM co-ordinates using either the projection utility tool."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"Data sheets (see Appendix 2) were completed that documented each waypoint's surrounding land covers and uses, including details such as plant species and degree of deforestation. Interviews with people near the waypoints and in nearby towns helped to clarify land ownership, management and causes of use/cover change. The team also used still photography to document various observations. The information from the data sheets and the roll and frame numbers of the photographs were recorded as attribute data of the waypoints shape file as shown in Figure 3."}]},{"head":"C.3.d. Correction of land cover attributes and generation of land use attributes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Information from the field, including notes on the notebook maps, interviews, photographs and the attribute data from the GPS, as well as secondary sources, were used to verify and correct the original land cover interpretation and use these secondary sources to determine the general, specific and sub-specific land use categories. Secondary sources included the 1:50,000 scale topographic maps, national and regional GIS layers for Kenya and its provinces, and the Mt. Kenya Aerial Survey Report and GIS dataset (SoK, 162-1997, ILRI, 2002, Gathaara 1999). By switching between the attribute table and the shape file (overlaid onto the image) the interpreter could identify and correct the land use and land cover codes."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Figure 3: Attribute data recorded from ground truthing with the design template and the GPS Although few corrections in the location of boundaries between polygons were necessary, several polygons had originally been assigned incorrect land covers. Examples of omission and commission resulting in misclassification included:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Several large farms and institutional land in the semi-arid area had been misclassified as small scale agriculture;"},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"• A large region in a forest reserve had been classified as tree plantation but was found to be under the Shamba system (a governmental scheme of rotating planted trees and crops); • A forest reserve (Imenti) had been classified as non-degraded forest when actually it was vigorous secondary growth following complete clearance of a mature forest a few years earlier;"},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"• Some hills in the semi-arid zone had been misclassified as bush when they were actually degraded woodland, having been thinned out by grazing and cutting for charcoal;"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• The area under irrigated agriculture had been underestimated because the interpreters were not expecting to find irrigation in zones where it had been only recently developed."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"These examples illustrate the importance of ground truthing and consulting supplemental sources, due to the limited information discernable from remotely sensed imagery and errors made by the interpreters due to a lack of complete knowledge. Areas with similar spectral characteristics may have very different covers (e.g., degraded woodland versus bush) or uses (large versus small scale agriculture). Land management systems (e.g., tree plantation versus Shamba system) are not visible on the image yet define how the land is used and how it will change."},{"index":8,"size":208,"text":"The next stage was to clean the data layer and correct any 'island' polygons. Island polygons are created when digitising a small polygon on top of a larger feature (see Figure 4). They cause problems during interpretation and analysis because that area has been assigned two attributes. There are a variety of methods to clean island polygons. One method is to download the 'shape clean' ArcView extension from the Internet and use the 'intersection' command. For small areas, an alternative is to digitise the island feature and then the larger polygon. A different method is to convert the layer containing the island polygons to a grid file (provided that the spatial analyst extension is loaded in ArcView) and then re-convert the grid file to a shape file. The island polygons will then be clipped out of the larger polygons. One disadvantage of the latter technique is that the land use or cover string label will be assigned a numeric code and you loose the text label, for example all plantation polygons will be converted to a code of 2. The observer will then need to manually correct the numeric grid codes to be text. Another disadvantage is that island polygons may be lost and need to be redigitised."},{"index":9,"size":358,"text":"Through trial and error, the LUCID team found that the output grid cell size specification should be set to about 50 meters to preserve the shape of smaller polygons. Finally, another method is to draw a line splitting the larger polygon, and digitise the island polygon adjacent to the line. The split polygon can then be deleted and a new polygon drawn. Snap the edges of the previously split polygon to the new polygon using the general and interactive snapping. Through any of these procedures, the cleaned island polygons should resemble the left portion of Figure 4. Once all the polygons had been digitised, each polygon assigned a land use and cover code (noting the land use categories had been derived from the initial land cover interpretation and subsequently from secondary data sources), and the interpretation corrections completed; the resultant shape file was then built and cleaned. The build command creates or updates the attribute tables, whereas the clean command generates coverages with correct polygon topology. The clean command also edits and corrects geometric coordinate errors, assembles arcs into polygons and creates feature attributes for each polygon. This was accomplished by converting the shape file to an Arc/Info coverage using the SHAPEARC command in Arc/Info (if Arc/Info is not available, the X-Tools ArcView extension may be downloaded from the Arc Scripts menu on the ESRI website at http://www.esri.com). The X-Tools extension in ArcView calculates the area of each polygon in square meters, acres or hectares. To match the identification code with the text description, double click the legend and add the appropriate labels. Save the land use and land cover legend files under separate names in the working directory to prevent confusion between the land uses and cover codes. Tables and maps created with these files then include the text descriptors. The calculation of area (in meters squared, acres and hectares) and perimeter (in meters) is conducted in the table properties and the calculate menu is selected. Tables of area and perimeter are then constructed automatically. Table 2 shows the area and perimeters of each land use and land cover code that have been generated from this interpretation."}]},{"head":"D. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"The land use and land cover mapping procedure described above effectively represented the heterogeneous mix of human and natural landscapes of the Mt. Kenya area. The refinement of the land cover classification consisted mostly of adding classes that are important economically (e.g., irrigated agriculture) or for plant biodiversity and land degradation (e.g., degraded versus non-degraded forest). The refinement of the land use classification scheme was based on knowledge of the drivers of land use change in the area derived from previous fieldwork and data analysis. In the land use classification, the major addition was differentiating between land management and ownership types. This information will be critical in the process of projecting how the land use may change in the future. For example, large-scale farmers and agricultural institutions are much more likely to keep their land under pasture, or invest in irrigation technology, than small-scale farmers. Small-scale farmers may respond more quickly than parastatals to changes in the market, for example by switching from tea to maize when prices change. Similarly, the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) and the Forest Department (FD) have different policies regarding the harvesting of trees in forests."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"This type of land use and cover interpretation and analysis requires information about the area that can be only obtained from a variety of supplemental sources including maps, literature, interviewing people and ground truthing. Interpretation based only on the image's spectral characteristics is fraught with limitations and the resultant errors would be compounded during a change analysis. Automated classification based on the spectral characteristics was, in this image, not helpful due to the heterogeneous landscape and very small land management units."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"The LUCID team recommends that for future land use and land cover analysis of such heterogeneous landscapes:"},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"• A Mix of automatic classification and visual interpretationo Automatic is useful for delimiting homogeneous vegetation zones, such as forests and tree or agricultural plantations. o Visual interpretation is useful to reduce interpretation errors in heterogeneous natural landscapes as well as in complex human-managed landscapes. In human managed landscapes, supplemental information is often required to differentiate, for example, between extensive areas of grain crops versus natural savannah, or to correctly identify zones of intense agriculture. In our area, for example, much of the landscape was covered by tiny fields under a variety of crops (perennial crops such as tea and coffee interspersed with seasonal maize and horticultural crops, with fields separated by planted trees). • Adopting a dual land use and land cover classification scheme, to provide critical information on land use drivers and constraints in projecting future changes in use, and to provide information on the biophysical characteristics of the landscape for a variety of environmental analyses."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"• Fuzzy boundaries exist between some of the largest and most important land use/cover classes in tropical agricultural settings, but it is nevertheless important to attempt their rough delimitation. The transition from tea/coffee to cropping/maize dominant to mixed maize/ bush, for example, is gradual and not necessarily visible on imagery. The biophysical and socio-economic differences, however, are significant and important to recognize. Identifying changes between in their spatial extent using imagery, however, may not be possible.   Below are the land use and land cover definitions adopted by LUCC-IGBP-IHDP (quoted from LUCC Report Series No. 3, 1997: 19-20)."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Land cover refers to the physical characteristic of earth's surface, captured in the distribution of vegetation, water, desert, ice, and other physical features of the land, including those created solely by human activities such as mine exposures and settlement."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Land use is the intended employment of and management strategy placed on land cover type by human agents, or land managers. Forest, a land cover, may be used for selective logging, for resource harvesting, such as rubber tapping, or for recreation and tourism. Shifts in intent and/or management constitute land-use changes."},{"index":8,"size":135,"text":"Land-cover and land-use changes may be grouped into two broad categories: conversion or modification. Conversion refers to changes from one cover or use type to another. For instance, the conversion of forests to pasture is an important land-use/land-cover conversion in the tropics, while abandonment of once permanently cultivated land and the regeneration of forests is taking place in parts of the mid-latitudes. In contrast, modification involves maintenance of the broad cover or use type in the face of changes in its attributes. Thus a forest may be retained while significant alterations take place in its structure or function (e.g., involving biomass, productivity, or phenology). Likewise, slash-and-burn agriculture, a use, may under-go significant changes in the frequency of cropping, and use capital and labor inputs while retaining the rotation, cutting, and burning that constitute such uses."},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"Land-cover conversion operates through many pathways, the constellations of which form specific processes. For instance, deforestation leads to many types of land cover, but one common conversion process entails cutting, burning, and even planting of grass to create a pasture."},{"index":10,"size":121,"text":"In turn, site abandonment may lead in succession to a secondary forest. These pathways and processes, such as deforestation, desertification, wetland drainage, or agricultural intensification mediate the conversion or modification of land cover. Thus they can be envisioned as forcing functions, which have direction (forest to pasture or pasture to forest), magnitude (amount of change), and pace (rates of change). In turn, these pathways are typically triggered by changes in the use of the land, specific operating strategies (e.g., labor, capital, crops), which are linked to changes in the purpose of land management (e.g., for subsistence, market, occupation, or recreation). Thus changes in the controlling land agents or the context in which they operate affect land use and, ultimately, land cover."},{"index":11,"size":44,"text":"It is important to recognize that many land-use/land-cover change pathways exist and are differentiated globally and over time. The study of LUCC focuses much of its effort and emphasis on understanding the specific conditions and controls -both biophysical and social which determine these pathways."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" List of Tables ..........................................................................................................................iv List of Figures .........................................................................................................................iv List of Appendices ..................................................................................................................iv A. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................1 B. THE LAND USE AND LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION APPROACH.....................1 C. IMAGE INTERPRETATION ............................................................................................3 1. Study site characteristics affecting interpretation .........................................................3 2. Automated vs. visual interpretation ..............................................................................3 3. Stages of interpretation .................................................................................................4 a. Georectification .........................................................................................................4 b. Initial land cover interpretation..................................................................................5 c. Ground truthing..........................................................................................................7 d. Correction of land cover attributes and generation of land use attributes..................8 e. Calculation ..............................................................................................................10 D. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..........................................................10 E. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................16 Appendices .............................................................................................................................17 "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Vector digitising of the Shamba System polygon at a scale of 1:100,000 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Map catalogue with the digitised polygons overlaid onto satellite imagery. Each map zone was printed separately for ground truthing. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Island polygon overlaying another polygon and after intersection, two separate polygons created "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. "},{"text":"Figure 6 .Figure 7 .Appendix 1 . Figure 6. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Land use and land cover classes for the Eastern Mt. Kenya study site  "},{"text":"Land Use Code General Land Use Type Specific Land Use Type Sub-Specific Land Use Type  Agriculture -Small Scale Agriculture -Small Scale Rainfed Cropping Rainfed Cropping Tea Tea Maize Dominant Maize Dominant Mixed Bush/Crops Mixed Bush/Crops Coffee Coffee Irrigated Cropping (Horticulture Dominant) Irrigated Cropping (Horticulture Dominant) Grazing Land (Bush and Grassland) Grazing Land (Bush and Grassland) Agriculture -Large Scale Agriculture -Large Scale Rainfed Cropping (Wheat Dominant) Rainfed Cropping (Wheat Dominant) Irrigated Cropping (Horticulture Dominant) Irrigated Cropping (Horticulture Dominant) Shamba System (Mix of Crops and Tree Plantations) Shamba System (Mix of Crops and Tree Plantations) Ranches Ranches Wheat and Grazing Pasture) Wheat and Grazing Pasture) Protected Areas Protected Areas National Parks National Parks National Reserves National Reserves Forest Reserves Forest Reserves Institutional Land Uses Institutional Land Uses University Research Plot University Research Plot KenGen Land KenGen Land Don Bosco Farms Don Bosco Farms Tree Plantations Tree Plantations Urban and/or Built-up Areas Urban and/or Built-up Areas Water Bodies Water Bodies Dams Dams Lakes Lakes Non-Protected Forest Areas Non-Protected Forest Areas Non-Degraded Non-Degraded Degraded Degraded  "},{"text":"Land Cover Code General Land Cover Type Specific Land Cover Type Sub-Specific Land Cover Type  Tundra/Mooorland/Glaciers/Grasses Tundra/Mooorland/Glaciers/Grasses Forest Forest Bamboo Forest Bamboo Forest Afro-Montane Forest Afro-Montane Forest Woodland (Open Canopy, mostly Dryland Forests) Woodland (Open Canopy, mostly Dryland Forests) Tree Plantations Tree Plantations Shamba System Shamba System Degraded Forest Degraded Forest Degraded Woodland Degraded Woodland Bush Bush Cultivated Land Cultivated Land Rainfed Cultivation Rainfed Cultivation Tea Tea Maize Dominant Maize Dominant Mixed Bush/Cultivation (Grains Dominant) Mixed Bush/Cultivation (Grains Dominant) Wheat and Pasture Wheat and Pasture Coffee Coffee Irrigated Crops Irrigated Crops Rice Rice Horticulture Horticulture Urban and/or Built-up Area Urban and/or Built-up Area Water Bodies Water Bodies Dams Dams Lakes Lakes Grassland Grassland  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Calculated area and perimeter for each of the land use and land cover categories Land Use Code Count Area Perimeter Acres Hectares Land Use CodeCountAreaPerimeterAcresHectares  "}],"sieverID":"da377c8e-2526-4044-97dc-2080c307c719","abstract":""}

data/part_5/089bfcb048ae0c312c76d67f0d7bb3a3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"089bfcb048ae0c312c76d67f0d7bb3a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1e863d74-970a-449f-a23a-d402b81fd5ef/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"It is important to remember that quality milk production must begin at the farm. That way, your milk will have fewer bacteria that cause spoilage and diseases. In order to ensure good quality and protect the health of consumers, you must always carry out milking in accordance with good hygienic practice."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"You should observe the following:"}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Maintain clean and healthy cows. Sick animals can transmit diseases to humans through contaminated milk"}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Keep a clean milking environment, free of dust and mud. Garbage and dung in the milking area provide a good breeding ground for rats, flies and cockroaches that may transmit dirt and bacteria to the milk."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Do not milk cows if you are suffering from communicable diseases like diarrhoea or typhoid, but seek medical treatment and resume milking only when you have fully recovered."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• Do not mix colostrums (the milk produced for the first seven days after calving) with normal milk."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Before milking wash your hands with soap and clean water before milking."},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• Wash the udder with a clean cloth and warm water and dry with a clean dry cloth"},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"• Make the first draw into a dark strip cup to check for mastitis and throw away from the milking area even if the milk appears clean. This exercise ensures that this first jet of milk cleans the teat channels from any material that might have entered between milking times."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"• Use clean metal stainless steel buckets -left picture for milking and not dirty ones like in the drawing to the right."}]},{"head":"•","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Cows with mastitis should be milked last and their milk discarded."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Milk from cows under antibiotic treatment"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"The process of milking "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"•• Pakistan Factsheet 10 July 2015should not be sold or consumed until 3 days after last treatment or as advised by the veterinary practitioner•After milking, dip the teats into an \"antiseptic dip\". Mild solution of vinegar will be a good alternative!!•During milking, the milker should not: After milking, sieve the milk through a strainer or muslin cloth to remove solid particles that may have fallen in during milking.• Cover the milk to avoid contamination.•Theresearch brief has a Creative Commons licence. You are free to re-use or distribute this work, provided credit is given to ILRI. July 2015 Move the milk to a clean and cool area An initial version of this factsheet was developed through the Agricultural Innovation Program for Pakistan. It was made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the sole responsibility of ILRI and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. It was prepared by M.N.M Ibrahim ([email protected]). Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251 11 617 2000 Fax: +251 11 617 2001 Email: [email protected] ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a member of the CGIAR Consortium Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Phone: +254 20 422 3000 Fax: +254 20 422 3001 Email: [email protected] Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251 11 617 2000 Fax: +251 11 617 2001 Email: [email protected] W et cloth wrapped around m ilk can Milk ca ns put into cold wa ter basin, flowing wa ter is perfect P rovide shade as the m inim um m ea ns of cooling "}],"sieverID":"b24d041e-7072-4cec-acea-a8d53baa2259","abstract":""}

data/part_5/08f3c01fa0d23da4ccb61df695158f23.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08f3c01fa0d23da4ccb61df695158f23","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/88ea752b-23a8-4d1f-a311-e5bc2fd72a2f/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Study #3960 Contributing Projects: • P611 -Restoration of deforested/degraded areas in Colombia, Peru, Haiti and","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":366,"text":"Enlisting the dairy industry to end Colombia's deforestation crisis Colombia has seen rapidly increasing deforestation, especially in areas of the Amazon rainforest. This deforestation has had a profound ecological impact on this, the world's second most biologically diverse country, which has forest covering more than half of its territory and provides a home for 10% of the world's species. However, a big step against this trend has been facilitated by the CGIAR Program on Water Land and Ecosystems (WLE) and Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), who have persuaded two giants of Colombia's dairy industry to join the country's zero-deforestation movement. The dairy company Alpina and the national association of milk processors Asoleche have signed the landmark \"zero-deforestation dairy value chain agreement\" after an outreach blitz by WLE/Alliance staff and partners. This successful campaign involved active engagement with the Colombian Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development under the Sustainable Land Use Systems Project, with support from the multi-stakeholder platform Secretariat -which the Ministry invited WLE/Alliance to manage. While the beef and dairy sector is one of Colombia's largest employers, it has traditionally also been a major contributor to deforestation. In 2019, the government aimed to change that when it signed the zero-deforestation agreement with companies in the sector. Initially, the agreement had very few major dairy sector signatories. Alpina in particular was hesitant to sign when first approached, unsure of what impact such a commitment may have on its supply chain operations. However, after the Secretariat explained the connection between the dairy supply chain and deforestation and Alpina's potential role in the zero-deforestation movement, Alpina agreed. Alpina's involvement, in turn, contributed to Asoleche's decision to join the movement. The producer association's signature was of particular importance to the zero-deforestation movement. Asoleche has 28 affiliates producing about 1.5 million liters of raw milk annually. Working with Asoleche will enable the Secretariat to reach out to all association members, potentially bringing more players into action. Contacting smaller producers through Asoleche has already proven productive. The Secretariat prompted dairy companies in the Department of Caquetá, which has one of the highest rates of deforestation in Colombia, to sign the agreement in March 2021."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The commitment by Alpina and Asoleche and many other signatories to the zero-deforestation dairy value chain agreement will support Colombia's efforts to reduce deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions by 50% by 2050."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome: <Not Defined>","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : Yes","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Policies contribution:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• 675 -Zero deforestation agreement in Colombia (https://tinyurl.com/2pj4uhhu)"}]},{"head":"Stage of maturity of change reported: Stage 1","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Colombia is committed to achieving zero deforestation by clearing trees to make way for pastures. In 2019, a public-private agreement (Acuerdo de voluntades de actores público-privados) was signed between the Government of Colombia and the dairy industry, aimed at ending deforestation and destruction of the high plateau (páramos) (1,2)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The beef and dairy sectors have traditionally been a major contributor to deforestation (3). However, as a result of the efforts of WLE/Alliance and its partners, 2020 saw a milestone in the efforts to reduce deforestation: Alpina, one of the largest dairy firms, signed the zero-deforestation dairy value chain agreement (4, 5, 6). Asoleche, the national association of milk processors, also signed the landmark pact (7)."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"This outcome resulted from the efforts of WLE/Alliance staff to build trust with local partners."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Engaging with the Colombian Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development under the Sustainable Land Use Systems Project was critical to success (8). The Ministry invited WLE/Alliance to lead the technical Secretariat of the multi-stakeholder platform (9). The Secretariat supported generation of operational guidelines (10) and the action plan (11) of the agreement that enable private actors to fulfill the agreed commitments to achieve a supply chain free from damage to natural ecosystems."},{"index":5,"size":137,"text":"Previously, the signatories to the agreement included very few major dairy sector actors. WLE/Alliance supported the formulation of technical protocols for assessing zero deforestation and campaigned to reach out to the big dairy industry players, including Alpina, to encourage them to sign the agreement. At first, Alpina was hesitant to commit to the accord, noting that it did not know the implication of such a commitment to its supply chain operations. The Secretariat offered to help Alpina understand the connection between its supply chain and deforestation (or its absence) and its role in the zero-deforestation movement. A year later, both Alpina and, at its urging, Asoleche signed the accord (12). Alpina collects milk from about 3,500 farmers producing 1.1 million liters daily (13); Asoleche has 28 affiliates producing about 1.5 million liters of raw milk annually (14)."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Asoleche's signing of the agreement could be a game-changer for the zero-deforestation movement in Colombia: It will enable the Secretariat to reach out to Asoleche members, potentially bringing more players into the movement (15). The Secretariat has convinced dairy companies in the Department of Caquetá, which has one of the highest rates of deforestation in Colombia, to sign the agreement in March 2021 (16)."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"67c25a85-3f29-421d-a7d3-c23b5b74e1a9","abstract":"WLE/Alliance leadership of a multi-stakeholder platform secretariat prompted dairy giants to join the zero-deforestation movement in Colombia"}

data/part_5/091f218c05ae287cfd83f872a70df5a0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"091f218c05ae287cfd83f872a70df5a0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/af20ed28-7659-4043-9125-c73feec5ee44/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"• Superior characteristics of IF: higher nutritional quality, higher yield and carrying capacity, tolerance to abiotic stress, higher profitability","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Limited acces to productive and economic resources (seeds, fertilizer)"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Implementation and management costs for IF systems."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Lack of interest and initiative from producers (custom, risk aversion)"},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"• Distance to markets (buying inputs)"},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Gender, income level, education, producers' size, have no significant relationship with adoption level Producers never state that they adopted IF due to their environmental benefits. All their stated motivators were economic 11.32% of the total land used for cattle production in the study area was cultivated with IF 42.7% of the surveyed producers have adopted IF and 50.6% belonged to some sort of producer association (N=307)"},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"Among adopters:"},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"Median adoption: 22.2%, with a rightly skewed distribution (skewness = 0.99) 4.8% of the adopters had all their land under IF 20.8% had between 50% and 99% of their land under IF"}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Quantitative Analysis: A correlation analysis was used to evaluate the influence of socio-demographic variables and the technical knowledge of improved forages on the adoption level. A Mann-Whitney U test was applied for the analysis of mean differences in the adoption level between regular and board members of associations Qualitative Analysis: Information obtained through semi-structured interviews and PRA was analyzed qualitatively to identify inhibiting and motivating adoption factors"}]},{"head":"Data Collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Ruiz Mosquera, Lisbeth Rocío 1 ; Burkart, Stefan 2 ; Muñoz Quiceno, Jhon Jairo 1 ; Enciso, Karen 2 ; Gutiérrez, Jhon Fredy 2 ; Charry, Andres 2/3 ; Puerta Rodríguez, David 2 ; Vivas Quila, Nelson José 1 ;Albán, Noé 1 ; Morales Velasco, Sandra 3 ; Díaz, Manuel 2 ; Peters, Michael 2 "}]},{"head":"CONTACT","index":6,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Technical knowledge of IF • Technical assistance • Membership in a producer association • Administrative or directive role in producer association (active participation) PROMOTING FACTORS • Lack of knowledge on establishment and management of IF • Lack of knowledge on forage species adapted to the region • Negative personal experiences due to inappropriate management of IF and observation of negative experiences made by other producers • Inappropriate credit scheme for cattle production. Repayment too early in the business cycle, high interest rates "},{"text":" Dr. Stefan Burkart [email protected] This poster is being presented at \"Tropentag 2016: Solidarity in a competing world -fair use of resources\"; September 18 -21 2016, Vienna, Austria Image 1 & 2 Cattle system with IF (left.) vs. traditional (right.) in dry season Source: Grupo de investigación Nutrifaca -Universidad del Cauca OBJECTIVES • Identify limiting and promoting factors for adoption of IF in the south west of Colombia (Patia Valley, Cauca)• Propose strategies that promote higher adoption of these technologiesMATERIALS & METHODSThis study is part of the research program \"Development and implementation of forage resources for sustainable bovine production systems in the Cauca department, Colombia\" between the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the Cauca UniversityTabla 1 Correlation between selectd variables and adoption level "}],"sieverID":"7a2da673-8c1e-49d6-a696-8a796f42a555","abstract":""}

data/part_5/093bc4373c0d4fb1055b3beb1acab2ef.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"093bc4373c0d4fb1055b3beb1acab2ef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9edef902-8603-431c-842c-218efc084b31/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Vulnerability mapping of 100 priority tree species in Central Africa to guide conservation and restoration efforts","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Climate change and other anthropogenic threats are increasingly imperilling the biomes of Central Africa (Abernethy et al., 2016;Réjou-Méchain et al., 2021). This region hosts a wide diversity of biomes which are globally important for biodiversity, carbon storage and local people's livelihoods, ranging from the humid forests in the Congo Basin and western coast, to the savannas in the Sahel region and eastern and southern borders (Dinerstein et al., 2017). The African humid forests are the world's second largest rainforest after the Amazon, accounting for 30% of global rainforest cover (Malhi et al., 2013b). These forests are crucial for global carbon storage and they sequester more carbon per hectare than the Amazon forests (Lewis et al., 2013). On the other hand, the African continent also contains the largest area of tropical savannas in the world and, despite the lower tree density, this biome also stores substantial amounts of carbon in vegetation and soil (Grace et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"Climate change is expected to impact forests and savannas in Central Africa. Temperatures are predicted to increase by 2-4 • C by the end of this century in Central Africa (Aloysius et al., 2016), while expected changes in precipitations vary in sign and intensity between different models across most of the region (Aloysius et al., 2016;Dosio et al., 2021). A recent study found that current climatic niches in African humid forests associated with specific forest types are predicted to move to new areas due to climate change, threatening the survival of such forests and their species (Réjou-Méchain et al., 2021). Several studies have reported that, despite the widespread re-greening of Sahel following the long-term droughts in 1970s-1980s (Brandt et al., 2015;Eklundh and Olsson, 2003;Herrmann et al., 2005), climate change is decreasing tree diversity and increasing the abundance of droughttolerant species in the Sahel and West African savannas (Brandt et al., 2015;Gonzalez et al., 2012;Herrmann and Tappan, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":183,"text":"Central African biomes are currently under pressure of anthropogenic threats which have increased in unison with rapid population growth during the last decades (Gerland et al., 2014). Population in Central Africa is mostly rural and largely relies on subsistence agriculture and extraction of forest and savanna resources. Over the past decades, deforestation in Central Africa has been mainly driven by vegetation clearance for smallholder agriculture, exploitation of fuelwood, and timber logging (Abernethy et al., 2016;Tyukavina et al., 2018). Although Central Africa has lower deforestation rates than Latin America and Asia due to a lower presence of industrial agriculture (Abernethy et al., 2016;Tyukavina et al., 2018), deforestation in African humid forests still contributes to 11% of global forest loss (Malhi et al., 2013a). Fire is another important threat in Central Africa. While natural fires are very common in African savannas (Andela et al., 2017) and this biome is adapted to burning (Veldman et al., 2015), fires represent a great threat to humid forests in Central Africa as they do not naturally occur in these forests and consequently, tree species are highly vulnerable (Cochrane, 2003)."},{"index":4,"size":181,"text":"In response to the current climate and biodiversity crises, several global initiatives have committed to promote conservation and restoration actions across the world. These include the Bonn Challenge that aims to restore 350 million ha of degraded lands and the UN High Ambition Coalition for Nature and People that aims to protect 30% of the planet by 2030. In the context of these initiatives, African countries have pledged to build an 8000 km wall of trees stretching from East to West Africa under the Great Green Wall initiative, and to restore 100 million ha of degraded land by 2030 under the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100). To ensure long-term success, such conservation and restoration efforts should include careful evaluation of climate change and other anthropogenic threats (Carwardine et al., 2012;Gillson et al., 2013). As threats are not spatially homogeneous and different species have different sensitivities to the same threat, spatially explicit vulnerability assessments can help to define which regions and species are most in need of conservation and restoration (Fremout et al., 2020;Gaisberger et al., 2017Gaisberger et al., , 2021))."},{"index":5,"size":129,"text":"The objectives of this paper were to (i) map the vulnerability of 100 socio-ecologically important priority tree species in Central Africa to climate change, fire, habitat conversion, overexploitation, overgrazing and (ii) propose a spatially explicit strategy to guide species-specific conservation and restoration actions. We performed ensemble distribution modelling to predict the present and future distributions of the 100 species, assembled other anthropogenic threat exposure layers, assessed species' sensitivities to the five threats based on their trait profiles, and constructed species-specific vulnerability maps by combining the species' exposure and sensitivity. We produced maps indicating recommended areas for conservation and restoration actions for each species and for the whole study area. We discuss how the results of this study can be used to guide conservation and restoration actions across Central Africa."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study area","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"We performed the analysis in the Central Africa region and the surrounding countries. While our main geographical focus was the Central African region (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, São Tomé & Principe), we extended the boundaries of the study area to the extent 0 • W-35 • E, − 15 • S-25 • N to obtain more reliable suitability distributions of the modelled species, which also occur in surrounding countries. The study area covers 30 countries and seven biomes (Dinerstein et al., 2017) (Fig. S1). For simplicity, from here on we refer to this whole study area as 'Central Africa'."}]},{"head":"Tree species selection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"For the vulnerability mapping, we assembled a list of 100 socioecologically important priority species from several priority lists for African tree species (Franzel et al., 2007;IUCN, 2021;Jaenicke et al., 1995;Sacandé and Berrahmouni, 2016;Sacandé and Pritchard, 2004) (Table S1). We selected the species from these priority lists according to the following criteria: i) native from Central Africa; ii) socioeconomically important for timber, fuelwood, edible fruits, forage, or other non-wood products; iii) important for conservation or used in restoration programs; iv) with at least 30 presence points after geographical filtering at 5 arcmin resolution. The 100 species belong to 24 families and 70 genera, the most species-rich families being Fabaceae (30 species), Meliaceae (11 species) and Combretaceae (10 species) (Table S1). 54 species mostly occur in the savanna biome, 23 in the humid forest biome and 23 in both biomes (Table S1). The list of the species, families, main biome, priority lists and main uses is provided in Table S1. We present the species richness map of the 100 selected species across Central Africa (i.e. a map indicating the number of species occurring per grid cell) in Fig. S2."}]},{"head":"Species distribution modelling","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"We compiled species presence points from RAINBIO (Dauby et al. (2016); https://gdauby.github.io/rainbio/download_page.html), GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility; www.gbif.org), and BIEN (Botanical Information and Ecology Network; http://biendata.org/). To reduce spatial bias (Kramer-Schadt et al., 2013), we filtered the presence points using both geographical filtering at 5 arcmin and environmental filtering. We used 45 predictor variables, including 19 bioclimatic variables, 5 variables of cloud cover, 6 variables indicating climatic extremes (VITO, 2020(VITO, , 2021)), 10 soil variables (Hengl et al., 2017), and terrain variables (Table S2). We removed collinear variables using the Variance Inflation Factors (VIF). We selected pseudo-absence and background points using to the target group method described by Phillips et al. (2009) and Mateo et al. (2010). Distribution modelling was carried out using ensembles with up to nine algorithms using the Bio-diversityR package for R (Kindt, 2018), consisting of random forest, MAXENT, GBM, GLMSTEP, GAMSTEP, MGCV, FDA, SVM, and EARTH. The models were cross-validated with 5 folds and using spatial blocks implemented through the blockCV package for R (Valavi et al., 2019), and model performance was assessed using the Area Under the receiveroperator Curve values cross-validated with spatial blocks (cvAUC). We converted the suitability maps into presence-absence maps using the suitability threshold at which model sensitivity equates to model specificity. The detailed methodology for the species distribution modelling is presented in Text S1."}]},{"head":"Threat exposure","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"Exposure to each of the five threats (fire, habitat conversion, overgrazing, overexploitation, climate change) was estimated following the methodology described in Fremout et al. (2020) and Gaisberger et al. (2021). Exposure maps were generated using freely accessible spatial datasets and according to assumptions from literature and expert knowledge. The exposure maps had values from 0 to 1 (zero to maximum exposure) and had resolution of 30 arcsec (ca. 0.9 km at the equator). The exposure maps for fire, habitat conversion, overgrazing and overexploitation represent current exposure levels, while the exposure maps for climate change represent the predicted future exposure. In addition, we performed a sensitivity analysis to assess the impact of methodological decisions on the results (see Section 2.7), for which we complemented the reference exposure maps with best-case and worst-case exposure maps. The detailed methodology for estimating the reference, best-case and worst-case exposure maps to the five threats is presented in Text S2."}]},{"head":"Species sensitivity and vulnerability","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Species sensitivity and vulnerability was estimated following Fremout et al. ( 2020) and Gaisberger et al. (2021). We estimated the sensitivity of the 100 species to each of the five threats using a set of 16 traits (Fig. 1, Table S3). The 16 traits mostly refer to biological traits (e.g., bark thickness or leaf phenology) but we also included plant uses such as fuelwood and timber provision. We compiled the trait data for the 100 species from an extensive literature search (Table S4). The obtained trait dataset had an average of only 5% missing traits per species, ranging from 0% for the species Afzelia africana, Pterocarpus angolensis and Pentaclethra macrophylla to 13% for Psorospermum febrifugum (Table S5)."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"We defined the relation between each trait and the sensitivity of each species to the five threats following the rationale in Table S3. First, each trait was assigned a weight indicating the expected importance for species sensitivity to any of the five threats, ranging from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high importance) (Fig. 1, Table S3). Then, each trait was divided into several levels linked with a partial score based on the expected influence on the sensitivity of the species, varying between zero (lowest sensitivity) and one (highest sensitivity). For example, leaf palatability was assigned a trait weight of 5 for overgrazing, as it is one of the main traits in defining sensitivity to overgrazing, and species with nonpalatable leaves and palatable leaves were assigned partial sensitivity scores to overgrazing of 0.25 and 1, respectively (Fig. 1, Table S3)."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"We defined the overall sensitivity of the 100 species to each threat by calculating the weighted average of the partial sensitivity scores and the weights (Fig. 1, Table S3). Some specific trait levels were assigned a fixed score: we assigned a sensitivity score to overgrazing of 0.25 to all species with unpalatable leaves, and a sensitivity score to overexploitation of 0.25 to all species that are not used for firewood nor timber. We selected a value of 0.25 because these species are not completely unsusceptible (e.g., a species with unpalatable leaves may still be impacted by trampling)."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Vulnerability maps for each species were constructed by multiplying the threat exposure maps with the sensitivity values for each species. We then categorized these vulnerability maps into five categories: zero (0-0.01), low (0.01-0.25), medium (0.25-0.5), high (0.50-0.75) and very high (0.75-1) vulnerability."}]},{"head":"Maps for conservation and restoration","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Based on the vulnerability maps, we created species-specific maps identifying priority conservation and restoration actions, following Fremout et al. (2020) and Gaisberger et al. (2021). For constructing these maps, we analysed vulnerability to climate change and vulnerability to current threats separately. We calculated the vulnerability to current threats as the highest among fire, habitat conversion, overexploitation and overgrazing. Because different threats often have additive or synergistic impacts on vulnerability (Côté et al., 2016), we adjusted the values of vulnerability to current threats to 'very high' where the vulnerability value to at least three current threats was 'high', and to 'high' where the vulnerability to at least three current threats was 'medium'."},{"index":2,"size":299,"text":"Based on the vulnerability to current threats and climate change, we generated maps indicating priority areas for conservation and restoration actions for each species. The conservation and restoration actions  include: a) in-situ conservation, b) ex-situ conservation or assisted migration, c) active planting or assisted natural regeneration. First, insitu conservation of tree populations and seed collection for tree planting activities is prioritized in areas with low vulnerability to current threats and climate change. Areas with low vulnerability to current threats are likely to have higher genetic variability and lower inbreeding rates than areas heavily disturbed by humans, while low climate change vulnerability to climate change ensure that local populations will likely remain viable and continue producing seed in the future. Second, ex-situ conservation or assisted migration is prioritized in areas with high vulnerability to climate change. This in order to protect the genetic variability of populations within the same species that currently grow in an area that are expected to become unsuitable under climate change, of which the genetic diversity may be lost if they are not conserved ex-situ or helped to migrate to areas where they are more likely to persist. Third, restoration activities such as active planting or assisted natural regeneration are prioritized in areas under high to very high current threat vulnerability but low vulnerability to climate change, combined with interventions to decrease the current anthropogenic threats. Areas with a high or very high vulnerability to current threats are the ones that most require restoration interventions, while the low vulnerability to climate change increases the likelihood that the planted or regenerating trees will be able to survive in future. Finally, the conservation and restoration maps also identify areas that are not suitable in present but are predicted to become suitable in future under climate change (Text S2)."}]},{"head":"Resprouting capacity","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"No x Yes","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Resprouting capacity","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"No x Yes","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Germination strategy","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recalcitrant x Orthodox","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Growth rate","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Slow","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"In addition to the species-specific maps, we also constructed summary maps depicting priority areas for conservation and restoration interventions across Central Africa. These maps were generated based on the number of species per grid cell for which the grid cell in question is recommended for the given conservation and restoration action."}]},{"head":"Sensitivity analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Finally, we carried out a sensitivity analysis to estimate how methodological decisions impact the results of the conservation and restoration maps, following Fremout et al. (2020). We included three factors: a) methodological decisions used to construct threat exposure maps; b) trait weighting schemes chosen to calculate sensitivity values; and c) missing trait values. For each factor, we applied two 'treatments' for the vulnerability assessment in addition to the 'reference' treatment (i.e., the original or reference maps). The two treatments for a) correspond to the best-case and worst-case exposure map described in Section 2.4 and Text S2, while the details for the treatments for b) and c) are explained in Text S3. We performed the sensitivity analysis on the conservation and restoration maps and we generated for each species six versions of these maps, corresponding to the six treatments. For each of the six treatments, we calculated the percentage of grid cells within distribution of each species that changes their priority actions recommended as compared to the reference map."}]},{"head":"Results","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Species distribution modelling","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The mean cvAUC value of the distribution models of the 100 species was 0.81. The cvAUC ranged from 0.64 to 0.96 with only seven species out of 100 with cvAUC < 0.70, indicating good to very good distribution models. The list of cvAUC values for the 100 species is provided in Table S6. The average cvAUC value of the individual modelling algorithms ranged from 0.73 ± 0.21 SD (GBMSTEP) to 0.80 ± 0.07 SD (random forest). The ensemble model was the most accurate for 39 of the 100 species, followed by random forest (18 species) and SVM (18 species)."}]},{"head":"Species sensitivity and vulnerability","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Fig. 2 summarizes the proportion of the current distribution of each of the 100 species under the different vulnerability levels to the five threats. On average 34% (±12 SD) of the grid cells within species distribution ranges had a high to very high vulnerability to at least one of the five threats, while 60% (±14 SD) had medium to very high vulnerability. For the individual threats, the average area under high to very high vulnerability was 19% (±10 SD) for overexploitation, 10% (±9 SD) for habitat conversion, 9% (±13 SD) for climate change, 6% (±7 SD) for overgrazing, and 5% (±4 SD) for fire. When considering the average area under medium to very high vulnerability, the values rose to 38% (±14 SD) for overexploitation, 19% (±14 SD) for habitat conversion, 18% (±19 SD) for climate change, 12% (±12 SD) for overgrazing, and 14% (±8 SD) for fire. The most vulnerable species in terms of proportion of their distribution under high to very high vulnerability were Prunus africana, Cola nitida, Dacryodes macrophylla, Pouteria altissima, and Vachellia gerrardii, with 58-80% of their distribution under high to very high vulnerability."}]},{"head":"Maps for conservation and restoration","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"For each of the 100 species, we generated maps highlighting priority areas for conservation and restoration actions for a) in-situ conservation; b) ex-situ conservation or assisted migrations; and c) active planting or assisted natural regeneration. Across the 100 species, on average 40% (±14 SD) of the distribution ranges were prioritized for in-situ conservation, 22% (±12 SD) for restoration, and 9% (±13 SD) for ex-situ conservation, while 11% (±13 SD) of the distribution ranges are expected to change from unsuitable to suitable under climate change. Fig. 3 shows the example of the conservation and restoration map for the species Faidherba albida. The conservation and restoration maps for the 100 species together with the vulnerability maps can be visualized online at: https://tree-diversity.shinyapps.io/vulnerability_central_africa/ and can be downloaded at: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare .19635996."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Fig. 4 shows the number of species per grid cell recommended for conservation and restoration actions across Central Africa. Priority areas for conservation for 20 to 50 species (representing 90-100% species occurring in the areas) are concentrated in the humid forests of Gabon and southern Cameroon and in the savannas in southern Chad, northern Central African Republic and western South Sudan, and occur both inside and outside protected areas (Fig. 4a). Priority areas for restoration for 20 to 50 species (representing 90-100% species occurring in the areas) are concentrated in the humid forests in southern Nigeria and in the savannas from Togo, Benin, Nigeria to northern Cameroon, and they are mostly within converted areas (Fig. 4b)."}]},{"head":"Sensitivity analysis","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Table S7 summarizes the results of the sensitivity analysis. The conservation and restoration maps are robust against the trait weighting schemes and missing traits (average change 2-9%), while they are more influenced by the methodological decisions used to construct threat exposure maps (average change 23-25%)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"In this study, we quantified the vulnerability of 100 socioecologically important priority tree species across Central Africa to climate change, fire, habitat conversion, overexploitation, overgrazing. Our results show that several species are threatened, with an average of 34% of their distribution ranges under high to very high vulnerability and 60% under medium to high vulnerability to at least one threat. Considering the commitment of African countries towards AFR100 and other international initiatives, it is essential that conservation and  restoration plans in the region include a careful evaluation of these threats."},{"index":2,"size":246,"text":"Our vulnerability assessment suggests that overexploitation represents the highest threat to the selected tree species in the study area (19% of the species distribution areas under high to very high vulnerability on average), followed by habitat conversion and climate change (9% each), while overgrazing and fire have lower importance (5-6%). The lower expected impact of climate change at least in the humid forest biome corroborates previous studies which postulated that African humid forests are more resilient to climate change than other tropical forests (Asefi-Najafabady and Saatchi, 2013;Bennett et al., 2021) largely due to a history of unstable post-Pleistocene climate which already led to the selection of more climate-resilient species (Willis et al., 2013). The lower vulnerability to habitat conversion is in line with the fact that deforestation in Central Africa is mostly driven by smallscale vegetation clearance for smallholder agriculture which leads to lower deforestation rates, while large-scale deforestation driven by industrial agriculture is still limited (Abernethy et al., 2016;Tyukavina et al., 2018). However, the recent expansion of both industrial agriculture (Feintrenie, 2014;Ordway et al., 2017) and subsidence agriculture (Herrmann et al., 2020;Tyukavina et al., 2018) may increase the threat of habitat conversion in the near future. Considering the high impact of overexploitation, it is fundamental that at least this threat is included in conservation and restoration planning in Central Africa, in addition to the more commonly considered threats of climate change and habitat conversion (e.g. Bomhard et al., 2005;Gomes et al., 2019;Triviño et al., 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":302,"text":"The overall high vulnerability to anthropogenic threats of the selected 100 species poses concerns about the conservation status of tree species in Central Africa. The most vulnerable species identified in this study should be considered high priority species for conservation actions. The five most vulnerable species had 58-80% of their area under high to very high vulnerability. Yet of these only Prunus africana is classified as 'vulnerable' according to the Global IUCN Red List, while Cola nitida and Pouteria altissima are considered 'not threatened' and Dacryodes macrophylla and Vachellia gerrardii are not assessed. This suggests that there may be a need to re-evaluate the current IUCN Red List assessments for these and other species, potentially through integration of the vulnerability mapping methodology we used here. Eightyfive out of the 100 species considered in this study have been assessed in the Global IUCN Red List, but among the countries in the Central African region, only Cameroon currently has a National Red List for Vascular Plants (Onana and Cheek, 2011). It is essential to have country-level assessments to evaluate the conservation status of tree species in different countries and conserve the genetic variation that exists across their distributions. Of the 98 species occurring in Cameroon among the 100 species analysed in this study, only 31 were included in the National Red List of Cameroon, with 11 species classified as threatened while the remaining 67 were not assessed (Table S8). Furthermore, 4 out of the 20 species considered as not threatened and 17 out of 67 not assessed by the National Red List of Cameroon have more than 50% of their distribution area within Cameroon under high to very high vulnerability (Table S8). This illustrates the urgent need in Central African countries to develop National Red Lists, to which our vulnerability mapping methodology can contribute."},{"index":4,"size":304,"text":"The vulnerability mapping methodology used in this study can contribute to IUCN Red List assessments and to inform large-scale conservation and restoration planning. The methodology can be useful to complement the IUCN Red List assessments, as it uses a spatially-explicit estimation of the impact of current anthropogenic threats and includes the future impact of climate change. The methodology has already been applied in tropical forests in South America (Fremout et al., 2020) and Asia (Gaisberger et al., 2021), and future studies could further improve the method used to create the exposure maps and to estimate trait-based sensitivity values, in order to make it applicable to other regions and ecosystems as well. Regarding the exposure maps, while the exposure maps of fire, habitat conversion, overgrazing and climate change were calculated using databases directly related to the respective threat exposure, the exposure map of overexploitation was constructed by combining the proxies of human population density and accessibility to cities (Text S2). If available in a study area, estimates of exposure to  overexploitation could be improved by including spatial data describing other determinants of overexploitation, such as law enforcement and use of forest resources (Fremout et al., 2020). On the other hand, depending on the study area, other threats in addition to the five used in this study could be added. For instance, in Central Africa, other relevant threats include mining (Edwards et al., 2014) and conflict zones (Mirzabaev et al., 2021). Regarding the trait-based sensitivity estimates, it would be important to standardize the set of traits selected for each threat according to latest studies and possibly also include 'hard' traits directly linked to the functional mechanisms determining species vulnerability (Fremout et al., 2020) such as leaf flammability for fire or xylem hydraulic conductivity for climate change, at least for species for which these data are available."},{"index":5,"size":225,"text":"The general conservation and restoration maps that we generated (Fig. 4) can help prioritize conservation and restoration actions. Large areas in the humid forests in southern Nigeria and in the savannas from Togo, Benin, Nigeria to northern Cameroon are indicated as priority for restoration activities, as the tree populations in these regions are under higher threat especially from overexploitation and habitat conversion compared to less populated forests in the Congo Basin (Fig. S3). Some of these priority areas for restoration activities in northern Nigeria and northern Benin are already part of the Great Green Wall initiative, but additional efforts are needed in other areas. Large-scale restoration projects with active planting and assisted natural regeneration should focus on degraded forests which have not been converted to agriculture yet in southern Nigeria, while promoting agroforestry in farmed landscape might be a better option for converted areas in Togo, Benin, northern Nigeria, northern Cameroon. Considering the high impact of overexploitation, restoration projects should promote planting of species that are important to local people for timber, fuelwood, fruits, and other non-wood products. Importantly, restoration interventions in savannas and grasslands should focus on restoring the original tree cover of these ecosystems rather than afforestation, which could instead threaten the unique biodiversity and ecosystem service provision of these ecosystems characterized by low tree density (Tölgyesi et al., 2021;Veldman et al., 2019)."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"On the other hand, priority areas for conservation are concentrated in the humid forests of Gabon and southern Cameroon and in the savannas in southern Chad, northern Central African Republic and western South Sudan. Considering the overall low expected impact of climate change on the species of interest across the region, there are no specific areas prioritized for ex-situ conservation of many species simultaneously. However, individual species such as Dacryodes macrophylla, Prunus africana and Pouteria altissima may be severely impacted by climate change and may require collection of seeds for ex-situ conservation or assisted migration to preserve the genetic variability of populations that grow in areas that are predicted to become unsuitable under climate change."},{"index":7,"size":151,"text":"Apart from prioritizing the most suited tree species and areas, to achieve successful restoration, it is also critical to ensure that functional seed systems are put in place (Atkinson et al., 2021). Such systems are crucial to obtain sufficient quantities of genetically diverse and locally adapted planting material, capable to persist under climate change and able to meet the diverse restoration goals. Such seeds should be sourced from areas identified as priority for in-situ conservation in Fig. 4 whenever possible. In countries with large-scale restoration needs, it will be critical to protect remaining seed sources, such as forest fragments but also trees on farms or even in cities (Rimlinger et al., 2021). Further, there may be a need for multilateral collaboration within and across countries to facilitate seed exchange. To ensure long-term success, it is also imperative to involve local people in the decision making of projects (Mansourian and Berrahmouni, 2021)."},{"index":8,"size":122,"text":"The maps indicating vulnerability and conservation and restoration actions for the 100 species are available online to facilitate their use by forest practitioners and policy makers: https://tree-diversity.shinyapps. io/vulnerability_central_africa/ and can be downloaded at: https://doi. org/10.6084/m9.figshare.19635996. To further support restoration projects in the region, the distribution maps generated in this study were  also integrated into the Diversity for Restoration (D4R) tool, which provides location-specific information on suitable tree species and seed sources for restoration projects: https://www.diversityforrestoration. org/ (Fremout et al., 2021). The D4R tool is currently available for Cameroon and Burkina Faso and will be expanded to other countries in Central Africa. We hope that the maps and results from this study can contribute to inform conservation and restoration projects in Central Africa."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"In this study, we assessed the vulnerability to climate change, fire, habitat conversion, overexploitation, overgrazing of 100 socioecologically important priority tree species and generated maps identifying priority areas for conservation and restoration actions across Central Africa. We found that on average 34% of the distribution ranges of the 100 species is under high to very high vulnerability and 60% under medium to high vulnerability to at least one threat, which calls for actions to protect these species. Many species identified as most vulnerable in this study are not considered as threatened by the IUCN Red List and there are no national assessments for tree species in the Central African countries apart from Cameroon, suggesting a need to update of the IUCN Red List for these countries. The conservation and restoration priority maps are available on a platform online in order to contribute to AFR100 and other conservation and restoration initiatives in Central Africa. The vulnerability mapping methodology used in this study can complement IUCN Red List assessments and inform large-scale conservation and restoration planning."}]},{"head":"CRediT authorship contribution statement","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"V.C.: conceptualization, data collection (threat exposure data, occurrence data, trait data), methodology, formal analysis, writingoriginal draft; M.E.: data collection (occurrence data, trait data), writing review and editing, funding acquisition, project administration, supervision; T.F.: conceptualization, formal analysis, methodology, writingreview and editing; H.G.: conceptualization, data collection (threat exposure data), methodology, writingreview and editing; H. W., E.V., K.D.R.: preparation of climatic layers; C.K.: writingreview and editing, funding acquisition; H.T.: data collection (occurrence data, trait data); E.T.: conceptualization, methodology, writingreview and editing, funding acquisition, supervision."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fig. 1. Illustration of the estimation of the sensitivity of the species Afzelia africana to fire (left) and overgrazing (right). Trait weights are indicated by shades of blue and the partial scores by colours from green to red (see legend in the middle). Overall sensitivity values, estimated as the weighted average of the partial scores with the trait weights, are indicated at the bottom of the figure. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Summary of sensitivity and vulnerability estimates of the 100 tree species for the five threats. Black dots indicate the species sensitivity values to the five threats. The cumulative bar plots indicate the relative frequency of species vulnerability values to each of the five threats (columns 1-5) and the relative frequency of the maximum vulnerability values (column 6). The bars show the proportions of the current distribution range of each species with a zero, low, medium, high and very high vulnerability to the five threats; and are indicated with colours from light yellow to dark red. The relative frequency of the maximum vulnerability values refers to the highest vulnerability among the different threats within a grid cell. The species are ordered according to decreasing proportion of the distribution range with high or very high vulnerability to at least one of the five threats (column 6). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Map of restoration and conservation priority areas for Faidherbia albida, indicating priority areas for in-situ conservation of seed sources (blue), active planting or assisted natural regeneration (green), ex-situ conservation of seed sources (dark red), areas expected to become suitable (yellow), and areas with no priority actions (grey). Countries of Central African region are indicated with thick borders. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Summary maps for priority conservation and restoration areas of the 100 socio-economically important tree pecies. The maps indicate the number of species per grid cell recommended for a) in-situ conservation and b) active planting or assisted natural regeneration actions. In a) we indicate in different colours priority areas falling within protected areas (shades of green) and outside protected areas (shades of red), while in b) we indicate priority areas falling within non-converted areas (shades of blue) and converted areas (shades of purple). Countries of Central African region are indicated with thick borders. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "}],"sieverID":"d92e43d2-e5b2-41b0-aba2-7a33f872e237","abstract":"Climate change and other anthropogenic threats are increasingly imperilling the diverse biomes of Central Africa, which are globally important for biodiversity, carbon storage and people's livelihoods. The objectives of this paper were to: (i) map the vulnerability of 100 socio-ecologically important priority tree species in Central Africa to climate change, fire, habitat conversion, overexploitation, overgrazing and (ii) propose a spatially explicit strategy to guide restoration and conservation actions. We performed ensemble distribution modelling to predict the present and future distributions of the 100 species, assembled other anthropogenic threat exposure layers, assessed species' sensitivities to the five threats based on their trait profiles, and constructed species-specific vulnerability maps by combining the species' exposure and sensitivity. The results show that these 100 species are vulnerable to the five threats, with an average of 34% of their distribution ranges under high to very high vulnerability and 60% under medium to high vulnerability to at least one threat. Many species identified as most vulnerable in this study are not considered as threatened by the IUCN Red List, suggesting a need to update their conservation status, potentially through integration of the vulnerability mapping methodology we used here. We generated both species-specific maps and summary maps including all 100 species identifying priority areas for a) in-situ conservation, b) ex-situ conservation, and c) active planting or assisted natural regeneration. We present an online platform to enable easy access to the vulnerability and the conservation and restoration priority maps for decision makers and support conservation and restoration planning across Central Africa."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096fecc3a8d9d98e04f9de28f202ecea","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/3833/f1c9aa1a39e1a8d6ed9f1b372e716088.pdf"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Value-chain analysis -An assessment approach to estimate Lake Nasser fisheries performance","keywords":["Fisheries","Lake Nasser","value chain","tilapia and pebbly fish"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":215,"text":"Lake Nasser is an important source of fish for the Egyptian markets. Lake Nasser has a diverse fishery with 52 fish species belonging to 15 families [1] . During recent decades, the lake's ecosystem has undergone change and species diversity has declined [2,3] . Tilapias, comprise 75% of the total catch by weight and are sold as fresh fish, while pebbly fish (Alestes spp.) and tigerfish (Hydrocynus spp.) are also important and are used as raw material to produce a traditional salted fish product. Other fish species in the catch are Nile perch, squeaker catfish, sharptooth catfish, Bagrus catfish and Nile carp. The statistics indicate that fish catches declined in the last 5 years mainly due to reduced tilapia and Nile perch catches [4] . Value chain analysis (VCA) has become increasingly prominent as a form of analysis in the fisheries and aquaculture sectors [5 -7] . The particular aims of this study were to: Map the fisheries value chain and the flow of products through the chain; identify the various actors, their functions, and existing linkages across the chain; conduct a preliminary analysis of the input-output structure and the distribution of margins, return on investment and job creation along the chain; identify the problems and opportunities facing different actors in the fisheries value chain."}]},{"head":"METHOD","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The work for this study consisted of three main stages: planning, data collection and data entry. Three main target groups were identified in this study: fishers, traders (intermediaries, wholesalers, and retailers) and fish processors. Three questionnaires designed to be used in the study (one for fishers, one for processors, of both fresh and salted fish, and one for the postharvest subsector; i.e. intermediaries, wholesalers and retailers). The questionnaires tested and revised and simplified wording for the interviewees."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Fishers were selected on a stratified random basis in the three fish landing sites (Aswan, Garf Hussein and Abu Simbel). Fish processors are based in Aswan and the sample selected randomly from a list of fish processors. While, fish traders were selected to represent different trading activities (intermediaries, wholesalers, and retailers). The number of interviewees for each category considered in this study are as follows; fishers 162; processors 22 (fresh and salted processors); and traders 23 (intermediaries, wholesalers and retailers). A total of 207 respondents (fishers 162, processors 22, and traders 23) were interviewed. Data collected allowed the estimation of a number of key indicators for each link in the value chain."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The data collected allowed for the construction of costs and earnings models for each respondent across the chain. The data collected on employment was converted into Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) jobs. FTEs were estimated based on 1 FTE being the equivalent of 300 days per year in fishing and processing sub-sectors, and 330 days FTE in the trading sub-sector as described by Macfadyen et al. [6]   ."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lake Nasser fisheries value chain mapping","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"Results of the value chain mapping and analysis revealed that the average catch per fisher per day was 20 kg and average sales price is EGP 6.3/kg, Fishers obtained a relatively low percentage (49%) of the final consumer price, due to the long supply chain compared to aquaculture value chain [6] . Tilapias represent 76% of catch and pebbly fish and tigerfish represent 13.6%. Intermediaries play an important role in collecting catches from fishers in their fishing camps and selling on to wholesalers at landing sites or in the market. Fish processing is an important subsector of the fisheries value chain in Lake Nasser. Fresh fish processing generates 5.7 FTE/100t processed, while salted fish processing generated 5.5 FTE/100t processed. Also, fresh fish processing led to higher value added (EGP 3652/t) than salted fish processing (EGP 2507/t). Salted fish (muluha) is a product that is unique to Upper Egypt and comes mainly from Lake Nasser. Muluha is made from tigerfish (Hydrocynus spp.), pebbly fish (Alestes spp.), Nile carp (Labeo spp.) and other species that cannot be sold as fresh fish. Raya and tigerfish sold salted in tins 7.08 FTE per 100 t sold 26% of salted fish 66.5% of fresh fish"}]},{"head":"14% of fresh fish","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Upper Egypt markets: 35% fresh fish, 50% salted fish and 24% processed fresh El-Obour (Cairo) & other markets in Delta: 50% fresh fish, 24% salted fish and 9% processed fresh 4.5. Data summary Changes in the average product price across the value chain indicate the average sales price for each link in the value chain (i.e. the basket price) (Table 1). The data indicates that fishers receive just below 50% of the final retail price. This study found that the fishing subsector resulted in total employment of 30 jobs (FTE) per 100 t of fish caught in Lake Nasser (Table 2). The highest employment level was in fishing followed by retailing, and intermediaries and wholesaling. More than 90% of fishers working in Lake Nasser are from Upper Egypt governorates. Meanwhile, 50% of wholesalers and 65% of retailers are also from outside Aswan. This indicates that the fisheries sector is an important source of job creation not just for Aswan but also for other governorates, including those of Upper Egypt. The current study found that most work was full time (>79%) indicating that fish businesses generate a good level of income across all subsectors. Furthermore, in fish retailing and wholesaling, almost all employment was full time (97% and 95% respectively). Youth (30 years old) represented 49-59% of total FTE indicating that working in the fisheries value chain is an acceptable option for young men. • Establish new service organizations to provide inputs."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Capacity building on recent fishing methods, improved handling and fish processing technologies."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Facilitate affording operations inputs (food, fuel and ice)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Ensure enforcement of security on and around the lake • Adopt community-based fisheries management approach"},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"• Improve living standards in the fishing camps in the lake and provide health service and social insurance service."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Local authority should support establishing fish auctions in both Aswan and Abu Simbel to regulate fish prices."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The Lake Nasser fishery is an important source of food and job creation in Aswan and Upper Egypt. The fisheries sector contributes significantly to direct job creation, including for youth. No women were employed in the fishers or fish processing sectors in Aswan."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Schematic chart for Lake Nasser fisheries value chain. "},{"text":"Table 1 Gross output values (average prices) for the Lake Nasser fisheries value chain  Subsector Price EGP/kg % of Retail prices SubsectorPrice EGP/kg% of Retail prices Fishers 6.29 49 Fishers6.2949 Intermediaries 9.32 73 Intermediaries9.3273 Wholesalers 10.40 81 Wholesalers10.4081 Retailers 12.79 100 Retailers12.79100 4.6. Job creation in fisheries value chain 4.6. Job creation in fisheries value chain  "},{"text":"Table 2 Employment creation in the Lake Nasser fisheries value chain  Employment Fishers Inter 1 Ws 2 Re 3 Total EmploymentFishers Inter 1 Ws 2 Re 3Total Jobs (FTE)/100 t sold 18.1 3.19 1.63 7.08 29.99 Jobs (FTE)/100 t sold18.13.19 1.63 7.08 29.99 % across the chain 60 11 5 24 100 % across the chain6011524100 Full-time (% of FTE) 79 78 95 97  Full-time (% of FTE)797895 97 Youth (% less than 30 years old) 57 53 59 49  Youth (% less than 30 years old)575359 49 Source of labor      Source of labor Aswan % 9 47 50 35  Aswan %94750 35 Other governorates % 91 53 50 65  Other governorates %915350 65 1 Intermediators; 2 Wholesalers; 3 Retailers   1 Intermediators; 2 Wholesalers; 3 Retailers 4.7. Analysis of critical factors limiting fisheries 4.7. Analysis of critical factors limiting fisheries development      development Focus group discussions (FGD) resulted in identification Focus group discussions (FGD) resulted in identification of a series of challenges categorized into; livelihood of a series of challenges categorized into; livelihood challenges; inputs availability challenges; operation challenges; inputs availability challenges; operation  "}],"sieverID":"6c80e58d-38db-45b7-9bac-56045cd22ceb","abstract":"Although, the fishery in Lake Nasser has existed for more than 40 years, the economic and financial performance of its fisheries-based businesses not well understood. The current study aimed to improve understanding of fisheries value chain performance in Lake Nasser. Individual interviews and focus group discussions with fishers, traders, and processors were used to collect quantitative and qualitative information about financial performance, employment creation and critical factors impacting performance of each node throughout the chain. Tilapias account for 75%, while pebbly fish and tigerfish account for 13% of capture. Fish processing is an important subsector as some fish species (mainly tigerfish and pebbly fish) are only consumed after going through a salting process. Fishers obtained a relatively low percentage (49%) of the final consumer price. Average catch per fisher per day was 20 kg and average total cost in the three fishing harbours was EGP 5210/t. One hundred tons of fish caught and sold provides an average 29.99 Full-Time equivalent jobs (FTE). The current study suggests that the fishery is under pressure from overfishing. Critical factors facing the fisheries sector and impacting profitability are numerous. This value chain study improve our understanding of the performance of fisheries sector in Lake Nasser and identified limiting factors and action needed to support fisheries development in the Lake."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09fab885d1c03c2a951b50b565cad9b5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/877552ca-01b6-43c7-aa16-a5bafc5c4588/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION 44~lG","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The 'plant botanically described as Manihot esculenta Crantz is known around the world by many different names such as cassava, tapioca, maníoc, maniok, mandioca, aipi, and yuca. Planta of the genus Manihot occur naturally only in tropical Aroerica, where about 100 different species are known (Rogers aud Flemíng, 1973)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Cassava was used in South Aroeríca as a food plant by the natíve Amerindíans long befo re Columbus discovered the New World and was probably transported by the Spanish and Portuguese to Africa and Asia as early ~s the 16th Century. Ita díffusíon withín the Continent of Africa has come about moat rapidly during the 20th Century (Coursey and Halliday, 1974)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"In terms of production, cassava ranks among the top 10 food erapa 1n che world and appears to ba increasing in importance. In 1972 the world production was estimated at 105 millon tons af fresh roots, produeed from a land area of 11 million hectares (Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Considering the fact that cassava ranka among the top ten food erapa in the wor1d, it has reeeíved relatively little attentian from the research scientist. The scientific cassava documentation • -3and stalks) in ths feeding of livestock with particular emphasis qn ruminants."}]},{"head":"Nutritive Value of Cassava Forage","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Ir should be pointed out that most of the existing data on cassava forage has been taken from plants vhich vere planted far root production and not specifically for forage production."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Reports from Peru (Galiano, 1955) ;Colombia (Obregón, 1968) ;Nigeria (Oyenuga, 1955) ;Brazil (Gramacho, 1973)   and that a withdrawal of nitragen from the leaves accurs after the formation of seeds, and root enlargement."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Data collected at CIAT (Maare and Cack) fram plants cultivated anly for forage production and harvested every 9U days gives a better idea of che chemical composition of the plant at an age when the entire plant i5 edible (Table 3 ).  A redlictian in raat grovth wou1d be expected when the branahes are harvested three times (every 4 months) during the year. No comparison i8 made as ta the root production of these varieties (Tabla 4) if no branehes were harvested¡ howaver, Ahmad (1973) harvested 7.3 tons of leaves (dry weight) during the year (every 10 weeks) from ooe hectare which reduced the production af roots to almos~ one-half of ths normal."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"Preliminary results at CIAT (Cock •. Pers.Comm.), witbout intensive ariety selection, indicates that up to 20 tons of forage dry matter er hectare can be harvested in one year. This was accomp1ished by increasing the p1ant popu1ation from 10,000 p1ants/ha (normal popu1ation for root production) to 111,000 p1ants/ha. The entire p1ant was harvested every 90 days, which is equal to 4 cuttings per year. This production level is approximate1y twice that reported by other w~rkers harvesting the cassava forage in conjunction with the roots. Since the original p1antings are sti11 in production (1 1/2 years) no measure has been made of root production."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"In similar trials at CIAT, using sma11 p10ts with 30 x 30 cm spacing, a yield of ove~ 30 t/ha of dry matter was obtained in 11 months at four harvest; at three harvest, yields dropped to slightly more than 25 t/ha. When spacing was decreased to 60 x 60 cm, the yield was further reduced to 16 t(ha. It should be noted that these yields were obtained on intensively managed small plots on a fertile soil."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"Considering that the information available to date shows that harvesting leaves from the cassava plant when p1anted as a root crop will greatly reduce the root production;it appears that separate plantings (for roots or for forage) would produce more total. dry matter per hectare."}]},{"head":"If certain varieties are better producers of forage and others better producers of roats, varietal selection will be very importante Toxit\" Problems in Cassava","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"It is well known by the scientists working on cassava that the forage and roots cOntain cyanogenetic glycosides which are readily split by 'enzymes naturally present in the plant to form free hydrogen cyanide (HCN). These are normally detoxified in the body with the resulting formation of thiocynates, which can be found in the blood and urine."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"This cyanide formation has been associated with disturbing thyroid function, and the depletion of the sulphur-containing amino acids (Coursey and Halliaay, 1974)."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"It has not been made clear whether or not the HCN normally occurring ~n cassava production produces a toxic effect in domestic animals"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"or whether the HCN present lS merely tying up sorne nutrient which could be added to the diet to overcome the deficiency."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"It has been reported (Ross and Enriquez, 1969) that cassava leaf meal (554 ppm of HCN) in excess of 10% of the ration will retard growth in baby chicks and is inferior to similar levels of alfalfa meal. In those studies, methionine was suggested as the first limiting factor in the cassava meal and was probably caused by an incre~sed demand for the sulphur-containing amina aeids used in the detoxification process of the cyanide. A look at the amino acid profile of cassava leaves and stems (Table 5) shows methionine and cystine (sulphur-eontaining amino aeids) to be low in relation to most other amino aeids. This explains why methionine.eonld be limiting if the amounts naturally present are tied up ln the detoxifieation of HCN."},{"index":6,"size":84,"text":"If the HeN content ln cassava i8 proven to be a serious problern ln livestoek, Obregon (1968) and Galiano (1955) have shown that most if not all, of the HCN can be removed by sun-drying before it is fed to livestock.  -----------------g/16g ni~rogen-----------------------  • Further evideDce that methionine 18 limiting in eassava based di~ts fed to monogastríes has beeo shown by Eggum (1970), Hutangalung (1972) and Haner (19'72), who improved the quality and digestibility of the dietary protein by adding methionine to the dieto"},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"To further verify that the toxie factor in cassava forage caused no physiologieal Problema in ruminants, Hoare and Cock (unpublished data), fed fresh ca,Bsava forage alone to four two-year-old steers for two months with no visual disorder. Blood thyocinates levels in the fresh cassava-fed steers (3.9 mg/%) were three times greater than steers(l.28 mg/l) grazing par; a separate trial, pure diets of fresh cassava forage were fed to a small group of sheep in confinement with no visual adverse effecta."},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"(1973) also reported that feeding either cassava forage or roots had no adversa effects in cattle or aheep."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"Value of Caaaava Fora e research work that has gone into determining the chemieal omposition and protein quality of cassava forage has been largely"},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"estricted to the leaf, as a protein source for humana."},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"he nutrive value of che leaves ia recognized as they constitute part f the human diet in parts of Afriea. Efforts haya baen made to xtraet the pratein from the leaves¡ however, the process ia very ophisticated and relatively expensive."},{"index":12,"size":61,"text":"actars such as a long growing season, low dry matter production and 'rregular harvesting are probably sorne Di the reusans why only a few esearch papers exist on the utilization of cassava forage in ruminant feeding. In additian, the mast eammon systems for beeE and milk roductlon ln the tropics do not presently lend thems~lves to the eeding of cut forages."},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"owever, as the demand for high quality protein (meat and mi1k)"},{"index":14,"size":44,"text":".' nereases along with the increased dem.and for a11uvia1 lands for ereal grains, the cattleman will have to look for ways of intensify-'ng hisoperation. One way will be ta grow cultivated tropical orage crops su eh as elephant grass, .Bugar cane, corn, sorghum, etc."},{"index":15,"size":77,"text":"o be combined with legumes, oil sead aaala and non protein nitrogen s aourees of supplemental protein. Ca55ava forage has a great potential as a protein s6urce. Bchandi (1952)  Ihe animals on elephant grass alone ate 22 per cent more feed (17.6 kg par kg of live weight gaín) than did either group B or C (13.7:1). The inefficient conversion of faed to gain appeared to be related to the low prDtein content of the e1ephant grass."},{"index":16,"size":73,"text":"As a follow-up to that experiment another trial vas designad to compare cassava forage toO other sources of protein, i.e~ fresh Desm.9diu~ distortum and cottonseed meal (CSM). In thís trial, mature sugar cane vas used as the major source af anergy. The cane was allowed tOTeaeh maturity (12 to 14 months of age) befara cutting, which corresponds to the age that it i8 harvested in the Cauca Valley oi Colombia for Bugar production."},{"index":17,"size":67,"text":"Desmodium distortum was selected as another souree of protein because 01 lts high protein content (23 per cent) and because of its growth style which lends itse~i Lo easy harvesting. ODe probIem associated with Desmodium <iistortum is that it is an aDnual species and while 3 to 4 cuttings (intervals of 60 daya) can be obtained, total dry matter production declines with eaeh subsequent cutting (Paladines, Pers.eomm.)."},{"index":18,"size":20,"text":"AII three forage species were offered fresb daily and in separa te feeders, ad libitum,to determine individual consumption of cacho"},{"index":19,"size":14,"text":"The eSM was fed once dai1y dn tap of the sugar caneo Each animal"}]},{"head":"was maintained in índívídual pens4","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Ihe animals in treatment 1 (cane and eSM) galnad 7 per cent fas ter (65~ g/da) than treatment 11 (622 g/da) and 11 per cent fas ter than animals in treatment 111 (584 g/da) (Table 7)."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"The average daily dry matter consumption was essentíally the same for al1. treatments (5.3, 5.2, 5.2, respective1y) whereas the effieiency of cORverting feed to live wsight gain was more varied."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Tba steera receiving CSM vere 5% more efficient than those receiving cas8ava and 11 percent more efficient than those receiving Desmodium distortum. Ir is very noticeable that the percentage difference between treatmenes\"in average daily gain was similar to that faund between dífferences in feed efficiency."},{"index":4,"size":185,"text":"However, vhen efficiency of gain í8 related lo the amount of protein   ----'-------~-~----------'-~ possible explaDation for this difference in protein utilizatioD ould be that group 1 was fed an excessive amount of protein whieh as ineffieiently utilized or that the forage protein •sourees provi¿ed ther nutrients not present in the cane plus CSM dieto MinaraIs should Dot be a consideration sinee all animals vere offered a omplete mineral míx free choice;however, the relatively, high ontent of fat especíally in the ea5sava forage may have had a ositive effect on l1ve weight gain and feed efficíency. he steers in group 11 ate 20 per cent 1ess cassava forage (1.52 g/da) than those receiving Desmodium distortum forage (1.94 kg!da), ut they ate 11 par cent more cane per head/da. Ihe lowar iutaka f cassava could represent a palability pioblem with the cassava ue to its bittar taste caused by the HCN contento Hovever, the ata suggest the HCN content of the cassava did Rot affect the verage daily gain, nar faed effíciency of these steera consuming iets with 30 per cent of the total as eassava forage."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":",c,?nomic Imp~}c.a~.io}l~-ºL._Cas~_?va Forage~ ~_~~stí~n inee the eassava pIant has never been laoked at as a major sauree f protein for livestock feeding, no data exists relative to roduction costo However, it would appear reasanabIe to use figures ublished by Diaz, Andersen and Estrada (1974) on the cost of producing assava roots in Colombia as a base line estimate for producing cassava orage (Table 8).  10)."},{"index":6,"size":97,"text":"It should be stressed that the protein content in ration 1 was probably higher than necessary and attributed to the higher cost of the ration. Also, the forage production figures presentad in this paper are frorn the Cauea Valley of Colombia and v01l1d be nsarar maximum possible than ~n average for the tropics~ However, there Bhould be little doubt that cassava forage can playa very important role in ruminant feeding in the tropics, whether it be used as part of a fattening ration ay in a dry sea son supplement program for tbe breeding or milking hard. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"- ~ ..... -------------------------------Source: Draft feeding standard, Republíc ofSingapore, 1972 .     "},{"text":" n many tropical countries, beef-type aniroala are being usad as ual-purpose anímals ta produce both meat and milk, since no dairyype cow has been developed which can thrive in the tropical nvironment. The cyclic production of the~e animals', which i8 vel1 nown hy everyone working in the tropíc8, 18 largely related to the ainfall pattern and thus the pasture Eeed supply of the zone. ows tend to con'ceíve a month or so after the rains begin which means hey give birth at the beginning of the dry season. lf they must urse a calf aod are mílked during the dry season, when both quantity nd quality of forage are 10v, ttiey will suffer a great physialogical hock due to undernutrition. Tha result ia low milk yields, and a eak caw that goea into an anestraus period lasting for several montha r untíl she can buíld back body tisaues. This viII take her vell eyond the normal breeding season and thus result in a calf produced pproximately every two years. his phenomenon can be avoided (assurning clímatic changes are not áreatly affecting reproduction) by developing pasturas which will grow and provida adequate nutrients duriog the dry season, or by growiog cultivared forage crops duriog the rainy season and preserving them Eor the dry season. Several ~lternative solutions have been presented (Presten 1975) as to how cultivated forages and other by-products can be utilized to eliminate weight 105ses and increase reproductiva efficiency. Preston also points out thar while ruminants can utilize a rather high level oi nan-protein nitragen they stil1 require a dietary source of performed pratein. "},{"text":" f--~._------_ ... _ -------_ . _ _ ... _---~ ----_ .. _ - "},{"text":" ---~ . . . --. . ----All forages where fed ad lihitum. "},{"text":" hirty per cent was added to the US dollar cast tor increased aeed and arvest cost due to an increase in the plant population per hectare lus 4 harvests during the year to give a more realistie estimate of he production cost of one hectare of cassava forage (US$ 428.09/ha). to be eheapest souree Df protein (262 per eent pratein equivalent) 1n Colombia, presently costs US.24i;equal to uS.09i per kg of protein equivalent, or ene cent less chan the'cost of one kg protein cost of producing sugar cana ln the Cauca Valley of Colombia (US$625!ha) with a production of 50 tons of dry mattar (vhole p1ant) per hectare, the cost of one kg of dry mattar vou1d be US.012. Tha daily production cost of the caasava!~ugar cane diet in this experiment vould than be (1.52 kg cassava X D8.02=US.03) + (3.70 kg sugar cane X U8.012=U8.Q4)=U8.07 or 1.3 cents per kg of faed consumad. Taking the present market price of fat steers in Colombia of U8.48 per kg live weight and an average daily gai~ of .62 kg, the feed production cost par kg of gaín (US lli) woulcl represent only 23 per cent the value of one kg of gaía, whereas the CSM!sugar cane diet cost, per kg of gain (US 40i), vas equal to 83% of the valus of one kg of gain in this experimento (Table "},{"text":" and the Unite:d States (Ramos-Ledón and Popenoe, 1970) gene rally agree on the chemica1 composition of the aerial part oí the plant when harvested at approximately one year of age (Table2) TABLE 2. AN APPROXUiATE ANALYSIS OF CASSAVA FORAGE  TABLE 2.AN APPROXUiATE ANALYSIS OF CASSAVA FORAGE  HARVESTED AT ROOT MATURITY.    HARVESTED AT ROOT MATURITY. Analysis D. M. Protein Fat  Fiber Ash AnalysisD. M.ProteinFatFiberAsh Cassava forage 25.0 16.0 7.5 45 14.5 12.0 Cassava forage25.016.07.54514.512.0 It has also besn reported that the forage has a significant amount It has also besn reported that the forage has a significant amount of calcium (.88 par cenC CaO);phosphorus (1.0 per cene P20S)and of calcium (.88 par cenC CaO);phosphorus (1.0 per cene P20S)and carotene (208,000 I.U./lb) which are a1so important nutrients carotene (208,000 I.U./lb) which are a1so important nutrients provided by cassava forage.     provided by cassava forage.  "},{"text":" Tha leavas of t~e eassava plant haya the highest proportion of protein.Ramos-Ledón and Popenoe (1970),reported an average of 25.5 ~er cent leai protein in plants grovn in southern Florida, while Rogers• (1959) 'reported a range of fram 20.6 per cent to while Rogers• (1959) 'reported a range of fram 20.6 per cent to 36.1 per cent leaf protein in different cultivars of casaaVa faund 36.1 per cent leaf protein in different cultivars of casaaVa faund invarious parts of Jamaica. The Florida work al so shoved the invarious parts of Jamaica. The Florida work al so shoved the par cent protein of the stems to be considerably lower (5.6 per cent) par cent protein of the stems to be considerably lower (5.6 per cent)  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 .  Parts of % of total   Pro t. Ether Crude  Parts of% of totalPro t.EtherCrude pIant plant D.M. Nitragen (llx 6.25) extrae. fiber Ash pIantplantD.M.Nitragen (llx 6.25) extrae.fiber Ash Leaves (%) 52 29.0 4.38 28.0 15.3 9.0 8.1 Leaves (%)5229.04.3828.015.39.08.1 Stems (% ) 15 18.0 1. 65 11. 3 14.3 21. 9 8.5 Stems (% )1518.01. 6511. 314.321. 98.5 StaIk (%) 33 15.7 1. 76 ll. O 13. O 2 S .2 7.8 StaIk (%)3315.71. 76ll. O13. O2 S .27.8 stem or stalk and makes up slight1y more than one-half of the total stem or stalk and makes up slight1y more than one-half of the total dry matter of the pIant at 90 days. The protein and non-protein  dry matter of the pIant at 90 days. The protein and non-protein fractions of the plant have not been determined to date;howBver, data fractions of the plant have not been determined to date;howBver, data  "},{"text":"for forage production or nutrient contento Genetic selection snd  times during tile life eyele of the pla,nt or harvested at the ti:me times during tile life eyele of the pla,nt or harvested at the ti:me the roats are harvested. the roats are harvested. Work done by Concei9ao et al (1973) shows thar cerrain varieties Work done by Concei9ao et al (1973) shows thar cerrain varieties are better forage praducers than others and suggests that a are better forage praducers than others and suggests that a ~gronomic practicas to inerease dry matter production and protein ~gronomic practicas to inerease dry matter production and protein content is an obvíous area for future stu•dies. content is an obvíous area for future stu•dies. Agronomie Agpacts of Cass~ya Agronomie Agpacts of Cass~ya While no agronomie practices haya beBn davelopad for cassava as a While no agronomie practices haya beBn davelopad for cassava as a forage plant, certain comments can be made which apply in general forage plant, certain comments can be made which apply in general to the planto to the planto Muller et al (1974) states that cassaVa grows best in a sandy 80il Muller et al (1974) states that cassaVa grows best in a sandy 80il with optimum growing temperature of 27°C. When the temperature drops with optimum growing temperature of 27°C. When the temperature drops to IS a C, growth stops;at 8 to 10aC the plant dies. The optimum rainfall to IS a C, growth stops;at 8 to 10aC the plant dies. The optimum rainfall lS 700 to 1000 mm and large amounts of sunshine are required. lS 700 to 1000 mm and large amounts of sunshine are required. He further states that a 50-ton yield of roots per heetare makes a He further states that a 50-ton yield of roots per heetare makes a heavy demand on the land¡will remove from the soíl approximately heavy demand on the land¡will remove from the soíl approximately 120 kg PZO S ' 450 kg K 2 0 and 250 kg CaO. No mention is made of nitrogen 120 kg PZO S ' 450 kg K 2 0 and 250 kg CaO. No mention is made of nitrogen depletian; however, leaf productian alone vould suggest that 400 to depletian; however, leaf productian alone vould suggest that 400 to 600 kg of nitrogen Mould be removed from the soi1 per ha/yr. 600 kg of nitrogen Mould be removed from the soi1 per ha/yr. All cassava forage production data to date has been in association All cassava forage production data to date has been in association with root production. Either the laaves ha ve been harvested several with root production. Either the laaves ha ve been harvested several  "},{"text":"negative correlatíon may exist between root production and forage  producing abi1íty (Table 4). producing abi1íty (Table 4).  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 .   PRODUCTION OF CASSAVA TOPS AND ROOT~ FOR THE YEARS PRODUCTION OF CASSAVA TOPS AND ROOT~ FOR THE YEARS  1969-72    1969-72    Average Production (Ton/ha) * Average Production (Ton/ha) *   Tops Relative Roats Relative TopsRelativeRoatsRelative    production  productíon productionproductíon Platina  46.79 157 12.52 100 Platina46.7915712.52100 Graveto  37.06 125 20.99 168 Graveto37.0612520.99168 Salangor Preta 33.03 111 25.39 203 SalangorPreta33.0311125.39203 Hamao  32.29 109 20.77 166 Hamao32.2910920.77166 ,Cigona  '30.76 103 21.39 171 ,Cigona'30.7610321.39171 Sutinga  29. 73 100 18.60 149 Sutinga29. 7310018.60149 Average  34.73    Average34.73 r8sh ve t    r8shvet  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 .    -9-   -9-  PROTEIN VALUE OF DEHYDRATED AERIAL PART OF CASSAVA PROTEIN VALUE OF DEHYDRATED AERIAL PART OF CASSAVA  PLANT AND SOME TROPICAL GRASSES, COMPARED WITH PLANT AND SOME TROPICAL GRASSES, COMPARED WITH  SOYBEAN MEAL (ON A DRY BASIS)  SOYBEAN MEAL (ON A DRY BASIS)  Casoava  Napfer grass Gattcn SBNO CasoavaNapfer grassGattcnSBNO Constítuents Manihot utilissima Pennísetum paníc so1vent ConstítuentsManihot utilissimaPennísetumpanícso1vent  Leaves Leaves+Stems Purpu:t:.\"um Panícum extracted ~~ .. _-maximum Leaves Leaves+StemsPurpu:t:.\"umPanícum extracted ~~ .. _-maximum Crude protein(%) 27.0 20.3 12.6 11. 9 45.7 Crude protein(%) 27.020.312.611. 945.7  "},{"text":" in'Costa Rica showed that eBssava forage meal ~as almost as good aS alfalfa meal. Grazing milk cows receiviug cassava meal gave 90 to 96% as much milk as those receiving equal amaunts of alfalfa meal. Since the alfalfa meal was importad, it became the more expensive TABLE 6. ELEPHANT GRASS AS A GROWING-FINISHING RATION TABLE 6.ELEPHANT GRASS AS A GROWING-FINISHING RATION  SUPPLEMENTED WITH CASSAVA FORAGE  SUPPLEMENTED WITH CASSAVA FORAGE   -~~----   -~~----   A B  AB Parameters  Eleph.grass 75% eleph.grass 50% e1eph.grass ParametersEleph.grass75% eleph.grass50%e1eph.grass   alone 25% cassava 50% cassava alone25% cassava50%cassava    forage  forage forageforage Initial veight (kg) 265.5 276.3  270.0 Initial veight (kg)265.5276.3270.0 Final waight (kg) 342.5 392.7  379.0 Final waight (kg)342.5392.7379.0 A D G (g)  306.0 461. O  445.0 A D G (g)306.0461. O445.0 Dry matter consumed    Dry matter consumed (kg/da)  5.4 6.3  6.1 (kg/da)5.46.36.1 Cruda pratein (X) 6.0 9.7  13. O Cruda pratein (X)6.09.713. O Feed efficiency 17.6 13.7  13.7 Feed efficiency17.613.713.7 supplement even though it produced slightly more milk per kilogram supplement even though it produced slightly more milk per kilogram fed.     fed. To evaluate the effects of feeding iresh cassava forage on growing To evaluate the effects of feeding iresh cassava forage on growing animals, a tria! was designed (Maore and Cock, unpublished data) to animals, a tria! was designed (Maore and Cock, unpublished data) to feed 250 kg Bteers in corrals on either: (A) elephant grass a10ne; feed 250 kg Bteers in corrals on either: (A) elephant grass a10ne; (8) 75% elephant graas + 25% cassava forage;or (e) 50% elephant grass (8) 75% elephant graas + 25% cassava forage;or (e) 50% elephant grass +,5Q% casSava forage. Both groups B and e gained 30% faster than +,5Q% casSava forage. Both groups B and e gained 30% faster than group A. Group B (25% cassava forage) gained 4% fas ter than group e group A. Group B (25% cassava forage) gained 4% fas ter than group e (50% caSSBVa Eorage) suggesting that the protein level in ration B (50% caSSBVa Eorage) suggesting that the protein level in ration B was nearly adequate and that energy became límiting in ration C was nearly adequate and that energy became límiting in ration C (Table 6).     (Table 6).  "},{"text":"consumed, the relationships change. Since two protein sources were  there vas a large difference in daily protein intake due to the there vas a large difference in daily protein intake due to the difference in moisture and protein contento The protein (N x 6.25) difference in moisture and protein contento The protein (N x 6.25) consumed par day by those animala on CSM vas roughly double that consumed par day by those animala on CSM vas roughly double that consumad by the other two groups. This suggests that approximately consumad by the other two groups. This suggests that approximately 1.4 kg of protein was consumad par kg of liva weight gaín in group 1.4 kg of protein was consumad par kg of liva weight gaín in group 1 vhile only 0.7 kg of protein was consumed per kilogram of live 1 vhile only 0.7 kg of protein was consumed per kilogram of live eíth gain in group 11 and 111. eíth gain in group 11 and 111. TABLE 7. PERFORMANCE OF GRADE ZEBU STEERS FED CHOPPED SUGAR TABLE 7.PERFORMANCE OF GRADE ZEBU STEERS FED CHOPPED SUGAR  CANE PLUS THREE SOURCES OF PLANT PROTEIN CANE PLUS THREE SOURCES OF PLANT PROTEIN ,fed as fresh forage (ad libitum) and Dne was fed as a dry concentrate, ,fed as fresh forage (ad libitum) and Dne was fed as a dry concentrate,  "},{"text":"TABLE 10 Toe nutritive ~álue of caSSáva as a forage 18 lit tI e known and even ,less utilizad in its native tropical regions of the world. Tois paper shows that cassava forage ia a good Bouree of protein for ruminants aud competes wel1 witb other BOUrees of plant,protein as measured by animal performance. TIle dry matter production per ha/yr (20 ton) is very high~ relativa to other tropical plants high in protein, which akes it attractive as a farage planto A population of 111,000 plants! ha and a harvesting interva1 90 daya gave the highest yield •. .  COSTS OF PRODUCTION  .COSTS OF PRODUCTION      --\"--- --\"--- Dry matter Cost/ Ca st/ Daily Daily cost Dry matterCost/Ca st/DailyDaily cost  ha  ha kg eonsumption US$ hahakgeonsumptionUS$    US$  kg US$kg Sugar cane 50 ton  625.00 .01 3. 7 O .04 Sugar cane50 ton625.00.013. 7 O.04 Cassava forage 20 ton  428.00 .02 1. 52 .03 Cassava forage20 ton428.00.021. 52.03      TOTAL .07 TOTAL.07 Average daily gaín  .62 kg   Average daily gaín.62 kg Live weight value  us$.48 kg   Live weight valueus$.48 kg Value oí daily gaio US$.30    Value oí daily gaioUS$.30  "}],"sieverID":"041bbb2c-f0c1-4468-bfd8-252ed8b91a19","abstract":"UTILIZATION Of CASSAVA FORAGE IN RUMINANT , , 1 FEED INtG *-'7' I ' \" C•.f'A\"'flt'ICK MÓORE ** ~. i IJ.2A"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a0ad0886fabfeabccff5efb6cda6861","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/63222077-0c05-424a-8f7d-5e901e723bd6/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Renforcer la résilience des petits exploitants agricoles face à la variabilité climatique : Implication de l'accès aux innovations sur l'adoption de l'AIC et l'autonomisation des femmes au Sénégal","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"sécurité alimentaire, d'adaptation au changement climatique et d'atténuation de ses effets (Ouedraogo et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Dans des conditions de culture pluviale, l'utilisation de services d'information climatique (SIC) est considérée comme une stratégie efficace et pertinente pour renforcer la résilience et réduire les risques liés à la variabilité du climat (Partey et al., 2020). Les informations sur les prévisions saisonnières adaptées et mises à l'échelle peuvent permettre aux petits exploitants agricoles de planifier efficacement le calendrier des activités agricoles essentielles telles que la préparation des terres, la date de semis, la sélection des variétés de cultures, le calendrier d'application des engrais et la période de récolte, etc. (Djido et al., 2021). Par ailleurs, du point de vue du genre, les femmes et les hommes peuvent être différemment vulnérables au changement climatique en Afrique subsaharienne (Beuchelt & Badstue, 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":253,"text":"Par rapport aux hommes, les femmes peuvent être confrontées à des difficultés différentes pour tirer parti des pratiques et technologies AIC telles que les semences améliorées à haut rendement, les services d'information sur le climat (CIS), la diversification des cultures, l'assurance agricole, etc., présentées comme des options innovantes pour s'adapter aux risques liés au climat et aider les agriculteurs pauvres et marginaux à se doter de moyens de subsistance résilients (FAO, 2013). Les recommandations relatives aux meilleures pratiques en matière d'obtention d'informations sur les rôles des femmes ont souligné l'importance de la collecte et de l'analyse de données ventilées par sexe (Alwang et al., 2017). Par ailleurs, l'utilisation adaptée d'informations climatiques fiables appliquées aux pratiques et technologies de l'AIC permet de prendre des décisions afin de réduire les risques et les impacts liés aux aléas climatiques et de fournir une bonne base pour une planification future, allant de quelques heures à plusieurs jours, des années ou des décennies. La fiabilité des informations climatiques, la perception des risques (sécheresses, inondations, etc.) et la capacité financière semblent être des facteurs qui influencent l'utilisation des informations climatiques (Cash et al., 2003 ;Lemos et Morehouse, 2005). Ces résultats valident les preuves antérieures selon lesquelles les prévisions climatiques pourraient aider les agriculteurs sénégalais à s'adapter à la variabilité climatique, en les aidant notamment à tirer parti des conditions favorables anticipées. La réalisation des avantages potentiels semble etre aussi associée à un contexte où il existe un plus grand choix variétal et des options d'intensification (Roudier et al, 2014)."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"Dans cette infoNote, nous visons à analyser dans quelle mesure l'effort groupé de mise en oeuvre de l'acces au CIS et du CSA influence aux changements dans les pratiques, l'utilisation de l'information et la gestion agricoles prenant en compte la complexité du système économique (type d'activités) et social au niveau local (le genre), dans différentes communes du Sénégal, en mettant l'accent sur la variabilité et la spécificité géographiques. Nous examinerons l'effet naissant sur l'adoption des technologies et pratiques agricoles intelligentes dans les zones d'intervention du projet au Sénégal et l'incidence sur l'autonomisation des femmes.         Un effort supplémentaire de vulgarisation pour diffuser la technologie AIC pourrait accélérer la mise à l'échelle et son adoption."}]},{"head":"Matériel et méthodes","index":2,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Dans ce contexte, le projet AICCRA au Sénégal travaille depuis 2022 à promouvoir la diffusion de SIC pour stimuler l'adoption de pratiques AIC, renforcer la résilience des exploitations agricoles au changement climatique et leur permettre d'améliorer leur productivité agricole. Cela comprend la diffusion de variétés de semences améliorées, l'utilisation de techniques de microdosage d'engrais et la diffusion de conseils sur les bonnes pratiques agricoles. L'objectif est d'encourager l'adoption de ces pratiques dans des chaînes de valeur agricoles spécifiques telles que le millet, le sorgho, l'arachide et le niébé, par le biais d'une approche à multiples facettes mise en oeuvre pour sensibiliser et enthousiasmer les agriculteurs sur les avantages des technologies intelligentes face au climat. "},{"text":" Dans le cadre de cette étude, une collecte de données a été réalisée en novembre 2023 pour évaluer les effets des interventions SIC et/ou AIC menées au cours de la période 2022 et 2023 dans les zones d'intervention du projet, à savoir les régions de Kaffrine, Louga et Thiès. Dans chacune de ces régions, les communes suivantes ont été sélectionnées : Kaffrine (Ndiognick, Mbeuleup et Mabo), Louga (Thiel), Thiès (Méouane), toutes des zones arides et semi-arides présentant souvent des gradients de précipitations faibles. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1 : Trois régions d'intervention. Les points rouges représentent les villages. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2 : Principales activités des individus "},{"text":"Figure 3 :Figure 4 : Figure 3: Utilisation des services d'information climatique selon l'âge et le sexe "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5 : Fréquence d'utilisation de l'information climatique "},{"text":"Figure 6 :Figure7: Figure 6: Perception de l'impact positif de l'utilisation des technologies AIC et SIC "},{"text":"Tableau 3 : Taux d'adoption et écart d'adoption des technologies AIC suite l'exposition au SIC Paramètres estimés Coefficients ATE ATE : Taux d'adoption dans la population totale (%) ATE1 : Taux d'adoption dans la sous-population exposée (%) ATE0 : Taux d'adoption dans la sous-population non exposée (%) JEA : Taux commun d'exposition et d'adoption (%) GAP : Gap d'adoption (%) PSB : Bais de sélection positive (p<0,1 ; ** p<0,05 ; *** p<0,01Leçons apprises et perspectives.Par ailleurs, les résultats de cette étude exploratoire montrent qu'il existe un écart d'adoption des pratiques et des technologies AIC en raison de l'accès aux SIC, et ce à deux niveaux. Le premier niveau d'écart se réfère à la différence entre l'accès aux SIC et les taux d'adoption de l'AIC et le second niveau est lié à la différence entre les taux d'adoption actuels et les taux d'adoption potentiels. Alors que la plupart des agriculteurs ont accès aux SIC, seul un petit nombre d'entre eux adopte les pratiques et les technologies de l'AIC. Cela est conforme à la théorie de la diffusion et de l'adoption des innovations, qui montre qu'il peut y avoir un décalage entre la période où les agriculteurs sont exposés pour la première fois une innovation et le moment où celleci se traduit par une adoption et devient partie intégrante de leur comportement en termes de prise de décision. On considère que la diffusion commence à un moment où une innovation est prête à être utilisée, tandis que l'adoption se réfère au stade où une technologie est non seulement sélectionnée, mais aussi entièrement disponible pour être utilisée par un individu ou une organisation. En outre, la décision d'adoption est précédée d'une période de sensibilisation et d'apprentissage (Ouedraogo et al., 2019). Dans cette étude, l'écart d'adoption informe sur la direction dans laquelle les efforts devraient être déployés pour assurer l'adoption des technologies et des pratiques AIC. En outre, un taux d'adoption potentiel élevé au sein de la population, masqué par un faible taux d'adoption actuel, souligne la nécessité de consacrer davantage d'efforts à la vulgarisation afin de faire connaître la technologie et de la rendre accessible à une plus grande partie de la population. "},{"text":"des services d'information climatique selon la tranche d'âge représentation de chef ménage hommes dans l'utilisation des services d'informatique climatique pour les activités agricoles dans les zones d'intervention du projet. Dans la région de Kaffrine, par exemple, parmi les 173 enquêtés, 21 sont des femmes et 152 sont des hommes. Parmi les femmes de cette région, 8 sont des bénéficiaires d'informations climatiques, tandis que parmi les hommes, 80 bénéficient des informations. Cette tendance se retrouve dans d'autres régions telles que Louga et Thiès, montrant une prédominance de chefs de ménage hommes bénéficiaires d'information climatique. Selon le sexe, nous remarquons une certaine prédominance masculine. En effet dans toutes les tranches d'âge obtenues les chefs de ménage homme l'emporte sur ceux femme dans l'utilisation des SIC. Les hommes sont très bien représentés dans la tranche d'âge des individus ayant entre 50 ans et plus, soit environ 91%. En effet, à un âge assez avancé, les femmes ne sont plus très présentes dans les exploitations agricoles. Cependant, dans la tranche d'âge des individus ayant entre 15 et 55 ans comme ceux ayant entre 36 et 50 ans, les femmes sont bien représentées, soit respectivement 40% et 55% des individus. Cela montre en effet que l'utilisation des SIC chez les femmes n'est pas négligeable au niveau des Tableau 1 : Répartition des enquêtés par sexe selon l'utilisation des informations climatiques Tableau 1 : Répartition des enquêtés par sexe selon l'utilisation des informations climatiques    dans chaque région     dans chaque région    Utilisateur Non Utilisateur Total  Utilisateur Non UtilisateurTotal Kaffrine Féminin  8  13 21  KaffrineFéminin81321   Masculin  80  72 152  Masculin8072152 Louga  Féminin  9  6  15  LougaFéminin9615   Masculin  63  72 135  Masculin6372135 Thies  Féminin  8  7  15  ThiesFéminin8715   Masculin  49  86 135  Masculin4986135  Total  217  256 473  Total217256473 Aucune activité          Aucune activité Fonctionnaires Etudiant Utilisation          Fonctionnaires Etudiant Utilisation Autres activites          Autres activites Peche          Peche Artisanat          Artisanat Commerce          Commerce Elevage          Elevage Agriculture          Agriculture 0  20 40  60 80 100 120 020406080100120 Agriculture Elevage Commerce Artisanat Peche Autres activites Fonctionna ires Etudiant Aucune activité Agriculture Elevage Commerce Artisanat PecheAutres activitesFonctionna iresEtudiantAucune activité Total 56 24.26 8.77 2.58 0.26 4.9 0.39 0 2.84 Total5624.268.772.580.264.90.3902.84 Femmes 7.83 3.19 11.76 0 0 2.63 0 0 59.09 Femmes7.833.1911.76002.630059.09 Hommes 92.17 96.81 88.24 100 100 97.37 100 0 40.91 Hommes92.1796.8188.2410010097.37100040.91    Total Femmes Hommes    TotalFemmesHommes  "},{"text":"acces au SIC sur l 'adoption de technologies AIC Dans cette étude, l'analyse des données concerne les pratiques intelligentes face au climat qui ont été mises en oeuvre en 2022 et 2023 dans les différentes zones d'intervention du projet AICCRA. Il y a le microdosage, et des conseils sur la date de semis, l'application d'engrais durant la saison pluvieuse. Le tableau 3 présente les résultats de l'accès au SIC et les taux d'adoption des pratiques et technologies CSA en utilisant le modèle ATE corrigé pour les biais de non-exposition et de sélection. Le taux d'adoption dans la population totale, renseignant sur la demande de technologies AIC suite à l'accès au SIC par la population cible, est estimé à 70,83 %. Cela signifie que le taux d'adoption pourrait atteindre 70,83 % au lieu du taux actuel de 46,01 % si l'ensemble de la population avait accès au SIC. Par ailleurs, il est important de noter que le taux d'adoption potentiel (70,76%) au niveau de la sous-population exposée (ATE1) au SIC n'est pas différent du taux d'adoption potentiel de 70,83% au niveau de la population totale (ATE). Il en découle alors un bais de sélection positif non significative. Les résultats révèlent également un écart d'adoption (GAP) négatif et significatif de 24,81 % confirmant le fait que toute la population n'avait été exposée aux technologies AIC et SIC d'où l'existence du biais de non-exposition. Effet de l'       Effet de l' 40       40 35       35 30       30 25       25 20       20 15       15 10       10 5       5 Réduction de l'utilisation des pesticides et d'engrais Gestion intégrée de l'utilisation de l'eau Prévention des pertes de récoltes dues aux conditions météorologiques Meilleure planification des activités agricoles Aide a l'identification précoce des maladies ravageures Autres 0 Réduction de l'utilisation des pesticides et d'engrais Gestion intégrée de l'utilisation de l'eau Prévention des pertes de récoltes dues aux conditions météorologiques Meilleure planification des activités agricoles Aide a l'identification précoce des maladies ravageures Autres 0 Pourcentage 9.23 8.29 41.93 28.11 1.84 10.6 Pourcentage9.238.2941.9328.111.8410.6 Tableau 2: Impact des technologies AIC et SIC sur l'autonomisation   Tableau 2: Impact des technologies AIC et SIC sur l'autonomisation Variables   paramètre Std.Err z \uD835\uDC91 > |\uD835\uDC9B| Variablesparamètre Std.Errz\uD835\uDC91 > |\uD835\uDC9B| Autonomisation   1,96*** 5,63e -13 3,50e+ 12 0,000 Autonomisation1,96***5,63e -133,50e+ 120,000  Différence moyenne 4,00*** 1,34 2,98 0,003 Différence moyenne4,00***1,342,980,003  Bénéficiaires AICCRA 25,88 0,88 29,38 0,000 Bénéficiaires AICCRA 25,880,8829,380,000  Non bénéficiaires des 21,87 1,01 21,55 0,000 Non bénéficiaires des21,871,0121,550,000 Résultats activités AICRA     Résultatsactivités AICRA moyens       moyens Note : * p<0,1 ; ** p<0,05 ; *** p<0,01     Note : * p<0,1 ; ** p<0,05 ; *** p<0,01 10       10  "}],"sieverID":"bf05511d-efab-4e7b-be1d-0a0bfb252416","abstract":"Les conditions météorologiques extrêmes et les régimes de précipitations variables, tous deux associés au changement climatique, posent d'importants défis à l'agriculture. Ces changements peuvent avoir des répercussions profondes sur la productivité agricole et les rendements des cultures en Afrique de l'Ouest dans la zone sahélienne (Sanogo et al, 2021). De plus, la mauvaise qualité des infrastructures et des équipements agricoles, l'accès restreint aux marchés agricoles, les taux élevés d'analphabétisme et la pauvreté font que l'environnement agricole a une faible capacité d'adaptation à la fréquence croissante des événements climatiques extrêmes. Ces dernières années, l'agriculture intelligente face au climat (AIC) a été considérée comme une opportunité unique pour atteindre simultanément les objectifs de"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a4d6c6b5a7e8f8c186ea45637f6b053","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c2ab314f-dcec-4b00-a138-3128ae934967/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Progress on agriculture in the UN climate talks How COP21 can ensure a food-secure future","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"CGIAR will continue to support the concept of climatesmart agriculture (CSA), a comprehensive approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural systems to support food security under climate change (Lipper et al. 2014). Under this umbrella it is crucial to consider how vulnerable groups, women and men farmers, smallholders and large scale producers and players in commodity value chains adapt and mitigate, where appropriate, climate change. Climate change threats can be reduced in some regions by increasing the adaptive capacity of farmers; increasing resilience and resource use efficiency in agricultural production systems, landscapes and food systems; improving seasonal forecasts and early warning systems; and improving the capacity of producers and managers to understand and integrate scientific information in their decision making processes. In some regions there may be significant challenges in scaling up climate-smart agriculture. We support the view that the UNFCCC is the primary international, intergovernmental forum focused on addressing climate change."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"We believe the 2015 agreement should reinforce the reference to food production in Article 2, as there is now evidence from the IPCC that production and food security are already being compromised. A 2015 agreement should create momentum for countries to devise ambitious actions for the agricultural sector, by providing the financial, technical, and capacity building support needed to help developing countries implement adaptation strategies and low emissions agricultural development. Investment in such support should help agriculture not only to meet mitigation goals but also to achieve food security and climate change adaptation. Support for these latter goals should be explicit in funding and technical packages from all funding sources. We recognise that mitigation will continue to be driven by national development priorities and be a co-benefit of sustainable development."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"We envisage that the new climate agreement will complement the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and provide a shared vision on sustainable development to give a signal on the low carbon economy."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Climate change is explicitly included as one of the 17 SDGs and is embedded in all SDGs at least implicitly. CGIAR welcomes the fact that within potential text for the Preamble to a Paris agreement the significance of sustainable development is recognised together with the importance of food security. Reference is also made to land use issues and the vital role of sinks."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"Progress under the UNFCCC on agriculture and food security is dependent on a finance and technology package. It is essential that the Green Climate Fund (GCF) provides specific, stable and long-term support to adaptation and mitigation in agriculture, with specific efforts targeted at women farmers and youth in agriculture. For many developing countries that will be hard hit by climate change -and these mostly have low greenhouse gas emissions, (see "}]},{"head":"CGIAR's perspective on current issues","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Agriculture has become embedded in several strands under the UNFCCC, including NAMAs, NAPs, INDCs and SBSTA, as discussed below. This progress is welcome, as we believe that the stakes are too high to delay work on agriculture in view of time taken for research, technical analysis, policy generation and institutional development to bring change on the ground. Ideally, a new international climate action framework coming from Paris will enable and boost these important developments."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"To respond urgently and to prepare for further climate change challenges ahead, CGIAR has identified four priority areas for action on climate change: (i) climatesmart agricultural practices, (ii) climate information services and climate-informed safety nets, (iii) low emissions agricultural development where coordination across land use sectors and food system sectors will be critical for success, and (iv) policies and institutions for climate-resilient food systems."}]},{"head":"NAMAs, NAPAs, NAPs and INDCs","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Past experience, with the preparation of National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPAs), National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) and Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs), and initial analysis of INDCs, shows that once the focus moves from international negotiation to implementation, agriculture and food security issues assume major importance in national policy-making discussions (see Box 1). Furthermore, agriculture and food security have been targets for financial support from the Least Developed Countries Fund through the NAPAs and Pilot Program for Climate Resilience, which align funding allocations with national priorities, and are a target for support by the GCF. The NAP process was established in 2010 as a mechanism for countries to address climate vulnerability, building their capacity to adapt to current and future climatic changes. A key focus is to integrate climate change adaptation into development planning processes and strategies across all sectors and at local to national scales, which was where NAPAs were weak. Under the NAP process, many countries have conducted some or other form of impact assessment, usually on a sectoral basis. Many countries are now preparing their NAPs as revealed in their INDCs."}]},{"head":"Box 1. NAMAs and agriculture","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"In 2012, at least 21 officially submitted NAMAs referred to agricultural activities and at least 30 developing countries had expressed interest in implementing agricultural NAMAs. Plans suggest that significant mitigation potentials are possible. Agriculture is one of the largest sources of emissions for many developing countries, including in the major emitter countries of China, India and Brazil. Mitigation in the agricultural sector is also a focus of many INDCs, including from developing countries."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Agricultural practices considered for NAMAs have most commonly focused on improved agronomic practices, carbon storage, and reduced forest conversion on agricultural land. Improved economic performance, efficiency and often climate change adaptation are potential benefits from many of these practices."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"According to Wilkes et al. (2013), middle income and emerging countries have progressed most quickly in designing and implementing NAMAs, with domestic political processes and the availability of finance being important enabling factors for example in Brazil, Costa Rica, Kenya and Mongolia."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"A November 2015 analysis of INDCs submitted so far shows that both mitigation and adaptation dimensions of climate action address land use issues (Richards et al. 2015a). All Parties communicate greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction targets; of these 80% encompass land use change and 64% specifically include agriculture. Agriculture is particularly important in the contributions of non-Annex 1 countries, which are counting on international assistance to meet their targets. Overall, more than half the Parties refer to food security and 102 of the 113 Parties that include adaptation in their INDCs (90%) give agriculture as an adaptation priority. However, only about one-third address gender."}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"CGIAR sees a full agenda ahead, including:"}]},{"head":"INDCs","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Whilst INDCs seem likely to be provide the basis for a Paris climate agreement, their precise role is not yet determined."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"However, CGIAR recognises their significance in producing coherence at national level, and notes that they benefit from having generally been the result of national stakeholder and consultation processes."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"According to the UNFCCC Secretariat Synthesis, this first round in 2015 has revealed that there are major issues of uncertainty surrounding approaches used on emission and scenarios for the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) sector (UNFCCC 2015a). In fact a few Parties have even gone so far as to make their INDCs conditional on the establishment of an effective set of accounting rules and guidelines. There are major challenges on the aggregate assessment of outcomes with these major sources of uncertainty (UNFCCC 2015a)."},{"index":4,"size":61,"text":"CGIAR foresees that once measurement and reporting arrangements are finalised, there will be several technical issues around Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) to address. For example, providing supplementary guidance to the 2006 IPCC guidelines is required to update emissions factors and make use of improved data in developing countries, especially to better reflect nitrous oxide management in agricultural systems."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"As part of support to the mobilisation of effort at national level to implement INDCs, and to help subsequent submissions, CGIAR will assist with increased attention to gender and social inclusion, which so far has not received enough attention."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"CGIAR will support work on delivering synergies on the mitigation and adaptation agendasits potential which has been recognised in analyses of submitted INDCs (Richards et al. 2015a; UNFCCC 2015a)."}]},{"head":"SBSTA","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The SBSTA work plan puts off a substantive COP decision on agriculture until after 2016 and this decision may relate largely to adaptation. Preparation is needed for the SBSTA submissions and workshops in 2016 on the identification of adaptation measures, and identification and assessment of agricultural practices and technologies to enhance productivity in a sustainable manner. A new agreement will need global mobilisation of finance to help developing countries respond to climate change; the current goal is $100 billion per year by 2020. There are contested proposals about what the balance between private and public finance, and the contributions by different countries and parties."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Recent analysis undertaken at the UK's Overseas Development Institute (ODI) shows that dedicated climate funds programmed very modest sums of finance for agriculture over the last decade, compared with other sectors (Norman 2015). Between 2006 and July 2015, eight dedicated multilateral funds tracked by ODI and Heinrich Boell Stiftung Climate Funds Update approved over $744 million across 112 projects with a primary focus on agriculture (Norman 2015). This represents just 7% of approved finance from dedicated climate funds over the period. As a comparison, dedicated multilateral climate funds allocated 10% of the overall $10.6 billion in approved finance to forestry focused projects and activities and 33% to climate compatible energy generation and supply over the same period. Normal Overseas Development Assistance (ODA) spend on agriculture overshadows climate finance too. Between 2006 and 2013 over $30 billion was spent on agriculture according to the OECD database (Norman, 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The majority of climate finance for agriculture (96%) supports adaptation activities, with just 2% of finance approved by climate mitigation and forestry/REDD+ focused funds and an additional 2% supporting both mitigation and adaption outcomes within the agricultural sector (Norman, 2015). This contrasts with climate finance across all sectors, which is largely targeted at mitigation rather than adaptation (Buchner et al. 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"Other significant dedicated funds include the Least Developed Countries Fund, which has programmed around 33% of its approved finance on agriculture, food security and sustainable/improved land management outcomes (Norman 2015). It can also be noted that the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is taking a number of steps towards increasing levels of financing aimed at low emissions agriculture, improving land use and indirect emissions methodologies and including land use (GEF 2014), particularly climate-smart agriculture within the GEF-6 financing period (GEF 2013)."}]},{"head":"CGIAR considers that more analysis needs to be undertaken to see how much climate finance is available, how it is being used, and how to use it more effectively. Additionally, further analysis is needed on the emerging outcomes from investments from all sources (public and private finance) to see what lessons can be learned for scaling up and to","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"ensure the sector, and more specifically adaptation actions, receive an appropriate share of financing."}]},{"head":"Finance institutions: the GCF","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The operationalisation of the GCF as the central funding mechanism of the UNFCCC, is well underway with $10.2 billion has been pledged as of November 2015."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"After intense discussions, the Board approved all eight projects up for decision in October 2015, amounting to $168 million in total funds (GCF 2015a). These first project approvals mark an important milestone for the GCF."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Of the 8 projects approved so far, 6 are focused on adaptation. Two have close implications for agriculture: The GCF has been cautious about its approach so far on agriculture with issues raised at the 9th Board meeting of April 2015 about supporting sustainable climate-smart agriculture (with stated intended impacts for mitigation and adaptation in forestry and land use, livelihoods of people and communities; food and water security and health; and ecosystems and ecosystem services) (GCF 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":107,"text":"In addition, there is controversy about whether it provides grants or loans. Overall, the Board is still developing its approach as are project implementers as many recently submitted proposals to the 11 th Board Meeting were not complete and did not fulfil GCF criteria and preparedness and could not be considered (GCF, 2015a). The Board agreed to provide an additional $14 million for readiness support which can also help the preparation of NAPs. Readiness and preparatory support is a priority for the GCF to enhance country ownership. So far 17 countries are benefitting from readiness support and the total number of requests received is 87 (GCF 2015b)."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"One area for immediate attention for CGIAR will be to ensure the GCF can help to deliver adaptation strategies and low emissions strategies for agriculture."}]},{"head":"Technology transfer and capacity development","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The transfer of technology is a core part of the UNFCCC Technology Mechanism."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"A recent synthesis of Technical Needs Assessments (UNFCCC 2013) showed that the agriculture, forestry and other land uses sector targeted both adaptation and mitigation, and mainly included actions to combat land degradation, rules and regulations for seeds, better management of renewable natural resources, agricultural modernization and natural resource management, combating desertification and improving food security."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"In 2014, the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN), as part of the Technology Mechanism, became fully operational and there is growing demand from Parties, via their National Designated Entities, requesting support for tailored responses to implement their technology-related climate plans. The CTCN's mandate is to respond quickly to these requests, which are limited in volume (up to $250 000) and fairly quick in their implementation (generally 1 year), to avoid competing with other facilities and funding sources that enable and implement technology transfer. Many of the requests that have come in so far are addressing issues related to agriculture and natural resource management, mainly in terms of improving responses to climate impacts, and are based on national climate change priorities as described in NAPs, NAPAs or national climate change strategies."},{"index":4,"size":154,"text":"The advantage of the CTCN (and potentially other technology transfer instruments) is its high flexibility, quick response time and low cost. As the operation of CTCN is led by UNEP in collaboration with a number of highly qualified and regionally distributed research and development organizations (including the World Agroforestry Centre from the CGIAR), the responses are taken out of the political realm and are addressed with the necessary technical understanding. Many of the requests from countries are in the area of natural resource management, primarily agriculture. Several projects have been completed, for instance in Mali, Côte d'Ivoire and Chile, and several others are in the pipeline. It is expected that the number of national requests will rise significantly in the coming years, suggesting that this instrument can be highly effective at carrying out important capacity building work that will lead to greater investments through international funding streams (e.g. GCF and GEF) and the ODA."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"Agriculture has been identified as an important area for capacity development. As a result, it is very likely that this country-driven and voluntary instrument will become an important tool in supporting context-specific and targeted solutions for agriculture in developing countries."}]},{"head":"Equitable outcomes for women","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Gender has now been mapped across all aspects of the UNFCCC's functions and its mainstreaming will be overseen by the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI). This provides an opportunity to develop agriculture initiatives that have gender-sensitive strategies. Climate change will add to the challenges that vulnerable and poor women face in securing incomes, personal freedoms, water, food and fuel. A policy brief by CGIAR and partners (Huyer et al. 2015) recommends that gender-responsive climate policies and programmes include:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":" A gender component as a qualifying criterion to access international funding."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":" Design that is informed by needs assessments that distinguish women's and men's needs and priorities."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":" Monitoring and assessment indicators of real change in gender and social inclusion."}]},{"head":"Agriculture in the REDD+ mechanism","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"REDD+ is a voluntary mechanism within the UNFCCC to provide incentives to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries. A 2012 review agriculture to be the major driver of deforestation. Commercial agriculture was the major driver of deforestation, accounting for 50%, with subsistence agriculture as the second most important driver, accounting for 30% of the deforestation (Hosonuma et al. 2012). National strategies from 43 countries have been assessed to understand how countries were integrating the knowledge of drivers into national REDD+ programs (Salvini et al. 2014). The study found that most countries do not address drivers of deforestation but rather aim to improve forest management, cook stoves and agroforestry, suggesting challenges in addressing the expanding agriculture frontier. A recent study has shown that fiscal incentives, many related to agriculture, are a key driver of deforestation and forest degradation because they outweigh the support provided by REDD+ (McFarland et al. 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"CGIAR supports greater efforts on dialogue and policy to manage the role of agriculture in driving deforestation. CGIAR notes that the GCF is likely to be the major conduit of resources to national REDD+ activities in the near to medium term. One of the Fund's first activities was to operationalize results-based payments for REDD+."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Countries need support developing and implementing targeted solutions for agriculture. Photo: S. Kilungu (CCAFS)"}]},{"head":"Agriculture in the Lima-Paris Action Agenda","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"An innovative aspect of the Paris COP is the recognition of the efforts and potential of all non-state actors to address climate change, via the Lima-Paris Action Agenda (LPAA). CGIAR will help implement and support initiatives that ensure agriculture plays its part in climate change adaptation and mitigation under the UNFCCC process. This includes joining the \"4/1000 Initiative: Soils for Food Security and Climate\", which will be launched in Paris by a coalition of French research agencies. Designed with ambitious targets to restore soils and soil carbon, the initiative is a good example of how both mitigation and adaptation can be synergistic. CGIAR will also act as scientific partner and critical friend to the World Business Council on Sustainable Development's work on climate-smart agriculture under the LPAA."}]},{"head":"Bringing external expertise into the UNFCCC process","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Frameworks for bringing external expertise directly into the negotiations include Technical Expert Meetings (TEMs) and Structured Expert Dialogues (SEDs). The TEM held in the June 2014 ADP meeting shared country experience on issues related to land use (including agriculture) and another workshop was held at the Bonn 2015 meeting. CGIAR gave evidence at the SED in February 2015, which explored food security and agriculture. TEMs and SEDs are meant to explore new options and actions and share local and regional experiences that could feed into the negotiations but are not an integral part of the negotiation process. Nonetheless, the agricultural community can continue to engage closely in TEM and SED discussions where possible, to bring new knowledge into the negotiations to inform specific areas for future work. There may also be a Technology and Knowledge Platform established under the Adaptation Committee, which will look amongst other issues at the sustainable management of ecosystems (UNFCCC 2015b). CGIAR would support such an approach."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Significant work to bridge any Paris Agreement and more action in the UNFCCC will be explored within a proposed Intergovernmental Preparatory Committee (IPC) and CGIAR will look to support any work needed on issues relating to agriculture."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"CGIAR with its partners will continue to:  Support improved measurement and reporting systems for assessing emissions and GHG emissions reductions;"},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":" Do research to support integration of LULUCF, REDD+ and agricultural development objectives and explore how transformative integration through land based projects could be a focus of the GCF."}]},{"head":"Summary of recommendations","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":" Parties are urged to strengthen aspirations for food security through action on adaptation and mitigation in the 2015 agreement."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":" A 2015 agreement should create mechanisms that enable ambitious contributions to both adaptation and mitigation from the agriculture sector."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":" Increased attention to gender and social inclusion in a new agreement is urgently needed."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":" A 2015 agreement must provide financial, technical, and capacity building support to developing countries."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"Empowering rural women to take action on climate change is a key strategy for ensuring food security. Photo: N. Sigtia (IWMI)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Dedicated climate finance is needed to support implementation of adaptation and mitigation actions on agriculture. Photo: C. Schubert (CCAFS)CGIAR recognises that finance is a critical issue. It is clear that the provision of funding for climate-smart agriculture is far from secure. "},{"text":" Provide technical support to countries on UNFCCC related issues, including: o Implementation of INDCs o GCF project development o Preparatory work for SBSTA submissions and workshops o Technology transfer projects  Work through research partnerships with countries to achieve sustainable development, poverty reduction and improved food and nutritional security while coping with climate variability and change; Undertake analysis of agencies and institutions that will support national progress on agriculture and natural resource management; Work on integration of adaptation and mitigation interventions in land-use sectors, within the framework of food security; Assist countries in achieving low emissions development in agriculture and forestry sectors; "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"contributions from the agricultural sector, while also providing the financial, technical and capacity building support Richards et al 2015b)finance and technological support will be crucial in turning INDCs into actions. A 2015 agreement should create mechanisms that enable ambitious needed to help developing countries implement low emissions agricultural development.  "},{"text":"Increasing the Resilience of Ecosystems and  Communities through the Restoration of the Communities through the Restoration of the Productive Bases of Salinized Lands, in Senegal, Productive Bases of Salinized Lands, in Senegal, with CSE (GCF funding: $7.6 million).  with CSE (GCF funding: $7.6 million).  Supporting Vulnerable Communities to  Supporting Vulnerable Communitiesto Manage Climate Change Induced Water Manage Climate Change Induced Water Shortages, in Maldives, with UNDP (GCF funding: Shortages, in Maldives, with UNDP (GCF funding: $23.6 million).  $23.6 million).  "}],"sieverID":"fb67d0fb-2812-4703-98ef-b5e8c6e9aaf0","abstract":"A 2015 climate agreement should reference food security and provide the financial, technical and capacity building support for countries to devise ambitious actions for the agricultural sector."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b1b366c71b94033e100d7405cf8031c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Other/PDF/investment_climate_assessment_for_circular_bioeconomy_sector_in_india-an_assessment_of_the_institutions_policies_regulations_and_financial_environment.pdf"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Investment Climate assessment for Circular Bioeconomy Sector in India: An assessment of the institutions, policies, regulations and financial environment","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"To tackle overexploitation of resources, pollution and related health issues, there has been an increase in policies, laws, and programmes that emphasize the importance of treatment, recycling, and reuse over the years. Various attempts have been made at various scales for resources recovery and reuse (RRR) interventions with varying degrees of completion and success. With limitations of the public sector, engagement of the private parties is believed to enhance circular economic approaches in future."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"This report is an attempt to assess the existing institutional, policy, regulatory and financial environment in which the RRR businesses operate in India. It begins with a brief introduction of India's take and position in terms of sustainability followed by an overview of the regulatory environment. The regulatory environment covers some of the important acts and rules concerning wastewater, energy and nutrients. The policies and programme section talks about some of the major policies that are being run by the central government in the country."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The subsequent section talks about the key institutions involved in the national level for the major sectors being covered in the report. This discussion is followed by description of the financial environment. The section describes the major government-run financial assistance and subsidies in the RRR domain. It also talks about the various monetary incentives offered by the government for the promotion of MSMEs in the country along with their general access to debt. The report also lists some of the key drivers that are involved in the RRR sectors differentiated by various parameters such as policy, regulatory and financials and others, followed by a conclusion."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Realizing the resource potential and recovering nutrients, water and energy from waste is a new agenda towards attaining sustainable development. Developing countries are shifting their focus from disposal-oriented strategies towards business-oriented approach that emphasizes value creation and revenue generation (Murray and Buckley, 2010). Circular bioeconomy (CBE) is the production of recoverable biological (waste) resources and the conversion of these resources into high-value-added products, such as food, feed, bio-based products, and bioenergy (Gatto et al. 2021). CBE minimizes the depletion of resources, encourages regenerative practices, and stimulates reuse and recycling in a way that adds the highest possible value to the system (Muscat et al. 2021). It focuses on using waste and residues as a valuable resource (UNEP 2016;Stegmann et al. 2020). CBE fosters the sustainable processing of biomass into marketable products (Figure 1) such as organic fertilizers, or energy in the form of fuel, power or heat (Hetemäki et al. 2017;Temmes et al. 2020;Zabaniotou 2018;Stegmann et al. 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"India has been shifting gears to evolve into a viable economic nation treading along the pathway towards sustainability. Mounting into the global scenario of climate resilience, India is strengthening its internal strategy as expressed to UNFCCC at the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) in UK through presenting the five nectar elements (Panchamrit) of India's climate action (GoI, 2022). Following Cop26, the COP27 meet brought to fore a circular economy's relevance in mitigating carbon emissions for India by ensuring responsible consumption and sustainable resource management. At the Climate Change Performance Index, India maintains its strong performance holding the eight position, rated high in the GHG Emissions, Energy Use, and Climate Policy categories, and medium in Renewable Energy. (Burck et al. 2022). India is presently driving towards introduction of a circular economy which is estimated to provide a yearly benefit of USD 624 billion by 2050 and a 44 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (The Economic Times 2022). The government formulated the Battery Waste Management Rules 2022, Plastic Waste Management Rules as amended in 2022, e-Waste Management Rules 2022 in support of CE. Further the budget of 2022-23 also recognizes action plans to be formulated across sector like electronic waste, lithium-ion batteries, end-of-life vehicles, scrap metal, municipal solid waste (Thapyal et al. 2022)."},{"index":3,"size":192,"text":"It is perceived that the adoption of CE can unlock half a trillion dollars of economic value in India by the year 2030 (Mandpe et al. 2022). The circular bioeconomy is still emerging considering its high potential in India. Experiences across the globe shows that majority of the waste-reuse businesses are still at a nascent stage. Some of the businesses are either operating at a small scale or some are not self-sustaining in the long run and thus requiring proper investment channels, markets and business opportunities to foster their growth (Otoo and Drechsel 2018). While policies and strategies are increasingly being oriented to harness the value from waste, there is a need for efficient business models. To achieve success in RRR sector, there is a need for private sector involvement along with the support of the governmental agencies that primarily act as the promoter of such markets and provide business support in the form of appropriate policies and infrastructure (Otoo and Drechsel 2018). This prompts the need for a deeper understanding of the business environment under which the waste reuse businesses are operating in different countries to foster entrepreneurship in waste-reuse sector."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"The main objective of this study is assessment of investment climate (IC) by reviewing the national policies, strategies and regulations, financing mechanisms, and infrastructure and business environment in India. The study also identify main gaps in these areas affecting waste management, in general, and entrepreneur development in resource recovery and reuse in particular. The report introduces resource recovery in India followed by a review of the institutional framework (regulations, policies and programmes), critical examination of the financial environment towards circular bioeconomy, and existing market conditions."}]},{"head":"Overview of circular bioeconomy in India","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Indian economy is growing rapidly (at 8.7% annually) 1 and is likely to grow from USD 3.18 trillion to USD 5 trillion. 2 Along with the economic growth, increase in population, urbanization and change of consumption patterns will continuously increase the waste generation and pose a challenge to waste management in India. The urban population is growing rapidly and is estimated to be 46 million (UN population estimates 2018). The total quantity of solid waste generated in the country is 58 million tons with a collection efficiency of 95.4% (CPCB 2021). While the cities across the country treat 50% of waste collected and landfill around 18% of the waste, 31.7 % of the total waste generated remains un-accounted CPCB 2021). It has been indicated that with absence of proper source segregation and the lack of awareness about bio-wastes as high-value resources, waste-derived circular bioeconomy is yet to be tapped fully (Awasthi et al. 2019, Venkata Mohan et al. 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":261,"text":"The organic component of solid waste varies between 40-60% across different cities in India. According to the Ministry of Urban Development, the entire potential of city compost plant in India is 0.71 MT per year, while the current production is 0.15 MT per year (MOC&F 3 2017). Recognizing the importance of converting the organic fraction of waste into compost for soil, Government of India (GoI) initiated different interventions. One of the policy was 'Promotion of city compost,' which entailed a development of marketing compost by providing a payment of INR 1,500 to fertilizer companies on the purchase and distribution of city-compost through the rural outlets of the companies. Later other marketing entities marked by concerned state governments may also be involved with approval of the Department of Fertilizers. A fertilizer manufacturer was also allowed to co-market city compost with chemical fertilizers through their network in the market. The fertilizer companies could adopt villages to encourage city compost utilization. The compost generated would be procured by the government and public sectors in India will also promote the use of city compost for their gardens and horticulture, to the greatest possible extent. The policy involved the Ministry of Urban Development to look after installations of the compost plants across the state and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) to develop standards for eco-marking to ensure good quality of compost and so its acceptance among farmers. In 2017, the Market Development Assistance scheme was extended to compost manufacturers on bagged compost in the ratio of 1 bag of compost for 2 bags of chemical fertilizers."},{"index":3,"size":198,"text":"However, in 2021, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFG) chaired by Finance Secretary & Secretary (Expenditure) reviewed continuation of ongoing scheme of 'Policy on Promotion of City Compost' and observed that promotion of city compost is very small. There existed component for organic manure/compost under larger schemes of other Ministries viz. Department of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare (DA & FW), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare and Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs (MoHUA). The Expenditure Finance Committee (EFG) recommended that as there are similar schemes in other Departments with larger budget and better field presence, promotion of city compost scheme should be discontinued. 4 Following the recommendation, the market development assistance was stopped. While the rationale to streamline policies towards circular bioeconomy is an essential step, the learning that engagement of the private fertilizer to market compost with incentives might not be viable. Marketing channels for other policies based on the different schemes run by the ministries need to be carefully planned for uptake of compost. Another evidence from the failure of the policy which might impede other policies and strategies on compost is the education of farmers in relation to use of compost by agricultural extension programmes."},{"index":4,"size":246,"text":"Along with the city waste, agrowaste is another opportunity which has a potential to generate energy, soil ameliorant, food and consumer products. India being an agrarian economy has a very high agroresidue biomass potential (about 500 metric tons per year) (Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019). The major quantity of solid waste generated from agricultural sources are sugarcane bagasse, paddy, wheat straw and husk and waste of vegetables are food products, tea, oil production, jute bres, groundnut shell, wooden mil waste, coconut husk and cotton stalk etc. (Maji et al. 2020, Ramesh et al. 2019). Two largest challenges for managing rural waste in India are underreporting and open burning (Chaudhary et al. 2021). Open burning of agrowastes, which is a common practice in India, accounts for a sizable fraction of India's GHG emissions, and the tremendous potential for conversion to biogas is being overlooked (Kapoor et al. 2020). Large scale intervention for conversion of agrowaste and replacing fossil fuels, would reduce GHG emissions from the energy sector. However, despite the benefits associated with biogas production, its potential is still underexplored due to issues pertaining to agri-waste supply chain, availability of cost-effective and simple pre-treatment technologies, and viable business models to facilitate biogas production and utilization from agriwaste (Kapoor et al. 2020). Policy interventions and stronger collaboration between policymakers and potential biogas producers in the agricultural sector are needed to tide over technical, financial and regulatory barriers (Vilkė et al. 2020, Hildebrandt and Bezama 2019, Kapoor et al. 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"In this context, major impetus is being given to strengthen the backbone of economy majorly focusing on biotechnology for which the federal Government is coming up with major policies time to time. National Biofuel Policy was set up with the goal of using bio-fuels in 2009. 'The National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2015' was launched by the Ministry of Science and Technology with an aim to establish world-class bio-manufacturing hub and empowering human resources. 5 In addition, Ministry also launched a 'National Mission on Bioeconomy' with the Institute of Bioresources and Sustainable Development (IBSD) in order to boost rural economy by tapping bioresources, which when optimally utilized can create a large number of jobs at rural level."}]},{"head":"Methodological approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"This study was based on review of literature, both peer reviewed and grey literature, from the national and global literature and existing policies/strategies for CE in India. To study the enabling environment for RRR options in India, expert opinions from various technical reports, research articles and statistical bulletins of state agencies were analysed and synthesized to prepare the sections on sanitation sector (Water Aid 2016, Ministry of Statistics 2016, Rohilla et al. 2017), Municipal Solid Waste (MSW, Kumar et al. 2017, Ahluwalia andPatel 2018), and wastewater treatment (Starkl et al. 2013, Ministry of Statistics 2016). Similar reports and papers provided information on composting (MCF 2017, Dilkara et al. 2016), biogas (Rao et al. 2010, Kaniyamparambil 2011, MNRE 2017, Mittal et al. 2018), and waste to energy plants in India (Kalyani andPandey 2014, Ahluwalia andPatel 2018). Additional publications have been examined to get an insight into the socio-institutional aspects of the system such as demand for fertilizer (MAFW 2017, Dilkara et al. 2016), institutions and policies (Dilkara et al. 2016, Rohilla et al. 2017, Mittal et al. 2018), financing options (Chatri et al. 2012, Rohilla et al. 2017), and governance and business climate (World Bank 2017, 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The enabling conditions for the businesses in the RRR sector were assessed based on the following indicators -"}]},{"head":"•","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Business enablers -cost and time to start a business, tax structure and incentives, access to electricity, water and other utilities, level of business satisfaction with governance and availability of infrastructure • Policy and regulatory framework for circular bioeconomy -review of the institutional arrangements around RRR covering the various waste streams such as wastewater, MSW, Faecal sludge as well as the by-products of these wastes -composts and energy (biogas); discussion about stakeholders and the institutional arrangements that govern their action -government and non-government, formal and informal organizations and individuals that have a part to play in elements of RRR and the written laws and policies that govern them as well as the informal arrangements that shape their modes of operation."}]},{"head":"•","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Market conditions related to RRR products -demand for the product derived from RRR businesses and the constraints such as institutional or competition from substitutes faced by such products) • Support services for the businesses in the RRR -institutional supports such as availability of national co-marketing directives, business incentives provided, incubators and accelerators or network associations."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Business Enablers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":294,"text":"India has recorded a jump of 37 positions against its rank of 100 in 2017 to be placed now at 63 among 190 countries assessed by the World Bank 6 . For the present study, four key parameters relevant for RRR businesses to start their business operations are being considered (as shown in Table 1). To start a business in 2020, it required about 6-7 months with an approximate expenditure of USD 13,000 in Delhi and Mumbai based on the study by World Bank (Table 1). As a result of continued efforts by the Government, India has improved its rank by 67 positions from 2016-20. However, high corruption rates are main issues which impede any policy or technological reforms. Openness and transparency is maintained at moderate level in India as reported by World Bank in their 'Ease of doing business' ranking. Some of the major reforms carried out by Government of India (GoI) which has boosted the 'ease of doing business' in India are -(i) registration process has been automated therefore time required for obtaining a trade license and to complete the tax and value added tax registration has been reduced; (ii) start-ups are made easier through elimination of stamps and enhancement of the online registration system; (iii) reduction in the property transfer tax to 6.7% of the property value, (iv) reduction in the corporate income tax and (v) application processing time has been reduced for access to electricity. However, cost of business registration has been increased, time required for filing the value-added tax and the corporate income tax has been made more complex and time taking and firms need to meet 7% of their electricity needs through solar energy (thus increasing the initial costs of installation) which has an impediment for the ranking."}]},{"head":"Policy and regulatory framework for circular bioeconomy","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Regulatory environment","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"This section elaborates on the regulatory ecosystem of India with respect to the Resource Recovery and Recycling components. There are multiple laws, rules and regulations in the country which are specifically related to waste management, environment and pollution control along with timely launched Missions with specific objectives. Also, the section specifies the policies framed by the nodal agencies/ ministries responsible for factors affecting the RRR components."}]},{"head":"Acts and Rules","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The Acts incorporated in the Indian Legislature, which provide a strong platform for the evolution of the RRR ecosystem in the country."}]},{"head":"The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"This act aims to prevent and control water pollution through the establishment of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Board (SPCB). It precisely imposes regulations on the treatment and disposal of sewage and industrial effluents."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"The CPCB is responsible for creating water quality management plans that include, among other things, establishing water quality goals, monitoring water quality, controlling pollution, wastewater recycling and resource recovery, the use of clean technologies, and establishing wastewater discharge standards and residual pollution charges. The SPCBs, on the other hand, develop comprehensive water pollution prevention, control, and abatement programmes and ensure their implementation at the state level, as well as provide advice on matters relating to water pollution to the State Government. (MoEFCC GoI, 2022) The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 The act aims to provide for the imposition and collection of a cess on water consumed by persons engaged in the industry segments and by local governments to supplement the resources of the Central Board and the State Boards established under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974. (CPCB GoI, 2022) The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 The Environment (Protection) Agreement provides the Central Government with the authority to enact regulations to control environmental pollution."},{"index":3,"size":132,"text":"The act was amended in 2017 wherein the standards for sewage treatment plant effluent discharge into water bodies and the land were clarified. The National Green Tribunal (NGT), however, scrapped these standards since the diluted and differential standards would increase pollution loads and further adversely affect a large section of the population. With its 2019 order, the NGT tightened the discharge standards for sewage and stressed that such standards will result in the effluent that can be reused for all non-potable purposes. As per that, each sewage water treatment plant should be used for reusing and recycling water to reduce droughts and climate change. (GoI, 2022) The rules and regulations implemented by the Government of India with respect to waste management, in relation to the Circular Economy are provided in Table 2. "}]},{"head":"Policies and Programmes","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"There are several policies launched by the Government of India in order to stabilize the waste management system of the country. The programmes mentioned are further additions to the initiatives taken by the government to emphasize the importance and urgency of the matters concerning to RRR."}]},{"head":"Polices related to RRR","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"As per the Indian Constitution's 12th Schedule, the local government entities in cities and urban areas oversee the provisioning of fundamental civic services including sanitation facilities. However, this has never been enough as they face several challenges due to the shortage of funds, lack of full coverage of services, poor delivery of services. The central and state government, consequently, are quite actively involved in the formulation of several policies and programmes that are involved in the promotion of sanitation facilities including faecal sludge management. While policies concerning environment and waste have always existed in the country, there has been an increase in the policies related to renewable energy including biogas and biomass, waste to energy, compost, and so on over the years."}]},{"head":"National Environment Policy, 2006","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Launched in 2006, this is a crucial policy in the history of India. Some of the aspects of the act focus on the treatment, and proper disposal of waste, along with recycling. "}]},{"head":"Service Level Benchmarks (SLBs), 2008","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"To introduce greater accountability among ULBs and improve urban services, the Ministry of Urban Development has prepared SLBs at the national level for performance monitoring and evaluation against agreed targets in four key sectors: water supply, MSWM, sewerage, and stormwater management. (Unnisa, 2013) National Water Policy, 2012"},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"Among the other objectives, the policy focuses on the incentivizing recycling and reuse of water in the RRR domain. However, the absence of any action plans or frameworks is the main issue that has creates a hindrance in the fulfilment of this objective. The policy was launched in 2014 to address the issue of the management of crop residue. It aims to promote in-situ management of crop residue in place of burning it as it leads to the degradation of the environment. Some of the other objectives include utilizing the crop residue for other purposes such as power generation, composting, production of bioethanol and so on; spreading awareness on its ill effects and capacity building; and introducing of several laws and policies to reduce the menace."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"(MoA GoI, 2014)"}]},{"head":"Programmes","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The most recently launched programme are mentioned herewith in the report. It is to be noted that the Government is focusing on circulating the effort of each stakeholder involved in the waste management ecosystem to be brought under the overall development scenario of the country."}]},{"head":"Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, 2005","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"To bridge investment gaps in urban infrastructure and implement reforms for better urban management, India launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission in 2005. Water supply, sewerage and drainage are some of the most crucial sectors under the programme that are focussed on. (JNNURM, 2005)"}]},{"head":"Swacch Bharat Mission, 2012","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"It is one of the biggest campaigns being run in the country since October 2, 2014, which aimed to make India clean and open defecation free by 2019. Under the programme, more than 10 crore toilets are built now. This campaign is now in its second phase and now aims to provide the required infrastructure for proper solid as well as waste management in the rural areas of the country. (GoI, Swachh Bharat Mission (Grameen), 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Ganga Action Plan I, 1986;Ganga Action Plan II, 1993;Namami Ganga, 2014 Ganga Action Plan I"},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"• This was introduced with the following objectives: curbing pollution by treating domestic waste as well as preventing of industrial waste from entering the river. The Government of India has been promoting this programme to generate energy through biomass using agricultural residues such as shells, husks, wood, and bagasse for power generation from dedicated energy plantations. On May 11, 2018, a scheme to promote biomass-based cogeneration in sugar mills and other industries was announced."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"The objectives of the programme are:"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• To promote the efficient and cost-effective use of surplus biomass for power generation."}]},{"head":"•","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"To maximize surplus energy production from sugar mills with improved technologies."}]},{"head":"•","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"To promote cogeneration technologies as a supplement to conventional power."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"The power generation potential from agricultural and agro-industrial residues is estimated to be around 18,000 MW. The potential for surplus power generation through bagasse cogeneration in sugar mills is estimated to be around 8,000 MW with progressive higher steam temperature and pressure and efficient project configuration in new sugar mills and modernization of existing ones. As a result, the total estimated potential for biomass power stands at approximately 26,000 MW."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"The sugar industry has traditionally used biogasse as a fuel to meet the steam and power requirements of the sugar processing and sugar mill complex through incidental cogeneration. With advancements in boiler and turbine technologies for generating and utilising high temperature and pressure steam, the sugar industry has been producing steam and energy to fulfil its own needs while selling the excess electricity to the grid by optimally utilising bagasse. The sale of surplus power generated by optimal cogeneration contributes to the viability and stability of sugar mills, as well as the creation of additional power generation capacity across the country. (MNRE, 2021)"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"New National Biogas and Organic Manure Programme (NNBOMP)"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"The NNBOMP scheme, a central government scheme, aims to establish small biogas plants ranging in size from 1 M3 to 25 M3."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"The objectives of the scheme are to provide green and clean renewable gaseous fuel for lighting, cooking and small power needs of potential farmers, cattle farmers/users, and individual households, as well as to facilitate the management and utilisation of biogas plant-produced slurry as an organic enriched Solid Biogas Fertilizer."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"Biogas, as a clean cooking fuel produced from wastes available at the doorsteps of potential beneficiaries, along with the simultaneous production of organic nutrients enriched slurry, provides an opportunity to reduce costs/savings by'9,000 to'12,000 per year, based on plant sizes ranging from 1 to 4 M3. Efforts to establish biogas plants across the country are helping to double farmers' income. (MNRE, 2021) "}]},{"head":"Key Institutions in the Wastewater & Energy Sector","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Market conditions for RRR products","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"India produces most of the domestically consumed fertilizers. However, as of 2014, more than 25% of the consumption of nitrogen fertilizers and about 30% of phosphorus fertilizers are met through imports (FAO 2018). Thus, nutrient recovery from waste can help save substantial amounts of foreign exchange used for fertilizer imports. Despite the acknowledged benefits of waste-based organic fertilizers in both organic and conventional farming, compost use is not widespread among farmers in India (Dilkara et al. 2016). Crop residues are usually burned to prevent the transmission of diseases without regards of the possible damage to soil microflora which enhances soil fertility."},{"index":2,"size":216,"text":"The most important barrier to the use of compost among the farmers is competition from chemical fertilizers although they are not substitutes. Chemical fertilizers are highly subsidized by the government and its availability and easy access at local retail agricultural input shops in rural areas make it more acceptable for the farmers. Another related barrier is the dissemination of information to farmers about the use of compost derived from the organic fraction of the solid waste. Although the use of aged farmyard manure is well-known, farmers have limited knowledge on municipal solid waste-based compost. It has been reported by farmers that the compost derived from organic solid waste is of low nutrient quality compared to farmyard manure, which lowers their preferences. Recently, government support programmes like Swacch Bharat Abhiyan are promoting waste segregation and utilization of organic fertilizer both from organic solid waste as well as fecal sludge in the rural areas. The Ministry of Chemical and Fertilizers has issued a national co-directive that market development assistance in the form of INR 1500 per ton of city compost will be provided for scaling up production and consumption and the dealer's networks can be used for marketing composts (MCF, 2016). These measures are still in nascent stage and its success yet to be assessed in the future."},{"index":3,"size":385,"text":"With an annual population growth rate of 1.58% energy demand in India is also on the rise which is being primarily met from fossil fuel. In rural India, 67% of the households still rely on firewood as a source of cooking fuel. Biogas a clean form of energy derived from animal waste, primarily cattle dung, poultry droppings, crop residue, kitchen waste, etc. can be a substitute for Liquid Petroleum Gas in rural areas. Although biogas has been promoted for over three decades now, there is still a potential for the expansion of the sector. The rate of biogas dissemination is low in rural areas and the share of biogas in the fuel mix in rural households is insignificant. Around five million family biogas plants (40%) have been installed under the biogas development program in view the total potential of 12 million domestic biogas gas plants estimated by the MNRE (CSO, 2014). In addition to family type biogas plants, 400 biogas off-grid power plants have been set up with a power generation capacity of about 5.5 MW (MNRE, 2015). The share of anaerobic digestion in biological waste treatment in urban areas is presently very low due to high capital cost and low revenue growth prospects compared to other competing waste treatment technologies. Currently, there are only 56 operational biogas-based power plants in India, the majority of them are located in three states, Maharashtra, Kerala, and Karnataka (CPCB, 2013). In urban areas, biogas produced from municipal and industrial wastes is primarily considered for generating electricity or for transportation fuel. The primary barriers for biogas in urban areas are -(i) Financial barriers -high capital cost, unavailability of long term financing options, high interest rate and high-risk perception by financial institutions, (ii) Competitiveness -operational costs of the biogas plants are higher than that of thermal power plants using coal or natural gas. Electricity derived from other renewable sources like solar, hydro and wind is cheaper than biogas; (iii) segregation of organic and non-organic waste is not done in urban households resulting in the low-quality organic feedstock; (iv) government incentives like feed-in tariffs, long-term financing, capital grants, viability gap funding & tipping fee for waste collection and handling are currently not in place (Mittal, 2018). Low economic viability of large scale projects discourage private investments in this sector (Ojha, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Support services for circular bioeconomy","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Financial assistance","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"This section specifies the kind of financial assistance provided by the Government to the RRR initiatives in India. In India, traditionally, the Government of India (GoI) catered to major investments towards waste management (landfills, wastewater treatment plants, rural biogas programme etc.  ). While all of the funding opportunities as mentioned under JNNURM still exist, the GoI has initiated \"Promoting Innovative Smart Solutions\" such that ULBs can avail matching funds under these schemes for public services. One of the major thrust areas is waste management including (i) waste to energy and fuel, (ii) waste to compost, (iii) treatment of wastewater, and (iv) recycling and reduction of construction and demolition waste. These missions focuses on making ULBs financially self-sustaining through promotion of user charges for the cost recovery and include private players to increase the service delivery. Thus, there is a boost towards startups and Small and Microenterprises (SMEs) in the RRR sector.A synopsis of the financial assistance provided through the different programmes is provided in Table 3.  Crore/Project) f. Biomass Gasifier:"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"• Rs. 2,500 per kWe with duel fuel engines for electrical application • Rs.15,000 per kWe with 100% gas engines for electrical application • Rs. 2 lakh per 300 kWth for thermal applications • Rs.10,000 per kWe for 100% producer gas engines with Gasifier system for electrical applications"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Rs.8000 per kWe for 100% producer gas engine alone for electrical applications (MNRE, 2021)"}]},{"head":"Central Financial Assistance for New National Biogas and Organic Manure Programme","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The Central Subsidy is provided under the NNBOMP for the installation of biogas plants of sizes 1 M3 to 25 M3, ranging from '7500 per plant of size 1 M3 to '35,000 per plant of size 20-25 M3. Apart from that, financial assistance is provided for turnkey job fees for construction, supervision, and so on. It also provides funding for a skill development programme for Biogas Mitras and BDTCs to hold training courses. The amount of the subsidy is determined by the size of the installed biogas plant, the state or region, the beneficiary category, and the states of the North-eastern Region. Furthermore, administrative charges as well as training, publicity, and technical support are provided to the States/UTs implementing the scheme through Biogas Development and Training Centres (BDTCs). (MNRE, 2021)"}]},{"head":"Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Under the scheme, a non-banking financial company named Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency Ltd. (MUDRA) provides financial support to banks and microfinance institutions to provide support for the development of micro enterprise sectors in India. The loans provided are in three categories -Tarun, Kishore and Shishu varying with the requirement of the loan amount, age of the business and other parameters. No collateral is required and largely offered to traders, store owners, street vendors and others."}]},{"head":"National Policy for Management of Crop Residues (NPMCR)","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The policy was launched in 2014 to address the issue of management of crop residue. It aims to promote in-situ management of crop residue in place of burning it as it leads to degradation of the environment. Some of the other objectives include utilizing the crop residue for other purposes such as power generation, composting, production of bioethanol and so on; spreading awareness on its ill effects and capacity building; and introducing of several laws and policies to reduce the menace."}]},{"head":"Single Point Registration Scheme","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"This scheme is managed by National Small Industries Corporation (NSIC) to support microenterprises in India. The main objective of the scheme is to enable business enterprises to become eligible in government purchases without the need for an earnest money deposit (EMD). Those having NSIC registration can avail of the benefit. Other benefits include free-cost tender, tender participation, and others."}]},{"head":"High Risk and High Reward Research","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Under this scheme, funding is provided for ideas and projects in the field of science and technology that can have a meaningful impact. There is no set budget for these projects, and the research grant must cover consumables, contingencies, equipment, and travel costs in addition to overhead grants. The funding is usually for three years and extendable up to five years in exceptional cases. (GoI, High Risk -High Reward Research, 2022) "}]},{"head":"General access to debt","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"To fund the growth, MSMEs require external financing (especially debt) since their internal resources are insufficient. MSMEs still rely primarily on banks for external financing, despite financial limitations. There are a variety of ways for MSME entrepreneurs to access external financing. The cash flow and investment needs of MSMEs are often met by straight debt. Furthermore, MSME administrators often have difficulty securing new equity financing due to financial market constraints. MSMEs have access to a variety of funding sources, which means that their access to finance differs. To create a supportive platform and promote MSMEs, governments and regulating agencies have extended incentives, grants, guided loans, and subsidized loans. The problem of financial connectivity persists, however. Accessing finance and selecting it properly has become a necessity because of the various difficulties. (Wasdani 2020) The instances of bad loans are on the rise in the MSMEs, suggests the FSR report by RBI. The portfolios of both private as well as public sector banks suggest accumulation in non-performing categories and SMA 2. The percentage of NPA had risen sharply from 16.8 per cent in March to September 2021. The bank also mentioned that the chances of medium and low-risk borrowers in the MSME becoming high-risk borrowers were significantly high. (Ganguly 2022)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The present study focusses on assessing the enabling climate for RRR business opportunities in India. The study used four different criteria for the assessment -(i) business enablers for small and medium to initiate businesses; (ii) regulatory framework and polices related to waste management and whether these work towards promoting RRR opportunities; (iii) existing market and operations in the country which can be examples for promoting such businesses across the country; and (iv) access to finance and whether there exists any support services from the government to promote these activities."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"India has improved its position in the worldwide ranking jumping 37 positions within two years to 63 among 190 economies. However, high corruption rates are main issues which impede any policy or technological reforms. Openness and transparency is maintained at moderate level in India as reported by World Bank. Therefore, although there exists legislations and policies, pertaining to waste and wastewater management along with the requisite quality standards for the permissible environmental restrictions, enforcement to achieve the means are not always easy."},{"index":3,"size":226,"text":"It can be observed that although India is taking giant steps towards the improvement of handling waste and wastewater it still has a long way to go. The market development of the RRR businesses is still is scattered in some pockets of the country. While there are promotional activities like Ministry of Chemical and Fertilizers has issued a national co-directive that market development assistance in the form of INR 1500 (USD 21.5) per ton of city compost will be provided for scaling up production and consumption and that the dealer's networks can be used for marketing composts, the market for MSW compost is still undeveloped. Although India has standards for the compost they are not mandatory and therefore, nutrient recovery whether from waste or wastewater resources are in slow progress. In fact, there had been several experiments with MSW compost as well as faecal sludge compost, the market is still small and restricted to some pockets. While India is gradually progressing out from lower access to improved sanitation, the service chain will probably take some further time to develop. Some private involvement is being already noticed especially with the emptying facilities (of septic tanks) and establishment of Faecal Sludge Treatment Plants. With government programmes targeted towards city development, it is strongly felt that sanitation service chain as well as reuse business is going to develop further."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Along with the improvement in the business environment, Government of India is boosting an ecosystem to finance startup through different sources of funding (subsidies, venture capitalists into the sector, grants-in-aid, PPPs etc.). However, the bureaucratic mechanism often acts as a disincentive for the sector to avail the support from the government. To expedite the growth of the sector, the reforms towards enabling the environment that has been initiated should be promoted further."},{"index":5,"size":209,"text":"The overall performance of India in creating enabling environment for the RRR sector across all the four indicators considered for the study shows a medium performance. While opportunities for the small and medium industries to initiate the business is made favorable along with the other institutional mechanism, the market potential has yet not developed particularly for the recovery of the nutrient which needs more awareness campaigns and regulations by the government. Implementing the CE concept in India in the waste management stream has various organizational, social and legislative constraints. These gaps are to be addressed immediately by the concerned authorities so that the sustainable and cost-saving option of CE can be applied at a broader scale in India. Although India has recognized circularity, the transition towards circular bioeconomy need effective implementation of Government policies. The GoI has introduced several policies in the recent past; however, none of the oriented policies proved to be a game changer. There is an urgent need to launch campaigns for organizing the sectors associated with solid waste recycling, thereby involving the rag pickers and other human scavengers, enhancing waste collection efficiency, and having positive social impacts. At the same time streamlining the existing policies with implementation agencies is required to effectively promote circular bioeconomy."},{"index":6,"size":125,"text":"Absence of a common platform for interaction between entrepreneurs and global experts on various concepts of circular economy. To boost the implementation of the CE concept in India, there is a need to develop a suitable platform for proper interaction and exchange of ideas at national and international levels. Such a platform can aid in connecting the budding entrepreneurs and the experts, which may have positive impacts. The entrepreneurs need to be equipped with suitable technologies and business models such that they are adaptable or replicable on a wider scale in India. This should be backed by campaigning among citizens to provide them a better understanding of circularity. An increase in awareness among common masses might produce favourable results in adaption of circular economy approach."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The primary barriers of biogas technologies in rural areas are the following -•Financial limitations -high installation cost and high level of bureaucracy and hence procedural delays in the accessing the financial support;Rao and Ravindranath (2002),Bansal et al. (2013), Kaniyamparambil (2011) • Market -freely available fuelwood which is a cheaper option, Ravindranath and Balachandra (2009), Bansal et al. (2013) • Social and cultural -lack of social acceptance for biogas like night soil, human excreta and low involvement of women in the decision-making process , Rupf et al. (2015) • Technical and Infrastructural -this related to the inadequate supply of the feedstockscattered dropping of cattle and low output for 2-3 months during winter and lack of skilled labour for the construction; , Rupf et al. (2015), Kaniyamparambil (2011), Bhat et al. (2001), Bansal et al. (2013) • Lack of information -Poor dissemination of information regarding the technology and incentives given by the government Rao and Ravindranath (2002), Ravindranath and • Balachandra (2009), Lack of awareness regarding substrates other than cattle dung for biogas generation Raha et. al. (2014). "},{"text":" a. Biogas generation: Rs.1.0 crore per 12000 cum/day (Maximum CFA-Rs.10 crore/project) b. Bio-CNG generation (including setting of Biogas plant): Rs.4.0 Crore per 4800Kg/day; c. Power generation based on Biogas (Maximum CFA-Rs.10 crore/project): • Gas engine/turbine route: Rs.3.0 Crore per MW • Boiler+Steam turbine route: Rs.1.5 crore / MW d. Power Generation (based on MSW/ RDF): Rs.5.0 crore /MW (Maximum CFA-Rs. 50 crore/project) e. Power (Based on BTG route): Rs.0.50 crore/MW (Maximum CFA -Rs.10 "},{"text":"Table 1 : Establishing a business in India -time taken and the associated costs Country Activities Number of procedures Time to complete Associated costs  India Starting a business 10 (in Delhi) 17 days (in Delhi) USD 56.33-86.23 (in Delhi) IndiaStarting a business 10 (in Delhi)17 days (in Delhi)USD 56.33-86.23 (in Delhi)   10 (in Mumbai) 18 days (in Mumbai) USD 134.81-160.16 (in 10 (in Mumbai)18 days (in Mumbai)USD 134.81-160.16 (in     Mumbai) Mumbai)  Dealing with 11 (in Delhi) 113.5 days (in Delhi) USD 2505.18 (in Delhi) Dealing with11 (in Delhi)113.5 days (in Delhi)USD 2505.18 (in Delhi)  construction 19 (in Mumbai) 98 days (in Mumbai) USD 4914.86 (in Mumbai) construction19 (in Mumbai)98 days (in Mumbai)USD 4914.86 (in Mumbai)  permits   permits  Getting electricity 3 (in Delhi) 27 days (in Delhi) USD 838.78 (in Delhi) Getting electricity3 (in Delhi)27 days (in Delhi)USD 838.78 (in Delhi)   4 (in Mumbai) 82 days (in Mumbai) USD 155.07 (in Mumbai) 4 (in Mumbai)82 days (in Mumbai)USD 155.07 (in Mumbai)  Registering 9 (in Delhi) 49 days (in Delhi) USD 7315.81 (in Delhi) -USD Registering9 (in Delhi)49 days (in Delhi)USD 7315.81 (in Delhi) -USD  property 9 (in Mumbai) 68 days (in Mumbai) 6745.12 (in Delhi) property9 (in Mumbai)68 days (in Mumbai)6745.12 (in Delhi)  Paying taxes 11 (number) 252 hrs/year Profit tax -21.7%; Labour tax Paying taxes11 (number)252 hrs/yearProfit tax -21.7%; Labour tax     and contributions -20.1%; and contributions -20.1%;     Other taxes -7.9% Other taxes -7.9% Total cost of procedures for establishment of a business is approximately ~ USD 13,000 Total cost of procedures for establishment of a business is approximately ~ USD 13,000  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Rules -Government of India Year Name of the Rule   Description YearName of the RuleDescription 1989 Hazardous Wastes (Management and Hazardous Waste Rules deal with resource recovery and 1989 Hazardous Wastes (Management andHazardous Waste Rules deal with resource recovery and  Handling) Rules (1989, amended January disposal of hazardous waste in an environmentally sound Handling) Rules (1989, amended Januarydisposal of hazardous waste in an environmentally sound  2003, August 2010, April 2016)  manner. 2003, August 2010, April 2016)manner. 1998 Biomedical Waste (Management and These rules apply to all who generate, collect, receive, store, 1998 Biomedical Waste (Management andThese rules apply to all who generate, collect, receive, store,  Handling) Rules (1998, amended transport, treat, dispose of, or handle biomedical waste in any Handling)Rules(1998,amendedtransport, treat, dispose of, or handle biomedical waste in any  September 2003, March 2016)  form September 2003, March 2016)form 2000 Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and 2000 Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and  Handling) Rules (2000, amended April Handling) Rules (2000, amended April  2016)    2016) 2016 Construction and Demolition Waste These rules addressed the indiscriminate disposal of C&D 2016 Construction and Demolition WasteThese rules addressed the indiscriminate disposal of C&D  Management Rules   Waste and enable these wastes to be reused and recycled in a Management RulesWaste and enable these wastes to be reused and recycled in a      gainful manner gainful manner  "},{"text":" (Policy, 2006)    The Ministry of Urban Development of India launched the National Urban Sanitation Policy in 2008, emphasizing the importance of defining integrated city-wide sanitation plans that include institutional strengthening, awareness generation, behavioural changes, pro-poor approaches, and cost-effective technologies aimed at developing state sanitation strategies and city sanitation plans that should lead to open defecation-free cities, as well as sanitary and safe waste disposal.(India,  2008)     National Urban Sanitation Policy, 2008 National Urban Sanitation Policy, 2008  "},{"text":" The Ministry of Urban Development (now Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs) promoted small scale Waste to Energy systems and nutrient recovery from onsite faecal sludge treatment systems (septic tanks and pit latrines) in its National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) in February 2017. (MINISTRY OF JAL SHAKTI DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCES, 2022) PPP Toolkit for Solid Waste Management, 2012 PPP Toolkit is an attempt by the Ministry of Urban Development to provide a comprehensive knowledge of SWM for implementers. It has been prepared to provide a step-by-step approach for identifying, evaluating, and implementing PPP projects in the SWM sector. (Kapil Dev Sharma, 2019) The Ministry of Urban Development (now Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs) promoted small scale Waste to Energy systems and nutrient recovery from onsite faecal sludge treatment systems (septic tanks and pit latrines) in its National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM) in February 2017. (MoUD, 2017) National Policy for Management of Crop Residues (NPMCR) National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM), 2017 National Policy on Faecal Sludge and Septage Management (FSSM), 2017  "},{"text":" •The total cost sanctioned for the project was INR 462.04 crores. Out of this, around 433.3 crores were spent on 25 class-I towns of West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The treatment capacity of about 868.69 MLD of sewage was created under the programme. Namami Gange Namami Gange • The major initiatives under this plan include the development of the riverfront, the •The major initiatives under this plan include the development of the riverfront, the  construction of sewage treatment plants, the cleaning of the river, the conservation of construction of sewage treatment plants, the cleaning of the river, the conservation of  biodiversity, afforestation, and public awareness among others. (TERI, 2020) The biodiversity, afforestation, and public awareness among others. (TERI, 2020) The  programme has been allocated INR 20000 crores. programme has been allocated INR 20000 crores. • The treatment capacity of about 328 MLD of sewage was created under the programme •The treatment capacity of about 328 MLD of sewage was created under the programme  as of 2019. as of 2019. Waste to Energy Programme Waste to Energy Programme Currently, a Waste to Energy Programme (WTE Programme) is being implemented to recover energy Currently, a Waste to Energy Programme (WTE Programme) is being implemented to recover energy from industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes/residues through bioCNG/ power/ biogas. Along from industrial, agricultural, and municipal wastes/residues through bioCNG/ power/ biogas. Along with this, organic fertilisers are also produced by biogas plants as by-products which can be used for with this, organic fertilisers are also produced by biogas plants as by-products which can be used for agricultural purposes. agricultural purposes. Distilleries, paper and pulp solvent extraction, dairy, starch industries, sugar mills, pharmaceutical Distilleries, paper and pulp solvent extraction, dairy, starch industries, sugar mills, pharmaceutical industries, and sewage treatment plants are among the industries where such projects are being industries, and sewage treatment plants are among the industries where such projects are being implemented. (Energy, 2022) implemented. (Energy, 2022) Ganga Action-II Ganga Action-II • Under phase II, several activities were undertaken such as reviving of existing and laying •Under phase II, several activities were undertaken such as reviving of existing and laying  of new sewerage systems and treatment plants. of new sewerage systems and treatment plants.  "},{"text":"Institutions in the Wastewater Sector   development, resource assessment, and awareness activities. The MNRE also addresses development, resource assessment, and awareness activities. The MNRE also addresses  bioenergy for electricity, such as EfW, and biogas. bioenergy for electricity, such as EfW, and biogas. 2. Under the MNRE, the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) operates 2.Under the MNRE, the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) operates  as a non-banking financial institution, granting loans for renewable energy and energy as a non-banking financial institution, granting loans for renewable energy and energy  efficiency projects. efficiency projects. 3. The Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) oversees carrying out various MNRE 3.The Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) oversees carrying out various MNRE  subsidy schemes, including the solar park scheme and the grid-connected solar rooftop subsidy schemes, including the solar park scheme and the grid-connected solar rooftop  scheme. scheme. 4. SSS-NIRE is an autonomous institution of the MNRE, a developing R&D centre with a 4.SSS-NIRE is an autonomous institution of the MNRE, a developing R&D centre with a  mission to focus on bioenergy and develop innovative renewables and biofuel mission to focus on bioenergy and develop innovative renewables and biofuel  technologies. technologies. 5. The Ministry of Power (MoP) governs India's electricity sector, which includes renewable 5.The Ministry of Power (MoP) governs India's electricity sector, which includes renewable  energy generation. The Minister of Power is also in charge of the MNRE and renewable energy generation. The Minister of Power is also in charge of the MNRE and renewable  energy. energy. 6. The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) regulates generation and 6.The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) regulates generation and  transmission utility tariffs and grants interstate transmission and trading licences. transmission utility tariffs and grants interstate transmission and trading licences. 7. The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) is the overall coordinating ministry 7.The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) is the overall coordinating ministry  for biofuel development and national biofuels policy implementation. It oversees biofuel for biofuel development and national biofuels policy implementation. It oversees biofuel  marketing and distribution, blending levels, pricing and procurement policy, and capacity marketing and distribution, blending levels, pricing and procurement policy, and capacity  building. building. 8.  8. 1. Ministry of Jal Shakti: This is the nodal ministry that formulates and oversees the 1.Ministry of Jal Shakti: This is the nodal ministry that formulates and oversees the  programmes and policies concerning the development and regulation of water resources programmes and policies concerning the development and regulation of water resources  in the country. in the country. 2. National Water Mission: Launched in 2011, its main objectives include water 2.National Water Mission: Launched in 2011, its main objectives include water  conservation, and management of water sources to ensure equal distribution and conservation, and management of water sources to ensure equal distribution and  reduction of wastage. reduction of wastage. 3. Central Pollution Central Board (CPCBs) and State Pollution Control Board (SPCBs) 3.Central Pollution Central Board (CPCBs) and State Pollution Control Board (SPCBs) 4. Programmes at the Central Level (TERI, 2020) 4.Programmes at the Central Level (TERI, 2020) Institutions in the Energy Sector Institutions in the Energy Sector 1. In India, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) oversees developing 1.In India, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) oversees developing  renewable energy policies for electricity, transportation, and heating. The MNRE includes renewable energy policies for electricity, transportation, and heating. The MNRE includes  the National Institute of Solar Energy and the National Institute of Wind Energy, which the National Institute of Solar Energy and the National Institute of Wind Energy, which  conduct research and development, testing, certification, standardisation, skill conduct research and development, testing, certification, standardisation, skill  "},{"text":" ). An important national programme Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) to modernise cities and implemented through the MOUD started supporting PPPs in SWM and WSS projects (primarily through infrastructure projects) in 2005. Post 2014, there has been a paradigm shift in support of RRR businesses by the Government of India (GoI). The central government announced Smart Cities Mission (SCM), Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) and Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Financial Assistance provided by GoI Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs, MoDWS = Ministry of Drinking Water and SanitationCentral Financial Assistance for Biomass Power and Bagasse Co-generation ProgrammeTo promote biogas-based cogeneration in industries especially sugar mills, financial assistance at the rate of Rs. 25 lacs/ MW is provided by the Central government. The assistance provided is based on the surplus exportable power but only for those projects that install new turbines as well as broilers. This assistance is a backward process and is usually released in a single instalment, without any advances.The Ministry has launched the Bio-urja Portal to expedite the online submission of proposals and supporting documents for the scheme's Central Financial Assistance (CFA).(MNRE, 2021)    Central Financial Assistance for Waste to Energy Programmes Central Financial Assistance (CFA) for projects of different categories is given in the form of capital subsidy to the promoters and in the form of Grants-in-Aid for other activities, as given below: Initiative Ministry Period What is financed Available Funds InitiativeMinistry PeriodWhat is financedAvailable Funds Swachh MoHUA/ 2014-2019 Toilet construction in 9 billion USD SwachhMoHUA/2014-2019Toilet construction in9 billion USD Bharat MoDWS  households, communities, and  BharatMoDWShouseholds, communities, and (Clean   public spaces in all 4041  (Cleanpublic spaces in all 4041 India)   statuary towns  India)statuary towns Mission     Mission AMRUT MoHUA 2015-2023 Water supply and sewerage 7 billion USD AMRUTMoHUA 2015-2023Water supply and sewerage7 billion USD Mission   connections, wastewater  Missionconnections, wastewater    treatment facilities and  treatment facilities and    septage management; and  septage management; and    storm drainage systems  storm drainage systems    (500 cities)  (500 cities)  "}],"sieverID":"7d04f2af-43f8-462c-80ab-f0ab2e8179e7","abstract":"Nature-Positive-Solutions is a One CGIAR initiative that aims to re-imagine, co-create, and implement nature-positive solutions-based agrifood systems that equitably support local food and livelihoods, while simultaneously ensuring that agriculture is a net positive contributor to nature. For more details about the initiative https://on.cgiar.org/3rHjbRO"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b5f9e0e005874824bd79c2d0c2e0aec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1024c6f7-88e3-42fb-ab58-80ebac795dce/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Mali's Agrifood System Structure and Drivers of Transformation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Mali experienced modest annual economic growth of 4.4 percent between 2009 and 2019 (INSTAT 2020;World Bank 2023a). With annual population growth of 3.0 percent during that period, the living standards of Malian people improved only modestly. In 2020, the global COVID-19 pandemic caused a significant slowdown in economic growth, while an increase in armed insurgencies by domestic terrorist groups also had an adverse effect on the economy. Mali's GDP growth is projected to reach 4.0 percent in 2023 and 2024 (World Bank 2023b), suggesting the economy is inching back toward its prepandemic growth trajectory. Agriculture remains an important sector, accounting for 40 percent of GDP and more than 60 percent of employment in Mali. In this brief, we unpack the historical and projected economic growth trajectory further to better understand the role of agriculture as well as the broader agrifood system (AFS) in the performance and transformation of the economy of Mali."},{"index":2,"size":208,"text":"The AFS is a complex network of actors who are connected by their roles in supplying, consuming, and governing agrifood products and jobs. Just as an economy undergoes transformations as a country develops, agrifood systems are also expected to evolve (Diao, Hazell, and Thurlow 2010;Timmer 1988). Subsistence farming typically dominates agriculture during the earliest stages of development; as agricultural productivity rises, however, farmers start to supply surplus production to markets, thus creating job opportunities for workers in the nonfarm economy both within and outside the agrifood sectors (Haggblade, Hazell, and Dorosh 2007). Rising rural incomes generate demand for more diverse products; this leads to more nonfarm activities such as processing, packaging, transporting, and trading. In the early stages of transformation, the agriculture sector serves as an engine of rural-and even national-economic growth. Eventually, urbanization, the nonfarm economy, and nonagricultural incomes play more dominant roles in propelling agrifood system development, with urban and rural nonfarm consumers creating most of the demand for agricultural outputs via value chains that connect rural areas to towns and cities (Dorosh and Thurlow 2013). The exact nature of this transformation process varies across countries because of the diverse structure of their economies and the unique growth trajectories of their various agrifood and nonfood subsectors."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"This brief describes the current and changing structure of Mali's AFS and evaluates the potential contribution of different value chains to the acceleration of agricultural transformation and inclusiveness. We start by offering a simple conceptual framework of the AFS and then compare Mali's AFS with that of other countries at different stages of development. We go on to disaggregate Mali's AFS across agricultural value chains, taking into consideration their different market structures and historical contribution to economic growth and transformation. Finally, we use a forward-looking economywide model to assess the diverse contributions that specific value chains can make to each of a set of broad development outcomes. We conclude by summarizing our main findings."}]},{"head":"A Simple Conceptual Framework of the Agrifood System","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":300,"text":"A country's AFS is a complex network of actors who are connected by their differing roles in supplying, using, and governing agrifood products (see Fanzo et al. 2020 for a detailed conceptual description of the AFS). In this brief, rather than examining all components of Mali's AFS, we employ a narrower focus. We first measure the size, structure, and historical contribution of the AFS to economic growth and transformation through a data-driven exercise; second, we use the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Rural Investment and Policy Analysis (RIAPA) model (IFPRI 2023a) to assess the effectiveness of AFS growth (led by productivity gains in different agricultural value chains) in promoting multiple development outcomes in Mali. Our measurement of the AFS is done from a supply-side perspective; that is, we use national accounts and employment statistics to either track or simulate growth and employment changes over time. By disaggregating the AFS into several value chain groups, this analysis offers a unique and useful perspective on the drivers of AFS growth and transformation. Figure 1 provides a simple conceptual framework of the AFS made up of five components, A to E (see Thurlow et al. 2023). Primary agriculture (A) comprises the supply and demand of all agricultural products including crops, livestock, fisheries, and forestry products. Agroprocessing (B) is part of the manufacturing sector and includes those subsectors that process agriculture-related food or nonfood products. Trade and transport services (C) includes those services associated with the transporting, wholesaling, and retailing of agrifood products between farms, firms, and final points of sale. Food services (D) includes services such as meals prepared at restaurants, food stalls, or hotels. Finally, input supply (E) is the portion of domestically produced intermediate inputs that is used directly in agricultural and agroprocessing production, such as fertilizers and financial services."},{"index":2,"size":248,"text":"Using this conceptual framework, it is possible to measure the size and structure of Mali's AFS from a supply-side perspective. Following the definitions of Thurlow et al. (2023), AFS GDP (or AgGDP+) is the sum of the GDP contributions of the five components (A to E), while AFS employment (or AgEMP+) is the total number of jobs across those components. As the economy grows and transforms over time, there will be changes in the relative contributions of the various on-farm and off-farm components of the AFS to total AgGDP+ or AgEMP+. A transforming economy, for example, will typically be characterized by more rapid growth in the off-farm components of the AFS; there will thus be an increased contribution by off-farm components to AgGDP+ and AgEMP+ and a relative decline in the contribution of primary agriculture. By disaggregating AgGDP+ and AgEMP+ by specific agricultural value chains, we can further assess the contribution of each of those value chains to AFS growth and transformation.  (IFPRI 2023b). National estimates are broken down into estimates for the AFS (that is, AgGDP+ and AgEMP+) and the rest of the economy. The AFS is further broken down into its on-farm (primary agriculture) and off-farm components. The estimates for manufacturing and services (including the trade and transport services subsector) at the bottom of the table include activities in both the AFS and non-AFS sectors; they thus provide a perspective on the relative size of the off-farm AFS components within the overall manufacturing and services sectors."}]},{"head":"Current Structure of Mali's Agrifood System","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"As shown in Table 1, the AFS accounted for 50.8 percent of Mali's national GDP and 70.8 percent of employment in 2019. Primary agriculture alone contributed 40 percent of GDP and nearly two-thirds of employment, while the four off-farm components of the AFS contributed 10.8 percent to GDP and 8.4 percent to employment. The off-farm components of the AFS therefore accounted for roughly one-fifth of AgGDP+ and 12 percent of AgEMP+. The comparison of on-and off-farm GDP and employment shares shows that labor productivity in the off-farm components of the AFS is significantly higher than on-farm. The movement of farm workers into these off-farm components-a natural process of agricultural transformation-may thus be beneficial to household incomes. Source: Authors' calculation based on the 2019 Social Accounting Matrix for Mali (IFPRI 2023b)."}]},{"head":"Note:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"A to E correspond to the five agrifood system (AFS) components from Figure 1."}]},{"head":"Comparing Mali's Agrifood System to Other Countries","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"The structure and economic contribution of a country's AFS varies at different stages of a its development. Evidence of this is provided in Figure 2, which compares the 2019 AFS structures of low-income (LIC), lower-middle-income (LMIC), upper-middle-income (UMIC), and high-income countries (HIC)."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Mali is an LIC. Thehe on-farm component of Mali's AFS and its contribution to national GDP are higher than that of its peer countries, but the off-farm component is lower (Panel A). Within the four off-farm components of the AFS, Mali's agroprocessing and trade and transport are relatively larger than in other LICs, while the food services and input supply components are relatively smaller (Panel B). "}]},{"head":"Unpacking the Demand Side of Mali's Agrifood System","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"In Figure 3, the structure of Mali's AFS from the supply side, as measured by AgGDP+ (Panel A), is compared to the structure of the AFS from the demand side, as measured by household consumption of agrifood products (Panel B). While 78.8 percent of AgGDP+ is from primary agriculture, primary agricultural commodities account for only 51.9 percent of household demand. In contrast, household demand for processed agrifood products accounts for 45.5 percent of total agrifood demand, even though the associated sector accounts for only 8.8 percent of AgGDP+. The bias toward processed agrifood products is mirrored in the large share of agrifood imports accounted for by processed products, that is, almost all agrifood commodity exports are primary agricultural commodities (Panel C), but 81.4 percent of imports are processed goods (Panel D). Mali has a deficit in its total agrifood commodity trade driven by a large value of processed agrifood imports-all agrifood exports are primary products, while more than 80 percent of agrifood imports are processed products. "}]},{"head":"Disaggregating the Agrifood System across Value Chains","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"For a more detailed assessment of structural and historical growth patterns within the AFS, we group Mali's agrifood system into 13 value chain groups (see Table A1 in the Appendix for details on how individual value chains or subsectors are mapped to value chain groups). The 13 value chain groups are further categorized into three subgroups on the basis of their trade orientation. Exportable and importable value chains are defined, respectively, as those value chains with export-output and import-consumption ratios above the national average. Trade in both primary and processed agrifood products is considered in the calculation of these trade ratios. The remaining value chains are classified as lesstraded value chains."},{"index":2,"size":302,"text":"Table 2 shows the 13 value chain groups, categorized into exportable, importable, and less-traded value chains. The table also reports the contribution of each value chain group to AgGDP+, primary agricultural GDP, and GDP in off-farm components of the AFS. Consistent with Figure 3, Table 2 shows that Mali has a deficit in agrifood trade, with an import-consumption ratio of 5.5 percent, which is higher than the export-output ratio of 3.6 percent. Four of the 13 value chains are classified as exportable value chains because their export-output ratios exceed the national average for AFS value chains. Since Mali exports only primary agricultural products, these exportable sectors have a disproportionately small off-farm AFS GDP share of 29.5 percent, far smaller than their primary agricultural GDP share of 39.4 percent. Interestingly, oilseeds, an exportable value chain, also has a high import-consumption ratio. This may reflect an increased demand for processed agrifood products, many of which are imported. In this case, exports from the oilseed value chain are in the form of primary agricultural products (oilseeds), while imports into that value chain are processed products (such as cooking oils). Two value chains are classified as importable with high import-consumption ratios, and 7 of the 13 value chains fall into the less-traded group of value chains. Importable value chains account for 15.8 percent of AgGDP+, and less-traded value chains account for 46.0 percent of AgGDP+. The two importable value chains have large off-farm components, while many of the less-traded value chains have relatively small off-farm components. The importable value chains thus contribute a disproportionately larger share to off-farm AFS GDP (37.9 percent) compared to their primary agricultural GDP contribution (10.4 percent), while the 7 less-traded value chains contribute a disproportionately larger share to primary agricultural GDP (50.1 percent) compared to their off-farm AFS GDP (32.5 percent)."}]},{"head":"Structural Change and Drivers of Agrifood System GDP Growth","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"The previous sections have provided a snapshot of the current structure of Mali's AFS, the disaggregation of the AFS across the 13 value chain groups, and the trade orientation of those value chains. We have demonstrated that Mali has a deficit in agrifood trade caused by imports of processed agrifood products. The two importable value chains are large in terms of their contribution to off-farm AFS GDP, while the seven less-traded value chains are dominant in terms of their contribution to AgGDP+ and primary agriculture. Less-traded value chains also are generally less oriented toward value addition in the off-farm components of the AFS (that is, their contribution to off-farm AFS components is small relative to their contribution to primary agriculture, especially when compared to importable value chains). Prioritizing growth in importable value chains could therefore be an effective strategy for expanding off-farm value addition and jobs, which would contribute positively to AFS transformation."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"In this section, we assess the performance and structural transformation of Mali's AFS in recent years."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"Labor productivity is typically lowest in primary agriculture, and higher in off-farm activities, such as in agrifood processing, food services, or in sectors outside of the AFS. Economic growth and urbanization are associated with relatively faster growth in these nonagricultural sectors, which can help create higher-paying jobs for both rural and urban households. As such, even smallholder farm households with family members who obtain off-farm employment may benefit from structural transformation.   Table 3 evaluates the growth performance across AFS value chains over the 2009 to 2019 period. As before, value chains are grouped according to their trade status, that is, exportable, importable, and less traded. Overall, Mali's AFS grew modestly, with an average annual AgGDP+ growth rate of 4.1 percent, slightly higher than the 3 percent population growth rate. The off-farm component of the AFS grew slightly slower (4.0 percent) than primary agriculture (4.2 percent), with agrifood processing, a subcomponent of the off-farm component of the AFS, growing particularly slowly at 3.8 percent per year. Source: Authors' analysis using the 2009 and 2019 Social Accounting Matrixes for Mali (IFPRI 2023b). Note: Value chains that experienced above-average AgGDP+ growth over the period 2009-2019 (that is, higher than 4.1 percent) are marked with an asterisk (*)."},{"index":4,"size":116,"text":"Among the 13 value chains, 9 achieved above-average growth during the 2009 to 2019 period, that is, more than 4.1 percent per year (these are marked with an asterisk in Table 3). Among the 4 exportable value chains, 3 of them-oilseeds, cotton, and cattle and dairy-grew faster than the AFS average. Five of the 7 less-traded value chains also achieved above-average growth. Rice, the importable value chain, also falls into this category. Among these 9 value chains, 5 of them-oilseeds, rice, maize, pulses, and root crops-had growth rates at or above 5 percent per year. In these rapidly growing value chains, growth in the on-farm components of AFS was higher than growth in the off-farm components."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Rice and maize are two large value chains, and they are also important food staples for many Malian households. Their rapid growth could help improve the country's food security situation."},{"index":6,"size":75,"text":"Figure 5 summarizes the key growth trends from Table 3. On average, less-traded value chains (3.7 percent) grew more slowly than national AgGDP+ (4.1 percent), while exportable (4.4 percent) and importable (4.8 percent) value chains grew faster than the national average (Panel A). Since less-traded value chains make up a large share of the AFS (48.4 percent), however, they contributed the most to growth (42.9 percent), followed by exportable value chains (39.3 percent) (Panel B). "}]},{"head":"Assessing Growth Outcomes Using IFPRI's RIAPA Model","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"IFPRI's Rural Investment and Policy Analysis (RIAPA) model is a tool for conducting forward-looking, economywide country-level analysis (IFPRI 2023a). RIAPA has been used in a wide variety of contexts to simulate the impacts of policies, investments, and economic shocks. Here we employ RIAPA to assess the effectiveness of productivity-led growth in Mali's agricultural value chain groups for promoting multiple development outcomes. The analysis was carried out for 12 value chain groups, which were selected from the original list of 13; forestry was excluded. We considered five development outcomes:"},{"index":2,"size":282,"text":" A poverty-growth elasticity that measures the percentage-point change in the poverty headcount rate per unit of agricultural GDP growth generated within the targeted value chain;  A growth multiplier that measures the change in GDP per unit of increase in agricultural GDP in the targeted value chain;  An employment multiplier that measures the change in the number of jobs created per unit of increase in agricultural GDP in the targeted value chain;  A diet-quality indicator that measures the percentage change in a diet quality index per unit of agricultural GDP growth generated within the targeted value chain; and  A hunger-growth elasticity that measures the percentage-point change in the rate of undernourishment per unit of agricultural GDP growth generated within the targeted value chain. The simulations entail increasing on-farm productivity separately in each targeted value chain and comparing development outcomes across the value chains. While this exogenous productivity shock is imposed only in the primary agriculture component of each value chain, there are spillover effects into that value chain's off-farm components as well as into other agricultural value chains or sectors outside the AFS. These spillovers are captured by the economywide model and provide an indication of the transformation effect that agricultural productivity growth in the value chain has within the AFS and in the broader economy. There are also structural differences across value chains; for example, value chains have unique links to other sectors as suppliers or users of intermediate inputs, or they have unique links to rural or urban households in different income groups because of the types of workers they employ or the consumption preferences of households for the agrifood products produced by those value chains."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"As such, each value chain growth scenario is expected to have a unique impact on the development outcomes; moreover, not all value chains will be equally effective at improving outcomes. In some cases, there may even be trade-offs due to competition for resources across value chains. With the aid of the RIAPA model, these complex effects can be unpacked, thus providing information to governments or development partners that can be used to prioritize across different value chains; this is subject, of course, to the development outcomes they value most highly."},{"index":4,"size":210,"text":"Figure 6 shows the scores each value chain achieves across the five development outcome indicators. We arbitrarily rank the value chains by their poverty score. Value chains clearly differ significantly in terms of their effectiveness in improving different development outcomes. The root crops value chain, for example, has strong poverty effects and is more effective than others at reducing hunger, but it is much less effective in improving diet quality or increasing jobs. In fact, productivity growth in root crops causes total jobs to fall. In contrast, the cattle and dairy value chain has a growth multiplier of 1.68 (the second highest of all the value chains), which means that for every US$1.00 increase in GDP in the cattle and dairy value chain driven by rising productivity, an additional US$1.68 is generated in total GDP; that means US$0.68 is generated either in the off-farm components of the cattle and dairy value chain or in other value chains or sectors of the economy. The cattle and dairy value chain also scores high on job creation but ranks much lower on the poverty outcome. It even has a negative poverty effect, in that the national poverty rate would not fall with growth in value added in the cattle and dairy value chain."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"These results highlight the possible trade-offs that may emerge when prioritizing individual value chains, as there is no single value chain that is the most effective at achieving every development objective. Promoting a few value chains jointly will not only diversify agricultural growth but can also help to simultaneously achieve multiple development objectives."}]},{"head":"Figure 6. Impact of value chain growth on development outcomes","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Source: RIAPA model results. Note: Panel A shows the percentage point changes in poverty rate that are associated with a 1 percent increase in agricultural GDP; Panel B shows the percentage point changes in hunger rate that are associated with a 1 percent increase in agricultural GDP; Panel C shows the changes in total GDP (in US$ millions) that are associated with a US$1.0 million increase in agricultural GDP from the targeted value chain; Panel D is the change in total economywide employment (in thousand persons) that is associated with a US$1.0 million increase in agricultural GDP from the targeted value chain; and Panel E is the percentage improvement in diet quality that is associated with a 1 percent increase in agricultural GDP. The figure is ordered by the poverty rate outcome."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"- "}]},{"head":"E: Diets","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"A composite score across different outcome indicators is created to narrow down the number of value chains that might be prioritized. Because of a high correlation between poverty and hunger impacts across value chains, the hunger score is omitted from the composite score. Also, since the different outcome indicators have different underlying units, the individual outcomes are normalized so that they are comparable while still retaining their ranking within the outcome category. Normalization entails assigning a score of 1 to the value chain that is most effective within an outcome category, and a score of 0 to while the least effective value chain. All value chains with adverse effects on an outcome are also assigned a score of 0. This includes value chains with a growth multiplier of less than one (cotton and other livestock) or those with negative employment effects (root crops and other crops). The remaining value chains receive a score between 1 and 0 that is proportionate to their original score relative to the highest-ranked value chain. The individual normalized scores for the outcomes are then combined into a composite score for each value chain."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The default approach assumes that each of the four outcome indicators is equally important, so an equal weight is assigned to each score; however, if policymakers consider a particular development outcome to be more or less important than the other outcomes, the weights assigned to each particular outcome score can be adjusted accordingly."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Figure 7 presents the composite scores using equal weights across the four development outcome indicators (that is, excluding hunger). Each component in the bars shows the relative contribution of a particular outcome indicator to the final score. The oilseeds, pulses, sorghum, and cattle and dairy value chains are ranked highest. For the three top-ranking value chains-oilseeds, pulses, and sorghumeach of the four outcome components makes some contribution to their composite scores."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"By contrast, while cattle and dairy stands out as the fourth-ranked value chain, its growth would not contribute to poverty reduction and its contribution to diet quality improvement is also minimal, even though it could have important impacts on the other development outcome areas. While a ranking of their impacts on multiple development outcomes on the basis of composite scores allows us to identify and prioritize value chains, trade-offs clearly exist as to which outcomes are most significantly affected by productivity-led growth in each value chain. "}]},{"head":"Summary","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"In the decade prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Mali experienced modest growth both in the total economy and in the AFS. Annual growth rates of 4.4 percent for the total economy and 4.1 percent the AFS, were only slightly higher than the 3 percent population growth rate in the same period. The slow growth could not lead to a significant structural change within Mali's AFS. Growth rates for the on-and off-farm components of the AFS were similar-4.2 and 4.0 percent, respectively-and the off-farm share of the AFS barely changed over the 2009 to 2019 period. Both the agricultural GDP and agricultural employment shares declined over this period, but only modestly, and agriculture remains a large sector in Mali."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The growth in Mali's AFS between 2009 and 2019 was mainly contributed by less-traded value chains (42.9 percent), followed by the export-oriented value chains (39.2 percent). The large contribution from the group of less-traded value chains is explained by its large initial size, while its growth rate was slightly below the average growth in the AFS. On the other hand, growth in the group of export-oriented value chains was above-average, and this is also a relatively large value chain group, which explains its significant contribution to overall AFS growth."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"The RIAPA model-based comparison of future sources of growth shows that there is no single value chain group that is the most effective in achieving all desired development outcomes, that is, declining poverty, declining hunger, economic growth, job growth, and improved diets. The oilseeds, pulses, sorghum, and cattle and dairy value chains rank highly in their composite outcome scores for poverty, GDP, jobs, and diets. Some of these value chains already displayed above-average growth rates in the preceding decade. Promoting these value chains together offers an effective and broad-based way to achieve these development outcomes. "}]},{"head":"About the Authors","index":13,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: A simple conceptual framework of the agrifood system "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Comparing Mali's agrifood system to other countries (2019) "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure4compares the shares of agricultural GDP and AgGDP+ in Mali's national GDP, as well as agricultural employment as a share of total employment, between 2009 and 2019. The figure also includes an estimate of the share of the off-farm components in AgGDP+. Agricultural GDP and AgGDP+ shares as well as the agricultural employment share fell modestly between 2009 and 2019, while the off-farm component of AgGDP+ barely changed. This lack of structural change within Mali's AFS could deter farmers from adopting productivity-enhancing technologies and may explain why primary agriculture remains such a large sector in terms of both its GDP and employment shares. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Agricultural GDP, agrifood system GDP, and employment shares (2009-2019) "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Drivers of Mali's AFS GDP growth (2009-2019) "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Composite score of development outcomes: Equal weights "},{"text":"Table 1 . Current structure of Mali's agrifood system and economy (2019) GDP Employment Value (US$ billion) Share (%) Workers (million) Share (%)  Total economy 15.8 100.0 6.7 100.0 Total economy15.8100.06.7100.0 Agrifood system 8.1 50.8 4.7 70.8 Agrifood system8.150.84.770.8 Primary agriculture (A) 6.3 40.1 4.2 62.4 Primary agriculture (A)6.340.14.262.4 Off-farm AFS 1.7 10.8 0.6 8.4 Off-farm AFS1.710.80.68.4 Processing (B) 0.7 4.5 0.0 0.6 Processing (B)0.74.50.00.6 Trade and transport (C) 0.9 5.4 0.5 7.3 Trade and transport (C)0.95.40.57.3 Food services (D) 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.2 Food services (D)0.10.30.00.2 Input supply (E) 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.2 Input supply (E)0.10.50.00.2 Rest of economy 7.8 49.2 1.9 29.2 Rest of economy7.849.21.929.2 Total manufacturing 2.8 17.7 0.3 4.0 Total manufacturing2.817.70.34.0 Total services 5.8 36.5 2.0 29.9 Total services5.836.52.029.9 Total trade and transport 2.0 12.9 1.1 16.3 Total trade and transport2.012.91.116.3  "},{"text":"Shares of agricultural and off-farm AFS in total GDP (%)       10.8 23.1 11.4 13.7 5.8 11.2 11.8 18.2 13.5 27.8 10.3 3.0 4.9 10.823.1 11.413.7 5.811.2 11.818.2 13.527.8 10.33.0 4.9  13.4      42.8 38.6 21.4 50.4 13.442.838.621.450.4   11.9    31.7    35.9 11.931.735.9      40.1     40.1 8.2 26.4 16.9 10.6   33.7 37.8 38.4 46.9 26.1 41.7 8.226.416.910.633.737.838.446.926.141.7 4.2   7.1 6.6 1.2  All LIC LMIC UMIC HIC Mali 4.27.16.6 1.2AllLICLMIC UMICHICMali All LIC LMIC UMIC HIC Mali     AllLICLMIC UMICHICMali  Primary agriculture Off-farm AFS     Primary agricultureOff-farm AFS  "},{"text":"Shares of off-farm components in total off-farm AFS GDP (%)  Figure 3.  Figure 3. Processing Trade and transport ProcessingTrade and transport Food services Input supply Food servicesInput supply  "},{"text":"Composition of agrifood system GDP, household demand, and trade (2019)   "},{"text":"Agrifood exports (US$0.48 billion)  A: AgGDP+ B: Household agrifood demand A: AgGDP+B: Household agrifood demand  2.6% 2.6% 12.3%  12.3% 8.8%  8.8% 45.5% 51.9% 45.5%51.9%  Primary agriculture Primary agriculture 78.8% Agroprocessing 78.8%Agroprocessing  Other off-farm Other off-farm $0.48 bil.  $0.48 bil. 100%  100%  "},{"text":"Agrifood imports (US$0.75 billion)  $0.14 bil. $0.14 bil. 18.6% 18.6% $0.61 bil. $0.61 bil. 81.4% 81.4% Primary agriculture Primary agriculture Agroprocessing Agroprocessing  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mali's agrifood system composition by trade orientation of value chains (2019)    Share of GDP (%)    Share of GDP (%)  AFS (AgGDP+) Primary agriculture Off-farm AFS Exports / output (%) Imports / demand (%) AFS (AgGDP+)Primary agricultureOff-farm AFSExports / output (%)Imports / demand (%) Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 3.6 5.5 Total100.0100.0100.03.65.5 Exportable 37.0 39.4 29.5 10.2 4.1 Exportable37.039.429.510.24.1 Oilseeds 4.8 4.4 6.3 6.4 9.2 Oilseeds4.84.46.36.49.2 Cotton 3.6 4.3 0.9 64.3  Cotton3.64.30.964.3 Cattle and dairy 23.6 25.0 18.3 3.9 2.7 Cattle and dairy23.625.018.33.92.7 Forestry 5.0 5.7 2.4 9.9 1.9 Forestry5.05.72.49.91.9 Importable 15.8 10.4 37.9 0.0 12.9 Importable15.810.437.90.012.9 Rice 13.8 10.0 28.3 0.0 10.1 Rice13.810.028.30.010.1 Other crops 2.0 0.5 7.5 0.0 28.3 Other crops2.00.57.50.028.3 Less traded 46.0 50.1 32.5 0.9 2.1 Less traded46.050.132.50.92.1 Maize 6.1 6.4 5.1 0.0 0.5 Maize6.16.45.10.00.5 Sorghum 6.6 6.8 6.1 0.0 0.1 Sorghum6.66.86.10.00.1 Pulses 1.0 1.2 0.4   Pulses1.01.20.4 Roots 1.0 1.3 0.1   Roots1.01.30.1 Horticulture 13.0 13.8 9.9 0.7 4.1 Horticulture13.013.89.90.74.1 Other livestock 11.7 14.1 2.6 2.6 0.4 Other livestock11.714.12.62.60.4 Fish 6.5 6.6 6.4 0.0 5.2 Fish6.56.66.40.05.2  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Agrifood system GDP growth rates by value chain (2009-2019)    Average annual GDP growth rate (%)  Average annual GDP growth rate (%)  Total Primary Off-farm Agro- TotalPrimaryOff-farmAgro-  AFS agriculture AFS processing AFSagricultureAFSprocessing Total AFS 4.1 4.2 4.0 3.8 Total AFS4.14.24.03.8 Exportable 4.4 4.5 4.0 4.1 Exportable4.44.54.04.1 Oilseeds* 5.0 5.4 4.2 5.0 Oilseeds*5.05.44.25.0 Cotton* 4.4 4.1 12.9  Cotton*4.44.112.9 Cattle and dairy* 4.7 4.9 3.8 3.9 Cattle and dairy*4.74.93.83.9 Forestry 2.7 2.7 2.2 8.9 Forestry2.72.72.28.9 Importable 4.8 5.2 4.3 3.7 Importable4.85.24.33.7 Rice* 5.5 6.1 4.7 4.3 Rice*5.56.14.74.3 Other crops 0.9 −4.6 2.9 2.3 Other crops0.9−4.62.92.3 Less traded 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.3 Less traded3.73.73.93.3 Maize* 5.2 6.1 2.1 0.8 Maize*5.26.12.10.8 Sorghum* 4.6 4.7 4.1 2.9 Sorghum*4.64.74.12.9 Pulses* 8.7 9.0 5.9  Pulses*8.79.05.9 Roots* 6.0 6.1 3.6  Roots*6.06.13.6 Horticulture 3.3 3.1 4.7 4.2 Horticulture3.33.14.74.2 Other livestock* 4.4 4.4 5.8 6.9 Other livestock*4.44.45.86.9 Fish 0.9 0.3 3.4 4.1 Fish0.90.33.44.1  "},{"text":" Xinshen Diao and Karl Pauw are Senior Research Fellows, James Thurlow is the Director, Josee Randriamamonjy is a Senior Scientist, and Mia Ellis is a Research Analyst in IFPRI's Foresight and Policy Modeling Unit, based in Washington, DC.  "}],"sieverID":"9a9712e9-b474-4eff-bb47-70a1428e3d92","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b64574b75e278ee582a4a14376aa898","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b906d86b-d803-4ab4-8b8a-9fdee5e9a3b8/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Characteristics of Silage Based on Sweetpotato with Combinations of Local Feed Resources in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"A study to determine the characteristics and chemical composition of different silages based on sweetpotato vines in combination with several local feed resources was conducted in the Animal Science laboratory at the Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute, Kabanyolo (MUARIK). Sweetpotato vines from variety NASPOT 11 were used. Maize bran and cassava root were used as ferment starters (additives) during the ensiling process. The silages were analyzed for pH, moisture content, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, ether extracts and ash, calcium and phosphorus. The results showed that sweetpotato vines can produce silage of acceptable quality even when no external ferment starter is added. However, addition of a solid ferment starter like maize bran served to absorb the moisture that would accumulate as effluent at the bottom of the silo and eventually lead to spoilage. The dry matter content of the silage was low (> 24%) and would not meet the requirements of young growing pigs. The resultant silage had crude protein content higher than 19 percent and would meet the requirements for growing pigs except for the balance of essential amino acids and low dry matter of the material. For efficient utilization, feeding sweetpotato silage diets would require supplementation to satisfy requirements for dry matter and essential amino acids.  "}]},{"head":"TABLE OF CONTENTS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Smallholder pig production plays an important role in providing dietary animal protein and incomes in Uganda. Despite the opportunities that pig rearing offers to smallholder farmers the potential increase in pig production has been severely inhibited in many areas by scarcity and high cost of feeds. In the rural areas where the bulk of the pigs are reared, pig diets in the smallholder farms are inadequate in terms of quantity and nutrient supply, especially during the dry season (Ouma et al., 2015). Offering options for improved and economical feeding is key to increasing production and thus enhancing livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Elsewhere diets for pigs are based on cereals as a source of energy and the protein is usually supplied by fish meal, soybean meal, and by-products from oil seed production. These ingredients are scarce and costly in Uganda which creates a need to identify alternatives which are locally available and competitively priced. Prevıous studıes have recommended using forages as a source of protein (Katongole and Mutetikka, 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":354,"text":"One of the forage most commonly used for feeding pigs in Uganda is sweetpotato vines (Dione et al., 2015). Uganda is the second largest producer of sweetpotatoes in the world and therefore a plentiful supply is available in certain seasons of the year. There is also the potential use of the non-marketable roots as a source of feeds since its estimated that 4.95% of roots are wasted on farm (Asindu, 2016). The challenge with the sweetpotato vines is that they are abundant in the rainy season and scarce in the dry season; yet they are also high in moisture content at the time of harvest and would keep for a very short period if left unprocessed. To mitigate this challenge farmers in South East Asia have resorted to ensiling the sweetpotato vines (An, 2004). The greatest challenge that farmers face when making sweetpotato silage is how to control the high moisture content in sweetpotato vines. Typically, sweetpotato vines (SPV) are wilted to reduce the moisture content prior to ensiling. However; farmers find it difficult to wilt sufficiently large volumes of vines which results in spoilage during ensiling. To mitigate this problem, a tube silo which eliminates the accumulation of effluent has been developed by the International Potato Center (CIP) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Kenya. This is achieved by installing an outlet pipe at the bottom of the tube. In this design molasses is used as the ferment starter. In Uganda, molasses is not widely available and is often not affordable to for the smallholder farmers. Moreover, the cost of making the tube silo with the drainage system for eliminating the effluent could be a factor limiting the adoption of the technology. There is therefore need to develop a silage-making technology that is suitable for use under local conditions and which is also affordable to smallholder farmers in Uganda. Presently farmers harvest fresh forage on a daily basis for feeding the pigs. The daily harvesting of fresh SPV forage by the traditional \"cut and carry\" system is also posing problems, particularly when family labour is insufficient. Otieno, Onim and Mathuva (1999)  "}]},{"head":"Justification","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"In the framework of the RTB-ENDURE's sweetpotato sub-project, research has been conducted to develop a low-cost forage preservation technique that may prove useful to smallholder farmers in increasing pig production and income. Use of a solid ferment starter would serve the double purpose of absorbing the excess moisture while providing the soluble carbohydrate that would enhance the fermentation process. The nutrients that would otherwise be lost in the effluent would also be preserved. In Uganda maize bran and cassava flour are two widely available resources that can serve as ferment starters in the ensiling of forages. Tropical forage legumes like Lablab and Gliciridia are widely available and could improve both the crude protein and calcium content of the silage if added at ensiling."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The micro silos (containers) were opened after 45 days of ensiling. The pH was measured and recorded immediately. Organoleptic assessment was conducted on each replicate for organic acids like acetic, butyric and lactic, and NH3. These were scored as very low, low, moderate, high and very high. Physical characteristics such as colour, presence of moulds were observed and recorded, and mouldy silage was separated and weighed to determine the proportion of clean silage. Silage samples were oven-dried overnight at 60°C. The dried sample was ground with a micro hammer mill and sieved through a 1mm screen before chemical analysis."}]},{"head":"Chemical analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Silage samples were analyzed for: pH, Lactic Acid, Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs), DM, CP, NDF, ADF, Ether Extract, Ca, P and Gross Energy. The pH was measured using calibrated pH electrode meter. Lactic acid was determined using a simple calorimetric assay according to Kimberly and Taylor (1996). VFAs (Acetic and Butyric) were determined by gas chromatography (flame ionization detector) as described by Weiß (2001). Dry matter, Crude protein, Ether Extracts, Calcium and Phosphorus were determined using the standard method of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990). NDF was determined using procedures described by Van Soest et al., (1991)."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Data were subjected to one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS (2003). Means were separated using LSD."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"Results of the chemical composition of the silage are summarised in Table 2. The pH of the silage ranged from 3.83 to 3.98 and was of acceptable quality in terms of odour and consistency. The results revealed that sweetpotato vines contain levels of easily available carbohydrates to support fermentation at a rate that would produce enough acids to reduce the pH to the point to preserve the forage. Adding maize bran or cassava flour tended to result into a product that was more firm with less moisture than when the forage was ensiled alone or with roots. Silos where sweetpotato vines were ensiled alone or with roots had some effluent at the bottom while the other silos did not have any trace of effluent. This indicated that the maize bran or cassava flour absorbed and bound the moisture of the sweetpotato vines to produce a firm and consistent product. Therefore, a silo could be designed without the need for modification to eliminate the effluent if a little amount of maize bran or cassava flour is added."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"All silages were low in dry matter (DM), ranging from 220g/kg to 280g/kg. This implies that for young pigs with a limited stomach capacity their stomach would quickly fill without taking in enough dry matter for maximum performance. This would create a need to find ways of increasing dry matter intake."},{"index":3,"size":191,"text":"The Crude Protein (CP) content of the silage was high for all mixtures. Growing pigs require 15-16 percent CP for optimum performance. Levels of CP ranged between 17.2% and 19.9% which would meet the protein requirements of growing pigs as long as the correct levels of essential amino acids are provided. Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF), ether extracts and ash content were within the acceptable ranges for feeding growing pigs. Sweetpotato silage would therefore form a suitable feed resource for pigs if the problem of low dry matter content could be overcome. The contents of calcium were low in the silage with a tendency of an improvement when legumes were included in the mixtures. Since growing pigs require 0.65 and 0.50 percent Calcium and Phosphorus respectively, a need for supplementation exists for maximum performance. Because at harvest there is a considerable content of rejected roots (because of small size, physical damage or infestation by weevils), the combination of 80:20 vines and roots was selected for the subsequent feeding trials. The limitation of low dry matter and deficiency of essential amino acids was addressed by supplementing the SPV silage with a complete concentrate."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Use of maize bran and cassava flour in SPV-based silage eliminates the accumulation of effluent in the silo."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Mixing sweetpotato vines with roots at ensiling has no significant effect on the resultant quality of silage. Because at harvesting there is a considerable quantity of unmarketable roots that spoil, a combination of vines and roots is the recommended silage recipe for use by small-scale pig farmers in Uganda."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... Objectives ............................................................................................................................... Justification ............................................................................................................................ METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................... Study site ................................................................................................................................ Study design ...................................................................................................................... "},{"text":" demonstrated the feasibility of ensiling crop residues in synthetic gunny bags in Kenya. Until recently, little attention has been paid to conserve sweetpotato vines as silage using different low cost methods in Uganda. The development of an effective and low-cost forage preservation technique would contribute to improved smallholders' pig production and incomes in the rural areas. Objectives The major objective of this study was to determine the characteristics of SPV-based silage from a local sweetpotato variety, NASPOT 11. Specifically; the study sought to answer the following research questions: a) Can addition of solid ferment starters like maize bran or cassava flour produce silage of an acceptable quality? b) Does inclusion of sweetpotato roots or forage legumes affect the quality of silage? c) What is the chemical composition of SPV-based silage when different proportions of ferment starters, sweetpotato roots or legumes are used? "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" ..... Experimental procedure ......................................................................................................... Data collection........................................................................................................................ Chemical analysis ................................................................................................................... Statistical analysis .................................................................................................................. RESULTS .................................................................................................................................. CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................................... REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Chemical composition of silage resulting from the different proportions forage and additives  Parameter     Silage treatments    ParameterSilage treatments  I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X IIIIIIIVVVIVIIVIIIIXX pH 3.94 3.98 3.83 3.95 3.94 3.92 3.90 3.94 3.93 3.95 pH3.943.983.833.953.943.923.903.943.93 3.95 Dry matter 21.98 23.23 24.63 25.26 26.74 28.10 26.69 26.68 23.50 23.62 Dry matter21.98 23.23 24.63 25.26 26.74 28.10 26.69 26.68 23.50 23.62 CP (%) 19.71 17.38 19.58 19.88 17.38 17.24 18.42 19.10 19.40 19.63 CP (%)19.71 17.38 19.58 19.88 17.38 17.24 18.42 19.10 19.40 19.63 NDF 31.86 24.76 27.33 25.38 23.53 23.65 25.96 30.46 20.49 24.51 NDF31.86 24.76 27.33 25.38 23.53 23.65 25.96 30.46 20.49 24.51 EE 2.69 1.25 1.95 1.93 1.88 1.16 2.27 2.33 1.21 2.55 EE2.691.251.951.931.881.162.272.331.21 2.55 Ash 5.17 4.91 5.90 5.95 5.69 5.20 5.33 5.38 5.23 5.74 Ash5.174.915.905.955.695.205.335.385.23 5.74 Calcium 1.27 0.83 0.96 0.87 0.95 0.86 0.99 1.00 0.98 1.10 Calcium1.270.830.960.870.950.860.991.000.98 1.10 Phosphorus 0.14 0.14 0.24 0.18 0.15 0.16 0.19 0.20 0.89 0.21 Phosphorus0.140.140.240.180.150.160.190.200.89 0.21 Values on dry matter basis at 12 weeks of age.      Values on dry matter basis at 12 weeks of age.  "}],"sieverID":"26465039-491b-4fe2-b166-1f0eb4c4ed9b","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b6e7aed077e823ee31e3afcb46dc877","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f57fc5f5-5f35-4509-896b-dae2c88dc93d/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"In Nepal, scaling-up of proven CSA technologies and practices beyond pilot sites has been a major challenge for government and non-government organizations involved in environmental and development fields. This \"policy brief\" uses the LI-BIRD/ CCAFS experience of \"travelling seminar\" designed and targeted for elected leaders, especially women leaders, with specific objective of scaling the use of proven CSA technologies, beyond the pilot sites. The \"brief\" also uses the findings of an impact assessment study to suggest how the future travelling seminars might be further improved."}]},{"head":"Scaling Problems and Issues","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Most projects have specific geographical areas and time of three to four years for field implementation of project activities. In such short period, the concerned projects are required to test and demonstrate new ideas, document experiences and lessons learned, and then share the information with the relevant government organizations responsible for supporting the projects and other stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Project resources (finance, human, institutional etc) are strictly used within the project geographical area, and for activities that are specified in project documents. Such projects usually have specific budget allocated for producing reports and publicity material to share with concerned stakeholders and the general public. They also tend to set aside some fund to support workshop at the end of the project term to share project results with the concerned stakeholders."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Apart from such communication activities, there is hardly any provision of budget and other resources to support scaling project results. Organizations, interested to take up project results, are expected to use their own resources. However, most organizations, especially government agencies, lack the necessary resources to include scaling activities into their regular programmes; consequently, most technologies (or information) generated by various research and development projects remain confined to pilot sites."}]},{"head":"LI-BIRD/CCAFS Travelling Seminars","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"LI-BIRD/ CCAFS travelling seminar is designed with the main objective of scaling CSA beyond pilot sites and targeted for the elected leaders, especially women leaders, who are in positions with access to government policymaking platforms. The travelling seminar is characterized by its emphasis and focus on;"},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"• The CSA technologies that have already been tested, and are ready for scaling-up; • The sharing and learning about the technologies through direct observations and interactions with the users and beneficiaries; • The spending seminar time both in-house and in the fields, mostly in places where the CSA technologies are actually being applied; and more importantly, • The provision of resources (finance, human, institutional & material) secured to use specifically for purposes of scaling the CSA technologies."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"With such focused approach and secured resources, the travelling seminars have been reasonably effective in meeting the scaling objectives -i.e. in raising the participants' awareness and knowledge of the CSA technologies and practices, and enabling them to use seminar learning for influencing their government's decisions for climate and gender sensitive agriculture programme."}]},{"head":"Lessons from the Travelling Seminar Impact Assessment","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"An assessment of the travelling seminar impact showed that, in addition to the above aspects, future seminars should consider the following areas for improvement and make them more effective:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Selection of seminar participants should be done more strategically."},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"In addition to selecting randomly few elected women leaders, some other people -especially those holding key decision-making positions should also be targeted -as they also need to be aware of the climate and gender related agricultural issues, and of the availability of the CSA technologies. These people include, but are not limited to, the government's ministers and secretaries, municipality's mayors and executive officers, as well as representatives of the national and provincial policy and planning commissions. • Given the difficulty faced by participants in applying seminar learning to convince their governments, the future seminars should consider some social and communication skills. Seminar participants would benefit from knowledge/skills on how they could use seminar learning for lobbying and building alliances with important people, and how to use the knowledge to make their case to their governments. • As with the projects designed for research and testing new ideas, the scaling-up of the tested CSA technologies beyond pilot sites should also have specific projects with secured finance, human, material and institutional resources. Some technologies are simple and require less effort, resource and action for scaling. However, some other CSA technologies such as solar powered irrigation system, watershed protection measures, harvesting and lifting seepage water from underneath the riverbeds in Chure and Bhaber regions etc, are more complicated, and their scaling demand for substantial additional inputs in terms of technical, financial, material and organizational support, especially when they involve multiple households or groups of households."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"c0d957a1-c340-49e5-865b-814e19802533","abstract":"In Nepal, scaling-up of Climate Smart Agricultural (CSA) technologies and practices, beyond the pilot project sites, has been a major challenge for government and non-government organizations involved in environmental and development fields.• The \"travelling seminar\", conceptualised by LI-BIRD and CCAFS, appears to be an appropriate method and tool to promote and facilitate the adoption of CSA technologies across Nepal. • The initial experience of using travelling seminars in the LIBIRD/CCAFS pilot field sites shows that for scaling purposes, it is important to design and target both elected leaders and government officials who hold key decision-making positions and control resources. • Also important is the need to focus on both technical and social dimensions of scaling CSA. For example, in addition to \"what or which\" CSA technologies, some social and communication skills on \"how\" to go about scaling a CSA technologies would further help the participants to make a case to their governments. • Some CSA technologies are simpler and require relatively little effort and resource to scale-up. Whereas some other technologies, such as solar powered irrigation system and harvesting and lifting seepage water from underneath the riverbed in the Chure and Bhaber region etc, are more complicated and their scaling-up demand for substantial additional technical, financial, material and organizational support, especially when they involve multiple households or groups of households. • Finally, as with the projects designed for specific research and testing new ideas, the scaling-up of the tested technologies would also need specific projects with secured finance and other resources."}

data/part_5/0b95cb27f7c0477cd7d1c6a21a3cbeae.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b95cb27f7c0477cd7d1c6a21a3cbeae","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9d1e9a2b-0d17-4dbd-99e2-6c1b3296f9db/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"The status of women's empowerment in the aquaculture sector in Kenya","keywords":["Women's empowerment","Gender equality","Aquaculture","Kenya","Agency"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":292,"text":"Gender equality and women's empowerment are crucial in realizing women's rights (Dahal et al., 2022;Guthridge et al., 2022) and achieving economic development, especially through agriculture in developing countries (Alkire et al., 2013;Bonis-Profumo et al., 2021;Fischer and Qaim, 2012;Johnson et al., 2018;Meinzen-Dick et al., 2019;Smith et al., 2003). Increased participation of women in fisheries and aquaculture leads to increased empowerment for women, and increased productivity and income in this sector (Barman and Little, 2006;E-Jahan et al., 2010;St. Louis and Oliveira, 2022;Mikhailovich et al., 2023). In Chilo e Island in southern Chile, for example, incorporation of labour from women and youth in the salmon industry was a major driver towards expansion of the industry (Ramírez and Ruben, 2015). Shirajee et al. (2010) noted that participation of women in aquaculture in Bangladesh resulted in improved socio-economic well-being among women, within the household and in the community in general. In addition, Torre et al. (2019) found that increased participation of women in fisheries activities and processes in Mexico increased their empowerment. Literature shows that whilst women participate in all the segments of the aquaculture and fish value chain, they are, however, not well represented in policy and research (Bosma et al., 2019;Kruijssen et al., 2018). For example, Freeman and Svels (2022) noted that although women play a vital role in survival of small-scale fisheries through innovation and development of new markets, male fishers are often registered as the main beneficiaries and actors in the sector. Overall, existing literature indicates that women's empowerment in fisheries and aquaculture is yet to be achieved, but also that global efforts are ongoing to improve women's participation and visibility in fisheries and aquaculture (Choudhury et al., 2017;Freeman and Svels, 2022;Kruijssen et al., 2018;Rajaratnam et al., 2016) and other sectors (WEF, 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The fisheries and aquaculture sector have received a lot of attention at national and international levels. For instance, between 2010 and 2013, the Government of Kenya invested KES 22bn (about US$0.22bn) through the Economic Stimulus Programme -Fish Farming Enterprise Productivity Programme to promote small-scale fish farming in Kenya. This resulted in 48,000 new smallholder fishponds by the end of the programme (Munguti et al., 2022;Obwanga et al., 2017). In developing countries, where aquaculture still has unexploited potential and fisheries remain crucial for food security, employment and income (Ogello and Munguti, 2016), the sector provides an opportunity for overall development and, importantly, women's empowerment."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Furthermore, the importance of the sector is projected to increase in tandem with the continued rapid growth in incomes, urbanization and population. At the same time, other food sectors have been significantly affected by climate change, considerably reducing yield. Currently, aquaculture is the fastest-growing food sector worldwide (Githukia et al., 2020;Obiero et al., 2019). Increased calls and efforts for women's empowerment in the overall fisheries and aquaculture sector require that adequate methods and measures of assessing women's empowerment be identified or developed."}]},{"head":"IJDI","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Development of women's empowerment indices","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Various approaches towards measuring women's empowerment have been adopted to understand the status and to benchmark progress towards attaining Sustainable Development Goal 5. At the global and national levels, there are commonly used measurement, such as the gender development index (GDI) which measures inequality based on differences in health, knowledge and standard of living (Bart uskov a and Kubelkov a, 2014). However, the GDI does not take into consideration other critical gender indicators, including decision-making, which would be more representative of women's ability to make choices, nor community gender values (Asaolu et al., 2018;Kabeer, 1999). The global gender gap index (GGGI) which was introduced by the World Economic Forum is critical in developing comparable empowerment indicators. It uses four dimensions:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"(1) economic participation and opportunity;"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"(2) educational attainment;"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"(3) health; and (4) survival and political empowerment (Charmes et al., 2023;Choe et al., 2017)."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"However, the GGGI does not indicate context-based dimensions of agency, such as time-use balance. The gender empowerment measure (GEM) assesses gender inequalities based on political and economic opportunities (Branisa et al., 2009). GEM puts all countries of comparison on the same ladder by using income levels instead of income percentages or proportions. This exaggerates the picture of disempowerment for women in low-income countries, even where the gender income gaps may be minimal (Choe et al., 2017)."},{"index":6,"size":307,"text":"The gender inequality index (GII) uses three dimensions to measure the lost human development: reproductive health, political empowerment and economic status (Amin and Sabermahani, 2017). Though GII was developed in response to some of limitations in the GDI and GEM (Amin and Sabermahani, 2017), it has been criticized for mixing well-being (health) with empowerment (political representation and education). The index has also been criticized for leaving out the informal economy when estimating the earned-income indicator, and for excluding important gender-inequality dimensions, such as the unpaid work done by women, differences in wages, gender-based violence, representation of women in local government and gender asset gaps (Bart uskov a and Kubelkov a, 2014;Berik, 2022). Another commonly used indicator is the Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI), which was developed by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and constructed around legal and social institutions (Branisa et al., 2014). SIGI is made up of five sub-indicators: discriminatory family code, restricted physical integrity, son bias, restricted resources and assets and restricted civil liberties. These sub-indicators provide insight into the gender-inequitable social institutions reflected by legal norms and societal practices (Cerise and Francavilla, 2012). Though SIGI plays a crucial roleespecially in assessing the direction towards gender equality and women's empowerment at national and global levelsit does not present individual-level empowerment outcomes (Alkire et al., 2013). Major setbacks of the indicators include omission of critical gender-equality and women's empowerment dimensions, inapplicability at individual level and poor choice of indicators and variables (Amin and Sabermahani, 2017;Bart uskov a and Kubelkov a, 2014;Berik, 2022;Charmes et al., 2023;Ferrant et al., 2020). These limitations partially emanate from lack of a standard definition of women's empowerment (Kabeer, 1999). Secondly, the indices are mostly developed for specific applications, but due to lack of suitable measures of women's empowerment, researchers tend to adopt them for a wide range of uses."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"In fisheries and aquaculture, varying approaches have been used to measure women's empowerment (Azmi et al., 2021;Farquhar et al., 2017;Huq et al., 2016;Shashank et al., 2018)."}]},{"head":"Status of women's empowerment","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"For instance, Freeman and Svels (2022) conceptualized women's empowerment as a composite of resources/pre-conditions, agency/process and outcomes/achievements. A similar approach was adopted by Haqiqiansyah and Sugiharto (2018), who conceptualized empowerment as \"power with\", \"power to\" and \"power within\". Though these studies used a similar basis to define women's empowerment, the indicators for each category of empowerment were different, making it impossible to compare the empowerment in the two areas of study. In some cases, researchers develop scales for their own studies without validation, creating an erroneous picture of women's empowerment in fisheries and aquaculture (Meetei et al., 2016;Rahman, 2005) Other studies focus on a small aspect of empowerment, such as participation, which is inadequate for demonstrating the level of women's empowerment in aquaculture (Shah and Bukhari, 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"Owing to these limitations, and the lack of a comprehensive index to painstakingly analyse gender equality and women's empowerment in the overall agricultural sector as well as in fisheries and aquaculture, the women's empowerment in agriculture index (WEAI) was developed, from which the women's empowerment in fisheries and aquaculture index (WEFI) was adapted (Quisumbing et al., 2023). Adapting WEAI to WEFI and its various derivatives to different agricultural sub-sectors has proven not only useful but also crucial in measuring women's empowerment (Cole et al., 2018(Cole et al., , 2020;;Ragsdale et al., 2022). As summed up by Quisumbing et al. (2023), before development of WEAI and its derivatives, most measures of women's empowerment in agriculture and its sub-sectors focused on measuring a limited aspect of agency and empowerment, or were indirect, in that they only focused on measuring women's access to economic resources."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"The project-based Women's Empowerment in Agriculture (pro-WEAI) and Abbreviated Women Empowerment in Agriculture (A-WEAI) were later derived from the initial WEAI for project impact evaluations and resource-limited studies, respectively (Alkire et al., 2013;Malapit et al., 2019;Ragsdale et al., 2022). In this study, an Abbreviated Women's Empowerment in Fisheries and Aquaculture Index (A-WEFI) is adapted from A-WEAI. Just like A-WEAI, A-WEFI is shorter and more streamlined, hence appropriate for resource-and time-limited projects. Another similarity to A-WEAI is that A-WEFI can allow statistical comparability over time, and across countries and social groups (Malapit et al., 2015a(Malapit et al., , 2015b)). The index adopts Kabeer's definition of women's empowerment as a process of change, whereby women expand their ability to make strategic life choices that had previously been denied to them (Kabeer, 1999). These choices include resources, agency and achievements, which all contribute to women's empowerment. By being designed accordingly, the A-WEFI tool can help identify impediments to women's agency and interventions."},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"Against this background, we analyse the status of women's empowerment in Kenya's aquaculture sector. We contribute to the literature of empowerment in aquaculture by using a novel women's empowerment analysis method: The A-WEFI. To our best of knowledge, this is the first time A-WEFI has been analysed in this manner in general, and in Kenya, in particular. Specifically, we determine how gender equity, for instance, in decision-making in productive activities, asset ownership and gender attitudes, among other indicators of women's economic and social empowerment, is different and/or similar for women and men. We believe this body of work will help to fill the knowledge gap on women's empowerment in the aquaculture sector, particularly in Kenya."},{"index":5,"size":298,"text":"The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 3 describes the methodology on data collection and sampling, and the framework used for data analysis. Section 4 presents the findings which cover demographic characteristics of respondents and women's empowerment level compared with men in the aquaculture sector. Findings are followed by discussion, where we go into detail on what our findings mean, and lessons learned from the study. The final section is on conclusions. IJDI 3. Methodology 3.1 Study population, survey instrument and sampling procedure 3.1.1 Study population and survey development. A survey was carried out to collect quantitative data in Kenya using structured questionnaires from September to November 2022. The study targeted 300 fish-farming households in six counties: Kakamega, Kisii and Kisumu in western Kenya and Kiambu, Meru and Nyeri in central Kenya. The survey tool was designed by adopting and where necessary modifying the publicly available WorldFish's A-WEFI survey. The questionnaires were then programmed into electronic format in Survey to go-PC surveyor that supported data collection through smartphone devices. The tool was then translated to Kiswahilia commonly used language in Kenyato ensure questions were similarly understood by all respondents in the survey sample. The translated questionnaires were double-checked first by translators then by a third party (i.e. other than the translator) to ensure that the intended meaning of the questions was retained/ maintained in the Kiswahili. This was achieved by first translating all survey instruments into Kiswahili, then back-translating them into English to ensure that the words retain the correct meaning. A pilot study was conducted in Kakamega county among 10% of the total sample population to validate the questionnaire, improve the survey quality and to ensure that all relevant information was included. Farmers interviewed during the piloting were not included in the main study."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"3.1.2 Sampling procedure and data collection."},{"index":7,"size":147,"text":"Step Icounty sample: a multi-stage sampling method was adopted. In the first stage, the six counties (Kakamega, Kiambu, Kisii, Kisumu, Meru and Nyeri) were purposively selected because they are identified as high aquaculture production areas within the regions (Ogello and Munguti, 2016). Most of the women in these counties are directly or indirectly engaged in aquaculture. This continuum, therefore, presents different scenarios to comprehensively investigate the level of women's empowerment. A list on estimated number of active fish farmers was provided by county representatives from the Fisheries Department of Kenya's Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. This list guided the proportionate distribution of the survey sample (see Appendix: Table A1) according to the distribution of number of households involved in aquaculture conducted by the Kenya Population and Housing Census (KNBS, 2019). The final sample size was 534 farmers comprising 258 men and 276 women derived from 300 households."},{"index":8,"size":72,"text":"Step IIsampling of sub-counties: in consultation with the representatives from each county's fisheries department, the survey team obtained a list of active fish farmers which was used to purposively identify 29 sub-counties for the survey sample. In each sub-county, wards where fish farming is commonly practised were purposively selected based on information obtained from the county department of fisheries. Sub-counties where the sample was drawn from are in the Appendix, Table A2."},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"Step IIIenumeration areas (EAs) sampling: within the selected wards, a list of farmers was used to randomly draw survey households. The field supervisor and sub-county fisheries officers jointly identified clusters within a ward that had fish farmers. The clusters were designated as EAs and a maximum target of ten farmers allocated to each EA. In each EA, lead farmers were identified with assistance from fisheries officers. The lead farmers guided the identification of farmers with active ponds in the EA."},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"Step IVinterviewing: the interviews were conducted by trained enumerators who spoke English and the local languages in the sampling area. All enumerators attended mandatory A-WEFI þ enumerator training workshop prior to commencing data collection."},{"index":11,"size":210,"text":"The training workshops were led by the WorldFish team in Kenya. WorldFish experts reviewed the final questionnaire for validity and reliability. The lead farmers and enumeration team scheduled interview appointments with the fish farmers. The selected Status of women's empowerment farmers were sensitized on the objectives of the survey, the estimated length of interview, the need for paired interviewing for spouses and solicitation of informed consent from study subjects. Within the selected households, target respondents included the primary respondent, defined as the main fish producer and the secondary respondent who ideally was the spouse of the primary respondent. Single-respondent interviews were conducted in households where the primary respondent did not have a spouse i.e. widows/widowers, separated or single primary respondents. In some areas, the list obtained from the fisheries department had some farmers whose ponds had been inactive for more than two years at the time of the survey. They were excluded from the survey. Where the list of farmers provided could not yield an adequate sample, additional lists of farmers were sourced from different sub-counties. This was the case in Kiambu and Nyeri. For example, Gatundu North was added to the original list of sub-counties where a few other farmers were sampled from within villages that cut across sub-counties."},{"index":12,"size":53,"text":"3.1.3 Data analysis. Data were transferred from the questionnaires to Excel. The unit of identification was the individual respondent. Data were then disaggregated by gender to compare responses from women and men. Descriptive statistics such as mean, percentage and frequency were used for description. Test statistics used were Cramer's V and sensitivity analysis."},{"index":13,"size":153,"text":"3.2 Framework for data analysis 3.2.1 A-WEFI domains and indicators. In this study, we developed A-WEFI to aid in examination of the level and status of empowerment of women and men engaged in fisheries and aquaculture. We adopted a multidimensional approach to measuring the agency, empowerment and inclusion of women in fisheries and aquaculture contexts in an effort to identify ways to overcome those obstacles and constraints. The A-WEFI is an aggregate index based on individual-level data from primary female and primary male decisionmakers within the same households. It draws its methodological foundation from the A-WEAI, which is a survey-based index designed to measure the agency, empowerment and inclusion of women in the agricultural area (Malapit et al., 2020). A-WEFI builds upon the validated A-WEAI (Malapit et al., 2020), which has a strong focus on crops, by incorporating scenarios, resources and activities that specifically apply to households that engage in fisheries and aquaculture."},{"index":14,"size":12,"text":"Like A-WEAI, A-WEFI is generated as a weighted average of two sub-indices:"},{"index":15,"size":9,"text":"(1) the five domains of empowerment (5DE) score; and"},{"index":16,"size":6,"text":"(2) the gender parity index (GPI)."},{"index":17,"size":16,"text":"The 5DE sub-index measures the extent of individuals' engagement in fisheries and aquaculture in five areas:"},{"index":18,"size":4,"text":"(1) decisions over production;"},{"index":19,"size":9,"text":"(2) access to and decision-making power over productive resources;"},{"index":20,"size":6,"text":"(3) control over use of income;"},{"index":21,"size":3,"text":"(4) time-use; and"},{"index":22,"size":2,"text":"(5) leadership."},{"index":23,"size":45,"text":"It measures the degree to which women are empowered in these domains, and for those who are not empowered, the percentage of domains in which they are empowered. Following Alkire et al. (2013), the 5DE index was computed using the formula in equation ( 1):"},{"index":24,"size":7,"text":"(1) where M 0 denotes disempowerment index:"},{"index":25,"size":7,"text":"Hp is disempowered headcount ratio computed as:"},{"index":26,"size":28,"text":"d and N are the number of disempowered individuals and the total population, respectively. The second component, A p , is the average inadequacy score of disempowered individuals:"},{"index":27,"size":20,"text":"where C i (k) is the censored inadequacy score of the i th individual and d is as defined earlier."},{"index":28,"size":22,"text":"The 5DE index ranges from 0 to 1. Higher values (0.8 and above) signify empowerment (Malapit et al., 2017;Alkire et al., 2013)."},{"index":29,"size":15,"text":"On the other hand, GPI was calculated using the following formula in equation ( 5):"},{"index":30,"size":47,"text":"where H p is the percentage of women with gender parity, H w is the percentage of women without gender parity, I p is the women's average empowerment gap relative to men (for women who live in non-parity households), R P is the women's relative parity score;"},{"index":31,"size":86,"text":"A household has parity if either the woman is empowered or if a disempowered woman has an adequacy score greater than that of the man (Gupta et al., 2017). Figure 1 summarizes the domains and corresponding indicators measured in A-WEFI. Table 1 has definitions and adequacy cut-offs for each indicator used to calculate the final A-WEFI. Each indicator has several questions for interviewees. Finally, a weighted index is calculated using these six indicators, where each domain has an equal weight of 1/5 following the A-WEAI methodology."},{"index":32,"size":167,"text":"To assess women's agency in the production domain, A-WEFI uses indicators of adequacy in \"Input in productive decisions\", examining respondents on their participation and extent of decision-making in fishing and post-fishing activities. Access to both productive and financial resources positively affect women's empowerment and agency in household decision-making (Wrigley-Asante, 2012). A-WEFI uses two indicators to identify women's adequacy in the resource domain. \"Ownership of land and other assets\" suggests adequacy of women in either securing sole or joint access to gleaning areas, or solely or jointly owning land, or a pond or at least three other productive assets that aid in activities pertaining to fisheries and aquaculture. The indicator \"Access to and decisions on credit\" assesses women's level of participation in household credit decisions, or their having access to at least one financial account. For adequacy in this indicator, one must belong to a household that has used a source of credit in the past year, and must have participated in at least one decision about it.  "}]},{"head":"Status of women's empowerment","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IJDI","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"The third domain in A-WEFI uses an indicator of adequacy in having \"Control over income\". This indicator determines whether women have some input in decisions regarding income from fisheries, wages, employment or any major household expenditure. Because women play an active and important role in household food and nutrition decisions, in assessing their overall empowerment, it is imperative to determine women's control over income (Kawarazuka and B en e, 2010). A-WEFI incorporates women's work balance using a detailed 24-h time-allocation module in which respondents are asked to recall the time spent on primary activities in the 24 h prior to the interview, starting at 4:00 a.m. on the day before the interview. Although a 24-h recall does not adequately represent time allocation, especially in an agricultural society, recall of time allocation longer than 24 h generally has higher recall error (Malapit et al., 2020). Borrowing from A-WEAI, we define an individual as achieving \"work balance\" if the number of h he or she allocated to productive or domestic activities per day was less than the time poverty line of 10.5 h in the previous 24 h. Finally, A-WEFI uses an indicator of active membership in any groups in their community to determine women's potential for leadership and influence in their community, i.e. the fifth domain of leadership."},{"index":2,"size":244,"text":"3.2.2 Index construction. Using the adequacy cut-offs discussed Sub-section 3.2.1, six binary variables are generated, with one signifying adequacy in the indicator and 0 the opposite. Consequently, using equal weights of 1/5 for each of the five domains, a weighted sum of all indicator variables is computed to generate the individual empowerment scores, which range from 0 to 1. Higher values indicate more empowerment. The A-WEFI methodology uses an empowerment cut-off point of 0.8, such that a respondent is classified as empowered if their weighted empowerment score is equal to or above 0.8, i.e. she is empowered in roughly four out of the five domains, following A-WEAI (Malapit et al., 2020). The individual empowerment scores of are then aggregated to construct the 5DE index, which considers both the number of women who are disempowered and the intensity of their disempowerment (Abebe et al., 2016). Further details on how the individual indicators and empowerment scores are combined to form the 5DE score are in the Instructional Guide on the A-WEAI (Malapit et al., 2020). The final A-WEFI score is composed of the weighted sum of two sub-indices: 5DE and GPI, where 5DE has a weight of 90% and GPI 10%, placing greater emphasis on 5DE while still recognizing the importance of gender equality as an aspect of empowerment (Alkire et al., 2013). The GPI in the case of A-WEFI compares the empowerment scores of men and women in fisheries and aquaculture in the same household."},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"3.2.3 Two versions of index. Data collection methods used in development of other empowerment indices, such as WEAI or A-WEAI, following Alkire et al. (2013) recommend asking the respondents about their time-use from 4:00 a.m. of the previous day of the survey to 4:00 a.m. of the current day in 15-min intervals to determine their time-use. Respondents are first asked to state when they woke up and went to bed the previous day. Activities for the day are then recorded slot by slot for the interval between waking and sleeping. In this study, however, time-use data were collected by activity rather than time intervals. From an exhaustive list of 27 domestic, productive and leisure activities, respondents were asked to state in which hours of the day they performed activity 1 through 27. This difference in data collection method yielded multiple activities recorded for the same time interval in various cases, which led to total time in a day exceeding 24 h for many respondents. Such results are expected, as women in fisheries generally engage more in multitasking (Nabayunga et al., 2021). This was also observed in our data: in our sample, we found more cases of total time in a day exceeding 24 h for women than for men. We address this methodological difference in data collection by creating two versions of A-WEFI, and comparing the results for both versions. Table 2 shows the domains, indicators and weights used in both versions:"}]},{"head":"Status of women's empowerment (1) Version 1 (V1):","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The first version of A-WEFI is created using the methodology described earlier in Table 1. We use all five domains and six indicators to calculate this version of A-WEFI. Because time spent in a day varies from 24 h for several respondents, we address this in two steps. Firstly, we excluded time spent in childcare from the total time, as it is accounted for separately in the \"work balance\" indicator calculation (Malapit et al., 2020). Thereafter, observations that still added up to more than 24 h were set to missing. However, we included observations which reported total time spent being less than 24 h, as setting them to missing would significantly reduce the sample size. Thus, the final sample for V1 drops from 276 women and 258 men to 209 and 236, respectively. (2) Version 2 (V2): We created another version for the A-WEFI by excluding work balance, i.e. the time domain, as an empowerment indicator. This version excludes work balance in the calculation, and re-evaluates weights for the remaining indicators for consistency by assigning equal weight to all domains, in keeping with the A-WEAI methodology. Therefore, in V2, all domains had an equal weight of 1/4."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"In the findings section which follows, we explore in detail the sensitivity and effect of excluding the work balance indicator in empowerment scores and headcounts."}]},{"head":"Findings 4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Table 3 presents key demographic characteristics of the final sample of men (n ¼ 258) and women (n ¼ 276) who responded to the A-WEFI questionnaire. Nearly all sample households had both male and female adults, with only 6% of the women belonging to female-adult-only households. Most women in the sample were in two main age categories: 42% were 26-45 years and 45% were 46-65 years. Half of the men in the sample were aged 46-65, with only 25% in the younger age category of 26-45 years. More than half the women (57%) in the sample completed secondary school, while 5% never attended school. Half (50%) the men completed secondary school while 23% had postsecondary education. Almost all women and men in the sample identified themselves as Christian. At the time of the survey, 85% of women and 97% of men were married. Nearly all women (100%) and men (94%) in the sample belonged to dual-adult households."}]},{"head":"Women's empowerment level compared with men in aquaculture","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"This section describes the key results on empowerment of men and women using two versions of the A-WEFI methodology discussed in Section 3. We use a cut-off of 0.80 on a scale of 0 to 1 to categorize respondents as empowered if they achieved a weighted score IJDI above or equal to the cut-off (Alkire et al., 2012). With V1, the final sample of non-missing observations for men and women were 236 and 209, respectively, while V2 had higher number of both men (258) and women (276) due to the exclusion of \"time\" domain from the final index construction. Table 4 reports the overall A-WEFI, its sub-indices and 5DE and GPI for the sample of men and women drawn from all six study counties. Overall, A-WEFI for women was 0.93 in V1, which is a weighted average of the 5DE subindex value of 0.926 and the GPI sub-index value of 0.959. The 5DE for women in V1 shows that 80% of the sampled women and 85% of men were found to be empowered, suggesting that they had individual scores equal to or higher than the adequacy cut-off of 0.8, in keeping with A-WEAI. For women, 20% of those not empowered haveon averageinadequate achievements in 38% of the domains, i.e. the mean disempowerment score for not-yet-empowered women. Thus, the women's disempowerment score (1 -5DE) is found to be 19.6% Â 37.9% ¼ 0.07, yielding a 5DE score of 0.93. Furthermore, nearly 82% of the women achieved gender parity, suggesting that only 18% of the women had lower scores than the primary male respondent from the same household."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Results from V2 suggest that compared to V1, the headcount and overall scores vary: slightly for women, and more for men. With work balance excluded as an indicator of empowerment, in V1, 75% of the men are empowered compared to 86%. The 5DE score in V2 is also lower, at 0.90 compared to V1's 0.95. The variation in the results is indicative of the importance and sensitivity of \"time\" as an empowerment domain, especially for individuals in fisheries and aquaculture. To understand the variation, we first observe the percentage contribution of each indicator to the overall disempowerment score of the sampled men and women in this study. "}]},{"head":"Status of women's empowerment","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Table 5 shows the percentage contribution of each indicator to the total disempowerment score of men and women. We examine the contributions for the two versions separately, with V1 having six final indicators and V2 five. Using both methods, we find that the top two contributors to disempowerment for both men and women in the sample are inadequacy in having \"input in productive decisions\" and lack of \"membership in groups\". Intriguingly, 18% of the disempowerment score (1 À 5DE) of women is attributed to inadequacy in achieving work balance, while the same only applies to 8% of the men in the sample. Furthermore, contribution of work balance to total disempowerment of men in V1 may aid in explaining why we observe a 16% reduction of empowered men when we exclude work balance in the calculation of the composite index in V2. Work balance contributes least to the overall disempowerment of men in the sample, indicating that most men worked less than 10.5 h per day. Exclusion of the least contributing indicator for men led to an increase in the mean disempowerment score for men from 0.05 to 0.1 (Table 6). Thus, the percentage of men who were classified as empowered in V1 also reduced significantly, lowering the 5DE score for men using V2."},{"index":2,"size":154,"text":"Table 6 presents the uncensored and censored headcount ratios of inadequacy for all indicators in the A-WEFI score. As discussed earlier, inadequacy is when a respondent fails to meet the adequacy criterion set for each indicator in Table 1. Censored headcount of inadequacy for an indicator shows the proportion of sampled women who were found inadequate in that indicator and classified as disempowered overall, i.e. with an overall score IJDI below 0.8. Conversely, uncensored headcount shows the percentage of respondents who are inadequate in an indicator, regardless of their overall empowerment status. It is important to note the role played by sample size in the results we observe. While V1 considers headcount for adequacy in each indicator for a total of 209 women, V2 considers 276 women. The uncensored headcount ratio for both men and women under both methods remains mostly comparable, with slight differences arising from the difference in the final sample size."},{"index":3,"size":223,"text":"Results from uncensored headcounts reveal that on all the A-WEFI indicators, the highest proportion of both men and women in the sample reported inadequacy in having access to credit, or in making decisions on credit. This is intriguing because as shown in Table 5, access to credit is not a top contributor to disempowerment. This puzzle can be solved by looking at results from censored headcounts. As stated earlier, censored headcounts represent the percentage of women who are disempowered overall and are inadequate in a particular indicator. The censored headcount for access to credit for both men and women reduces dramatically compared to the uncensored headcount. This suggests that most disempowered respondents have adequacy in access to credit. Next, we looked at the intrahousehold patterns of empowerment for the men and women from dual-adult households in the sample by comparing the adequacy scores of men and women within these households. We defined adequacy as the proportion of indicators in which the respondent is adequate. As before, we have two sets of results from V1 and V2. We found that the adequacy score of men was higher than that of the women in 36% of the dual-adult households (V1, Table 7). Intriguingly, in 34% of the households, women had higher scores than men, while the remaining 31% had equal scores for men and women."},{"index":4,"size":156,"text":"Figure 2 shows the intrahousehold patterns of empowerment in the dual-adult households in our sample by comparing headcounts between men and women. Nearly threequarters (70%) of dual-adult households in the sample constituted of empowered women and men living in the same household, while only 11% of the households had empowered women only. The distribution of intrahousehold empowerment changes when moving from Status of women's empowerment six to five indicators. The percentage of households where both men and women were found empowered was 17% lower for V2 compared to V1. Similarly, the percentage of households where neither men nor women were empowered is relatively higher in V2. Interestingly, households where only the woman was empowered increased by 12%. We observe this increase as being mainly due to exclusion of work balance, which in turn suggests that women have low adequacy in achieving work balance, which, when removed, increased the overall headcount of empowered women in the sample."}]},{"head":"Robustness tests 4.3.1 Association analysis.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"We next assessed the level of associations between the individual indicators that form the composite index, A-WEFI. Such a diagnosis is important to unearth high correlations between the indicators, which, if not addressed, can impose a higher weight on the paired indicator than intended. Table 8 present the Cramer's V correlation coefficients for each pair of indicators that yield the first version of A-WEFI, i.e. with work balance included."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"We find weak correlation between all possible pairs, with all Cramer's V coefficients well below 0.3. This reinforces the importance of five varied domains in the methodology, as each contributes to determining different facets of women's agency in the productive sphere, particularly in fisheries and aquaculture. Work balance, which furthermore requires refinement in future research, also has very weak correlations with the other indicators. It   "}]},{"head":"IJDI","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"therefore makes important contributions in depicting the inadequacy stemming from high workload, as fishing and post-fishing activities can be labour-intensive (Birhanu, 2015). Finally, we also find weak pairwise correlations among indicators when restricted to the five indicators that form V2 of the index (Table 9). 4.3.2 Sensitivity analysis (rank robustness). We assessed the sensitivity of the A-WEFI results to the time domain using the rank robustness analysis by Alkire et al. (2015). We achieved this by observing A-WEFI results separately for each of the six counties in the sample, then ranking the counties by the percentage of disempowered individuals, i.e. the proportion of the sample with adequacy scores below 0.8, using the two versions of A-WEFI."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Results from Table 10 show that ranking of counties remains unchanged for the sampled men in both versions. However, the ranking of counties changes considerably for women in the sample for the two methodologies used, implying the sensitivity of women's overall empowerment to the inclusion of work balance as an indicator of agency. Such results help reinforce our methodological deviation in creating two versions of the index to extract as much information from the sample as possible, to help refinement of the index in future research."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":248,"text":"Although difficult to measure, the role of women's empowerment and agency in the productive areas is indisputably imperative for high scores on welfare indicators, including reduction of malnutrition, increase of agricultural productivity, increase in household income and promoting education (Alkire et al., 2013;Bonis-Profumo et al., 2021;Johnson et al., 2018;Smith et al., 2003). Because fish is the fastest-growing food sector worldwide, understanding the role and agency of women in fisheries and aquaculture is extremely vital. Fish is a sustainable source of rural income and a predominant source of protein in Status of women's empowerment developing countries (Aura et al., 2018;Mirera et al., 2014;Subasinghe et al., 2009). Although most of the rural women contribute significantly to aquaculture as many remain at home, their contribution is perceived as an extension of their domestic role and is therefore neither recognized nor compensated (Githukia et al., 2020). Yet the role of women in aquaculture is spread throughout the value chain, including production, distribution and marketing, significantly contributing to development (Githukia et al., 2020). Therefore, empowering women by augmenting their decision-making and involvement in household aquaculture production is crucial. Designing targeted effective interventions to increase women's empowerment entails assessing the extent of their agency. Thus, in this study, we surveyed men and women in western and central Kenya from households engaged in aquaculture to assess the status of women's empowerment relative to men in the aquaculture sector, and the key contributors to their disempowerment. We relied on the A-WEFI methodology to measure empowerment indices."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Using a final sample of 276 women and 258 men, we find that nearly 86% of men and 80% of women were classified as empowered, i.e. with an individual score equal to or above 0.8, with 1 as the highest score. The mean 5DE score was 0.93 and 0.95 for women and men, respectively. In addition, 82% of the households achieved gender parity, suggesting empowerment of men was no greater than that of women for such households. The average A-WEFI score for the sample was 0.93. Although indices at a single point in time cannot give us the full empowerment picture, the indicative results from this study may seem quite high. One reason for the high score is rooted in the selection bias of the sample. As mentioned earlier, the counties chosen for this study were purposively selected because they are identified as high aquaculture production areas within the selected regions. Therefore, the survey included men and women already engaged in aquaculture, and who were available for the survey. Thus, the average empowerment status of such respondents is likely to be high, as reflected in our findings. Moreover, the A-WEFI relies on six indicators, which is half of the full 12 WEFI indicators. In pilot samples, this loss of information leads to slightly higher rates of empowerment among women. Similarly, high empowerment and/or disempowerment values of men and/or women (lack of accurate representation of the true data) are also reported in other studies that measure empowerment, e.g. Malapit et al. (2020) from A-WEAI studies on Bangladesh and Uganda."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"From the findings, using V1, work balance contributes largely to overall disempowerment of women in the sample. In addition, work balance has weak correlations with other indicators. This supports the importance of its inclusion in the overall empowerment, because the workload in fishing and post-fishing activities remains high, which is likely to disempower women if its score goes beyond a certain threshold. This study also found that the assessment of percentage of disempowered women was highly sensitive to inclusion of the time indicator. All these findings make the business case for further research for better measures of time-use by using more efficient data collection methods to determine the workload of men and women in fisheries and aquaculture."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Results also revealed that nearly half of the women in the sample (46%) reported having very little input in productive decisions, including decisions related to fisheries and aquaculture (Figure A1, Appendix). Studies on women's empowerment and agency have shown the two factors as having positive impacts on both household economic (Bayeh, 2016) and nutritional well-being (Heckert et al., 2019;Malapit et al., 2015b). Therefore, the lack of input in household decisions that we observed for the women in the sample is alarming and needs attention to increase engagement of women in productive activities and decisions. Thus, A-WEFI can help to unearth and diagnose the obstacles facing women in fisheries IJDI and aquaculture, and inform the design of better programmes where remedial changes are necessary."},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"One key attribute of the A-WEFI methodology is the decomposability of its composite index into disempowerment domains and sub-domains. This versatile granularity enables identifying the leading sources of disempowerment facing women in fisheries and aquaculture. Intriguingly, headcount analysis of inadequacy in individual indicators of A-WEFI reveals that nearly a fifth of the women in the sample lacked access to credit, or had very little input in household credit decisions. In addition, nearly 13% were not active members of any group, and 19% reported lacking input in household productive decision-making, including aquaculture decisions. Moreover, 13% of women reported working more than 10.5 h a day, suggesting lack of work balance, and most likely their heavy involvement in care work. However, this figure may not be wholly reliable due to the measurement/data-collection limitation of the time-use module of the A-WEFI questionnaire."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"This study sought to adapt A-WEAI into fisheries and aquaculture to build on the measures of women's empowerment and gender equality. We also sought to build on the existing literature on women's empowerment and agency in aquaculture in East Africa by applying the adapted tool in Kenya. We used the A-WEFI to assess women's empowerment in aquaculture. Firstly, we find that the A-WEFI is an ideal and comprehensive tool for measuring women's empowerment in aquaculture. The findings of various domains coincide with existing literature. However, we note that the index is highly data-sensitive and requires adequate training of enumerators. It is critically important that the time-use data collected not exceed 24 h by accordingly programming the data collection tool. Also, computer-assisted personal interviews (CAPI) programming and field application of the time-use indicator both require proper training. In addition, and to minimize errors in data collection, it is necessary that enumerators and researchers have a shared understanding of the analysis process, and intended use of the data from this segment. Regarding the state of women's empowerment, we did not find major differences between women and men in our sample, though we found areas needing improvement in empowerment, because when observed separately, women report lack of agency in production, resources, time and leadership. Based on the current findings, future initiatives in this area of study should consider and address the extent of the empowerment gap identified here. The reduction of disempowerment and facilitation of appropriate empowerment in all aspects will be achieved by improving the contribution of each indicatoraccording to its importanceto the disempowerment of both men and women."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Going forward, we recommend validation and further use of the A-WEFI across different countries for undisputed reliability of the findings in policy development. Furthermore, we recommend that for research to determine agency, empowerment and inclusion of women in the aquaculture and fisheries sector(s), where resources are available, the full WEFI or project-level WEFI should be used to comprehensively guide programme or project directions. This would enable accurate identification of target areas to fully realize women's potential in, and to fully optimize their benefits from, the aquaculture and or fisheries sector. By replicating the A-WEFI in aquaculture value chain participants in additional counties in Kenya, important insights would also be gained on gender equality similarities and variations across sites/contexts."}]},{"head":"Status of women's empowerment","index":15,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. The domains and indicators of A-WEFI "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2. Intrahousehold patterns of empowerment in dual -adult households "},{"text":"Table 2 .      Weight Weight  Domain indicator(s)  V1 V2 Domain indicator(s)V1V2  Production Input in productive decisions 1/5 1/4 ProductionInput in productive decisions1/51/4  Resources Ownership of land and other assets 2/15 1/6 ResourcesOwnership of land and other assets2/151/6 Indicator weights Income Access to financial services Control over use of income 1/15 1/5 1/12 1/4 Indicator weightsIncomeAccess to financial services Control over use of income1/15 1/51/12 1/4 used for two versions Time Work balance 1/5 Not included used for two versionsTimeWork balance1/5Not included of A-WEFI Leadership Group membership 1/5 1/4 of A-WEFILeadershipGroup membership1/51/4  "},{"text":"Table 3 .  Sample Sample characteristics of characteristics of respondents by respondents by gender (N ¼ 534) gender (N ¼ 534)  "},{"text":"Table 6 .  Headcount ratios of Headcount ratios of inadequacy in inadequacy in A-WEFI indicators A-WEFI indicators  "},{"text":"Table 9 .  Association Association (Cramer's V) between (Cramer's V) between five A-WEFI five A-WEFI indicators indicators  "}],"sieverID":"436da00a-0be8-494b-8799-c6d016fa35fe","abstract":"Purpose -Women's empowerment remains a key development challenge in Kenya. The purpose of this study is to attempt to understand the status of women's empowerment and the key contributors to their disempowerment in Kenya's aquaculture sector.Design/methodology/approach -A cross-sectional survey was conducted on 534 male and female fish farmers from 300 households drawn from six counties in Kenya (Kakamega, Kisumu, Kisii, Kiambu, Meru and Nyeri). The Abbreviated Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI) was adapted to Abbreviated Women's Empowerment in Fisheries and Aquaculture Index (A-WEFI) to suit the aquaculture and fisheries sub-sector. The adapted A-WEFI was then used to estimate and the status of women's and men's using five domains of empowerment (5DE) and a gender parity index (GPI). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Cramer's V and sensitivity analysis as test statistics.Findings -About 86% of the men and 80% of the women were classified as empowered. The mean score of the 5DE was 0.93 and 0.95 for women and men, respectively. In addition, 82% of the households achieved gender parity, suggesting that for such households, empowerment of men was no greater than that of women. Overall, the results suggest no major differences between the empowerment of women and men. Findings suggest areas of improvement in empowerment: when observed separately, women report lack of agency in production, resource, time-use and allocation and leadership."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b9ac0b4b158a05f18d66a9915e61378","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3563b12-e047-4769-9558-03fb26c7c080/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"Climate Change and Agriculture About the Editors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Foreword","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":316,"text":"Global warming is real and happening now, and India is not an exception, though there might be some spatial differences in warming across the country. An increasing body of scientific evidence, as brought out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment reports and special reports, conclusively establishes that the major cause of global warming is the unabated increase in greenhouse gas (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) concentrations in the atmosphere way beyond their natural levels. It is also abundantly clear that global warming and the consequent climate change are almost entirely due to the uncontrolled human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, land use and land cover changes, intensive exploitation of natural resources, unsustainable agricultural practices, etc. The rapid scientific and technological advances over the past couple of centuries fed the industrial revolution and allround development, but at an enormous cost to the entire human society and ecosystem. Rise in surface air temperature is widespread over the globe and is greater at higher northern latitudes. Land regions have warmed faster than the oceans. The latest Annual Statement of the Status of the Climate issued by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reports that the long-term warming trend has continued in 2018, with the average global temperature set to be the fourth highest on record. As many as 20 of the warmest ever-recorded years happened to be in the past 22 years, with the top four in the past four years, according to the statement. Other tell-tale signs of climate change, including sea level rise, ocean heat and acidification and sea-ice and glacier melt continue, whilst extreme weather left a trail of devastation on all continents, according to the WMO Statement. The HudHud cyclone over Visakhapatnam Coast in October 2014, Chennai floods in 2015, Kerala floods in August 2018 and the Titli cyclone over Orissa and North Andhra Pradesh Coast in October 2018, the"}]},{"head":"Rupa Kumar Kolli","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Chief World Climate Applications and Services Division World Meteorological Organization Geneva, Switzerland viii Climate Change and Agriculture Gaja Cyclone over Tamil Nadu Coast in mid November and the Phethai Cyclone in mid December 2018 devastated the crops and infrastructure to a large extent in respective regions. In contrast, the Indian foodgrains production was adversely affected due to consecutive droughts during monsoon season in 2014 and 2015 since agricultural production is mainly dependent on monsoonal rains in India. Similarly, the occurrence of cold and heat waves in northern states of the country causes recurring damage to crops. Untimely snowfall over western Himalayan region in early November 2018 severely damaged apple production. The ill effects of climate change in the form of frequent occurrence of floods, droughts, cold and heat waves are clearly evident on various agricultural production systems, thereby posing a serious threat to food security."},{"index":2,"size":235,"text":"Climate change is considered to be the biggest challenge confronting the global society, both to prevent future changes and to adapt to changes that are already happening and are imminent. To mitigate the climate change effects on agricultural production and productivity a range of adaptive strategies need to be considered. Changing cropping calendars and pattern will be the immediate best available option with available crop varieties to mitigate the climate change impact. The options like introducing new cropping sequences, late or early maturing crop varieties depending on the available growing season, conserving soil moisture through appropriate tillage practices and efficient water harvesting techniques are also important. Developing heat and drought tolerant crop varieties by utilizing genetic resources that may be better adapted to new climatic and atmospheric conditions should be the long-term strategy. Genetic manipulation may also help to exploit the beneficial effects of increased carbon dioxide on crop growth and water use. One of the promising approaches would be gene pyramiding to enhance the adaptation capacity of plants to climatic change inputs. There is thus an urgent need to address the climate change and variability issues holistically through improving the natural resource base, diversifying cropping systems, adapting farming systems approach, strengthening of extension system and institutional support. Latest improvements in biotechnology and information technologies need to be used for better agricultural planning and weather/climate based management to enhance the agricultural productivity of the country."},{"index":3,"size":185,"text":"Successful adaptation to climate change requires long-term investments in strategic research and new policy initiatives that mainstream climate change adaptation into development planning. As a first step, we need to document all the indigenous practices adopted by rainfed farmers over time, for coping with climate change. Secondly, we need to quantify the adaptation and mitigation potential of the existing best bet practices for different crop and livestock production systems in different agro-ecological regions of the country. Thirdly, a long-term strategic research planning is required to evolve new tools and techniques including crop varieties and management practices that help in adaptation. In 2010, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) launched the National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) as a comprehensive project covering strategic research, technology demonstration and capacity building. Targeted research on adaptation and mitigation is at nascent stage in India but based on knowledge already generated, some options for adaptation to climate variability induced effects like droughts, high temperatures, floods and sea water inundation can be suggested. These strategies fall into two broad categories viz., (i) crop based and (ii) resource management based."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Several experts have identified research areas that would reduce uncertainty and improve knowledge to face the consequences of climate change and provide improved planning. These include, but not limited to:"},{"index":5,"size":149,"text":" Precision weather-forewarning at farm level  Quantitative assessment of specific crop responses at different crop stages to enhanced levels of greenhouse gases, precipitation and UV-B radiation  Breeding agricultural crops for tolerance to extreme temperatures, floods, salinity and droughts  Innovative agroclimatic resource mapping to avoid potentially inappropriate land-use choices  The impacts of elevated carbon dioxide levels on plant and soil-water balances  Improved crop simulation models as tools for both research and crop management. This publication revolves around interventions to minimize crop losses due to global warming and climate change, organized in 32 chapters collectively spanning more than 560 pages. The contributions emerged from research findings in different parts of the country in the ICAR and the State Agricultural Universities, which I consider to be a commendable compilation. I am sure this publication will be of immense use to researchers, teachers, students as well as farmers."}]},{"head":"Rupa Kumar Kolli","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Chief World Climate Applications and Services Division","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"World Meteorological Organization Geneva, Switzerland Foreword ix"}]},{"head":"Preamble","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":330,"text":"Global warming is real. Rise in temperature is likely to be around 2°C by the end of this century with regional uncertainties in rainfall. It is a threat to the society linked sectors viz., agriculture, water resources, forestry, biodiversity (both land and ocean), infrastructure and health. The adverse impact of climate change is already noticed across the world in the above society linked sectors due to weather related disasters in the form of cyclones, floods, droughts, cold and heat waves and sea level rise   1965, 1966, 1972, 1984, 1987, 1997, 2002, 2004, 2009, 2012, 2014 and 2015  Climate risk management in the semi-arid tropics (SAT) is one of the major challenges to achieving food security and development in India and large parts of sub-Saharan Africa and also in the case of Australia. Climate-induced production risk associated with the current season-to-season variability of rainfall is a major barrier in making rainfed agriculture sustainable and viable farm business. Since season outcomes are uncertain, even with the best climate information, farmers have limited flexibility in applying management with confidence. In fact in risky environments, farmers most often respond by adapting a risk averse strategy and are reluctant to invest in even risk reducing measures (Leathers and Quiggin 1991). In the SAT agro-ecologies, there are a limited range of enterprise or crop options to consider which may be further restricted by cultural traditions, food preferences or market opportunities.While there are fundamental differences between large scale commercial farms in Australia compared to the predominantly smallholder resource poor farms found in India, when it comes to climate risk management in the SAT, there are many commonalities. The purpose of this paper is therefore to (i) establish a framework for managing climate variability and transforming farming systems to be more resilient and sustainable for future climates; and (ii) provide some case study examples from climate risk management in low rainfall cropping system in Australia and consider how they may be applied in smallholder systems of the SAT."},{"index":2,"size":280,"text":"In the smallholder farming systems of the semi-arid, the majority of rural livelihoods are based on the production of cereals under rainfed mixed crop-5 livestock systems. Under these systems, yield gap between potential and achieved productivity is large, water and nutrient use efficiencies are generally low and land degradation is widespread and severe. There are many commentaries as to why the productivity gains achieved in other more favourable agro-ecologies have not positively impacted on agricultural production in the drylands. While most conclude that lack of government support, infrastructure, poor management and governance of natural resources, i.e. the enabling environment, are the major barriers, we argue that the effects of climate variation which act as a powerful disincentive to investment across all scales should not be overlooked as a major contributing factor. This paper argues that research, development and extension efforts in the drylands pay inadequate attention to climate risk encompassing both present variability and future climate changes. The effect of extreme climatic events such as severe and long term droughts, high intensity rainfall events and heat waves leading to crop loss and land degradation are significant disincentives to investment by small holders. Non availability of customized climate information, a lack of the 'enabling environment'and the lack of knowledge on how to respond to climate information with confidence are the real constraints to the further sustainable development of semiarid smallholder farmers. While there are a number of possible solutions to manage climate risk in small holder farming systems, we explore if some successful examples of climate risk management from low rainfall commercial cereal systems in Australia can provide insights that are applicable to smallholder farms in India to manage climate risk."}]},{"head":"Climate now and in the future","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Climate in the SAT in India is driven primarily by the summer southwest monsoons (June to Sept) and the winter northeast monsoons (Nov-Feb) which contribute to the vast majority of rainfall. The El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon influences inter-annual variability in climate with strong correlations found with rainfall in these monsoon periods (Krishna Kumar et al. 1999, Geethalakshmi et al., 2009).In SAT regions, in addition to inherent climate variability, climate change is likely tobe harsher with frequent extreme events (droughts, floods), increasing temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns.Analysis by Singh et al. (2014) suggests increasing variability inrainfall in the sub-continent with significant increases in the frequency of dry spells and intensity of wet spells."}]},{"head":"Planning for now and the future-a framework","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":299,"text":"To remain profitable and food secure, farmers must cope effectively with current variability in climate as a first step to adjust their farming systems to cope better with future climate. For near term and current decision making, this can be termed 'tactical' where a flexible risk management strategy is adopted that uses multiple information sources to make decisions(Table 1). This may include pre-season enterprise planning guided by seasonal climate forecasts, a set of criteria or 'triggers' for sowing and variety selection and a range of in-season responses to the prevailing weather, market signals or other factors. The longer term perspective, where a farming system is redesigned or adjusted to be more resilient to the current and future climate patterns, can be termed 'strategic' planning (Table 5.1). Farm design should consider what mix of enterprises, crop types, and farming systems are most resilient to current and future climate also considering market and cultural factors. This requires significant analytical efforts to understand historical and projected climate, model based scenario analysis, co-design of farming systems that are more resilient to extreme events and reduce the damage of such events on the natural resource base. In some landscapes and environments, this may suggest transformational changes in landscape design. In both strategic and tactical planning, climate information that is based on both historical observations and current forecasts or projectionsare used as an underpinning tool. Such approaches are not deterministic and must be interpreted and communicated as probabilistic. In-season responses to prevailing weather adaptive capacity (irrigation, NRM, markets, enhanced logistics). a Note: Short-term refers to a lead time 2-3 day forecast which is useful for tactical or operational purposes, medium range forecasts are 7-10 days, potentially for tactical and long term may mean extended range (10-30 days) /seasonal climate forecasts for 1-3 months in advance"}]},{"head":"The enabling environment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":269,"text":"Rainfed agriculture plays a crucial role in India's food security by contributing about 45% of the total food grain production and around 90% of coarse cereals and pulses production (Sharma, 2011). However, rainfed agriculture faces multiple challenges like low cropping intensity, low productivity, uncertainty in output, high cost of cultivation, poor adoption of modern technology, lack of institutional credit and inadequate public investment with significant social impacts such as high incidence of rural poverty (Singh et al., 2010). Policy and infrastructure development: To increase the productivity of rainfed crops and improve the profitability of rainfed farmers, the Indian government initiated a number of targetedprogrammes such as the Integrated Scheme of Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm and Maize (ISOPAM), and increased minimum support price (MSP) for pulses to incentivize the farmers to increase the area under pulses to attain self-sufficiency in pulses. It also constituted a National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA) as an advisory body for policy and programme formulation withrainfed crops of pulses and coarse cereals as major components of its agenda. These initiatives have been underpinned by the National Food Security Mission (NSFM). To realize the full potential of rainfed agriculture, higher strategic research investments to develop biotic (pests and diseases) and abiotic (weather and soil fatigue) stress-tolerant cultivars, short-duration varieties, incremental increases and arrangements to get MSP forrainfed crops (coarse cereals, pulses and oilseeds) on par with wheat and rice, sustainable seed systems to increase seed replacement rate (SRR), warehouse facilities and scientific storage methods that reduce post-harvest losses and information and communications technology (ICT) innovations to provide real time information to improve farmers decision will be required."}]},{"head":"Development programs and investments","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"There is growing evidence on the importance of water management and investments in rainfed agriculture to reduce the risk and to face the impacts of changing climate (Reddy and Chiranjeevi 2016;Kerr et al 2002, Kumar et al 2016). To increase water use efficiency and to realize \"per drop more crop\", water conservation technologies and water saving irrigation methods should be promoted in the rainfed regions by providing customized information, low cost institutional credit and investment subsides to increase the adoption of these technologies. To realize the potential of R&D investment in rainfed agriculture, there is need of enabling policy environments that promote sustainable seed systems to increase seed replacement rate (SSR);sustains infrastructure initiatives such as modern weather and pest proof.The incentives to promote ICT innovations to provide information for real time farm decision are critical where traditional extension services are being over stretched. To enable farmers and agricultural industries to adapt to current and future climates, investment by government and the private sector will be required. In general, in the SAT regions adequate investment in infrastructure (roads, storage and marketing facilities,) and human capacity have not been made compared with more favorable agro-ecologies. Such investments are fundamental to creating agribusiness opportunitiesthrough adoption of next generation and emerging technologies."}]},{"head":"Transformative technologies","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The use of digital technologies is an exciting opportunity for enabling the communication of real time and context specific information to stakeholders. In Australia, for example, precision agriculture has been enabled by technology and has led to transformational change incrop management. Technology is being applied by actors in various ways. For example, in the delivery of information from various sources (downscaled market, weather, farming system, and soil) as locally specific advisories direct to farmers on smart phones or tablets; in the application of risk management intelligence on markets or weather in the banking, or insurance sectors; in business intelligence through harnessing information to a dashboard to monitor project outputs. Case study #2 provides a model for how this was successfully achieved in a commercial setting in Australia."}]},{"head":"Responsive farming using decision triggers: Case study 1","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":367,"text":"In Australian low rainfall cropping regions (growing season rainfall < 300 mm) face major challenges associated with high yield variability and its effect on profitability, with production risk historically much more important than price risk. To combat variability in cropping yields, farm businesses adopt a range of practices such as diversification (mainly involving livestock) to provide more reliable cash flow during difficult seasons. The use of responsive farming systems allows flexibility in crop area and in crop type between years, and is an important component of risk management. In the absence of reliable seasonal climate outlooks, other indicators are sought to provide robust trigger points to adjust decisions about crop type and area. It is widely accepted that seasons which allow earlier seeding times with higher initial plant available water (PAW) usually results in enhanced yield outcomes. Scenario analyses using crop models (APSIM) and historical weather data compute the probability of favorable outcomes under different starting conditions of plant available water and seeding opportunity. This approach offered a means to make more informed decision making around cropping intentions and to determine appropriate trigger points at the individual farmer level.For example, even a site with a mean rainfall of about 220mm / year (Port Germein, South Australia) is responsive to the storage of out of season soil water with relatively high simulated fallow efficiencies (average of 24%).The effects of different ranges of PAW and seeding opportunity on the probability of different yield outcomes (divided into terciles) show that the interaction of plant available water at seeding and seeding opportunity is a strong indicator of final crop yield (Fig. 5.1). The combination of low PAW and late seeding rarely produces a favourable outcome with most yields in the lower tercile. At the other extreme, poor crop yields (in the lowertercile, (bottom 33% of the yields) are rare when PAW at seeding is categorised as high.Decisions around modifying sowing intentions to limit exposure in poor seasons and capitalize on better years rely on reliable indicators to \"trigger\" appropriate changes to the farm programs. While farmers have lamented the lack of more reliable seasonal outlooks(1-3 monthly rainfall forecasts)to provide such information, usingmultipleand integrated information sources will enable more robust decision making. "}]},{"head":"In-season prediction of crop performance and benchmarking:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":390,"text":"Case study 2 Yield potential has long been used in Australian cropping systems to benchmark crop performance at a field level against a water limited potential yield target. Onewidely used method in the southern Australian wheat belt was devised by French and Schultz (1984) based on a boundary function derived from a large field data set. Predicted wheat grain yield is the result of in-season rainfall minus a fixed evaporation of 110 mm, which is multiplied by a transpiration efficiency factor of 20 kg/mm/ha. While this empirically based method was simple, a linear rainfall-yield relationship cannot address yield differences caused by soil variability, in season rainfall deficit at critical times. Since about 2005, the prediction of crop performance with crop models which simulate important process and interactions have been widely applied by researchers to analyse the seasonal-spatial dynamic nature of crop productivity (Hoffmann et al., 2015;Whitbread et al., 2015;Sadras and Angus 2006;Sadras and Rodriguez 2010).According to McCown et al. (2006) however, the effectiveness of decision support systems in influencing farmer behaviour has been disappointing. A program led by CSIRO in Australia explored whether researchers and advisors could benefit from simulation and decision support aid to risk management (Hochman et al. 2009). This led to the development of a highly successful commercial on-line (http://www.yieldprophet.com.au/) system where farmers and their consultants could enter site specific details about their soil, crop and location and generate reports which predicted crop growth and possible season finishes using local weather information and driven by the APSIM model (Fig. 5.2.) A range of other 'system' information (frost and heat risk, crop stage dates, soil water and mineral N status) is also reported to further inform decision making.  Hayman (2007), while 30-50% of farmers use seasonal climate forecasts when making farm management decisions, most farmers and advisers are quick to point out that they place less weight on the information than they would like to if the forecast was more reliable. Increasing the skill of forecasting using dynamic climate modelling is the focus of much current research (Franzke et al., 2015).Following Meinke and Stone (2005)  4. Bulk handling and marketing agencies, which require accurate regional commodity forecasts to assist them in storage and transport logistics and export sales well before harvest; 5. Government agencies, which require objective assessments of the effect and severity of climate variability on production;"}]},{"head":"Relevance to smallholder systems in SAT","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The case studies highlight the potential benefits from informed decision making that is built on the scientific rationality and local knowledge and needs. Pilot studies in many developing countries have clearly established that similar or even greater benefits are also possible under smallholder faming systems (Hansen et al., 2011). However, several obstacles prevent smallholder farmers from benefiting from such information. Important among them are poor access to information especially in a user friendly format, location specificity, timeliness and reliability or credibility of the information. Recent developments in ICT have opened up new opportunities to develop and deliver data and information that is location specific in real time to decision makers. However, access to information alone is not sufficient. The capacity of end users (smallholder farmers and their support agents) to understand and utilize the information is equally important. We believe that by developing appropriate information systems and by strengthening the capacity of the farmers, significant benefits can be harnessed from the experiences and successes of large scale commercial farmers in the developed world."}]},{"head":"Summary","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":293,"text":"This paper has presented a short review of current climate risk management strategies and enabling environments in commercial dryland cereal systems in Australia and explored how these may provide insights for managing climate risk on to smallholders farming systems in semi-arid India. Three case studies have shown (i) how the analysis of historical weather records combined with systems information and a well validated crop-soil model provides powerful indication of a season outcome at the start of the season; (ii) a commercially available web based system based on the APSIM model providing farmers and their consultants with in-season predictive reports; and (iii) examples of the use of climate forecasts by agricultural industries in decision making and a range of scales. In India, enhancing climate risk assessment and management will occur through a combination of approaches, many of which are already underway to varying degrees. Of highest priority will include enhancing the use of public seasonal climate services which are location and system specific and which may be increasingly delivered through private sector led ICT delivery with support from public and other actors. An important aspect in the context of resource poor farmers, will be equity i.e. making sure access to information and inputs are socially inclusive particularly in poorer SAT regions. The building of capacity in multiple stakeholders as a pre-requisite for effective climate risk management in semiarid regions, especially around information translation to action i.e. access to inputs (seeds, fertiliser, labour etc) to apply to take advantage of the climate information. Meinke et al. (2006) concluded that climate risk management requires holistic solutions derived from cross-disciplinary and participatory, user-oriented research -this implies that the multiple institutions/ agencies present in India are required to better integrate their efforts for the benefit of smallholder farmers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" . The monsoon aberrations have become more frequent over India on which rainfed Agriculture is dependant. The years 2014 and 2015 were recorded as monsoon drought years and the monsoon 2018 also ended with nine percent deficit rainfall against the long term Average. The recent years 2015, 2016 and 2017 were recorded as warmest years after 2009 and 2010 in India. Decline in rainfall and increase in temperature are observed in the last 50-60 years across the Country and reports indicate that the semiarid belt is increasing. Melting of glaciers and snow from the Himalayas due to global warming is a serious threat to the seasonal water availability across the northern states of India. The global hydrological and energy cycles are likely to be adversely affected and thus the change in whole climate system. "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . 1 : Fig. 5.1: Effect of variations in PAW and seeding opportunity on percentage of modelled yields in upper tercile (white), middle tercile (grey) and lower tercile (black) "},{"text":"Fig. 5 . Fig. 5.2: A pictorial display of a Yield Prophet report generated at a point in the growing season with APSIM then simulating yield outcomes using historical weather data from a local station "},{"text":" some speciûc Australian examples of the use of forecasting in decision-making include: 1. Cotton growers in Queensland scheduling the timing of their cotton harvests based on the expected passing of the next Madden Julian Oscillation (MJO); 2. Farmers in northeastern Australia who use ENSO-based information to tailor their rotations and crop management based on local conditions at the time and rainfall probabilities for the coming months; 3. Sugar growers and millers in north Queensland who use targeted climate forecasts in management decisions involving harvest strategies, planting decisions, and mill throughput operations; "},{"text":"Professor (Dr.) Kadambot Siddique  xii Climate Change and Agriculture xii Climate Change and Agriculture management, crop improvement and crop protection practices. Farmers concern management, crop improvement and crop protection practices. Farmers concern to minimize crop losses against weather extremes rather than climate change to minimize crop losses against weather extremes rather than climate change as the impacts of climate change (increase in atmospheric CO 2 and temperature) as the impacts of climate change (increase in atmospheric CO 2 and temperature) on crops at the field level is not clear if water is not a constraint. The publication on crops at the field level is not clear if water is not a constraint. The publication includes vulnerability assessment, adaptation strategies, crop choices/ Hackett Professor of Agriculture Chair and Director combinations in different climate scenarios and preparedness to face the The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia Perth, Australia exigencies of climate change and emphasis is given on interventions. There is includes vulnerability assessment, adaptation strategies, crop choices/ Hackett Professor of Agriculture Chair and Director combinations in different climate scenarios and preparedness to face the The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia Perth, Australia exigencies of climate change and emphasis is given on interventions. There is an urgent need to intensify research and development to generate technologies an urgent need to intensify research and development to generate technologies and location specific farm practices which can minimise the impact of climate and location specific farm practices which can minimise the impact of climate change. change. Professor Professor This Publication deals with climate change impacts and interventions in This Publication deals with climate change impacts and interventions in agriculture across various regions of the Country based on the research findings agriculture across various regions of the Country based on the research findings emanated from ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities as global emanated from ICAR institutes and State Agricultural Universities as global warming and climate change is a threat to food security. I understand that more warming and climate change is a threat to food security. I understand that more than 60 authors are involved with 32 Chapters, containing about 560 pages than 60 authors are involved with 32 Chapters, containing about 560 pages focussing on mitigation and adaptation strategies in agriculture against ill effects focussing on mitigation and adaptation strategies in agriculture against ill effects of climate change across India. Researchers indicate that crop yields are likely of climate change across India. Researchers indicate that crop yields are likely to decline with increase in atmospheric CO 2 and temperature in ensuing decades to decline with increase in atmospheric CO 2 and temperature in ensuing decades and crop losses can be minimized through technologies generated in crop and crop losses can be minimized through technologies generated in crop  "},{"text":"(Dr.) Kadambot Siddique December across the Andhra Coast during 2018 led to huge damage to infrastructure including crops of the respective regions. Extreme weather events such as floods and droughts, heavy rainfall, avalanche, landslides, heat and cold waves, cyclonic storms, thunder storms, hail storms, sand storms and cloud bursts are not uncommon and likely to be frequent in ensuing decades under projected climate change scenario. The impact of drought on Indian foodgrains production is much more predominant when compared to that of flood/heavy rainfall during monsoon since large areas of cultivable land experiences drought situation if monsoon breaks or fails. Deficit monsoon during Preface Preface Weather and climate play an important role in crop distribution and production. Weather and climate play an important role in crop distribution and production. While climate determines the adaptability of a particular crop in a region, weather While climate determines the adaptability of a particular crop in a region, weather determines the yield attributes of the crop. Over a period of years, changes Hackett Professor of Agriculture Chair and Director The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia have occurred in climate of the earth's atmospheric system mostly due to human determines the yield attributes of the crop. Over a period of years, changes Hackett Professor of Agriculture Chair and Director The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia have occurred in climate of the earth's atmospheric system mostly due to human Perth, Australia interventions in the form of emission of large quantities of greenhouse gases Perth, Australia interventions in the form of emission of large quantities of greenhouse gases (GHGs). (GHGs).  "},{"text":"Subba Rao Climate Risk Management in Smallholder Farming Systems in the Semiarid Tropics 1 Anthony Whitbread*, 1 Peter Carberry, 1 KPC Rao, 1 Shalander Kumar, 1 Dakshina Climate Change and Agriculture when the rabi crop is harvested. But the heavy rainfall accompanied by strong winds dashed the hopes of many farmers. Rain induced by western disturbances usually occurs during the winter and the late precipitation close to the rabi harvest has caused widespread crop damage. Thousands of acres of wheat across the States such as Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra were destroyed. Potato crop had been damaged in U.P. In Maharashtra, the onion crop has also been hit hard, both by the rain as well as hailstorms. The unseasonal rain accompanied by high speed winds and hailstorms badly affected quantity and quality of pulses. Marathwada, Vidarbha, Northern Maharashtra and parts of Western Maharashtra were the worst affected by the unprecedented hailstorms and unseasonal rainfall. Rabi crops like wheat, Hence, an attempt has been made to compile the work done by the authors on climate change impacts and interventions across the country and published in an abridged form for the benefit of farmers and to sustain Agriculture against malevolent effects of global warming and climate change. Chapter two is on Rainfall Variability in India. The arid and semi-arid areas are expanding whereas the moist subhumid, humid and perhumid areas are shrinking. The semi-arid area, which occupies the large and central portion of the country, is expanding significantly. The overall effect is that the country is experiencing dry climate in the recent period with a westward shifting of rainfall. A declining tendency in monsoon rainfall can be seen from 1965 onwards and a sharp declining trend from 1995. This is essentially due to weakening of the Tibetan Anticyclone associated with cooling of the upper troposphere (600-150 hPa) over the Himalayan region and surrounding atmosphere. The recent sharp increasing trend in the surface air temperature over India is due to a declining trend in rainfall during winter and summer monsoon seasons. Climate change and food security is included in chapter 3. Zonal differences in warming across the Country are highlighted. Impact of drought on Indian food grains production, climate change impacts on Indian food grains production, climate variability and food price are discussed in detail with facts and figures in chapter 3. Climate risk management requires holistic solutions derived from cross-disciplinary and participatory, user-oriented research -this implies that the multiple institutions/agencies present in India are required to better integrate their efforts for the benefit of smallholder farmers. Statewise climate change, impacts and interventions in Agriculture is focused in various chapters commencing from chapter 6 to chapter 23. The States include Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and Orissa. The crops include field and horticultural crops that are grown across the Country. This publication highlights more on interventions to mitigate ill effects of climate change in Agriculture. In chapter 24, climate change impacts on soil microflora and fauna are included since soil health is very important for better crop productivity and more so, in a changed climate scenario. Chapter 25 focuses on importance of monitoring weather parameters in crop insurance schemes. Weather insurance is the only one which will help to a little extent when thePreface xv xvi Climate Change and Agriculture farmers lose everything from their farm land during weather disasters. Agroadvisory services based on medium range forecasting play an important role in mitigating the ill effects of climate variability/change, therefore its relevance is included in chapters 26 and 27. Role of satellites and remote sensing in impacts of climate change monitoring is incorporated in chapters 28 and 29. NABARD's initiatives and interventions in climate change are highlighted inchapter 30. Chapter 31 high lights on sorghum while wheet in chapter 32 in relation to climate change issues. Altogether, the publication contains more than 500 pages with Tables, Figures, Illustrations andPlates.Successful adaptation to climate variability/change requires long-term investments in strategic research and new policy initiatives. As a first step, we need to document all the indigenous practices that farmers follow with time for coping with climate change. Secondly, we need to quantify the adaptation and mitigation potential of the existing best bet practices for different crop and livestock production systems in different agro-ecological regions of the country. Thirdly, a long-term strategic research planning is required to evolve new tools and techniques including crop varieties and management practices that help in adaptation. More recently during 2010, ICAR has launched the National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) as a comprehensive project covering strategic research, technology demonstration and capacity building. Targeted research on adaptation and mitigation is at nascent stage in India but based on knowledge already generated, some options for adaptation to climate variability induced effects like droughts, high temperatures, floods and sea water inundation can be suggested. Like NICRA at ICAR level, SICRA (State Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture) should be given top priority in all the States to generate technologies to minimize crop losses during the occurrence of weather extremes such as floods, droughts, cold and heat waves for sustenance of rural livelihoods. This publication revolves around interventions to minimize crop losses due to global warming and climate change across the Country. In that respect, the contributions emerged based on research findings from different parts of the Country in the ICAR and SAUs system are noteworthy, unique and innovative. we are sure this publication will be of immense use to researchers, teachers, students and farmers and read with zeal and enthusiasm. In introductory chapter, greenhouse effect, global warming, status of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and its impact on rising temperature, aerosols and their impacts on global cooling, dual effect of clouds on global warming or cooling, ozone depletion and UV radiation and climate change awareness in GSLHV Prasada Rao V. Umamahehare Rao D.V. Urthy Kadiyala, 1 Nedumaran Swamikannu and 2 Uday Nidumolu 1 ICRISAT, Patancheru -502324 Telangana, India In introductory chapter, greenhouse effect, global warming, status of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and its impact on rising temperature, aerosols and their impacts on global cooling, dual effect of clouds on global warming or cooling, ozone depletion and UV radiation and climate change awareness in GSLHV Prasada Rao V. Umamahehare Rao D.V. Urthy Kadiyala, 1 Nedumaran Swamikannu and 2 Uday Nidumolu 1 ICRISAT, Patancheru -502324 Telangana, India  "},{"text":"Table 5 . 1 : A framework for planning for resilience to impacts of current and future climate Strategic Tactical (pre-and in-season responsive StrategicTactical (pre-and in-season responsive  management) management) Historical and future climate analyses a Climate forecasting (long, medium and short Historical and future climate analysesa Climate forecasting (long, medium and short  term) term) Modelled scenario analysis: e.g. farming Pre-season enterprise planning including the Modelled scenario analysis: e.g. farmingPre-season enterprise planning including the systems modelling, climate change prediction. contingency planning systems modelling, climate change prediction. contingency planning Co-design of the farm system for resilience Decision making triggers for sowing and other Co-design of the farm system for resilienceDecision making triggers for sowing and other (extreme events/ food security) and market operations (extreme events/ food security) and marketoperations opportunities (commercialization)  opportunities (commercialization) Infrastructure and institutions to enhance  Infrastructure and institutions to enhance  "}],"sieverID":"11bc077c-381c-4d19-a52d-e0ca2c9ca52c","abstract":"Instrumental in establishment of \"Academy of Climate Change Education and Research (ACCER)\" in Kerala Agricultural University and launched unique and innovate dual degree program in Climate Change Adaptation (B.Sc.-M.Sc. dual degree program of five year duration) after plus two. It is the first of its kind in India. It is a multi-disciplinary and multi-institutional program. Instrumental in establishment of \"Centre for Animal Adaptation to Environment and Climate Change Studies (CAADECCS)\" in Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University and launched unique and innovative Ph.D. program in \"Climate Change and Animal Agriculture\" during the Academic year 2015-16 in addition to Two P.G. Diploma Courses (one year duration) in Climate Services for Veterinary Students and for general science stream students. He possesses 38 years of experience in teaching, research and extension in Agricultural Meteorology, Climate Change and Climate Change Risk Management in Agriculture. Many publications are to his credit. He is currently involved in farming and editing/writing books."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bc56fd86191782f143efbbf64f4ce55","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H037534.pdf"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Water abstraction and use patterns and their implications on downstream river flows: A case study of Mkoji Sub-catchment in Tanzania","keywords":["Tanzania","Mkoji Sub Catchment coefficient of water abstraction","water diversion","water abstraction pattern","flow hydrographs"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"Water is the key resource in that without it other resources, natural and human, cannot be sustained. However, a steady increase both in population and agricultural and industrial activities has shown that water as a resource, is no longer available on an -ad-lib basis (Usman, 2001) and water levels in many parts of the world are low and getting lower (SPORE, 1995). Water supply for agriculJgral, domestic, and indostrial use, as well as for envimnmental use (rivers, -habitat preservation, and fishing), has kept pace neither with population gmwth nor with growth of economic activities. Very often, we cannot find water in the right place, at the right time, in the rignt quantity -and of the right G:.lality In his struggle for a better life, mari has expended gr~ct efforts to -tame too rivers for transPQrtation, water-supply, agriculture, and-power generation._ However, a wide ra}Tge of these hUITlan uses and transformations of freshwater has the pote ntl.:!I to alter, sometimes irreversibly, the integrify of freshwater ecosystems. Human activities that pose \"great threats to ecosystems include, among others:"},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"1. Population and consumption growth -increases water abstraction and acquisition of cultivated land through clearing of forests; Deliberate efforts are therefore needed to ensure that water is utilised efficiently, sustainably and to the fullest extent for the benefit of the present and future generations. The Mkoji River, a tributary of the Great Ruaha River in Tanzania, has not escaped this trend. The river has been severely fragmented by increasing diversions and irrigation canals, leading to the degradation of ecosystems. As a result of this, the water resources of the Mkoji sub catchment (MSC) are becoming increasingly stressed, and downstream flows have now reduced to zero during the dry season. It is due to the above facts that this study was undertaken in Mkoji sub catchment of the Great Ruaha River in Tanzania to investigate and analyse patterns of water abstraction and use and their implications on the downstream flows of Mkoji River."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"A short description of the Mkoji Sub Catchment (MSC)"},{"index":4,"size":81,"text":"The Mkoji SUb-catchment is drained by the Mkoji River and is located in the southwest of Tan2ania. between latitudes t'48' ami 9°25' South, and longitude::; 33°40' and 34 c 09' East (Figure 1). It is a sub-catchment of the Great Ruaha River Catchment and covers an area of about 3400 km 2 • Most of the sub-ci'ltchment lies within Mbarali and -Mbeya Rural districts~ while smaller -portions of the sub-catchment lie within the Makete and Chunya districts in Iringa and Mbeya"},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Regions respectively (FiguJ5l 2). According to the 2002 population census, Mkoji sl,tb-catchment has a population of about 146,000 people with an average annual growth rate of 2.4%. The highest population density is found along the Tanzania-Zambia Highway and in the Southern highlands. Scattered villages are locat~d in the plains. The sub catchment can be divided into_three major zones as shown in Figure 2, which have the following importanCcharacteristics:"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Zone A: Upper Zone (the highlands)"}]},{"head":"~","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"This zo~e is-formed by the Southwest highlands of Porota and Chunya with towns and urban .. areas. The Poroto and Chunya e~carpmenr forms sources and tributaries of most of the -major rivers in the MSC. thus tha source of much of the sub catchment waters. This area is. highly populated with high rainfall, deep soi!s--and'intensive agricultural production. In this zone, both-raiOfed and a bit ef irrigated agriculture is practiced. The bimodal rainfall pattern and the type of soils allows for crop cultivation-all year arQJ)nd. This is made possible through USing-residual soil mOistLlre and growing of crops demanding low water inpLlt such as round potatoes, green peas and other vegetable crops."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Zone B: Intermediat~ (Middle) Zone _ This zone is engaged with intensive rainfed and irrigated agriculture. It is characterized by a high conc~ntration of traditional irrigation systems as well as improyed traditional systems. The major crops under irrigation are rice (rainy season) and legumes, vegetables and maize in the dry season. -With simple structures, farmers abstract water from the perennial small rivers flowing from thel?oroto Mountains. Dry seaSDn irrigated agriculture is-~n important means of -live1ihood. Therefore this is an area gf high competitive water demand and f)ersistent water collflicts."}]},{"head":"Zo,!e-C: Lower Zone (the plains)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"_ __ _ This.:zone is engaged with intensive rainfed agriculture. The area is-basically semi arid with alluvial and (17fJuga soils; and a high concentration of livestuck particu@TTy cattle, which had moved to the area from the Sukumaland. There are acute water shortages for even domestic uses, especially ~ during the dry season."},{"index":2,"size":427,"text":"Most -of the-lower zone of the sub-catchment, comprising the Usangu -Plains, is semi-arid, whereas the upper zone (in the highlands) of the sub-catchment-is semi-humid to humid. The rainfall regime in MSC is unimodal with a.single rainy season starting-from the third dekad of NQ.'1ember and ending in the first dekad of Ap~iI inJhe plains and third -.dekad of Apri! in the highlands. In therugh rainfall areas the dry season is shorter as the rainy season tends to continue up to May. The heaviest rainfall generally occurs in December-M2rcD (Table 1). The driest months are June to October. The highlands receive the highest annual rainfall. The mean annual rainfall at Uyole Agromet (which represents the highland) is aboun 039 mm. The annual rainfall decreases towards the plains to about 840 mm at !gurusi (in the middle of MSC) and 617 mm at Mbarali Irrigation Scheme (representing the lower MSC area). The mean annual areal rainfall over the MSC is about 898 mm (3052 Mm 3 for the catchment). The rainfall amounts as well as the onset of the rainy season can vary considerably from year to year (average annual coefficient of variation is about 20%). The coefficient of variation is higher in the plains (I.e. 23 % at Igurusi) and it decreases towards the highlands (e.g. 18.2 % at Mbeya Maji). This variation often has a detrimental effect on crop production and other activities that depend on the reliable availability of water, especially in the drier areas, Trehd analysis done in a recent study (FNPP, 2003) shows that rainfall in the studied stations in MSC is either decreasing or shows no significant change over the years. The Mkoji River, which has given name to the sub-catchment, is the main liver draining through the whole sub-catchment. It originates from the northern slopes of the Por-oto Mountains from where it flows to the Usangu Plains, collecting en route water from the Makali and Itambo rivers before joining the Great Ruaha River. Other important rivers that drain the Mkoji Sub-catchment are Meta, Lunwa, Lwanyo, Mambi, Mswiswi, Ipatagwa, Mlowo, Mwambalizi and Gwiri (Figure 3). Surface water is the main source of water for both agricultur9Land domestic purposes._Groljnd water use is confined to domestic use only (including brick makingT-Demand for water in the MSC is driven by a number of competing oses. These include domestic supplies, irrigated agriculture, livestock, fishing. brick making and environment maintenance. Of these, water for'irrigation is the key use, since it is the largestflnthropogenic consumptive-=lJse; and the most obvious point at which management actions can have significant impact. . ."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"There are two types of irrigatio_n schemes in MSC. These are: a)"},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Traditional systems, which comprise of village irrigation based on the diversion of perennial or seasonal flows, used mainly for the production of paddy, vegetables and other relatively high value crops. These are self-sustaining systejl1s, which are an important means of livelihood generation fer a large number of people in MSC. The most important feature of these schemes is tI iat they have been iniUa-ted, financed and developed by thE' farmers themselves, without any external assistance. They are not only farmer-managed, they are farmer-owned."}]},{"head":"b)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Improved traditional systems. which comprises of schemes that have received government or donor assisted interventions to improve the water control structures. There are claims that these systems have enhanced differences between top-enders who have benefited from improvements and tail-enders that have lost a measure of water predictability and supply. "}]},{"head":"Research approaches and methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"In this study both primary and secondary data and information was collected and used in the assessment. Data on household characteristics and water use was collected using a structured questionnaire, informal discussions with key informants and transect walks in and around the study area. Key informants were people that were knowledgeable in water resource availability, dynamics and use in their village and sub-villages. Irrigated areas were obtained by analYSing remotely sensed images and by mapping the areas using Geographical Positioning System (GPS) receivers. Additional gauging pOints were established in rivers (upstream and downstream of irrigation schemes) and in water abstraction canals to collect daily flow data. Selection of irrigation schemes that were studied was based on the criteria that: 1) There is easy accessibility of the abstraction and gauged pOints throughout the year; 2) Both wet season and dry season irrigated agriculture are represented; 3) Traditional as well as improved traditional intakes are studied; and 4) Irrigation canals are selected from both the upstream and midstream of the respective rivers. Spot discharge measurements were also undertaken using current meters, especially in the ungauged rivers. Seepage tests were undertaken during the wet and dry seasons in some sections of the irrigation canals so as to understand the extent of the problem. In order to supplement data Jbtained from measurements of physical variables, key inbrmants were consulted about their experience and observation of flow changes in the Mkoji River and its tributaries over the years. 500"},{"index":2,"size":272,"text":"June)  water abstraction points in MSC, with only 20 of them having improved headworks. Traditional diversions are temporary in nature, needing to be re-built each year. They are built of wooden poles, rocks, gunny bags, clay soils and stones. Their major deficiencies are: (1) Inadequate water control hence excessive wastage of water; (2) Insufficient water supply during drought; and (3) Excessive water diversion during floods. Further to that, traditional schemes have no gates at all and water is abstracted and flows continuously throughout the day, even if it is not needed. To make matters worse, most traditional schemes have poorly maintained or no drainage systems at all to return the excess water back into rivers. The problem is very acute in flat terrain where excess water is just left to flow and spread in the plains. The overall result is that there are enormous losses of even the littie amount of water available.  [. \" and Luanda Majenje), LJnded by the World Bank under the Smallholder Irrigation Improvement Project (SliP) component of the River Basin Management Project, were opened. Currently, Shamwengo irrigation scheme is undergoing improvements of its head works and the main canal. Thus, one can say that since the eighties, there ha~ been an increase in the number of improved intakes in MSC, the total abstraction capacity ha~ steadily risen, and more importarltly, the ability to abstract water during the dry season has increasea. However, a good number of the improved irrigation schemes have their Intake and/or spillWay gates vandalised or not working properly (e.g. Ipatagwa, Moto Mbaya and Inyala B) making it difficult to regulate and control water abstraction."},{"index":3,"size":202,"text":"t While improved intakes are desired to control water abstractions and reduce unnecessary water losses through leakages at :he intakes, selfish farmers can also abuse the intakes. Rivers in MSC have V€ IY small flows {less than 1 m 3 /s)•during the-ary season. Therefore most of the improved intakes are capable of diven.ir,g the whole flow of the river permittll1g greater control of water to top enders. Thus, while farmers with improved intakes ,are pleased to have great control of water and use lesf time and labour tc maintain their intakes, the downstream farmers are deprived of water, particularly during the dry seE:son Survey of household water use has shown !flat over 80% of downstream household he~c believe that const~uction and improvement of irrigation intakes in the upstrearn areas is respons::le for the observed drying of rivers and shortage of water for domestic uses during the dry seasor Patternr of water abstraction by irrigation canals in the study area One of (t'le major objecti'.es of the study was to inveslgate water abstraction patterns (rate, duration, season and frequ of abstraction) by canals. The irrigation canals studisd fall under three main categories, deps['oing on the season of abstraction. The seasons of abstraction are:"},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"1~ Wet season (mainl: fo~ paddy cultivation) (e.g. Mkoji and Kongolo Mswiswi cariai-s); 2. Dr! season (mainly for dry season cu:tivation of vegetables. legumes and maize) (tor example Inyala B, ly8\\;'Jaya and Abadaa canals); and 3. Throughout the year .g. Ipatagw8, and Lu;:mda Majenje cenals)."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"The abE traction •period anc the amount of water allowed to De abstracted are clearly indicat~d in the water rights issued (fu &uthorised cenals v.'ith V'Jater rights). Table 3 shows the pattern of water abstraction by tb..e irrigation canals. The results show that all the canals_ studieci abstract water throughout the year. provided there is water in-the rivers, irrespective of the conditions spelt ill' their water rights. The same trend can be found in mesiaf th_e other canals, which were not studied.  '-----TObtained by summing mean daily discharges and dividing by the .total nuniber of days in the month In general the abstraction pattern of inigation canals is such that:"},{"index":6,"size":143,"text":"Where a large area is under paddy cultivation, maximum abstraction occurs in April. Other months with relatively large abstractions are March and May. The reason for this is that during this period water requirement by paddy is at the maximum and also water availability in rivers is at the maximum; (ii) When the area under dry season irrigated agriculture is larger than the area under paddy cultivation (for example Kongolo Mswiswi and Luanda Majenje canals), maximum abstractions occur in January/February (due to irrigation of early maize crop planted in November and transplanting of paddy) and JuneiJuly (start of dry season irrigated agriculture); (iii) When the area is totally under dry season irrigated agriculture (for example Abadaa and Inyala B canals), maximum abstractions occurs in the months June through to November because the area is under intensive irrigated agriculture throughout this period; and (iv)"},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"Where there is multiple use of water such as domestic, livestock, and agriculture (e.g. Iyawaya canal), maximum abstractions depend on the availability of water in rivers."}]},{"head":"Relationship between irrigation canal abstractions and granted water rights","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":398,"text":"Table 4 shows the ratios of the amount of water abstracted to the water rights. The table shows that although all the schemes studied in MSC were abstracting, on yearly basis, less water than the total amount spelt i.!1 their water rights, there is still over abstraction of water than needed for the size of areas and type of crops cultivated. The water rights aim to control the-amount of water used by water users and to halt or reduce over-abstraction of water. The water rights for irrigation use are based on flow rates (e.g. 0.5 m3/s) and are issued taking into consideration the long-term_ mean flows in respective rivers. However, in some cases the rights are simply water duties, based on potential areas (potential command area multiplied by hydro module -2.0 I/s/ha), and not developed area or crop water requirement of a particular cropping pattern. When JUSt a portion of the potential area is developed due to finanGiallimitations, the granted water right is not adjusted to match with the developed area. Furthermore not all the developed area is cultivated each year beeaus~ of unreliable rainfall and hence river flows. Thus the..wafer rights, in most of the irrigation scnemes are much higher as compared fo the cultivated areas, making it easy to over-=-abstract water (as compared to the areas under cultivation) without exceeding the limits set in the water . . . . rights. Retationship between the amounts of water diverted froff!1he sources and the cropped are~s Table 5 shows the relationship betv:een the amount of wa1er diverted from the source and the cropped area during the dry and wet seasons. Major crops grown under irrigation in MSC include paddy, maize, dry bean~ tomatoes afld onions. The results show that Abadaa irrigation scheme, which abstracts water for dry season irrigated agriculture performed better tflan the other schemes in as far as water abstraction and use is concerned. The average abstraction rate (hydro module) is 0.928 IIs/ha as compared to 1.753 and 3.759 I/s/na for Kongolo Mswiswi and Luanda Majenje irrigation schemes that aiso practice dry season irrigated agriculture. If you consider maize (a major dry season crop grown in-<ilH-the schemes with~n averBge growing period of 120 days), the above abstraction rates translate to 852, 1628 and 3897 mm of water respectively. These values are higher than the gross crop water requirements for maize in MSC, which have been estimated"},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":". at 435 and 521mm for the upper and middle MSC respectiveJy (FNPP, 2003). The low hydro module for Abadaa scheme is due to, among other things, the fact that the command area is concentrated in one core area and thus water need to be only conveyed to a relatively short distance (about 1.8 kilometre) to reach the farthest field. On top of that, seepage losses are also negligible as water travels only a short distance and the soil type (sandy clay to sandy clay loam) found at the scheme allows only slow to moderate seepage rates, if any."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Luanda Majenje irrigation scheme shows very inefficient water abstraction and use. There are two factors, among others, that contribute to this 'unwise' abstraction and use of water. The first factor is that the fields under dry season irrigated agriculture are very much sca1tered over a large area."},{"index":4,"size":169,"text":"Consequently water had to be conveyed to small fields, which .are far apart. The second factor is high seepage 10sses due to fractures and burrows along the canal water way. Seepage tests conducted in October 2003 shows that in some sections of the main canal seepage losses were as high as 0.024 lIs per meter length. In order to overcome this problem, the two gates at the intake (one on the canal and the other allowing water to flow back into the river) are closed completely during the night. This allows water to pond behind the weir. When the canal gate is opened in the morning, the high water head created allows water to flow to the farthest field in a relatively shorter time and in reasonable amounts. This advantage is only short-lived and after about two hours the flow of water resumes to its normal rate. However, this practice increases seepage losses due to increased weJted area, given the presence of fractures and burrows aloog the canal way."},{"index":5,"size":329,"text":"Kongolo Mswiswi scheme abstracted more water for paddy irrigation (2.6 §8 I/s/ha) instead of 0.976 IIslha (SMUWC: 2001), which is nor.mally taken as the-gross water requirement for paddy in the Usangu Plains (MSC inclusive). The reason could be the fact that it is the upstream most intake in Mswiswi River ~nd so water availability is not a limiting factor during the_rainy season. The other reason is that the intake is a traditional one made of wooden logs, tree branches, trashes and soil, making it very difficult to control OJ regulate the amount of water being abstracted, especially during the rain season. The scheme also faces the problems..9f having a dirty irrigation canals. just as is the ca~e With other irrigation canals. Periodic canal cleaning and maintenance is crucial for optimum performance of irrigation schemes.Df all the irrigation schemes studied, canal cl~aning is not done on a regular basis. Scheduled canal cleaning and maintenanceis undertaken only about once a year. Cleaning of canals is done before the onset of the wet season (for schemes irrigating during the wet season) and after the end of the wet season (for schemes practicing dry season irrigated agriculture). Otherwise canal maintenance is undertaken in between thosELtwo periods only if the canal system issomenow damaged or completely blocked by excessive sittalion or weed infestation.  Effects of upstream abstractions on downstream flows Table 6 shows the average daily dry seasorniver flows in MSC before any abstractions. The table shows that rivers in MSC have very low dry-season flows and the total available-Water resource in MSC for the whole of the dry season is 39.36 Mm 3 . Table 7 shows the ave'ragedry season abstractions from Lwanyo, Mswiswi, Mkoji and Mlowo rivers. Table 8 shows dates of drying and flow resumption for some rivers in the Mkoji sub catchment as recorded in the downstream gauges. Figure 4 shows the comparison of flow hydrographs at gauging stations located upstream and downstream of major irrigation abstractions in Mkoji River."}]},{"head":". e a Ions Ip o b t t d an d croppe","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Table 7 shows that for all the four rivers studied, the average upstream dry season flows were higher in 2004 as compared to 2003, which was a very dry year. Mswiswi River recorded the lowest coefficients of abstractions (CA) as compared to the other rivers, which recorded CAs of 90% and above. The reason for this is that during the peak of the dry season (August to November), there are rotational schedules among all irrigation intakes as well as other water users in Mswiswi R. The rotation is oil daily basis. Tl=lere are therefore days in the week when irrigation abstractions are required to stop and all the available water in the river is left to flow to downstream villages of Simike, and Luhanga to meet domestic as well as livestock water requirements. However, this amount of water does not flow further than Luhanga village. Therefore downstream of Luhanga village, Mswiswi River also dries up from June, like other MSC rivers. Lwanyo and Mlowo rivers had coefficients of abstractions of almost 100% in 2003 and over 95% in 2004. This indicates that there are no rotational schedules that take into account downstream water requirements (e.g. for domestic use). The same scenario is also reflected by over 92% abstraction coefficients for Mkoji River in the months July to November in 2003 and 2004."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"In summary, all the rivers draining the Mkoji Sub-catchment, during the dry season, are perennial upstream of the Tanzania-Zambia Highway. However, a few kilometres downstream of this highway, all these rivers dry up from the mOflth of June and can be described as seasonal. This is m §inly due to dry season irrigated agriculture,-which uses all the water that would have kept them flowing during the dry season (losses of water through seepage, evaporation and deep percolation are considered to be negligible). The distance from the highway to the points where the rivers dry up varies from river to Tiver and is a function of the number, type, capacity and location of water abstraction intakes in a particular river. Mkoji River therefore does not contribute any water to the base flow of the Great Ruaha River. , Mkoji at Shamwengo 0.174 0.098 i 0.069 0.049 ------: -o. : . : . o=----=5: . . . : 1-+_---------=o: . . : , . o-=-3=--: 2\"----1   ::J en 6. 0 >-u c .0"}]},{"head":"I~--Mswiswi","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"\" .:; 0 u."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":":;: To mitigate this predicted water deficit, remedial measures and options for meeting future water requirements need to be undertaken and incorporated int() future water development plans in the study area. The measures can either be technological or institutional ones. In most semiarid areas, like much of the Mkoji Sub Catchment, there is limited scope for increasing the available water resources by constructing large civil engineering works (e.g. dams and large reselvoirs). This is because of the high social, environmental, and financial costs associated with large civil engineering works. However, in many semiarid areas there is considerable scope for developing additional water resources by constructing wells and boreholes in down stream areas that can cater for domestic water requirements. Likewise, intensification of the use of-rainwater harvesting technologies (e.g. construction of charco dams) can go a long way in minimising the problem of shortage of water for domestic as well as livestock use, particularly during the dry season. Regular auditing or assessment of water availability in rivers and uses in irrigation canals by the respective basin authority should be done during critical periods in both the dry and wet seasons. The auditing should include closing of unauthorised abstractions and regulating water abstraction by authorised schemes to much with their actual water requirements and water availability in rivers. Although the exercise was carried out last year ( 2004) in MSC by the Rufiji Basin Water Office, the office is facing manpower, transport and financial resources to effectively monitor water abstraction and use. These resources r;eed to be increased significantly soonest."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"With regard to irrigation, current theory sugge~ts that irrigation during the dry season implies a loss of recycling capacity (or IOSB of water to the atmospheric sink), as water evaporated during the dry season does not enhance rainfall. However; in MSC, dry season irrigated agriculture is an important livelihood activity as it provides security-against famine, andis a major source of income. Therefore one cannot impose an outright ban on dry season irrigated agriculture. The only viable option is to reduce irrigation command areas (coDc;:entrated in one core area to reduce conveyance water losse §i) during the dry season and also during the dry years so as to enable the little water available reach downstream areas to meet domestic, livestock-and environmental water . requirements. With regarcls to institutional measures, all irrigation schemes shmJJd .be e_nforced to _ construt:t, properly operate and maintain water control gates and drainage systems. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"- 2 . 'ufrastructure development (gams, reservoirs, dikes, diversions etc)  -alters timing a!ld quantity of river flows, water temperatllre, nutrient and sediment transport; Land conversion -it alters runoff patterns, inhibits natural recharge and fills water bodies with silt; and 4. Over-abstraction of water -depletes living resources and ecosystem functions and biodiversity (groundwater depletion). "},{"text":"Figure 1 .AFigure 2 . Figure 1. Location of Mkoji sub-catchment within the Rufiji River Basin in Tanzania "},{"text":" structures in use Both traditional and modern water diversion structures exist in the study area. There are about 108 "},{"text":" -.---~--..----.-.-- "},{"text":" mean dally abstractions and diViding by the totgl number of days In the period -. "},{"text":" ..... : !!.-•\"I River UiS . Mkoji Rive~ D:S "},{"text":"Table 1  . Station Rainfall characteristics of some selected stations 'mm' \"--r~-'-'-d\"M ean Coefficient Month I 1 I I , -: Annual of I . StationRainfall characteristics of some selected stations 'mm' \"--r~-'-'-d\"M ean Coefficient Month I 1 I I , -: Annual ofI Sno. I 1 Mbeya Ma~ G0421792174.1 95.7! 13.1 1.8' 1.6i 02 3.0; 13.51626194.6 94361 18.21 Name Variation i Jan Feb Mar Apr IMay iJun Jul ,Aug Sep Oct iNov Dec Rainfall l Sno. I 1 Mbeya Ma~ G0421792174.1 95.7! 13.1 1.8' 1.6i 02 3.0; 13.51626194.6 94361 18.21 Name Variation i Jan Feb Mar Apr IMay iJun Jul ,Aug Sep Oct iNov Dec Rainfall l 2!~~~;:'~. 203,9165.5206.4153.4134.6, 0.7 0.4 1 0.1 1.9 21,3i635187.2 1038,91 19.9 i 2!~~~;:'~.203,9165.5206.4153.4134.6, 0.7 0.4 1 0.1 1.9 21,3i635187.2 1038,9119.9 i --3 Kimani 1 178,0140.5159.8 62.3 6.0 e;3 0.1 0.1 0.3; 5.2l46,6i163.1 762.3' 1 21.31 --3 Kimani1 178,0140.5159.8 62.3 6.0 e;3 0.1 0.1 0.3; 5.2l46,6i163.1 762.3' 121.31 i 4fMbeya Met 213,8182.8179.5102.t 18.1 _ 0.7 (J.3 0.1 2.415.7158.6~98.3 973.1 22.3 i 4fMbeya Met 213,8182.8179.5102.t 18.1 _ 0.7 (J.3 0.1 2.415.7158.6~98.3 973.122.3 ~ 5~~::~~Irr. 14~2127.7117.4, 49.1 3.2 0.0 0.0 -0.0 0.1 2.9i38.2l130.6 616.6 24.8 1 ~ 5~~::~~Irr. 14~2127.7117.4, 49.1 3.2 0.0 0.0 -0.0 0.1 2.9i38.2l130.6 616.624.81 ' I ' l 6 FAa Igurusi 1210.0163.1152.1 84.5 17.5 0.6 0.0,0.0 1.3 3.2~43.3l166.2 841.8 . _ ! r , , Potential evaporation varies considerably within MSC. -There is a tendency for decreasing 23.0 1 II ' I ' l 6 FAa Igurusi 1210.0163.1152.1 84.5 17.5 0.6 0.0,0.0 1.3 3.2~43.3l166.2 841.8 . _ ! r , , Potential evaporation varies considerably within MSC. -There is a tendency for decreasing 23.0 1 II evaporation with increasing altitude~ The pan evaporatton is 2430 mm/year at Igurusi (middle zone) evaporation with increasing altitude~ The pan evaporatton is 2430 mm/year at Igurusi (middle zone) and decreases to .1890 mm/year in Mbeya (representing the upper zone). The yearly variation is and decreases to .1890 mm/year in Mbeya (representing the upper zone). The yearly variation is smallefand steady (coefficient-9f-variation is 7% at Igurusi). The lowest evaporation is experienced smallefand steady (coefficient-9f-variation is 7% at Igurusi). The lowest evaporation is experienced in February (during the wet season) and increases during the dry season (from 1wgust to in February (during the wet season) and increases during the dry season (from 1wgust to December), reaching a maxiril.!J.m in October/Novemb~r. Significant moisture deficits are evident in December), reaching a maxiril.!J.m in October/Novemb~r. Significant moisture deficits are evident in the months of March to December. The annual total moisture deficit (evaporation minus-rainJalq is the months of March to December. The annual total moisture deficit (evaporation minus-rainJalq is of the order of 1585 mm.  of the order of 1585 mm.  "},{"text":" Secondary data and information was obtained from various databases, reports and other publications. Historical rainfall, evaporation and other climatic data from representative climatic stations were collected from Rufiji Basin Water Office (RBWO)~ Directorate of Water Resources, Sustainable Management of Usangu Wetland and its Catchments (SMUWC) and Tanzania Meteorological AgencY\"databases. Table 2 Description of irrigation schemes-studied Table 2Description of irrigation schemes-studied  Name . intake ~ Source Wet i Dry I Potential I .area l Name. intake~ SourceWeti DryI Potential I .area l «patagwa Ipatagwa 1.000 0.100 «patagwaIpatagwa 1.0000.100 1 I Improl'ed . R. (Nov (June 1IImprol'ed . R.(Nov(June  Irrin::ltinn   1\\11::1\\1\\ nr.t\\ Irrin::ltinn1\\11::1\\1\\nr.t\\  If*ltagwa  0.300_ If*ltagwa0.300_ 2 1/ Irr. _. . Im~proved Mkoji R. (Nov-  21/ Irr._. . Im~proved Mkoji R.(Nov-  Project I  May)  Project IMay)  Irrigation     Irrigation 3 Scheme at Majenje Improved Lwanyo R. 0.180 (Dec-IMay) 0.040 (June Nov) 3Scheme at MajenjeImproved Lwanyo R.0.180 (Dec-IMay)0.040 (June Nov)  "},{"text":" Most 01 the improved intckes were built in the 1980s onwards :md were geared towards smallhOlder farmers. For EX8mple, Majengo, Mswiswi and Moto Mbaya intakes were built during the Usangu Village IrrigRtio:\"i Project (UVIP) in thE rnid IOS0s. During early 20005. c~r,er irrigation schemes were either devE or improved in the r\\~sc They include Inyala A & B, lyavJaya and Imezu Mkombozi irrigation schemes. Furthermore 2002. two more irrigation projects (Ipatagwa I  "},{"text":"Table 4 . -Ratios of the amount of water abstracted to the water rights I Sno. Scheme Name ~  Mean daily Mean daily Average ratio of abstractions I Sno. Scheme Name ~Mean dailyMean dailyAverage ratio of abstractions   abstractions (mJisJ water right to the water right (%) abstractions (mJisJwater rightto the water right (%)     (m 3 /s)  (m 3 /s) 1. Ipatagwa  0.268 0.609 44.00 1.Ipatagwa0.2680.60944.00 2. Luanda  0.097 0.107 90.24 2.Luanda0.0970.10790.24  Majenje     Majenje 3_. Kongolo  0.100 0.213 47.01 3_.Kongolo0.1000.21347.01  Mswiswi -    Mswiswi- 4. Mkoji  0.051 0.175 29.05 4.Mkoji0.0510.17529.05 ~5. Inyala B - 0.043 0.103 41.46 ~5.Inyala B-0.0430.10341.46 6~ Moto Mbaya _  0.160 0.730 21.90 6~Moto Mbaya _0.1600.73021.90  "},{"text":"Table R  I r h' be ween amoun t I Period of abstraction ! M-~ t f wa er a s rac e lean al y i (Months) Sno Scheme name o --. abstraction I Wet ry (I/S)l I season season May~NQ.v • 1 i 18.58 Abadaa scheme I d area Cropped area (ba) 22.6 Hydro module (lIs/ha) 0.928 I I r h' be ween amoun t I Period of abstraction ! M-~ t f wa er a s rac e lean al y i (Months) Sno Scheme name o --. abstraction I Wet ry (I/S)l I season season May~NQ.v • 1 i 18.58 Abadaa scheme Id area Cropped area (ba) 22.6Hydro module (lIs/ha) 0.928I 2 Kongolo Mswiswi July-Nov 71.80 -45.73 753 2Kongolo MswiswiJuly-Nov71.80-45.73753  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Average daily dry season river flows 1m3/s) in MSC -from daily gauging and spot [ -I -M o n t h River Name Jun July Aug Sep 5no - Oct Nov [ -I -M o n t h River Name Jun July Aug Sep 5no -OctNov 1. Itambo at Itamboleo 0.014 ~'. 0.010 0.009 0.007 0.0061 0.002 1.Itambo at Itamboleo0.014 ~'. 0.0100.0090.0070.00610.002 2. MetaatMapuga 0.107 0.109 0.07\"8 0.088 0.121\\ 0.105'1 2.MetaatMapuga0.1070.1090.07\"80.0880.121\\0.105'1 3. Lunwa at Igurusi 0.891 0.567 0.419 0.315 0.304: 0.266. 3.Lunwa at Igurusi0.8910.5670.4190.3150.304:0.266. 4. Lwanyo at Igurusi 0.253 0.201 0.149 •0.116 0.078 i 0.056 4.Lwanyo at Igurusi0.2530.2010.149•0.1160.078 i0.056 5.        5.  "},{"text":" Mlowo at Idu~da ._.. I 0.239_~ 0.179 i 0.133 1 ..,QJJJ...j___ 0.089 I 0.071 j 14. I Uta at Iyaw~ya_....:. ___--L 0.03_~+-0.033 i-0. 03 4 0.022 I.-~Q.?..!t-0.028 ~ at Wilima_-l--0.650 I-~ Mambi at Kalanzi +-0.5~,. 0.301 ' I 00•~208192I [ 0.2.1.21 _____(U §.~l=. 0.125[ 0.411 i 0.304 0.~07 t--0.197 I 0.268 I , Inyala (Hayuya) Spring ' [ 8. at Inyala 0.027 ' (J.022 1 0.011 I 0.010 i 0.004, [ at Wilima_-l--0.650 I-~ Mambi at Kalanzi +-0.5~,. 0.301 ' I 00•~208192I [ 0.2.1.21 _____(U §.~l=. 0.125[ 0.411 i 0.304 0.~07 t--0.197 I 0.268 I , Inyala (Hayuya) Spring ' [ 8. at Inyala 0.027 ' (J.022 1 0.011 I 0.010 i 0.004, [ 1 '1 0.196 i -0.082 II 0.095 0.08.4 [ 0_.0781 0.066 j 1 _I I 1 -'---\"----+---...., _ 0.643-I 0.522-1 0.451 I 0.43~ 0.420 0.402 Ipatagwa at Great North J Gwiri at MalamBa ~~__ B..qad 9. 10 11. Mwambalizi atitewe J~3~1_0.0951. 0.061l-J)'0:)4 .0.041 __ 0.034 12. Sawa at Itewe I 0.01-5 I 0.006 0:-004 i . 0.004 I O~ 0.007! 13. I 15. ! ~~~~~a  §pnng at I &.038[ 0.026! O.02~+ 0.016 i_ _._.?~~~ 1_~.020j !16.!others ~_.--~-==--==.~~: O.354J-0264-r~-O.21~.+ 0.165 I ; 0.1491 ___ 0.139 i ~__J Total flow (m-r/S)~_ __4.316J___ 2.927 i_?•346 t 1.935~___ 1 .754 !-__.L~22J 1 '1 0.196 i -0.082 II 0.095 0.08.4 [ 0_.0781 0.066 j 1 _I I 1 -'---\"----+---...., _ 0.643-I 0.522-1 0.451 I 0.43~ 0.420 0.402 Ipatagwa at Great North J Gwiri at MalamBa ~~__ B..qad 9. 10 11. Mwambalizi atitewe J~3~1_0.0951. 0.061l-J)'0:)4 .0.041 __ 0.034 12. Sawa at Itewe I 0.01-5 I 0.006 0:-004 i . 0.004 I O~ 0.007! 13. I 15. ! ~~~~~a  §pnng at I &.038[ 0.026! O.02~+ 0.016 i_ _._.?~~~ 1_~.020j !16.!others ~_.--~-==--==.~~: O.354J-0264-r~-O.21~.+ 0.165 I ; 0.1491 ___ 0.139 i ~__J Total flow (m-r/S)~_ __4.316J___ 2.927 i_?•346 t 1.935~___ 1 .754 !-__.L~22J  "},{"text":" 1ntroduction of water allocation schedules among intakes and conduction of training and awareness campaigns on sustainable water use and -conservation could ..e.LSO goa long way in ensuring wise-_use of water. Las~ buenot least, water-rights snoutd be reviewed to confo[rrl to the current actual -irrigated ar~as ana water-requirements. LITERATURE CITED FAO, 1998. Crop Evapotranspiration, Guidelines for computing Crop water ,•equirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paoer 56. FAO, Rome 300 pp. FNPP, 2003. Comprehensive assessment of water resourceS of Mkoji Sub Catchment, its current use and productivity. Soil Water Management Research Group. 115pp.  "}],"sieverID":"37ebacc1-4406-4506-aafe-dac215841496","abstract":"This paper is based on a recent study undertaken in the Mkoji sub catchment (MSC) of the Great Ruaha River in Tanzania to investigate and analyse patterns of water abstraction and use and their implications on the downstream flows of Mkoji River. The study integrated social survey data, hydrologic data, water abstraction and water use data, remote sensing and GIS techniques. The impacts of dry season water diversions and upstream agricultural activities were evaluated in terms of the change of the flow hydrographs of the Mkoji River and its major tributaries. Results of monitOring water abstraction pattern of intakes have shown that there is significant change in water abstraction aryd use patterns as all the canals studied abstract water throughcut the year. provided there is water in the rivers. irrespective of the conditions spelt in their water rights. Although all the schemes studied in MSC were abstracting, on yearly basis, less water than the amQunt spelt in their water rights, there is still over abstraction of water than-neededfor the size of areas and type of crops CUltivated. The overalL consequences are that many small rivers have now cha'!.ged from being perennial to seasonal ones. Furthermore, rainfall trend analysis done in a recent study has shown that the available water resource has not been increasin9. over time. Thus while the available water resource has l1.ot been increasing over the time, water demands and u~es have been and will likely continue to increase in MSC. The study concludes that if the prevailing conditions continue unabated, it is likely that more rivers will be drying up in the upstream areas resultinfJ into wide-ranging social, economic, hydrological, and enviroomental consequences with impacts -extending to downstream areas. Furthermore, water supply and demand in the MSC will bu unbalanced, and risk of water deiicit, and thus more conflicts, will be increased Significantly-To mitigate this predicted water deficit, the study proposes a number of technological and il1.stitutional measures for meeting future water requirements."}

data/part_5/0bf7e0d525be03ddaad6f95a8b540b69.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bf7e0d525be03ddaad6f95a8b540b69","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/80f3993e-f31d-4208-9c6e-cb8d110f85a5/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Efficacy of selected botanical oils against the cassava whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) and their effects on its feeding behaviour","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"gene (De Barro, 2012;Dinsdale et al., 2010). Cassava-colonizing B. tabaci in Africa were categorized, based on COI sequences, into five mitotypes named sub-Saharan Africa 1-(SSA 1-5) with SSA1 further divided into five subgroups (Berry et al., 2004;Legg et al., 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Recent studies, using SNP-genotyping through NextRAD sequencing, reassigned them into the six SNP-based haplogroups (phylogenetic classification based on SNP-genotyping) that are sub-Saharan Africa East and Central Africa (SSA-ECA), sub-Saharan Africa East and Southern Africa (SSA-ESA), sub-Saharan Africa Central Africa (SSA-CA), sub-Saharan Africa West Africa (SSA-WA), sub-Saharan Africa 2 (SSA2) and sub-Saharan Africa 4 (SSA4) (Chen et al., 2019;Wosula et al., 2017)."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Chemical control through application of synthetic insecticides is the most common method used to manage Bemisia tabaci because of their efficacy and convenience (Horowitz et al., 2020). However, their injudicious application has negative impacts on the environment, human health and non-target organisms, especially beneficial insects, including the natural enemies of whiteflies (Horowitz et al., 2020). The greatest challenge to overreliance on synthetic insecticides is the rapid emergence of field-evolved resistance and pest resurgence which threatens the efficacy of existing chemistries (Horowitz et al., 2020). The large-scale use of mostly broadspectrum insecticides has triggered resistance development in B. tabaci to more than 60 active ingredients (Horowitz et al., 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":330,"text":"Crop protection products formulated from plant essential oils (EOs) are attracting attention worldwide since they are considered as an alternative to synthetic insecticides that are harmful to the environment and human health, and as a consequence of new stringent insecticide legislation (Isman, 2015;Menossi et al., 2021;Pavela, 2016). However, their natural origin does not necessarily mean essential oils are safe and their off-target effects still need to be considered. Several plant botanical biopesticides are currently in use worldwide to control insect pests in greenhouse, field production and storage conditions (Khater, 2012). A number of these products have been evaluated for control of B. tabaci and have proved to some extent to be effective (Menossi et al., 2021;Perring et al., 2018). Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) oil contains >300 biologically active compounds, with the major constituents being triterpenes known as limonoids, the most important of which is azadirachtin (Pascoli et al., 2019). Neem oil-based biopesticides with azadirachtin as the active ingredient have been approved by several countries and are the most common new era botanical oil products for control of agricultural crop pests. They are highly effective against soft-bodied insects and mites, and act as an antifeedant, repellent and repugnant agent, which also induces sterility in insects (Chaudhary et al., 2017;Isman, 2015). Essential oils of Piper marginatum Jacq. (Piperaceae) and Mansoa alliaceae (Lam.) showed repellency and oviposition deterrence effects and reduced colonization by B. tabaci MED on cotton plants to levels that were comparable to an anthranilic diamide insecticide Benevia® (da Silva Santana et al., 2022). Effects of essential oils of garden thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), patchouli (Pogostemon cablin [Blanco] Benth.) and lemon-scent gum (Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K. D. Hill & L. A. S. Johnson) were found to cumulatively reduce the survival rate of B. tabaci B/MEAM1 by 27-46%, and reduced egg oviposition by 48-74% compared to controls. In addition, T. vulgaris caused the greatest contact toxicity, while P. cablin had the strongest repellence effect against B. tabaci (Yang et al., 2010)."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"Thyme oil is a combination of monoterpenes, the main compounds of this oil are phenol isomer carvacrol and its nature terpenoid thymol which comprise 20-50% (Ahmad et al., 2014). Patchoulol and α-patchoulene are the major constituents that regulate and control patchouli essential oil quality. The major compounds of this essential oil are patchouli alcohol, α-guaiene, α-bulnesene, β-caryophyllene, α-patchoulene, γ-curcumene and some of the minor compounds are pogostone, limonene, cedrene, viridiflorol, γ-himachalene (Pandey et al., 2021). Thymus pulegioides L. and Artemisia absinthium L. tested on B. tabaci repelled 75-80% and caused adult mortality of 53-84% with increasing concentration (Li et al., 2022). Individual and mixed compounds from cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum L.), Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.)"},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"Stapf.) and Citronella grass (Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt ex Bor) evaluated for efficacy against B. tabaci MED showed these have repellency and toxicity effects (Barkman, 2013). These selected references show that essential oils have been tested on B. tabaci for a diverse set of crop systems and geographies, although this has not been done for B. tabaci on cassava in Africa. Incorporation of botanical biopesticides into IPM programmes could greatly reduce the quantities of synthetic chemicals applied, and possibly delay resistance development in pests (Khater, 2012)."},{"index":7,"size":202,"text":"African farmers are known to use botanical insecticides, but currently they only have access to crude preparations (Isman et al., 2007). The greatest issue with utilizing crude preparations as biopesticides within the field is their chemical instability in the presence of air, light, moisture and high temperature, which causes rapid evaporation and degradation of active components. The incorporation of EOs into controlled release nanoformulations may improve their utility and greatly enhance their effectiveness in comparison with bulk crude formulations. This study explores the activity of essential oils for efficacy against the cassava whitefly. If essential oil formulations are proven to be effective for whitefly control, the scaling of their application could have important beneficial impacts on food security and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Heathfield, UK). The chitosan-cholesteryl suspension was mixed with oil/compound at 10 or 15 mg/mL. The mixture was sonicated at 15 microns until opaque. The oils formulated in chitosan-cholesteryl included citronella (Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), garlic (Allium sativum L.) lemon grass, patchouli and peppermint (Mentha Χ piperita L.). The oils formulated in ethanol were geranium (Pelargonium spp.), neem, patchouli and thyme. Two compounds-linalyl acetate and fenchone-which are found in some essential oils were also tested."}]},{"head":"| MATERIAL S AND ME THODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Source and formulation of essential oils","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Experimental set-up for evaluation of botanical oils efficacy","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The oils and compounds were first evaluated in a preliminary screening study whose data are not presented in this study. The screening involved testing oils using the no choice leaf assays under laboratory conditions. The data presented in this study are for oils that were selected for further evaluation. These were patchouli and fennel oils, and linalyl acetate and fenchone compounds formulated in chitosan-cholesteryl in the first experiment. These were tested in a no choice assay leaf assay. In the subsequent experiments, patchouli, which was the most lethal in the first experiment, was selected for formulation in ethanol and tested alongside neem and thyme (neem was selected because of its availability locally and thyme as it had lethal effects comparable to patchouli). These three selected oils were tested in no-choice and choice leaf assays under laboratory conditions, and egg and nymph assays under screenhouse conditions."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Choice assays using plants were also carried out under screenhouse conditions. Patchouli is the only oil that was formulated in chitosancholesteryl and also in ethanol, but these were tested separately, so there is no direct comparison."}]},{"head":"| Whitefly colonies","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The B. tabaci haplogroup used in this study was sub-Saharan Africa-East and Southern Africa (SSA-ESA-mitotype SSA1-SG3) (Wosula et al., 2020). The whiteflies were collected from cassava plants at Chambezi in Bagamoyo District, Coast Region, Tanzania in May 2019 and introduced to potted cassava plants placed in a 50 × 50 × 100 cm netted cages. The cassava plants were grown in 7.5 L pots containing a mixture of soil and farmyard manure at a 4:1 ratio and the whitefly colonies were reared on the cassava plants in the screenhouse at 25-30°C and 65-75% RH. Whiteflies were transferred to fresh 1-month-old cassava plants at intervals of 4-6 weeks to maintain the colonies."}]},{"head":"| Whitefly Bemisia tabaci adult no-choice leaf assay","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":212,"text":"Experiment 1: This involved testing two oils (fennel and patchouli) and two compounds (fenchone and linalyl acetate) formulated in chitosan-cholesteryl. The control for this experiment was chitosancholesteryl. Cassava leaves were obtained from 4-week-old plants that were established in the screenhouse. The second fully opened leaves from the top were harvested and immediately petioles inserted in a vial containing distilled water. Leaves were allowed to sit on the laboratory bench for 20 min to fully hydrate. The oils were uniformly mist sprayed (four gentle sprayer presses within 15 cm between the leaf and the nozzle) on individual leaves on both adaxial and abaxial surfaces using 3 mL fingertip sprayers and allowed to dry under a fume hood for 10 min. Individual leaflets were cut from whole leaves and immediately inserted in 2 mL Eppendorf tubes with distilled water, and the tubes were sealed with Parafilm. Twenty whiteflies that had emerged within a period of 4 days from 6-to 8-week-old colonies were aspirated into glass vials (7.5 cm × 2.5 cm diameter-Watkins and Doncaster, UK). The tubes containing the sprayed leaflets were placed into the glass vials with whiteflies and sealed with Parafilm perforated with 10-20 pinholes (Figure 1). The vials were replicated five times per treatment and the experiment was conducted three times."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Whiteflies that were alive on the leaf surface were recorded at intervals of 3, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h. The total eggs laid on each leaf were recorded once at 96 h."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Experiment 2: This involved testing three oils (neem, patchouli and thyme) that were formulated at 1.5% in 4% ethanol with 0.05% Tween 20. The control for this experiment was 4% ethanol. The leaflets were prepared, and whiteflies were collected as stated in the first experiment. The glass vials containing the leaflets and whiteflies (20 per vial) were held in round fit holes in transparent plastic containers (7.5 cm × 10 cm diameter) with lids placed upside down."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"The whiteflies were confined by covering the plastic containers with perforated bread bags (25 cm × 20 cm) and securing them with rubber bands (Figure 2). There were five vial replicates for each oil treatment with ethanol as the control. The experiment was conducted three times. Whiteflies that were alive on the leaf surface were recorded at intervals of 3, 24, 48 and 72 h. The total eggs laid on each leaf were recorded once at 72 h. "}]},{"head":"| Whitefly Bemisia tabaci adult choice leaf assay","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Leaf choice assays were run for three oils (neem, patchouli and thyme) formulated at 1.5% in 4% ethanol with 0.05% Tween 20. The leaflets were prepared, and whiteflies collected as described for the first experiment. Each oil treatment had a set of two leaflets held in individual vials with one leaflet sprayed with oil and the second with ethanol control. Paired control leaves were included as a control. The paired vials containing the leaflets and whiteflies (30 per vial) were held in round fitting holes in transparent plastic containers sealed with bread bags. There were five vial replicates with a set each for the oil and ethanol control and the experiment was conducted three times. Counts were recorded for live whiteflies settling on either oil or the ethanol control for 3, 24, 48 and 72 h, and eggs at 72 h."}]},{"head":"| Whitefly Bemisia tabaci egg assay","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Three selected oils (neem, patchouli and thyme) were tested in this experiment. Three-week-old cassava plants of variety Albert were defoliated leaving only the second leaf from the top 24 h before setting up the experiment. A total of five plants (replicates) were prepared per essential oil treatment and ethanol control. Fifty adult whiteflies emerging within 4 days were collected and confined to the leaf using bread bags for 48 h to lay eggs. The number of eggs laid per plant was counted with the aid of a light microscope. The oils were mist sprayed uniformly on the egg-bearing leaves. The numbers of total instars after 10 days and emerged adults after 24 days post-spraying were recorded in proportion to total eggs. The experiment was conducted three times to give a total of 15 replicates per treatment."}]},{"head":"| Whitefly Bemisia tabaci nymph assay","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The oils and plants were prepared as stated in the 'Whitefly Bemisia tabaci egg assay'. Fifty adult whiteflies emerged within 4 days were confined to the leaf using bread bags for 48 h to lay eggs. The whiteflies and bread bags were removed, and plants were confined in cages in the screenhouse for 10-14 days or until the third-and fourthinstar stages had developed. The number of nymphs per plant was counted with the aid of a stereo microscope under laboratory conditions. The oils were mist sprayed uniformly on the instar-bearing leaves. The numbers of emerged fourth-stage nymphs and adults in proportion to total nymphs were recorded at 10 and 14 days."}]},{"head":"| Whitefly Bemisia tabaci no-choice plant assay","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"The oils were formulated at 1.5% by emulsifying in 1 mL of 100% ethanol and diluted with distilled water to 4% ethanol with 0.05% Tween 20. The control for this experiment was 4% ethanol. Threeweek-old cassava plants of variety Albert were defoliated leaving only the second leaf from the top 24 h before setting up the experiment. The leaves were mist sprayed on both sides using a 100-mL fingertip sprayer. Thirty adult whiteflies that emerged within 4 days were collected and confined to the leaf using bread bags. The total number of whiteflies settling on leaves was recorded at 3 h and early in the morning for five consecutive days. Counts were made of the total number of eggs after 5 days, the number of nymphs on leaves after 10 days and the number of emerged adults at 14 days. There were five replicates per treatment including an ethanol control and the experiment was conducted three times."}]},{"head":"| Probing behaviour of Bemisia tabaci on essential oil-treated cassava plants","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"The probing and feeding behaviours of cassava whitefly on plants treated with essential oils were monitored using the electrical penetration graph (EPG) technique. EPG is a powerful tool used to study the feeding behaviour of piercing-sucking insects including Bemisia species. EPG creates an electric circuit through the insect and the plant and measures the fluctuations in voltage in real time while the insect is feeding, producing the waveforms that describe the feeding behaviour in detail (Walker, 2000). The EPG technique has been widely used on B. tabaci in studies focusing on virus transmission, host resistance factors and insecticide effects (Civolani et al., 2014;Jiang et al., 2001;Liu et al., 2012;Milenovic et al., 2019;Prado Maluta et al., 2017;Rodríguez-López et al., 2011). platinum wire (Sigmund Cohn Corp) was attached to the top of the head of the test insect using electrically conductive silver glue (EPG Systems). The other end of the platinum wire was attached to a 2.5cm copper wire, which was then soldered to a brass nail inserted into the EPG probe. The platinum wire is thin and flexible which allows the attached insect to move around freely (Milenovic et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"One insect was placed on one plant, and plants were used only once. Insects were placed on the abaxial surface of second leaf from the top of the plant. To access the lower surface, leaves were inverted, and their bases were taped to a solid surface with electrical tape. The abaxial surface was used since it is usually the preferred feeding site for whiteflies. Eight plants were recorded at one time for 12 h. Four of the eight were always oil treated, and the other four were water-treated controls. A total of 26 plants were recorded per treatment for neem and patchouli out of which 20 had good waveforms for each, while for thyme, 20 plants were recorded per treatment out of which 15 had good waveforms. The EPG waveforms selected for analysis included the following distinct waveforms (Milenovic et al., 2019): "}]},{"head":"| RE SULTS","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Efficacy of botanical oils against whiteflies","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Adult no-choice assay","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Experiment 1: The percentage of whiteflies settling on treated leaves after 3 h was significantly lower (p = 0.0002) with the patchouli treatment (14%) compared to the control chitosan treatment (51%), and fenchone, fennel and linalyl acetate (42-51%). At 24 h, the proportion of whiteflies settling on treated leaves was significantly lower (p = 0.0103) with the patchouli treatment (50%) compared to control (82%), fennel (81%) and linalyl acetate (83%). The percentage totals of live whiteflies at 48 h (p = 0.0028), 72 h (p = 0.0049) and 96 h (p = 0.0106) were all significantly lower on patchouli-treated leaves (54-74%) compared to the control (91-100%). The other three oils were not significantly different from the control. The average number of eggs after 96 h was also significantly lower (p = 0.0107) on patchouli-treated leaves (100) compared to the control (199) (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Experiment 2:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The number of whiteflies settling on treated leaves at 3, 24, 48 and 72 h was not significantly different from the control (p > 0.05). The number of eggs after 72 h was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) on patchouli (10) and neem ( 22) treated leaves compared to the control (36). The number of eggs on thyme-treated leaves was not significantly different compared to the control (Table 2)."}]},{"head":"TA B L E 1 Efficacy of nanoformulated essential oils and compounds against cassava","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"| Adult choice assay","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The two paired control treatments were not significantly different its paired control (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"| Egg assay","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"After treating eggs, nymphs still emerged but differences in survival were observed. The percentage of nymphs that emerged 10 days after spraying the eggs was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) with neem and patchouli treatments compared to the control, while thyme was not different from the control. Nymphs were reduced by 20% compared to the control with the most effective oil being the neem treatment (Figure 3a). The percentage of adults that emerged after 24 days post spraying was significantly lower (p < 0.0001) with all three oils with patchouli having the least compared to the control."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"The most effective oil, patchouli, reduced emerged adults by 37% followed by neem (30%) compared to the control (Figure 3a)."}]},{"head":"| Nymph assay","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The percentage of sprayed nymphs that reached the fourth stage was significantly reduced (p = 0.0002) by 38% for patchouli and 50% for neem compared to the control. The percentage of adults that emerged from the fourth-stage instars was significantly lower (p < 0.0001), being reduced by 34% for patchouli and 39% for neem compared to the control (Figure 3b)."}]},{"head":"| No-choice plant assay","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The number of whiteflies that settled on plants treated with neem and patchouli was significantly fewer (33-68%) (p < 0.0001) compared to the control at 3, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h. Whiteflies settling on thyme-treated plants were significantly fewer (41-54%) (p < 0.0001) compared to the control at 72, 96 and 120 h (Figure 4a)."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The number of immature stages that emerged was significantly fewer (p < 0.05) on neem-treated plants compared to the control. Fifty-six per cent less eggs were laid, and there were 70% fewer nymphs and 80% less adults in neem. Patchouli had significantly fewer adults emerging (61% less) compared to the control (Figure 4b)."}]},{"head":"| Probing behaviour of Bemisia tabaci on essential oil-treated cassava plants","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Waveform events associated with host suitability and virus trans-  4). Whiteflies on plants that were treated with patchouli had significantly shorter (p = 0.05) total phloem ingestion (E2) duration, mean E2 events, potential drop (pd) duration and mean pd events compared to the control plants. The other parameter associated with host suitability is duration to first probe. Although there were no statistically significant differences in duration to first probe when comparing the three oils to their controls, on patchouli TA B L E 2 Efficacy of three essential oils against cassava Bemisia tabaci whitefliesno choice assay (Means ± SE).* (31.6 ± 10.4a), the duration was 2.7 times longer compared to the control (11.3 ± 3.1a), while on neem (47.0 ± 17.6a), the duration was 2.4 times longer compared to the control (19.5 ± 5.5a)."}]},{"head":"| DISCUSS ION","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The findings from this study show that three oils (neem, patchouli, thyme) were effective in controlling the cassava B. tabaci whitefly through reduced adult settling on leaves, eggs laid and fewer emerged nymphs and adults compared to controls. Neem oil stood out as an oviposition deterrent since in some experiments, there was no difference in whitefly settling on treated versus control leaves, but eggs laid were significantly fewer on treated leaves compared to the control. The essential oil fennel as well as the two compounds linalyl acetate and fenchone were found to have no significant effect on cassava B. tabaci."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Several studies have reported the efficacy of essential oils from various plant parts against B. tabaci and other herbivores, and in most cases, they have had a significant effect with varying activities such as toxicity, irritability or repellence and as a deterrent to egg laying (Aslan et al., 2004;Baldin et al., 2013;Chae et al., 2014;da Silva Santana et al., 2022;Drabo et al., 2017;Kim et al., 2011;Pereira et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2010;Yarahmadi et al., 2013).   reduced by 38-46%, and egg reduction of 59-75% within 24 h."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"Patchouli was reported to have a pronounced repellent effect, while thyme was more effective with contact toxicity (Yang et al., 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"The repellent effect of patchouli was also observed in our study with fewer settling whiteflies and eggs laid. Patchouli was the most effective treatment in the choice assay and reduced whitefly settlement by an average of 51%, and eggs were 89% fewer compared to controls."},{"index":5,"size":185,"text":"Neem oil had a weaker settling deterrent effect compared to patchouli and thyme, but treatment with it resulted in 54-60% fewer eggs compared to the other oils which is an indication of its effectiveness in preventing oviposition. Neem oil has recently been reported to have no repellent effect on the whitefly haplogroup SSA-ESA used in this study (Mrisho et al., 2021). The significant reduction in eggs despite no difference in numbers of whiteflies settling on neem treated and control leaves could be attributed to the active ingredient azadirachtin having an antibiotic effect deterring oviposition by inhibiting oogenesis and synthesis of ovarian ecdysteroid (Chaudhary et al., 2017) or to the lipidic nature of the essential oil that may interfere with the action of the glue-like substance that attaches egg pedicels on the leaf surface (Byrne & Bellows Jr, 1991;Pereira et al., 2018). Azadirachtin is not volatile and therefore would not be expected to be repellent. The significant reduction in hatched eggs and nymphs that emerged as adults on neem-treated plants compared to the control could be attributed to disruption of moulting and reduced growth and development."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"Azadirachtin is known to inhibit feeding, disrupt moulting, reduce growth and development and cause high mortality in immature stages (Campos et al., 2016;Carvalho et al., 2012;Kumar & Poehling, 2007)."},{"index":7,"size":176,"text":"Fewer adult female adults of the jasmine whitefly (Aleuroclava jasmini Takahashi) were reported to alight on neem oil-treated paper mulberry (Brousson etiapapyrifera L.) in comparison to the control (Khederi et al., 2019). In addition, female adult jasmine whiteflies exposed to neem oil had their oviposition levels significantly reduced by up to 80% compared to the control (Khederi et al., 2019). Neem extracts and neem-based biopesticides have been reported to cause significant mortality in B. tabaci and have been widely utilized to manage this pest (Kumar et al., 2019;Lynn et al., 2010;Pinheiro et al., 2009;Younas et al., 2021). Neem is a broad-spectrum contact biopesticide that has been used to control pests in various crops. Neem is one of the least toxic biopesticides to humans and is less harmful to non-target organisms compared to other botanical biopesticides. Neem is also compatible with other biological control agents such as entomopathogens (Campos et al., 2016). Pests are also less likely to evolve resistance to neem-based biopesticides which can contain more than 200 allelochemicals (Chaudhary et al., 2017;Forim et al., 2013)."},{"index":8,"size":107,"text":"A study has shown that B. tabaci MEAM1 is more susceptible than B. tabaci MED to thyme, cinnamon bark and clove bud oils (Kim et al., 2011). This trend is comparable to what has been observed for insecticides where B. tabaci cryptic species are reported to vary in susceptibility, with some such as MED having a very high potential to develop resistance to numerous insecticides (Horowitz et al., 2020). However, other essential oils such as vetiver, catnip, summer savoury, lemon balm, lemongrass, basil and black sesame were reported to be effective across B. tabaci cryptic species tested (Chae et al., 2014;Drabo et al., 2017;Kim et al., 2011)."},{"index":9,"size":85,"text":"Botanical biopesticides should preferably be developed from plant extracts containing a mixture of active compounds and not based on individual dominant components to minimize the risk of pest resistance development. A study carried out on aphids to test the efficacy of azadirachtin or refined neem seed extract showed that after 40 generations, the population exposed to the pure component developed resistance, while that on whole neem extract did not (Feng & Isman, 1995). The different components can have a synergistic action (Tak & Isman, 2017)."},{"index":10,"size":132,"text":"Botanical biopesticides suffer from low persistence and effectiveness under field conditions due to rapid degradation and volatility when exposed to sunlight. Nanoformulation technology offers an opportunity to enhance slow release characteristics, improve the stability of active ingredients, use reduced doses and limit degradation loss of these products under field conditions (Campos et al., 2016;Chaudhary et al., 2017;de Oliveira et al., 2014). It can also reduce plant toxicity and harm to nontarget organisms (Campolo et al., 2017;Campos et al., 2019). In this study, the results for nanoformulated and ethanol dissolved patchouli were comparable despite the fact that these were tested in separate experiments. This could be attributed to the short duration of data collection and lack of exposure to weather elements or to differences in the percentage of oil in the two formulations."},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"Several studies have tested the efficacy of nanoformulated essential oils compared to natural oils against B. tabaci and other pests."},{"index":12,"size":116,"text":"There are instances where natural oils performed better compared to nanoformulated oils (Carvalho et al., 2012;Pascoli et al., 2020) and where there were no significant differences in performance (Christofoli et al., 2015;Pereira et al., 2018;Peres et al., 2020) or inconsistences with the natural oil outperforming the nanoformulated and vice versa (Campos et al., 2016). The lack of consistent differences between nanoformulated and natural products could be attributed to testing under laboratory conditions that do not cause rapid oil degradation due to high temperatures, wind and UV radiation. The benefits of nanoformulation may therefore be better assessed by testing under natural field conditions where high temperatures and UV radiation degrade and lower the efficacy of natural oils."},{"index":13,"size":68,"text":"Results from the experiments to examine the probing behaviour of cassava whitefly on plants sprayed with patchouli and neem suggest that these oils deter/repel this pest. The longer time taken to first probe, shorter phloem ingestion (E2), shorter potential drop (pd) duration in patchouli and neem, longer non-probing duration in neem and fewer E2 events in patchouli indicate that these essential oils interfered with whitefly probing through deterrence."},{"index":14,"size":62,"text":"Other studies testing host plants and the effect of insecticides show that reduced E2 durations, increased np duration and delay in initiating the first probe signal unsuitability of the plants for whitefly feeding (Civolani et al., 2014;Garzo et al., 2020;Maluta et al., 2020;Milenovic et al., 2019). Neem and patchouli treatments also gave rise to reduced pd durations in comparison to control plants."},{"index":15,"size":46,"text":"Potential drops are associated with the ability to transmit viruses so the shorter they are the less likely whiteflies are able to acquire and inoculate viruses (Garzo et al., 2020;Maluta et al., 2020). These findings show that these essential oils are likely to reduce virus transmission."}]},{"head":"| CON CLUS ION","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"This study demonstrates that three botanical oils (patchouli, thyme and neem) could be effectively developed and incorporated into IPM packages for the management of cassava whiteflies. Neem could be particularly suitable since neem plants are commonly found growing in sub-Saharan Africa, derived products can easily be produced on a large scale and the major active compound azadirachtin is abundant hence allowing for low production costs compared to patchouli and thyme (Forim et al., 2013). Synthetic pesticides can harm human health, non-target organisms and the environment, and induce resistance in target pests, meaning that it is unsustainable to manage pests solely through the application of synthetic insecticides (Carvalho, 2017;Struelens & Silvie, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Botanical essential oils are among the control strategies considered for insect pest management as an alternative to synthetic pesticides (Chaudhary et al., 2017), and they are already being effectively delivered as commercial components of IPM programmes in some parts of the world (Anonymous, 2023). The potential of nanoformulation technology in improving efficacy of botanical oils against cassava whitefly should be tested under field conditions."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The increasing commercialisation of cassava production systems in the developing world means that there are important new opportunities for the development of botanical essential oils as key components of IPM systems for the management of cassava whiteflies and whitefly-transmitted viruses."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Steam-distilled essential oils were sourced from Naissance, United Kingdom except for neem (cold pressed) which was from Hemani, Florida, United States. The oils were formulated in either in chitosancholesteryl (1 mg/mL) by sonication (University of Keele, UK) or 1.5% in 4% ethanol with 0.05% Tween 20 (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture -IITA). A suspension of 1 mg/mL chitosancholesteryl in distilled was prepared and solubilized using the sonicator set at 15 microns until clear (Soniprep 150plus sonicator-MSE, | 475 AMOUR et al. "},{"text":"F 1 Glass vial with cassava leaves inserted in Eppendorf tubes. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] "},{"text":" The experiment involved testing three oils (neem, patchouli and thyme) formulated in 4% ethanol with 0.05% Tween20. Each oil treatment had a set of eight plants with four plants sprayed with oil and the other four plants with water control. The oils were uniformly mist sprayed on individual leaves on abaxial surfaces using 3 mL fingertip sprayers and allowed to dry. EPG experiments were carried out using the Giga-8d DC-EPG device, which has a 1 Giga-ohm input resistance and can record up to eight insects at once (EPG Systems). A 1-cm long, 2.5 μm thickF I G U R E 2 Plastic container and bread bag set-up. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] "},{"text":" 1. C-the intercellular apoplastic stylet pathway where the insects show a cyclic activity of mechanical stylet penetration and secretion of saliva 2. Pd-potential drops resulting from intracellular stylet puncture occurring during the stylet pathway 3. E1-salivation into phloem sieve elements at the beginning of the phloem phase 4. E2-passive phloem sap uptake from the sieve element 5. G-active intake of xylem sap 6. Np-non-probing, where insect stylets are withdrawn from the leaf 2.4 | Data analysis Percent whiteflies alive, mortality and number of eggs were subjected to analysis of variance using PROC GLIMMIX (SAS version 9.4; SAS Institute). The essential oil treatment effects were considered significant at p = 0.05. The LSMEANS statement was used to obtain least squares means and the Tukey-Kramer test at p = 0.05 was used for pairwise comparison of all treatment means. The Dunnett test was used for comparing treatments with the control in choice experiments. The fixed effect was essential oils, while random effects were set and replication. Treatment means and standard errors were obtained using the PROC MEANS statement in SAS. Raw EPG data were recorded by EPG Systems Stylet+d and manually annotated using EPG Systems Stylet+a software v01.30. The annotated files were imported into the EPG_analysisworksheet_v4.4.3.xls, and data subjected to analysis of variance using PROC GLIMMIX (SAS version 9.4; SAS Institute). The essential oil treatment effects were considered significant at p = 0.05. The LSMEANS statement was used to obtain least squares means and the Dunnett test was used for comparison of treatments to controls. Treatment means and standard errors were obtained using the PROC MEANS statement in SAS. "},{"text":"(p > 0 . 05) in the proportion of whiteflies settling on leaves at various hour intervals and eggs at 72 h. The patchouli treatment had significantly fewer whiteflies settling on leaves at 3 h (p = 0.0001), 24 h (p < 0.0001), 48 h (p = 0.0018) and 72 h (p = 0.0013), and fewer eggs at 72 h (p < 0.0001) compared to its paired control. The thyme treatment had significantly fewer whiteflies settling on leaves at 24 h (p = 0.0022), 48 h (p = 0.0019) and 72 h (p = 0.0013), and fewer eggs at 72 h (p = 0.0038) compared to its paired control. The neem treatment had significantly fewer whiteflies settling on leaves only at 72 h (p = 0.0003), and fewer eggs at 72 h (p < 0.0001) compared to "},{"text":" mission were selected for analysis. Whiteflies on plants treated with neem had a significantly longer (p < 0.05) non-probing (np) total duration (1.9 times), and np mean duration per event (2.6 times) compared to the control plants. The total potential drop (pd) duration for neem oil was significantly longer (p < 0.05) in the control (two times) compared to the neem-treated plants. The total duration of phloem ingestion (E2), though not significant, was 1.4 times longer in the control compared to neem-treated plants. The other events including xylem ingestion (G), stylet pathway (C) and phloem salivation (E1) did not differ significantly in neem-treated plants compared to controls (Table "},{"text":" Findings from this study demonstrate that some of the tested essential oils are effective against B. tabaci whiteflies either through repellence, oviposition deterrence or biocidal action with patchouli and neem oils being the most promising. Testing the performance of essential oils on different cryptic species of B. tabaci is critical. In this study, we tested against the cassava B. tabaci SSA-ESA (mitotype SSA1-SG3). Patchouli and thyme have been reported to be effective against all stages of B. tabaci mitotype MEAM1 with whitefly survival "},{"text":"F Effect of three essential oils on cassava Bemisia tabaci nymph and adult emergence from sprayed eggs (a) and nymph and adult emergence from sprayed second-and third-stage nymphs (b). Means with the same letter for treatments within each whitefly stage are not significantly different (p = 0.05, Tukey-Kramer test). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] "},{"text":"F Effect of three essential oils on cassava Bemisia tabaci adults settling on plants (a) and eggs laid, nymph and adult emergence (b). Means with the same letter for treatments (a, b) and within each whitefly stage (b) are not significantly different (p = 0.05, Tukey-Kramer test). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] "},{"text":" Bemisia tabaci whiteflies-no choice assay (Means ± SE).*  % whiteflies settling on leaf     % whiteflies settling on leaf Treatment 3 h 24 h 48 h 72 h 96 h Eggs 96 h Treatment3 h24 h48 h72 h96 hEggs 96 h Control 51 ± 7.4b 82 ± 7.0b 100 ± 0b 95 ± 3.3b 91 ± 5.4b 199 ± 30.7b Control51 ± 7.4b82 ± 7.0b100 ± 0b95 ± 3.3b91 ± 5.4b199 ± 30.7b Fenchone 42 ± 6.5b 76 ± 7.8ab 90 ± 4.1ab 89 ± 4.0b 86 ± 3.8b 149 ± 30.2ab Fenchone42 ± 6.5b76 ± 7.8ab90 ± 4.1ab89 ± 4.0b86 ± 3.8b149 ± 30.2ab Fennel 51 ± 5.8b 81 ± 5.6b 89 ± 4.6ab 89 ± 4.6b 80 ± 5.0ab 151 ± 30.0ab Fennel51 ± 5.8b81 ± 5.6b89 ± 4.6ab89 ± 4.6b80 ± 5.0ab151 ± 30.0ab Linalyl acetate 49 ± 6.7b 83 ± 8.7b 95 ± 2.6b 94 ± 2.5b 85 ± 5.8ab 180 ± 34.4b Linalyl acetate49 ± 6.7b83 ± 8.7b95 ± 2.6b94 ± 2.5b85 ± 5.8ab180 ± 34.4b Patchouli 14 ± 3.8a 50 ± 10.9a 74 ± 7.7a 61 ± 11.8a 54 ± 12.5a 100 ± 35.8a Patchouli14 ± 3.8a50 ± 10.9a74 ± 7.7a61 ± 11.8a54 ± 12.5a100 ± 35.8a p value 0.0002 0.0103 0.0028 0.0049 0.0106 0.0107 p value0.00020.01030.00280.00490.01060.0107  "},{"text":" Efficacy of three essential oils against cassava Bemisia tabaci whiteflies-choice assay (Means ± SE).*   % whiteflies settling on paired leaves    % whiteflies settling on paired leaves Oil Treatment 3 h 24 h 48 h 72 h Eggs 72 h OilTreatment3 h24 h48 h72 hEggs 72 h Control Control-1 35.2 ± 2.8a 8.7 ± 1.8a 32.2 ± 3.4a 24.0 ± 2.9a 87.2 ± 14.2a ControlControl-135.2 ± 2.8a8.7 ± 1.8a32.2 ± 3.4a24.0 ± 2.9a87.2 ± 14.2a  Control-2 40.2 ± 2.8a 12.4 ± 1.9a 32.9 ± 2.5a 24.0 ± 2.5a 102.6 ± 15.1a Control-240.2 ± 2.8a12.4 ± 1.9a32.9 ± 2.5a24.0 ± 2.5a102.6 ± 15.1a  p value 0.2200 0.1923 0.8662 0.9987 0.4667 p value0.22000.19230.86620.99870.4667 Neem Neem 6 ± 1.2a 30 ± 3.9a 24 ± 2.9a 11 ± 2.1b 27 ± 6.2a NeemNeem6 ± 1.2a30 ± 3.9a24 ± 2.9a11 ± 2.1b27 ± 6.2a  Control 9 ± 1.9a 36 ± 4.4a 35 ± 4.8a 33 ± 5.0a 104 ± 13.9b Control9 ± 1.9a36 ± 4.4a35 ± 4.8a33 ± 5.0a104 ± 13.9b  p value 0.2230 0.3384 0.0675 0.0003 <0.0001 p value0.22300.33840.06750.0003<0.0001 Patchouli Patchouli 2 ± 0.6a 8 ± 2.2a 8 ± 2.3a 8 ± 2.0a 12 ± 4.6a PatchouliPatchouli2 ± 0.6a8 ± 2.2a8 ± 2.3a8 ± 2.0a12 ± 4.6a  Control 13 ± 3.5b 49 ± 5.7b 40 ± 6.3b 28 ± 4.4b 111 ± 21.6b Control13 ± 3.5b49 ± 5.7b40 ± 6.3b28 ± 4.4b111 ± 21.6b  p value 0.0001 <0.0001 0.0018 0.0013 <0.0001 p value0.0001<0.00010.00180.0013<0.0001 Thyme Thyme 6 ± 1.3a 17 ± 3.4a 16 ± 3.1a 10 ± 2.2a 25 ± 9.0a ThymeThyme6 ± 1.3a17 ± 3.4a16 ± 3.1a10 ± 2.2a25 ± 9.0a  Control 12 ± 3.0b 40 ± 4.6b 38 ± 4.2b 30 ± 4.4b 120 ± 19.2b Control12 ± 3.0b40 ± 4.6b38 ± 4.2b30 ± 4.4b120 ± 19.2b  p value 0.0990 0.0022 0.0019 0.0013 0.0038 p value0.09900.00220.00190.00130.0038  "},{"text":" Mean total duration, mean individual and mean number of selected waveform events (Means ± SE).* Means with the same letter within columns for treatment versus control for each essential oil are not significantly different (p = 0.05, Dunnett's test). C-Stylet pathway and sheath salivation. Treatment G E1 E2 C np pd TreatmentGE1E2Cnppd Mean total duration of waveform events in minutes     Mean total duration of waveform events in minutes Neem-treated 84.7 ± 22.8a 3.2 ± 0.8a 162.9 ± 24.1a 231.0 ± 24.0a 259.1 ± 35.1b 3.5 ± 0.8a Neem-treated84.7 ± 22.8a3.2 ± 0.8a162.9 ± 24.1a231.0 ± 24.0a259.1 ± 35.1b3.5 ± 0.8a Neem-control 65.3 ± 18.2a 2.6 ± 1.0a 224.6 ± 29.2a 285.8 ± 20.5a 135.7 ± 19.5a 7.0 ± 1.0b Neem-control65.3 ± 18.2a2.6 ± 1.0a224.6 ± 29.2a285.8 ± 20.5a135.7 ± 19.5a7.0 ± 1.0b p value 0.6714 0.4454 0.1583 0.0563 0.0045 0.0007 p value0.67140.44540.15830.05630.00450.0007 Patchouli-treated 179.8 ± 28.1a 3.5 ± 1.5a 119.8 ± 22.2a 235.7 ± 22.5a 169.9 ± 29.5a 2.4 ± 0.6a Patchouli-treated179.8 ± 28.1a3.5 ± 1.5a119.8 ± 22.2a235.7 ± 22.5a169.9 ± 29.5a2.4 ± 0.6a Patchouli-control 106.5 ± 18.3a 2.8 ± 1.7a 201.5 ± 26.0b 270.3 ± 17.4a 134.5 ± 11.6a 4.5 ± 0.6b Patchouli-control106.5 ± 18.3a2.8 ± 1.7a201.5 ± 26.0b270.3 ± 17.4a134.5 ± 11.6a4.5 ± 0.6b p value 0.5251 0.1446 0.0375 0.1811 0.322 0.0384 p value0.52510.14460.03750.18110.3220.0384 Thyme-treated 103.8 ± 24.3a 8.3 ± 2.0a 260.1 ± 46.3a 258.2 ± 36.1a 120.1 ± 24.7a 3.6 ± 0.8a Thyme-treated103.8 ± 24.3a8.3 ± 2.0a260.1 ± 46.3a258.2 ± 36.1a120.1 ± 24.7a3.6 ± 0.8a Thyme-control 49.6 ± 11.2a 7.9 ± 4.3a 311.8 ± 53.8a 278.5 ± 38.2a 77.7 ± 12.6a 6.4 ± 1.1a Thyme-control49.6 ± 11.2a7.9 ± 4.3a311.8 ± 53.8a278.5 ± 38.2a77.7 ± 12.6a6.4 ± 1.1a p value 0.3535 0.2357 0.7181 0.9403 0.3509 0.0739 p value0.35350.23570.71810.94030.35090.0739 Mean duration of individual waveform events in minutes (pd in seconds)     Mean duration of individual waveform events in minutes (pd in seconds) Neem-treated 40.5 ± 9.1a 1.5 ± 0.4a 87.1 ± 18.8a 14.5 ± 3.4a 16.5 ± 3.2b 7.5 ± 0.7a Neem-treated40.5 ± 9.1a1.5 ± 0.4a87.1 ± 18.8a14.5 ± 3.4a16.5 ± 3.2b7.5 ± 0.7a Neem-control 26.1 ± 4.5a 0.8 ± 0.3a 86.6 ± 13.5a 10.8 ± 0.8a 6.2 ± 0.8a 6.8 ± 0.5b Neem-control26.1 ± 4.5a0.8 ± 0.3a86.6 ± 13.5a10.8 ± 0.8a6.2 ± 0.8a6.8 ± 0.5b p value 0.3006 0.0707 0.7214 0.8923 0.0037 0.4189 p value0.30060.07070.72140.89230.00370.4189 Patchouli-treated 72.2 ± 16.2a 9.6 ± 8.9a 76.8 ± 12.2a 22.5 ± 4.8a 16.3 ± 3.6a 8.1 ± 1.3a Patchouli-treated72.2 ± 16.2a9.6 ± 8.9a76.8 ± 12.2a22.5 ± 4.8a16.3 ± 3.6a8.1 ± 1.3a Patchouli-control 36.5 1 ± 3.8a 0.7 ± 0.1a 101.1 ± 18.8a 14.5 ± 2.4a 8.2 ± 1.1a 6.0 ± 0.2a Patchouli-control36.5 1 ± 3.8a0.7 ± 0.1a101.1 ± 18.8a14.5 ± 2.4a8.2 ± 1.1a6.0 ± 0.2a p value 0.0760 0.7884 0.3233 0.2207 0.4168 0.4454 p value0.07600.78840.32330.22070.41680.4454 Thyme-treated 49.1 ± 11.4a 1.1 ± 0.2a 161.0 ± 48.6a 10.4 ± 2.2a 5.0 ± 0.8a 5.4 ± 0.5a Thyme-treated49.1 ± 11.4a1.1 ± 0.2a161.0 ± 48.6a10.4 ± 2.2a5.0 ± 0.8a5.4 ± 0.5a Thyme-control 33.6 ± 12.3a 1.5 ± 0.53a 184.1 ± 61.6a 8.7 ± 1.1a 2.6 ± 0.2a 5.6 ± 0.3a Thyme-control33.6 ± 12.3a1.5 ± 0.53a184.1 ± 61.6a8.7 ± 1.1a2.6 ± 0.2a5.6 ± 0.3a p value 0.2919 0.7749 0.8212 0.8111 0.1151 0.4474 p value0.29190.77490.82120.81110.11510.4474  "}],"sieverID":"6cc4f547-6689-4829-9a6e-0465787f820e","abstract":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the most important staple crops for the developing world, being consumed by 800 million people globally. However, production is severely constrained by arthropod pests, in particular the whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Parmar et al., 2017). In Africa, the most damaging effect of B. tabaci is the transmission of viruses that cause two major destructive diseases: cassava mosaic disease (CMD) and cassava brown streak disease (CBSD). Economic losses resulting from CMD and CBSD in sub-Saharan Africa can be up to 97%, valued at more than USD 1 billion annually (Legg et al., 2006(Legg et al., , 2011)).Bemisia tabaci is known for its extensive genetic diversity which so far comprises a complex of at least 44 cryptic species (Kanakala & Ghanim, 2019). These cryptic species have mostly been identified based on sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI)"}