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Al-Isra, 26 Every Umayyid ruler treated the garden of Fadak as his personal property, except Umar II, who, after making a thorough examination of the case, returned it to the "ahl al-bayt" (, i.e. Muhammad's family). The Abbasid rulers again took it away from the "ahl al-bayt" and used it as their property, till Mamun al Rashid again conducted a thorough inquiry by a special court of jurists before which a follower of the "ahl al-bayt" advocated their case and the state attorney opposed his arguments. At the end Mamun wrote the judgement in the form of a royal edict, awarding the land to the "ahl al-bayt", a summary of which has been recorded by al-Baladhuri in his book, "Fath al-Buldan" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8241075 | Al-Isra, 26 |
Al-Isra, 26 Ibn Abi al-Hadid has also given a brief account of the arguments, for and against, in his commentary of the art of eloquence. Fatimah herself gave the strongest arguments in her favour in her address to the then-ruling party. "Biography of Bibi Fatimah Zahra", published by Peermahomed Ebrahim Trust. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8241075 | Al-Isra, 26 |
Personal alarm A personal alarm is a small hand-held electronic device with the functionality to emit a loud siren-like alarming sound. It is activated either by a button, or a tag that, when pulled, sets the siren off. It is used to attract attention in order to scare off an assailant. The sound emitted can also have the effect of distracting, disorienting, or surprising the assailant. The volume varies from model to model, with some models having 130 decibels. Some personal alarms are also outfitted with an LED light for normal lighting purposes or to help deter an assailant. Due attention must be given to the fact that these devices can give a 'false sense of security' and therefore place the individual in danger | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8242443 | Personal alarm |
Personal alarm Some personal safety apps emit a loud intermittent "shrill whistle", in the manner of a personal alarm. According to the Suzy Lamplugh Trust, the best way to use a personal alarm is to activate it, to drop it on the floor near the assailant, and then to immediately run away. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8242443 | Personal alarm |
Ezekiel Emanuel Ezekiel Jonathan "Zeke" Emanuel (born September 6, 1957) is an American oncologist and bioethicist and senior fellow at the Center for American Progress. He is the current Vice Provost for Global Initiatives at the University of Pennsylvania and chair of the Department of Medical Ethics and Health Policy. Previously, Emanuel served as the Diane and Robert Levy University Professor at Penn. He holds a joint appointment at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine and the Wharton School and was formerly an associate professor at the Harvard Medical School until 1998 when he joined the National Institutes of Health. Emanuel is the son of Benjamin M. Emanuel and Marsha (Smulevitz) Emanuel. His father, Benjamin M | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Emanuel, is a Jerusalem-born pediatrician who was once a member of the Irgun, a Jewish paramilitary organization that operated in Mandate Palestine. He provided free care to poor immigrants and led efforts to get rid of lead paint due to its negative consequences for children and as of 2010 lived in a suburb of Chicago. Emanuel’s mother, Marsha, a nurse and psychiatric social worker who was raised in the North Lawndale community on Chicago's West Side, was active in civil rights, including the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). She attended marches and demonstrations with her children. In a 2009 interview Emanuel recalled that in his childhood "worrying about ethical questions was very much part and parcel of our daily routine | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel " His two younger brothers are former Chicago mayor Rahm Emanuel and Hollywood-based talent agent Ari Emanuel. He has an adopted sister, Shoshana Emanuel, who has cerebral palsy. His father’s brother, Emanuel, was killed in the 1936 Arab Riots in the British Mandate of Palestine, after which the family changed its name from Auerbach to Emanuel in his honor. As children, the three Emanuel brothers shared a bedroom and spent summers together in Israel. All three brothers took ballet lessons in their childhood, which Emanuel says "hardened us and taught us that if you do something unusual, people will take potshots at you." Emanuel and his brother Rahm frequently argue about healthcare policy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Emanuel mimics his brother's end of the conversation: "You want to change the whole healthcare system, and I can’t even get SCHIP [State Children’s Health Insurance Program] passed with dedicated funding? What kind of idiot are you?" Emanuel graduated from Amherst College in 1979 and subsequently received his M.Sc. from Exeter College, Oxford in Biochemistry. He simultaneously studied for an M.D. and a Ph.D. in Political Philosophy from Harvard University, receiving the degrees in 1988 and 1989, respectively. He was a member of the first cohort of Faculty Fellows at the Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics at Harvard from 1987–88. Emanuel completed an internship and residency at Beth Israel Hospital in internal medicine | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Subsequently, he undertook fellowships in medicine and medical oncology at the Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, and is a breast oncologist. Emanuel received dozens of honors and awards, including the Toppan Dissertation Prize, the Harvard award for best political science dissertation of 1988 and the Dan David Prize for his contribution to the field of bioethics in 2018. Emanuel is a divorced father of three daughters. His daughter Gabrielle, a 2010 graduate of Dartmouth College, won a Rhodes scholarship in November 2010. His daughter Rebekah, a graduate of Yale University won a George J. Mitchell Scholarship in 2008. Another daughter Natalia, a 2013 graduate of Yale University, won a Marshall scholarship in November 2013, and is currently a Ph.D | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel student at Harvard University. After completing his post-doctoral training, Emanuel pursued a career in academic medicine, rising to the level of associate professor at Harvard Medical School in 1997. He soon moved into the public sector, and held the position of Chief of the Department of Bioethics at the Clinical Center of the U.S. National Institutes of Health. Emanuel served as Special Advisor for Health Policy to Peter Orszag, the former Director of the Office of Management and Budget in the Obama administration. Emanuel entered the administration with different views from President Barack Obama on how to reform health care, but was said by colleagues to be working for the White House goals | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Since September 2011, Emanuel has headed the Department of Medical Ethics & Health Policy at the University of Pennsylvania, where he also serves as a Penn Integrates Knowledge Professor, under the official title Diane S. Levy and Robert M. Levy University Professor. In articles and in his book "Healthcare, Guaranteed", Emanuel said that universal health care could be guaranteed by replacing employer paid health care insurance, Medicaid and Medicare with health care vouchers funded by a value-added tax. His plan would allow patients to keep the same doctor even if they change jobs or insurance plans. He would reduce co-payments for preventive care and tax or ban junk food from schools. He criticized the idea of requiring individuals to buy health insurance | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel However, he supports Obama's plans for health care reform, even though they differ from his own. In the article "Why Tie Health Insurance to a Job?", Emanuel said that employer based health insurance should be replaced by state or regional insurance exchanges that pool individuals and small groups to pay the same lower prices charged to larger employers. Emanuel said that this would allow portable health insurance even to people that lose their jobs or change jobs, while at the same time preserving the security of employer based health benefits by giving consumers the bargaining power of a large group of patients | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel According to Emanuel, this would end discrimination by health insurance companies in the form of denial of health insurance based on age or preexisting conditions. In "Solved!", Emanuel said that Universal Healthcare Vouchers would solve the problem of rapidly increasing health care costs, which, rising at three times the rate of inflation, would result in higher copayments, fewer benefits, stagnant wages and fewer employers willing to pay for health care benefits. In an article co-written by and Victor Fuchs, Emanuel co-wrote that employer-based health insurance has "inefficiencies and inequities", that Medicaid is "second-class" and that insuring more people without replacing those systems would be to build on a "broken system" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel He said, "in the short run they require ever more money to cover the uninsured, and in the long run the unabated rise in health costs will quickly revive the problem of the uninsured." He suggested that a federal agency be created to test the effectiveness of new health care technology. As Emanuel co-wrote, At $2 trillion per year, the U.S. health-care system suffers much more from inefficiency than lack of funds. The system wastes money on administration, unnecessary tests and marginal medicines that cost a lot for little health benefit. It also provides strong financial incentives to preserve such inefficiency. By building on the existing health-care system, these reform proposals entrench the perverse incentives | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Moreover, even plans that reduce the number of uninsured today may find that those gains will disappear in a few years if costs continue to grow much faster than gross domestic product. As costs rise, many companies will drop insurance and pay the modest taxes or fees that have been proposed. States will find that costs exceed revenue and that cuts will have to be made. Emanuel said that replacing employer-based health insurance and programs like Medicaid would "improve efficiency and provide cost control for the health-care system." Emanuel and Fuchs reject a single-payer system, because it goes against American values of individualism. "The biggest problem with single-payer is its failure to cohere with core American values | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Single-payer puts everyone into the same system with the same coverage and makes it virtually impossible to add amenities and services through the private market." In his book "The Ends of Human Life" Emanuel used the AIDS patient "Andrew" as an example of moral medical dilemmas. Andrew talked to a local support group and signed a living will asking that life sustaining procedures be withdrawn if there is no reasonable expectation of recovery. The will was not given to anyone but kept in his wallet, and no one was given power of attorney. There were questions about his competence since he had AIDS dementia when he signed the will. Still, Andrew's lover said that he had talked about such situations, and asked that Andrew be allowed to die | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Andrew's family strongly disagreed that Andrew wanted to die. Dr. Wolf previously saved Andrew's life, but promised to help him avoid a "miserable death". The ICU wanted guidance from Dr. Wolf as to how aggressively they should try to keep Andrew alive, as his chances of surviving a cardiac arrest were about zero. Two other critical patients were recently refused admission because of a bed shortage. There was a question as to whether Andrew's lover was representing Andrew's wishes or his own. There was also a question as to whether Andrew’s parents knew Andrew better than others, or whether they were motivated by guilt from rejecting Andrew's identification as a gay male. The cost of aggressive treatment was $2,000 per day | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel This dilemma illustrates the ethical challenges faced by even the most conscientious physicians, in addition to patient confidentiality, the meaning of informed consent, and the ethics of experimental treatments, transplanting genes or brain tissue. Also, while many agree that every citizen should be given adequate health care, few agree on how to define what adequate health care is. Many of these issues have become almost insoluble moral dilemmas. Babies that would be born with serious birth defects pose a serious moral dilemma, and medical technology makes it sometimes difficult to define what death is in the case of permanently brain damaged patients on respirators. There are also ethical questions on how to allocate scarce resources | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel However, the Hippocratic Oath is proof that medical technology is not the cause of medical questions about ethics. Emanuel said the Hippocratic Oath and the codes of modern medical societies require doctors to maintain client patient confidentiality, refrain from lying to a patient, keep patients informed and obtain their consent, in order to protect the patient from manipulation and discrimination. Emanuel said that a doctor’s oath would never allow him to administer a lethal injection for capital punishment as a doctor, although the issue would be different if he were asked to serve on a firing squad not as a doctor but rather as a citizen | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel He said that in the case of mercy killing there are rare cases where the medical obligation to relieve suffering would be in tension with the obligation to save a life, and that a different argument (an argument that intentional killing "should not be used to achieve the legitimate ends of medicine") would be required instead. Emanuel believes that "liberal communitarianism" could be the answer. Citizens, according to this view, should be given rights needed to participate in democratic deliberations based on a "common conception of the good life". For example, vouchers could be granted through thousands of Community Health Programs (CHPs), each of which would agree on its own definition of the public good | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Each CHP would decide which services would be covered as basic, and which services would not be covered. Emanuel said that legalizing euthanasia, as was done in the Netherlands, might be counterproductive, in that it would decrease support for pain management and mental health care. However, Emanuel does support the use of Medical Directives to allow patients to express their wishes when they can no longer communicate. Ezekiel, and his former wife Linda Emanuel, an M.D. Ph.D. bioethicist and geriatrician, created the Medical Directive, which is described as more specific and extensive than previous living wills and is a third generation Advance Directive. He claims the Hippocratic Oath debunks the theory that opposition to euthanasia is modern | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Emanuel said that for the vast majority of dying patients, "legalizing euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide would be of no benefit. To the contrary, it would be a way of avoiding the complex and arduous efforts required of doctors and other health-care providers to ensure that dying patients receive humane, dignified care." Emanuel said that a historical review of opinions on euthanasia from ancient Greece to now "suggests an association between interest in legalizing euthanasia and moments when Social Darwinism and raw individualism, free markets and wealth accumulation, and limited government are celebrated." Emanuel said that it is a myth that most patients who want to die choose euthanasia because they are in extreme pain | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel He said that in his own experience, "those with pain are more likely than others to oppose physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia." He said that patients were more likely to want euthanasia because of "depression and general psychological distress ... a loss of control or of dignity, of being a burden, and of being dependent." He also said that the kind of legalized euthanasia practiced in the Netherlands would lead to an ethical "slippery slope" which would make it easier for doctors to rationalize euthanasia when it would save them the trouble of cleaning bedpans and otherwise caring for patients who want to live | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel He said that legalized euthanasia in the Netherlands did not adhere to all the legal guidelines, and that some newborns were euthanised even though they could not possibly have given the legally required consent. As Emanuel said, "The Netherlands studies fail to demonstrate that permitting physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia will not lead to the nonvoluntary euthanasia of children, the demented, the mentally ill, the old, and others. Indeed, the persistence of abuse and the violation of safeguards, despite publicity and condemnation, suggest that the feared consequences of legalization are exactly its inherent consequences." Emanuel also expressed the concern that budgetary pressures might be used to justify euthanasia if it were legal | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel As Emanuel said, Emanuel said that claims of cost saving from assisted suicide are a distortion, and that such costs are relatively small, including only 0.1 percent of total medical spending. In 2016, Emanuel wrote in the article "Attitudes and Practices of Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide in the United States"", Canada, and Europe" that existing data on physician-assisted suicide does not indicate widespread abuse. This article also noted that physician-assisted suicide has been increasingly legalized while remaining relatively rare and largely confined to oncology patients. The controversy surrounding Emanuel is due to claims by Betsy McCaughey and Sarah Palin accusing Emanuel of supporting euthanasia. Emanuel has opposed euthanasia | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel These claims have been used by Republicans opposing health care reform. Betsy McCaughey described as a "Deadly Doctor" in a "New York Post" opinion article. The article, which accused Emanuel of advocating healthcare rationing by age and disability, was quoted from on the floor of the House of Representatives by Representative Michele Bachmann of Minnesota. Sarah Palin cited the Bachmann speech and said that Emanuel's philosophy was "Orwellian" and "downright evil", and tied it to a health care reform end of life counseling provision she claimed would create a "death panel". Emanuel said that Palin's death panel statement was "Orwellian" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Palin later said that her death panel remark had been "vindicated" and that the policies of Emanuel are "particularly disturbing" and "shocking". On former Senator Fred Thompson's radio program, McCaughey warned that "the healthcare reform bill would make it mandatory—absolutely require—that every five years people in Medicare have a required counseling session that will tell them how to end their life sooner." She said those sessions would help the elderly learn how to "decline nutrition, how to decline being hydrated, how to go in to hospice care ... all to do what's in society's best interest or in your family's best interest and cut your life short | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel " As "The New York Times" mentioned, conservative pundits were comparing Nazi Germany's T4 euthanasia program to Obama’s policies as far back as November 2008, calling them "America's T4 program—trivialization of abortion, acceptance of euthanasia, and the normalization of physician assisted suicide." PolitiFact described McCaughey's claim as a "ridiculous falsehood." FactCheck.org said, "We agree that Emanuel’s meaning is being twisted. In one article, he was talking about a philosophical trend, and in another, he was writing about how to make the most ethical choices when forced to choose which patients get organ transplants or vaccines when supplies are limited." An article on Time | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel com said that Emanuel "was only addressing extreme cases like organ donation, where there is an absolute scarcity of resources ... 'My quotes were just being taken out of context.'" A decade ago, when many doctors wanted to legalize euthanasia or physician-assisted suicide, Emanuel opposed it. Emanuel said the "death panel" idea is "an outright lie, a complete fabrication. And the paradox, the hypocrisy, the contradiction is that many of the people who are attacking me now supported living wills and consultations with doctors about end-of-life care, before they became against it for political reasons." "I worked pretty hard and against the odds to improve end-of-life care. And so to have that record and that work completely perverted—it's pretty shocking | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel " Rep. Earl Blumenauer, D-Ore., who sponsored the end-of-life provision in , said the measure would block funds for counseling that presents suicide or assisted suicide as an option, and called references to death panels or euthanasia "mind-numbing". Blumenauer said that as recently as April 2008 then-governor Palin supported end-of-life counseling as part of Health Care Decisions Day. Palin's office called this comparison "hysterically funny" and "desperate". Republican Senator Johnny Isakson, who co-sponsored a 2007 end-of-life counseling provision, called the euthanasia claim "nuts" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Analysts who examined the end-of-life provision Palin cited agreed that it merely authorized Medicare reimbursement for physicians who provide voluntary counseling for advance health care directives (including living wills). According to Emanuel, the most important life-saving cancer drugs are rationed not by "death panels" but by The Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement and Modernization Act of 2003, signed by President George W. Bush. The act limits Medicare payments for generic cancer drugs, which cuts profits from producing them and results in shortages. Emanuel's previous statements on rationing were about the "allocation of very scarce medical interventions such as organs and vaccines" such as who should get a "liver for transplantation" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Ezekiel said that McCaughey's euthanasia claims were a "willful distortion of my record". Jim Rutennberg said that Emanuel's critics oversimplified complex issues, such as who should get a kidney. Such rationing was said to be unavoidable because of scarcity, and because a scarce resource such as a liver is "indivisible". Emanuel said that McCaughey took words out of context, omitting qualifiers such as "Without overstating it (and without fully defending it) ... Clearly, more needs to be done ..." Emanuel once compared the word "rationing" to George Carlin’s seven words you can't say on television | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel In 1994 Emanuel said in testimony before the Senate Finance Committee, "Just because we are spending a lot of money on patients who die does not mean that we can save a lot of money on end of life care." Emanuel wrote "Where Civic Republicanism and Deliberative Democracy Meet" (1996) for the Hastings Center Report. In this article Emanuel questioned whether a defect in our medical ethics causes the failure of the US to enact universal health care coverage. The macro level of the issue is the proportion of total gross national product allotted to health care, the micro level is which individual patient will receive specific forms of health care, e.g., "whether Mrs. White should receive this available liver for transplantation | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel " In between are the basic or essential health care services that should be provided to each citizen. The end-stage renal disease program is an example of a service that increases the total cost of health care, and reduces the amount that can be spent on basic or essential health care. Emanuel distinguished between basic services that should be guaranteed to everybody from discretionary medical services that are not guaranteed. The result would be a two tiered system, where those with more money could afford more discretionary services. He saw a failure to define basic services as the reason attempts at universal health care coverage have failed | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel As a result, the belief that universal health care would require unlimited costs makes any attempt at providing universal health care seem likely to end in national bankruptcy. Instead of universal coverage of basic health care, those who are well insured have coverage for many discretionary forms of health care and no coverage for some basic forms of health care. Emanuel said that while drawing a line separating basic and universal health care from discretionary health care is difficult, the attempt should be made. Emaniel mentioned the philosophies of Amy Gutmann, Norman Daniels and Daniel Callahan when arguing that there is an overlap between liberalism and communitarianism where civic republicanism and deliberative democracy meet | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel According to The Atlantic, Emanuel is describing the philosophy of John Rawls in arguing that society is choosing one value (equality) over another (a healthy society), and this substitution may be responsible for limited choices in health care. PolitiFact says that Emanuel was describing the fact that doctors often have to make difficult choices, such as who should get a liver transplant. PolitiFact also said, "Academics often write theoretically about ideas that are being kicked around. And they repeat and explore those ideas, without necessarily endorsing them | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel " When asked if those who are not "participating citizens" should be denied health care, Emanuel said "No" and "The rest of the text around that quote made it made it pretty clear I was trying to analyze it and understand it, not endorse it." In 2009, Govind Persad, Alan Wertheimer and co-wrote another article on a similar topic in the journal The Lancet. Ezekiel was one of three authors who co-wrote "Principles for allocation of scarce medical interventions", which examines eight theoretical approaches for dealing with "allocation of very scarce medical interventions such as organs and vaccines." All eight approaches were judged to be less than perfect, and the Complete Lives system combines most of them | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Treating people equally could be accomplished by lottery or first come first served. A lottery system is simple and difficult to corrupt, but blind in that it would treat saving forty years of life the same as saving four months. A first come first served system seems fair at first, but favors the well off, those who are informed, can travel easily and who push to the front of a line. Favoring the worst off could be accomplished by favoring the sickest first or by favoring the youngest first. Favoring the sickest appeals to the rule of rescue, but organ transplants don’t always work well with the sickest patients. Also, a different patient could become equally sick in the future | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Favoring the youngest saves the most years of life, but a twenty-year-old has a more developed personality than an infant. Maximizing total benefits or utilitarianism can be accomplished by saving the most lives or by prognosis (life years). While saving the most lives is best if all else is equal, all else is seldom equal. Going by prognosis alone might unfairly favor improving the health of a person who is healthy to begin with. Promoting and rewarding social usefulness can be accomplished through instrumental value or by reciprocity. Social usefulness is difficult to define, in that going by conventional values or favoring church goers might be unfair | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Instrumental value, such as giving priority to workers producing a vaccine, cannot be separated from other values, like saving the most lives. Reciprocity (favoring previous organ donors or veterans) might seem like justice, but is backward looking and could lead to demeaning and intrusive inquiries into lifestyle. When resources (organs, vaccines and so forth) are scarce, the Complete Lives systems blends five different approaches (excluding first come first served, sickest first and reciprocity) but is weighted in favor of saving the most years of life. However, it also emphasizes the importance of saving the large investment of nurture and education spent on an adolescent | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel It would not favor the young when the prognosis is poor and the number of years of life saved would not be great, when dealing with scarcity. Emanuel said the Complete Lives system was not meant to apply to health care in general, but only to a situation where "we don’t have enough organs for everybody who needs a transplant. You have one liver, you have three people who need the liver - who gets it? The solution isn’t ‘We get more livers.’ You can’t. It’s a tragic choice." Of the 1996 Hastings Center Report, Emanuel said, "I was examining two different, abstract philosophical positions to see what they might offer in the context of redoing the health-care system and trying to reduce resource consumption in health care | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel It's as abstractly philosophical as you can get on a practical question. I qualified it in 27 different ways, saying it wasn't my view." He also said, "As far as rationing goes, it's nothing I've ever advocated for the health system as a whole, and I've talked about rationing only in the context of situations where you have limited items, like limited livers or limited vaccine, and not for overall health care." Emanuel said that his words were selectively quoted, and misrepresent his views. He said, "I find it a little dispiriting, after a whole career's worth of work dedicated to improving care for people at the end of life, that now I'm 'advocating euthanasia panels | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel '" Emanuel spent his career opposing euthanasia and received multiple awards for his efforts to improve end of life care. Emanuel said, "It is incredible how much one's reputation can be besmirched and taken out of context" and "No one who has read what I have done for 25 years would come to the conclusions that have been put out there." Although Emanuel opposes legalized euthanasia, he believes that after age 75 life is not worth living, and the pursuit of longevity, not a worthwhile goal for U.S. health care policy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel This is refuted by neurosurgeon and medical ethicist Miguel Faria, who in two articles in "Surgical Neurology International" claims that healthy lifestyles and brain plasticity can lead to the postponement of senescence and lead to happiness even as we age. In the 2008 "Journal of the American Medical Association" article "The Perfect Storm of Overutilization" Emanuel said, "Overall, US health care expenditures are 2.4 times the average of those of all developed countries ($2759 per person), yet health outcomes for US patients, whether measured by life expectancy, disease-specific mortality rates, or other variables, are unimpressive." He said that expensive drugs and treatments that provide only marginal benefits are the largest problems | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Fee-for-service payments, physician directed pharmaceutical marketing, and medical malpractice laws and the resultant defensive medicine encourage overutilization. Direct-to-consumer marketing by pharmaceutical companies also drives up costs. According to "Time", Betsy McCaughey said that Emanuel "has criticized medical culture for trying to do everything for a patient, 'regardless of the cost or effects on others,' without making clear that he was not speaking of lifesaving care but of treatments with little demonstrated value." Emanuel made a related comment during a "Washington Post" interview, when he said that improving the quality and efficiency of healthcare to avoid unnecessary and even harmful care would be a way to avoid the need for rationing | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel One reason the high cost of health care yields disappointing results is because only 0.05 percent of health care dollars are spent on assessing how well new health care technology works. This is largely because health care lobbyists oppose such research. For example, when the Agency for Health Care Policy and Research found that there was little evidence to support common back operations, orthopedic and neurosurgeons lobbied to cut funding for such research. Emanuel said that fee-for-service reimbursements encourage spending on ineffective health care | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel However, more should be spent on fraud detection, coordinating health services for patients with multiple doctors, and evaluating the effectiveness of new medical technologies such as genetic fingerprints for cancer and better ways of managing intravenous lines. In a "Washington Post" article Emanuel co-wrote with Shannon Brownlee, they described the health care system as "truly dysfunctional, often chaotic", "spectacularly wasteful" and "expensive" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel In a 2007 slideshow "Conflicts of Interest", Emanuel said that there were conflicts of interest between a physician's primary responsibilities (providing optimal care for patients, promoting patient safety and public health) and a physician's secondary interests (publishing, educating, obtaining research funding, obtaining a good income and political activism). Emanuel said that while it is difficult to know when conflicts of interest exist, the fact that they do is "the truth". When there is no doubt of a conflict, the issue is not a mere conflict of interest, but fraud | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel In a 2007 article "Conflict of Interest in Industry-sponsored Drug Development" Emanuel said that there is a conflict between the primary interests of drug researchers (conducting and publishing good test results and protecting the patient) and secondary concerns (obligations to family and medical societies and money from industries). However, industry sponsored tests are more likely to use double-blind protocols and randomization, and more likely to preset study endpoints and mention adverse effects. Also, there is no evidence that patients are harmed by such studies. However, there is evidence that money influences how test results are interpreted | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel Emanuel mentioned the Selfox study on the use of calcium channel blockers in treating hypertension, in which authors with a financial interest in the results reported much better results than the rest. Worse yet, test results sponsored by industry are likely to be widely published only if the results are positive. For example, in a Whittington study for data on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, negative results were much less likely to be published than positive results. However, in "The Obligation to Participate in Biomedical Research" the authors Schaefer, Emanuel and Wertheimer said that people should be encouraged to view participation in biomedical research as a civic obligation, because of the public good that could result | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
Ezekiel Emanuel In a 2017 article "Conflict of Interest for Patient-Advocacy Organizations" Emanuel found that financial support of patient-advocacy organizations from drug, device, and biotechnology organizations was widespread (83% of reviewed organizations). Later that year, he argued in another article "Why There are No "Potential" Conflicts of Interest" that conflicts of interest exist whether or not bias or harm has actually occurred. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243661 | Ezekiel Emanuel |
William Wallace (philosopher) William Wallace (11 May 184418 February 1897) was a Scottish philosopher and academic who became fellow of Merton College and White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at Oxford University. He was best known for his studies of German philosophers, most notably Hegel, some of whose works he translated into highly regarded English editions. While reputedly forbidding in manner, he was known as an able and effective teacher and writer who succeeded in greatly improving the understanding of German philosophy in the English-speaking world. He died at the age of 52 after a bicycle accident near Oxford. Wallace was born at Railway Place in Cupar, Fife, the son of master-builder James Wallace and Jane Kelloch | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) He was the elder of two brothers and was educated at Madras Academy (now Bell Baxter High School) in Cupar before going on to St Andrews University to study arts. He developed a strong interest in the natural world, which led him to spend much time on walks in the countryside, cycling, botany and mountaineering. Although his parents had encouraged him to take up the study of theology as a precursor to a career in the clergy, Wallace realised that this would not best suit him and chose instead to study the Classics. He was awarded an exhibition at Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied from 1864. In 1867 he became a fellow of Merton College. He gained his Bachelor of Arts the following year, gaining a first class in Moderations and in Literae Humaniores | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) He was also awarded the Gaisford Prize in 1867 for his work on Greek prose, becoming a tutor at Merton in the same year, and was elected as a Craven Scholar in 1869. His Master of Arts followed in 1871 and he was appointed as Merton's librarian. Wallace married Janet Barclay, a childhood friend from Cupar, on 4 April 1872. The couple had three children, a daughter and two sons. His younger brother Edwin Wallace studied at Oxford's Lincoln College and later served as vice-provost of Worcester College between 1881 and his death in 1884. In 1882, Wallace became the successor to Thomas Hill Green as White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at Oxford, a position which he held along with the Merton tutorship until his death fifteen years later | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) His "brusque and sarcastic" manner earned him the nickname "the Dorian", a nickname he acquired at Balliol, though this was said to conceal a "generous and affectionate" nature. He was described as a man of "much genuine nobleness and a staunch uprightness of thought and speech" whose "acquaintances were numerous and friendly, but his intimates few and attached." Wallace's work focused primarily on the study and diffusion of the ideas of the German philosophers Kant, Fichte, Herder, and Hegel, of whom it was said that his knowledge was exceptional | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) He was highly regarded as a teacher and lecturer, usually speaking without notes in a style described as "humorous, elegant, and yet earnest" that "produced a unique impression of insight and sincerity upon his students." He sought to encourage his students to think critically and aimed to explain the sometimes arcane and technical nature of philosophical constructs in a way that was both readily understandable and expressed imaginatively, for instance commenting in one of his works that "the Absolute Idea [of Hegel] may be compared to the old man who utters the same creed as a child, but for whom it is pregnant with the significance of a lifetime" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) His writings included "The Logic and Prolegomena of Hegel" (1873), a translation of Hegel's "Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences". It was still regarded as "the most masterly and influential of all English translations of Hegel" when it was republished in 1975. The translation was accomplished in a free and creative style accompanied by extensive explanatory notes on the text, drawing parallels between the philosophy of Hegel and classical figures such as Plato and Aristotle. He published "Epicurean Philosophy" in 1880, tracing the origins of Epicureanism and highlighting the links between the life of Epicurus and the philosophy that he espoused | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) Wallace's "Kant" (1882), part of Blackwood's Philosophical Classics series, portrayed the German philosopher as engaged in a dialogue with John Locke and David Hume, two of the most influential British Empiricists. He published "The Life of Arthur Schopenhauer" in 1890 in which his biographical account was accompanied by a critique of the philosopher's rejection of empiricism and materialism. He attacked Schopenhauer's "unconquerable vanity" but praised his insight into the power of art and his belief that "the best life is one predicated on the underlying unity of all experience". He travelled extensively to research both works, touring Germany to learn about the cultural and geographical environment in which the German philosophers had lived and worked | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) A second edition of "The Logic of Hegel" followed in 1892 and a third edition was published in 1893 with a lengthy analytical introduction. Wallace's work on Hegel focused on the themes that most resonated with a British audience, such as unity and community, while giving relatively less attention to more alien ideas such as the dialectic. In 1894 he published a translation of the last part of Hegel's "Encyclopaedia" under the title of "The Philosophy of Mind", accompanied by five essays commenting on questions such as the method of psychology and how it related to ethics and theology | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
William Wallace (philosopher) His final work, published posthumously by Edward Caird, was his "Lectures and Essays on Natural Theology and Ethics" which he had delivered in 1892 at the University of Glasgow as part of the Gifford Lectures on the history of natural theology. Wallace died on 19 February 1897 as a result of a bicycle accident. While descending a steep hill at Enslow Bridge at Bletchington near Oxford, he lost control of his bicycle and hit a parapet wall, fracturing his skull. He was found unconscious under his bicycle and was carried on a hurdle to The Rock of Gibraltar Inn, where he died early the next day without regaining consciousness. He is buried in Holywell Cemetery, Oxford, with his wife and one of his sons. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247041 | William Wallace (philosopher) |
Taboo on rulers Taboos regarding rulers includes both taboos on people coming into contact with a ruler and the taboos regarding the ruler themselves. Freud attributes the existence of such taboos to an unconscious current of hostility toward the king/ruler. In the following example the hostility toward the ruler is more obviously shown: But even in such glaring instances, however, the hostility is not admitted as such, but masquerades as a ceremonial. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8259064 | Taboo on rulers |
ReliefWeb is the largest humanitarian information portal in the world. Founded in 1996, the portal now hosts more than 720,000 humanitarian situation reports, press releases, evaluations, guidelines, assessments, maps and infographics. The portal is an independent vehicle of information, designed specifically to assist the international humanitarian community in effective delivery of emergency assistance. It provides information as humanitarian crises unfold, while emphasizing the coverage of "forgotten emergencies" at the same time. Its vision and strategy aim to make a “one-stop shop for the global humanitarian community." was launched in October 1996 and is administered by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
ReliefWeb The project began as the brainchild of the US Department of State, Bureau of International Organization Affairs, which had noticed during the Rwanda crisis how poorly critical operational information was shared between NGOs, UN Agencies and Governments. In 1995, the Department's Senior Policy Adviser on Disaster Management led a series of discussions at UN HQ in Geneva and New York City, as well as a conference on the project at the US Department of State in which both as a product and the internet in general were touted as fresh tools for the humanitarian community. Its official launch was also the launch of the UN's first disaster website | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
ReliefWeb Recognizing how critical the availability of reliable and timely information in time of humanitarian emergencies is, the United Nations General Assembly endorsed the creation of and encouraged humanitarian information exchange through by all governments, relief agencies and non-governmental organizations in Resolution 51/194 on 10 February 1997. The General Assembly reiterated the importance of information sharing in emergencies and of taking advantage of OCHA's emergency information services such as in Resolution 57/153 on 3 March 2003. maintains offices in three different time zones to update the website around the clock: Bangkok (Thailand), Nairobi (Kenya) and New York City (United States) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
ReliefWeb Prior to 2011, the three offices were located in Geneva (Switzerland), Kobe (Japan), and New York (USA). The closing of the Geneva and Kobe offices were due to the higher costs associated with these locations. has seen steady growth in usage. In 2017, 6,8 million people visited ReliefWeb. In the same year, the website published more than 57,000 reports and maps, 39,500 jobs in the humanitarian sector, and 2,600 training opportunities. A first major re-design effort was started in 2002 and completed in 2005, which focused on implementing a more user-centric information architecture. In April 2011, launched a new web platform based on open-source technology to offer a powerful search/filter engine and delivery system | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
ReliefWeb In 2012, began to expand its focus to become the one-stop shop for critical information on global crises and disasters. In November 2012, revamped the home page, the "About Us" section and the Blog and introduced "Labs", a place to explore new and emerging opportunities and tools to improve information delivery to humanitarian workers. disseminates humanitarian information by updating its website around the clock. In addition, reaches more than 168,500 subscribers through its e-mail subscription services, allowing those who have low bandwidth Internet connections to receive information reliably. posts maps and documents daily from over 5,000 sources from the UN system, Governments, Inter-governmental organizations, NGOs, academia and the media | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
ReliefWeb In addition, a team of cartographers creates original maps focusing on humanitarian emergencies. All documents posted on the site are classified and archived, allowing advanced searching of documents from past emergency responses. The database contains more than 720,000 maps and documents dating back to 1981. is also a major repository of humanitarian job postings and training announcements. In 2017, 1,605 organizations posted 39,336 job announcements on ReliefWeb. The job and training sources include Academic and Research Institutions, NGOs, International Organizations, Governments, Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement and the Media | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
ReliefWeb also provides apps and tools for humanitarians, which enable more targeted personalised information search, with the aim to speed up the delivery of important information. The apps include functions to search content, curate and access humanitarian data, and manage humanitarian personnel. has won the following awards: | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8262468 | ReliefWeb |
James Rest was an American psychologist specializing in moral psychology and development. Together with his Minnesota Group of colleagues, including Darcia Narvaez, Muriel Bebeau, and Stephen Thoma, Rest extended Kohlberg's approach to researching moral reasoning. was a professor at the University of Minnesota from 1970 until his formal retirement in 1994 and was a 1993 recipient of the Distinguished Teaching Award at the University. Rest continued mentoring, researching, and writing until his death in 1999 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266721 | James Rest |
James Rest Rest's and the Neo-Kohlbergians' work included the Defining Issues Test (DIT), which attempts to provide an objective measure of moral development, and the Four Component Model of moral development, which attempts to provide a theoretical perspective on the subject. Rest and the Minnesota Group were unusually open to other approaches, new research, criticisms, and integrating their Neo-Kohlbergian approach with others. There have been extensive criticisms of Rest's work in general and the DIT in particular. Testing by independent sources has tended to uphold the strength and validity of the test. The 4 component model of involves 4 psychological processes: 1 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266721 | James Rest |
James Rest Moral sensitivity - the individual must be able to interpret a particular situation in terms of possible courses of action, determine who could be affected by the action, and understand how the affected party would regard the effect 2.Moral judgement - the individual must be able to judge which action is right and ought to decide what to do in a particular situation. 3.Moral motivation - the individual must be able to choose moral values over personal values 4.Moral character - the individual must have sufficient ego, strength and implementation skills to follow his or her intentions. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266721 | James Rest |
Defining Issues Test The is a component model of moral development devised by James Rest in 1974. The University of Minnesota formally established the Center for the Study of Ethical Development as a vehicle for research around this test in 1982. The is a proprietary self-report measure which uses a Likert-type scale to give quantitative ratings and rankings to issues surrounding five different moral dilemmas, or stories. Specifically, respondents rate 12 issues in terms of their importance to the corresponding dilemma and then rank the four most important issues. The issue statements that respondents respond to are not fully developed stances which fall on one side or another of the presented dilemma | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266740 | Defining Issues Test |
Defining Issues Test Rather, they are conceptualized as fragments of reasoning, to which respondents must project meaning. Meaning is projected by means of moral reasoning schemas (each of which is explained below). A schema is a mental representation of stimuli that has previously been encountered, which allows one to make sense of newly experienced, but related, stimuli. So, when a respondent reads an issue statement that both makes sense to them, as well as triggers a preferred schema, that statement is given a high rating and ranking. Conversely, when a respondent reads an issue statement that is either construed as nonsensical or overly simplistic, the item receives a low rating | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266740 | Defining Issues Test |
Defining Issues Test Patterns of ratings and rankings reveal information about three specific schemas of moral reasoning: the Personal Interests Schema, the Maintaining Norms Schema and the Postconventional Schema. The personal interests schema are regarded as the least developmentally advanced level of moral reasoning. In operating primarily at the Personal Interests level, the respondent takes into consideration what the protagonist of the story, or those close to the protagonist, has to gain or lose. The Maintaining Norms Schema is considered more advanced than the Personal Interests Schema, as it emphasizes more than the individual | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266740 | Defining Issues Test |
Defining Issues Test At the maintaining norms reasoning level, law and authority are important, as each of these helps to uphold social order, which is paramount to this schema. So, a respondent who is predominantly using this schema will take into consideration what needs to be done in order to be compliant with the social order of society. Finally, the Postconventional Schema is regarded as the most developmentally advanced. At the postconventional reasoning level, laws are not simply blindly accepted (as with the maintaining norms schema), but are scrutinized in order to ensure society-wide benefit. So, a respondent who is primarily using this schema will focus on what is best for society as a whole | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266740 | Defining Issues Test |
Defining Issues Test For example, the civil rights movement was a product of postconventional reasoning, as followers were most concerned with the society-wide effects of inequality. Though an individual may rely more heavily on one of the aforementioned schemas, moral reasoning is typically informed, to varying degrees, by each of the schemas. One of the Defining Issues Test's original purposes was to assess the transition of moral development from adolescence to adulthood. In 1999 the test was revised in the DIT-2 for brevity, clarity and more powerful validity criteria | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266740 | Defining Issues Test |
Defining Issues Test The has been dubbed "Neo-Kohlbergian" by its constituents as it emphasizes cognition, personal construction, development and postconventional moral thinking - reflective of the work by Lawrence Kohlberg and his stages of moral development. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8266740 | Defining Issues Test |
Taboo on the dead The taboo on the dead includes the taboo against touching of the dead, those surrounding them and anything associated with the dead. A taboo against naming the dead is a kind of word taboo whereby the name of a recently deceased person, and any other words similar to it in sound, may not be uttered. It is observed by peoples from all over the world, including Australia, Siberia, Southern India, the Sahara, and the Americas. After a Yolngu man named Bitjingu died, the word "bithiwul" "no; nothing" was avoided. In its place, a synonym or a loanword from another language would be used for a certain period, after which the original word could be used again; but in some cases the replacement word would continue to be used | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8274026 | Taboo on the dead |
Taboo on the dead In some Australian Aboriginal cultural practices, the dead are not referred to by their name directly as a mark of respect. In Pitjantjatjara, for instance, it is common to refer to a recently deceased person as 'kunmanara', which means "what's his name". Often, the person's last name can still be used. The avoidance period may last anywhere from 12 months to several years, depending on how important or famous the person was. The person can still be referred to in a roundabout way, such as "that old lady" or by generic skin type but not by first name. Other reasons may include not making mockery of that person and keeping respect with regard to them | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8274026 | Taboo on the dead |
Taboo on the dead For this reason, the names of many notable Aboriginal people were only recorded by Westerners and may have been incorrectly transliterated. R. M. W. Dixon has suggested, in reference to Australian Aboriginal languages, that the substitution of loanwords for tabooed words results in significant vocabulary replacement, hindering the application of the comparative method. Other linguists find the effects of the taboo on vocabulary replacement to be insignificant | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8274026 | Taboo on the dead |
Taboo on the dead Goddard (1979) also suggests upon finding evidence of name-taboos of the deceased in Tonkawa similar to Australian languages, the languages of the North American Southeast may have resisted classification into language families so far due in part to vocabulary replacement (in addition to their already sparse documentation). Sigmund Freud explains that the fundamental reason for the existence of such taboos is the fear of the presence or of the return of the dead person's ghost. It is exactly this fear that leads to a great number of ceremonies aimed at keeping the ghost at a distance or driving him off | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8274026 | Taboo on the dead |
Taboo on the dead In many cases the taboo remains intact until the body of the dead has completely decayed, Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt associates the taboo to a fear that the dead man's soul has become a demon. Moreover, many cases show a hostility toward the dead and their representation as malevolent figures. Edward Westermarck notes that "Death is commonly regarded as the gravest of all misfortunes; hence the dead are believed to be exceedingly dissatisfied with their fate [...] such a death naturally tends to make the soul revengeful and ill-tempered. It is envious of the living and is longing for the company of its old friend." | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8274026 | Taboo on the dead |
Collective action problem A collective action problem is a situation in which all individuals would be better off cooperating but fail to do so because of conflicting interests between individuals that discourage joint action. The collective action problem has been addressed in political philosophy for centuries, but was most clearly established in 1965 in Mancur Olson's "The Logic of Collective Action". The collective action problem can be observed today in many areas of study, and is particularly relevant to economic concepts such as game theory and the free-rider problem that results from the provision of public goods. Additionally, the collective problem can be applied to numerous public policy concerns that countries across the world currently face | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem Although he never used the words "collective action problem," Thomas Hobbes was an early philosopher on the topic of human cooperation. Hobbes believed that people act purely out of self-interest, writing in "Leviathan" in 1651 that "if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies." Hobbes believed that the state of nature consists of a perpetual war between people with conflicting interests, causing people to quarrel and seek personal power even in situations where cooperation would be mutually beneficial for both parties | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem Through his interpretation of humans in the state of nature as selfish and quick to engage in conflict, Hobbes's philosophy laid the foundation for what is now referred to as the collective action problem. David Hume provided another early, more well-known interpretation of what is now called the collective action problem in his 1738 book "A Treatise of Human Nature". Hume characterizes a collective action problem through his depiction of neighbors agreeing to drain a meadow:Two neighbours may agree to drain a meadow, which they possess in common; because it is easy for them to know each others mind; and each must perceive, that the immediate consequence of his failing in his part, is, the abandoning the whole project | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem But it is very difficult, and indeed impossible, that a thousand persons should agree in any such action; it being difficult for them to concert so complicated a design, and still more difficult for them to execute it; while each seeks a pretext to free himself of the trouble and expence, and would lay the whole burden on others.In this passage, Hume establishes the basis for the collective action problem. In a situation in which a thousand people are expected to work together to achieve a common goal, individuals will be likely to free ride, as they assume that each of the other members of the team will put in enough effort to achieve said goal | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem In smaller groups, the impact one individual has is much greater, so individuals will be less inclined to free ride. The most prominent modern interpretation of the collective action problem can be found in Mancur Olson's 1965 book "The Logic of Collective Action". In it, he addressed the accepted belief at the time by sociologists and political scientists that groups were necessary to further the interests of their members. Olson argued that individual rationality does not necessarily result in group rationality, as members of a group may have conflicting interests that do not represent the best interests of the overall group | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem Olson further argued that in the case of a pure public good that is both nonrival and nonexcludable, one contributor tends to reduce their contribution to the public good as others contribute more. Additionally, Olson emphasized the tendency of individuals to pursue economic interests that would be beneficial to themselves and not necessarily the overall public. This contrasts with Adam Smith's theory of the "invisible hand" of the market, where individuals pursuing their own interests should theoretically result in the collective well-being of the overall market | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem Olson's book established the collective action problem as one of the most troubling dilemmas in social science, leaving a profound impression on present-day discussions of human behavior and its relationship with governmental policy. Public goods are goods that are nonrival and nonexcludable. A good is said to be nonrival if its consumption by one consumer does not in any way impact its consumption by another consumer. Additionally, a good is said to be nonexcludable if those who do not pay for the good cannot be kept from enjoying the benefits of the good. The nonexcludability aspect of public goods is where one facet of the collective action problem, known as the free-rider problem, comes into play | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem For instance, a company could put on a fireworks display and charge an admittance price of $10, but if community members could all view the fireworks display from their homes, most would choose not to pay the admittance fee. Thus, the majority of individuals would choose to free ride, discouraging the company from putting on another fireworks show in the future. Even though the fireworks display was surely beneficial to each of the individuals, they relied on those paying the admittance fee to finance the show. If everybody had assumed this position, however, the company putting on the show would not have been able to procure the funds necessary to buy the fireworks that provided enjoyment for so many individuals | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem This situation is indicative of a collective action problem because the individual incentive to free ride conflicts with the collective desire of the group to pay for a fireworks show for all to enjoy. Pure public goods include services such as national defense and public parks that are usually provided by governments using taxpayer funds. In return for their tax contribution, taxpayers enjoy the benefits of these public goods. In developing countries where funding for public projects is scarce, however, it often falls on communities to compete for resources and finance projects that benefit the collective group | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem The ability of communities to successfully contribute to public welfare depends on the size of the group, the power or influence of group members, the tastes and preferences of individuals within the group, and the distribution of benefits among group members. When a group is too large or the benefits of collective action are not tangible to individual members, the collective action problem results in a lack of cooperation that makes the provision of public goods difficult. Game theory is one of the principal components of economic theory. It addresses the way individuals allocate scarce resources and how scarcity drives human interaction. One of the most famous examples of game theory is the prisoner's dilemma | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem The classical prisoner's dilemma model consists of two players who are accused of a crime. If Player A decides to betray Player B, Player A will receive no prison time while Player B receives a substantial prison sentence, and vice versa. If both players choose to keep quiet about the crime, they will both receive reduced prison sentences, and if both players turn the other in, they will each receive more substantial sentences. It would appear in this situation that each player should choose to stay quiet so that both will receive reduced sentences. In actuality, however, players who are unable to communicate will both choose to betray each other, as they each have an individual incentive to do so in order to receive a commuted sentence | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem The prisoner's dilemma model is crucial to understanding the collective problem because it illustrates the consequences of individual interests that conflict with the interests of the group. In simple models such as this one, the problem would have been solved had the two prisoners been able to communicate. In more complex real world situations involving numerous individuals, however, the collective action problem often prevents groups from making decisions that are of collective economic interest. Scholars estimate that, even in a battleground state, there is only a one in ten million chance that one vote could sway the outcome of a United States presidential election | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem This statistic may discourage individuals from exercising their democratic right to vote, as they believe they could not possibly affect the results of an election. If everybody adopted this view and decided not to vote, however, democracy would collapse. This situation results in a collective action problem, as any single individual is incentivized to choose to stay home from the polls since their vote is very unlikely to make a real difference in the outcome of an election. Despite high levels of political apathy in the United States, however, this collective action problem does not decrease voter turnout as much as some political scientists might expect | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem It turns out that most Americans believe their political efficacy to be higher than it actually is, stopping millions of Americans from believing their vote does not matter and staying home from the polls. Thus, it appears collective action problems can be resolved not just by tangible benefits to individuals participating in group action, but by a mere belief that collective action will also lead to individual benefits. Environmental problems such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and waste accumulation can be described as collective action problems. Since these issues are connected to the everyday actions of vast numbers of people, vast numbers of people are also required to mitigate the effects of these environmental problems | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem Without governmental regulation, however, individual people or businesses are unlikely to take the actions necessary to reduce carbon emissions or cut back on usage of non-renewable resources, as these people and businesses are incentivized to choose the easier and cheaper option, which often differs from the environmentally-friendly option that would benefit the health of the planet. Individual self interest has led to over half of Americans believing that government regulation of businesses does more harm than good. Yet, when the same Americans are asked about specific regulations such as standards for food and water quality, most are satisfied with the laws currently in place or favor even more stringent regulations | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Collective action problem This illustrates the way the collective problem hinders group action on environmental issues: when an individual is directly affected by an issue such as food and water quality, they will favor regulations, but when an individual cannot see a great impact from their personal carbon emissions or waste accumulation, they will generally tend to disagree with laws that encourage them to cut back on environmentally-harmful activities. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8276451 | Collective action problem |
Freedom and Culture is a book by John Dewey. Published in 1939, the book is an analytical defense of democracy written in a time when democratic regimes had recently been replaced by non-democratic ones, and at a time when Marxism was considered a powerful political force. According to Dewey, human nature is the result of many forces, many of which are culturally determined. Attempts have been made to explain human behavior as being primarily motivated by love of freedom, or by pursuit of self-interest, or by the pursuit of power, or being primarily determined by economic conditions. All of these are products of their times and their inevitable falsification results in a backlash, de-emphasizing the formerly over-emphasized factor | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8294130 | Freedom and Culture |
Freedom and Culture According to Dewey, freedom had been associated with individuality by some people and with rationality, or law, by others. It has also been associated with the farming class by some people and with capitalists by others. Individualism (or liberty) and social control (or law) have been proposed as two extremes between which freedom has to navigate. In reality, the individual and the social forces interact in various ways, rather than being two distinct extremes. Therefore, for individuals to be free, appropriate social conditions must exist. Democratic conditions do not automatically maintain themselves and they cannot be mechanically prescribed in a constitution | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8294130 | Freedom and Culture |