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Compliance and ethics program (http://www.oecd.org/document/21/0,2340,en_2649_34859_2017813_1_1_1_1,00.html) This regulation requires member nations to designate the payment of bribes to foreign offices as a crime and to follow the rules and regulations that govern bribery in international transactions. The U.S. ratified this convention and enacted implementing legislation in 1998. At this time, the FCPA was amended to include territorial jurisdiction over foreign companies and nationals. A foreign company or person is now subject to the FCPA, if the company or person either directly or indirectly through agents, engages in acts which further the facilitation of corrupt payments taking place within the territory of the United States | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program In response to the FCPA and its requirement to implement internal control programs, in 1985 a private-sector initiative was formed called the National Committee on Fraudulent Financial Reporting (commonly known as the Treadway Commission). This Commission recommended that its organizational sponsors work together to develop guidance on internal controls. Subsequently, the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO) was formed, and in conjunction with the CPA firm Coopers & Lybrand, COSO authored and published in 1992 the “Internal Control-Integrated Framework". This framework has become the de facto standard in the accounting industry for auditing, evaluating and monitoring internal control systems | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program The COSO Internal Control-Integrated Framework is now widely used by most organizations as the basis for “establishing and maintaining an adequate internal control structure and procedures for financial reporting” ( 15 USC § 7262) and for the assessment of control effectiveness under section 404 of Sarbanes-Oxley. In 1984 Congress passed the Sentencing Reform Act, which created a set of mandatory federal sentencing guidelines (Campbell & Bemporad 2006) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program As part of the Act, the United States Sentencing Commission was formed and delegated the responsibility “to provide “certainty” and “fairness” in sentencing, avoiding “unwarranted sentencing disparities” while “maintaining sufficient flexibility to permit individualized sentencing when warranted by mitigating or aggravating factors (Campbell & Bemporad 2006).” On May 1, 1991, as an extension of the Sentencing Reform Act, the United States Sentencing Commission submitted to Congress the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations] (FSGO), a set of standards that govern the sentences federal judges impose on organizations convicted of federal crimes | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Enacted on November 1, 1991, core to the guidelines was the Commission's intent to “prevent and deter organizational wrongdoing” through its design of the organizational sentencing guidelines. These guidelines describe the elements of an organization's compliance and ethics program that are required to be considered for eligibility for a reduced sentence if convicted. In general, the FSGO require an organization to establish standards to guide its employees and agents. These standards must reflect government regulations and industry standards and apply to almost all types of organizations including corporations, partnerships, unions, non-profit organizations and trusts | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program In 2004, the United States Sentencing Commission voted to amend its existing organization guidelines to make the criteria for an effective compliance and ethics program more stringent. Two major standards were identified in the amended guidelines. The amended guidelines stated the need for directors and executives to take an active role in the management of its compliance and ethics program and the importance of promoting an organizational culture that is compliant with the law and demonstrates ethical culture. The amended guidelines outline minimum requirements for an effective compliance and ethics program and the amended FSGO has become synonymous with an effective compliance program | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program The FCPA, Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) and the Federal Sentencing Guidelines represent just a fraction of the standards and requirements organizations need to consider today when developing and implementing their compliance programs. “Since the passage of SOX, the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), NASDAQ, and the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), have all proposed and implemented new rules relating to compliance programs (Martin 2004).” Organizations today are increasingly accountable to mandated laws, regulations and standards on a number of dimensions, which include geographical/regional considerations, as well as industry and functional discipline concerns. These regulations and standards apply to a variety of financial and non-financial areas | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Adding to this complexity are the “voluntary” boundaries, which organizations have individually established such as organizational commitments, values, and contractual obligations. As a result of these dynamics, organizations at the very core of their business strategy need to establish the capacity and the capability to effectively address the conditions mandated by these external requirements and internally generated operating principles while still meeting their business objectives. History set the tone for increasing regulations and rising standards. Over time, organizations will need to be more proactive in anticipating and addressing these considerations while simultaneously protecting and building the enterprise | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program More and more organizations will need to translate, integrate and simplify these various standards and requirements into a cohesive approach. Designing an effective compliance and ethics program requires implementing a detailed plan that will make sure the business achieves their ethics objectives. The organization must have ways of managing, evaluating, and controlling business ethics and compliance programs | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program There are five items which can affect the success of the compliance and ethics program: (1) the content of the company's code of ethics, (2) the frequency of communication regarding the ethical code and program, (3) the quality of communication, (4) senior management's ability to successfully incorporate ethics into the organization, (5) and local management's ability to do the same. with regulatory requirements and the organization's own policies are a critical component of effective risk management. An organizations program is recommended to include monitoring and auditing systems that allow detection of criminal and other improper context to be found easily | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Maintaining the compliance and ethics program is one of the most important ways for an organization to maintain its ethical health, support its long-term prosperity, and preserve and promote its values. A compliance and ethics program supports the organization's business objectives, identifies the boundaries of legal and ethical behavior, and establishes a system to alert management when the organization is getting close to (or crossing) a boundary or approaching an obstacle that prevents the achievement of a business objective. Management should continuously improve its compliance and ethics program. This will enable it to better prevent, detect, and respond to similar misfeasance and/or malfeasance in the future | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program The compliance and ethics program should strive to deliver tangible benefits and outcomes to the organization. Every organization is unique and has its own objectives. As such, several objectives of the compliance and ethics program will be unique as well. There are a few universal program outcomes/objectives that a compliance and ethics capability should deliver. These include an enhanced culture of trust, accountability and integrity; prevention of noncompliance, preparation for when (not “if”) noncompliance occurs, protection (to the extent possible) from negative consequences, detection of noncompliance, response to noncompliance and improvement of the program to better prevent, protect, prepare, detect and respond to noncompliance | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program An important aspect of a high-performing program, and one that cannot be overstated, is enhancing an ethical culture. A strong ethical culture that provides important benefits would including a “safety net” for when formal controls are weak or absent, and an open environment of trust, ingredients that help drive overall workforce productivity. A well-designed compliance and ethics program is only half the picture | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Critical to its success and its ability to meet the challenges of constant change, increasing complexity, rapidly evolving threats, the need for continuous improvement requires organizations to have the commitment of both senior management and the board, adequate authorization and funding, the appropriate tools to facilitate measurement and rolling-up information, comprehensive training on the measurement process and an early socialization of approach. Implementation is often the most difficult aspect of any program. This is the juncture where most failure occurs. However, if executed well, it can represent the biggest opportunity for positive influence on the organization's performance and culture | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program The engaged involvement of key stakeholders is critical to a successful implementation or major enhancement of a compliance and ethics program, i.e. the dialogue and agreement up front, by all the major parties, regarding the objectives, goals, and overall purpose of the program will be critical to the project's eventual impact. By working together, compliance and ethics officers, executive management, and the board can help ensure a compliance and ethics program not only contributes to the improvement of the organization's governance practices but the success of its company's strategy as well | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program One of most important conditions for an ethics program to be effectively implemented is the existence of a feeling of trust from the employees toward the organization. Organizations that present high levels of misconduct will experience lack of trust from its employees, which possible will cause high turnover among its workforce. Integrate compliance and ethics - Address the “letter of the law” while promoting the “spirit of the law”. For some companies this means making a breach of company policy as serious as breaching laws, resulting in “internal” standards being as important as ‘mandatory’ standards | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Embed compliance and ethics risk management processes into the business - Organizations must systematically assess and prioritize present and emerging compliance and ethics risks. Such analysis should take into account the organization's culture, compliance and ethics history, as well as industry issues. Business processes should incorporate compliance and ethics program needs. Boards should routinely discuss these risks, and how they are addressed, with management. Demonstrate leadership - The board should ensure senior management consistently communicates and models the organization's values and behavioral expectations identified in the compliance and ethics program | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Require accountability and ownership - In order to have the compliance and ethics program “make a difference”, it should foster a corporate culture that places responsibility on individuals for their actions and motivates everyone. The board and management should ensure employees have appropriate training and information and should participate in such training themselves. Provide an open culture - Issues and problems should be, and in some cases are, required by law to be investigated and proactively managed to resolution. Unethical or illegal behavior should be addressed promptly. Employees must be required to raise and resolve violations of compliance or ethics standards | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program To do so, they must feel confident that they can take action without fear of retaliation. Such fears have been reduced, but not eliminated, with the introduction of the “whistleblower” protections of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and the Canadian equivalents. The board should inquire of management the steps they are taking to create this open culture. Measure performance and results - Compliance and ethics processes and results should be monitored and measured. Objective data should support evaluations that are more subjective. Evaluation results should provide the basis for continually improving the program. By using accurate, timely data on the organization's performance, managers know whether they are moving the entity closer to its objectives | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Measuring compliance and ethics program performance help organizations gauge their improvement and learn whether the company's tactics are contributing to the success of the company's strategy. Keeping the board informed is a critical activity and robust performance reporting facilitates that important effort too. An organization's compliance and ethics program should be measured like any other critical capability. There are numerous benefits and challenges to measuring the performance of a program. A well-known maxim is "what gets measured gets done.” The compliance and ethics program and capability is no different | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program The Open Compliance and Ethics Group, OCEG, a non-profit organization that provides a performance framework for integrating governance, compliance, risk management and culture, has developed a Measurement and Metrics Guide (MMG) for assisting in measuring and reporting on the performance of compliance and ethics programs. This measurement platform advocates that program objectives be aligned with and contribute to the enterprise objectives in a tangible way. In order to achieve desired program outcomes, an organization should design processes and practices that effectively measure program dimensions on three key dimensions: effectiveness, efficiency and responsiveness | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program A solid measurement system and approach should be implemented that embodies these principles: Key metrics and indicators should be specific/simple, measurable, actionable, relevant and timely. Performance measurement system should be reviewed and improved on an ongoing basis. It is only by gaining experience measuring performance that the organization can really refine and improve the system. Compliance risk is the current and prospective risk to earnings or capital arising from violations of, or nonconformance with, laws, rules, regulations, prescribed practices, internal policies, and procedures, or ethical standards | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Compliance risk also arises in situations where the laws or rules governing certain bank products or activities of the Bank's clients may be ambiguous or untested. This risk exposes the institution to fines, civil money penalties, payment of damages, and the voiding of contracts. Compliance risk can lead to diminished reputation, reduced franchise value, limited business opportunities, reduced expansion potential, and an inability to enforce contracts. Governance, Risk Management, and Compliance (GRC) management capability is the solution to addressing increasing stakeholder expectations. Solid financial results are no longer sufficient. Stakeholders are demanding more | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program They want to know about non-financial results and the intangibles that will ensure financial growth. They want increased reporting and transparency and insight into an organization's strategy, risks, and operations along with an understanding of the manner in which business is conducted. As with the quality movement of the mid-1980s to early 1990s, these stakeholder demands are becoming baseline expectations. Compliance and ethics practices can no longer be viewed in isolation of the rest of the organization, as some function off to the side to keep an organization out of jail. It must become part of the overall business strategy and operations, pervasive throughout the entire organization | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Compliance and ethics program Ultimately, taking this integrated approach will lead to better overall performance and compliance will become less of a burden on the business. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720374 | Compliance and ethics program |
Memory work is a process of engaging with the past which has both an ethical and historical dimension. The premise for memory work or "travail de memoire" is that history is not memory. We try to represent the past in the present through memory, history and the archives. As Paul Ricoeur argued, memory alone is fallible. Historical accounts are always partial and potentially misrepresent since historians do not work with bare, uninterpreted facts. Historians construct and use archives that contain traces of the past. However, historians and librarians determine which traces are preserved and stored. This is an interpretive activity | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work Historians pose questions to which the archives responds leading them to “facts that can be asserted in singular, discrete propositions that usually include dates, places, proper names, and verbs of action or condition”. Individuals remember events and experiences some of which they share with a collective. Through mutual reconstruction and recounting collective memory is reconstructed. Individuals are born into familial discourse which already provides a backdrop of communal memories against which individual memories are shaped. A group's communal memory becomes its common knowledge which creates a social bond, a sense of belonging and identity. Professional historians attempt to corroborate, correct, or refute collective memory | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work then entails adding an ethical component which acknowledges the responsibility towards revisiting distorted histories thereby decreasing the risk of social exclusion and increasing the possibility of social cohesion of at-risk groups. The concept of memory-work as distinguished from history-as-memory finds a textbook case in the Vichy Syndrome as described by Rousso. His title uses medical lexicon to refer to history-memory as dependent on working consciously with unconscious memories to revise accounts of history. This calls for an expanded archive that includes the "oral and popular tradition" as well as the written traditions normally associated with the archives | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work Pierre Nora, introduced 'lieu de mémoire' about 25 years ago, he traced the surge in memory work at the level of the nation-state to the revisiting of distorted histories of the anti-Semitic Vichy France (1940-1944) following the death of Charles de Gaulle in 1970. Structural changes resulted from the end of the peasantry and the dramatic economic slump as oil prices worldwide rose in 1974. Added to this was the intellectual collapse of Marxism precipitated in part by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s "Gulag Archipelago" which forced the French to rethink attitudes towards the past. 'Lieu de mémoire' closed down perspectives to better understand cultural memory, instead of opening up perspectives. He associated memory with place, and location | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work During memory work, the process of producing an image or what we refer to as the production of the imaginary, is central. Therefore, the key in the analysis of remembered history are contradictions. After meeting at Yale University in 1966, Jacques Derrida was a colleague and friend of Paul de Man's until de Man's death in 1983. In 1984 Derrida gave three lectures, including one at Yale University on the art of memory. In "Memories:for Paul de Man" described the relationship between memory work and deconstruction in this often-cited passage. Barbara Gabriel provided a model for reading the complexities of memory and forgetting by situating "unheimlich" within the "heimlich", in a Freudian 'one within the other structure' | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work As point of departure Gabriel examined Edgar Reitz's eleven-part West German television series entitled "Heimat". Reitz' work was in response to a larger movement in Germany national memory work provoked in part by an American television series entitled the "Holocaust" followed viewed by millions. As European art in general and German art in particular resurged in the 1960s, artists like Günter Grass and Edgar Reitz captured international attention as they grappled with issues of identity in a divided, post-Holocaust Germany. Gabriel developed the concept of an impulse towards national memory work in Germany that stemmed from a haunted subject yearning for a lost, far away, nostalgic place, a utopic homeland | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work "How do we confront that which we have excluded in order to be, whether it is the return of the repressed or the return of the strangers?" In other words, that which we fear as 'other' is within ourselves through our shared humanity. Repressed memories haunt all of us. After attending a memory methodology workshop in Cape Town, South Africa in 2005 on forced removal traumas, Australian performance artist Tanya Heyward, created a performance piece called "Site" in Melbourne Watch House in 2006. She referred to a burial ground at Prestwich Street, Cape Town, South Africa with three thousand skeletons dating back to Dutch colonization, the largest of its kind in the South Africa | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Memory work The concept of memory work is part of a sociological imagination from a post-national point of view. Expanding on Norbert Loeffler: The idea of one national history is only acceptable as a question, not as an answer. is related to identity work often associated with displaced persons. Some of the most provocative research on memory work has been authored by the Pied-noir, or French colonials in Algeria, who returned to France following the Algerian War. Examples of such thinkers include Jacques Derrida and Hélène Cixous. Another major writer in this field, Julia Kristeva, also moved away from the country of her birth, having emigrated to France from Bulgaria when she was 24. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7720399 | Memory work |
Philosophy of mathematics education The is an interdisciplinary area of study and research based on the intersection of the fields of mathematics education and the philosophy of mathematics, the latter being understood in an inclusive sense to include multidisciplinary theorizing about mathematics incorporating philosophical, sociological, anthropological, semiotic, historical, ethnomathematical, etc., perspectives. Some of the central questions addressed by this sub-field are: | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7723865 | Philosophy of mathematics education |
Sullivan principles The are the names of two corporate codes of conduct, developed by the African-American preacher Rev. Leon Sullivan, promoting corporate social responsibility: In 1977, Rev. Leon Sullivan, an African-American minister, was a member of the board of General Motors. At the time, General Motors was one of the largest corporations in the United States. General Motors also happened to be the largest employer of blacks in South Africa, a country which was pursuing a harsh program of state-sanctioned racial segregation and discrimination targeted primarily at the country's black population. Sullivan, looking back on his anti-Apartheid efforts, recalled: Starting with the work place, I tightened the screws step by step and raised the bar step by step | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7732687 | Sullivan principles |
Sullivan principles Eventually I got to the point where I said that companies must practice corporate civil disobedience against the laws and I threatened South Africa and said in two years Mandela must be freed, apartheid must end, and blacks must vote or else I'll bring every American company I can out of South Africa. The Sullivan principles, introduced in 1977 with one addition in 1984, consisted of seven requirements a corporation was to demand for its employees as a condition for doing business. In general, the principles demanded the equal treatment of employees regardless of their race both within and outside of the workplace, demands which directly conflicted with the official South African policies of racial segregation and unequal rights | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7732687 | Sullivan principles |
Sullivan principles The principles read: The were celebrated when introduced and gained wide use in the United States, particularly during the disinvestment campaign of the 1980s. Before the end of South Africa's apartheid era, the principles were formally adopted by more than 125 US corporations that had operations in South Africa. Of those companies that formally adopted the principles, at least 100 completely withdrew their existing operations from South Africa | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7732687 | Sullivan principles |
Sullivan principles However, as South Africa's system of apartheid persisted relatively unchanged from the 1970s into the late 1980s, Sullivan "abandoned [his principles] as not going far enough" complaining that the principles by themselves were not enough to pressure a South African government steadfast in its refusal to yield to change. In 1999, more than 20 years after the adoption of the original Sullivan Principles and six years after the end of apartheid, the Rev. Leon Sullivan and United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan together unveiled the new "Global Sullivan Principles" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7732687 | Sullivan principles |
Sullivan principles The overarching objective of these principles, according to Leon Sullivan, is "to support economic, social and political justice by companies where they do business," including respect for human rights and equal work opportunities for all peoples. In general, the expanded corporate code of conduct requires adopting multinational companies to be a full participant in the advancement of human rights and social justice internationally. The new principles read: | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7732687 | Sullivan principles |
Hand fetishism or hand partialism or also Cheirophilia is the sexual fetish for hands. This may include the sexual attraction to a specific area such as the fingers, palm or nails, or the attraction to a specific action performed by the hands; which may otherwise be considered non-sexual—such as washing or drying dishes. This fetish may manifest itself as a desire to experience physical interaction, or as a source of sexual fantasy. is recognized by the porn industry; however, aside from handjobs, it is one of the least common fetishes, despite foot fetishism being the most common. A hand fetish is a sexual attraction to the hands. This attraction is most commonly expressed with fingering, handjobs, sucking on the fingers and licking the palms | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7736805 | Hand fetishism |
Hand fetishism A sub-type of hand fetishism that is often expressed with scratching with the fingernails, painting the fingernails and fingernail bed length. In 2007, a study was conducted by the University of Bologna on around 5000 fetishist participants to see the prevalence of fetishes. The study analyzed the content inside online fetish communities and found only 669 participants referring to nails, an extension of hand fetishism. This did not refer to fingernails specifically, and the amount of 669 was less than 1% of the participants. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7736805 | Hand fetishism |
Agreeableness is a personality trait manifesting itself in individual behavioral characteristics that are perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative, warm, and considerate. In contemporary personality psychology, agreeableness is one of the five major dimensions of personality structure, reflecting individual differences in cooperation and social harmony. People who score high on this dimension are empathetic and altruistic, while a low agreeableness score relates to selfish behavior and a lack of empathy. Those who score very low on agreeableness show signs of dark triad behavior such as manipulation and competing with others rather than cooperating | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness is considered to be a superordinate trait, meaning that it is a grouping of personality sub-traits that cluster together statistically. The lower-level traits, or facets, grouped under agreeableness are: trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, and tender-mindedness. Like all Big Five personality traits, the roots of the modern concept of agreeableness can be traced to a 1936 study by Gordon Allport and Henry S. Odbert. Seven years later, Raymond Cattell published a cluster analysis of the thousands of personality-related words identified by Allport and Odbert. The clusters identified in this study served as a foundation for Cattell's further attempts to identify fundamental, universal, human personality factors | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness He eventually settled on 16 personality factors through the use of factor analysis. Further factor analyses revealed five higher-order, or "global", factors to encompass these 16. Although labelled "independence" by Cattell, a global factor defined by high scores on the E, H, L, and Q1 factors of the 16PF Questionnaire was an early precursor to the modern concept of agreeableness. Extent of agreeableness in the five factor model of personality is most commonly assessed through self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either "lexical" or based on "statements" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Which measure of either type is used is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the research being undertaken. "Lexical measures" use individual adjectives that reflect agreeableness or disagreeableness traits, such as sympathetic, cooperative, warm, considerate, harsh, unkind, rude. Words representing disagreeableness are reverse coded. Goldberg (1992) developed a 20-word measure as part of his 100-word Big Five markers, and Saucier (1994) developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-word mini-markers | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Thompson (2008) systematically revised and improved these markers to develop a 40-word measure with better psychometric properties in both American and non-American populations, the International English Mini-Markers. This brief measure has good internal consistency reliabilities and other validity for assessing agreeableness and other five factor personality dimensions, both within and, especially, without American populations. Internal consistency reliability of the measure for native English-speakers is reported as .86, that for non-native English-speakers is .80. "Statement measures" tend to comprise more words, and hence consume more research instrument space, than lexical measures | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, "Am on good terms with nearly everyone", "Am not interested in other people's problems" or "Sympathize with others' feelings". Cattell's factor analytic approach, used to identify the universal personality structures, inspired countless studies in the decades following the introduction of the 16PF. Using Cattell's original clusters, the 16 Personality Factors, and original data, multiple researchers independently developed a five factor model of personality over this period. From the early 1960s on, these explorations typically included a factor called "agreeableness" or "sociability | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness " Despite repeated replications of five stable personality factors following Cattell's pioneering work, this framework only began to dominate personality research in the early 1980s with the work of Lewis Goldberg. Using lexical studies similar to those of Allport and Odbert, Goldberg chose the term "Big Five" to reflect the sheer number of personality-related terms encompassed by each of these five distinct factors. One of these, agreeableness, was defined by a number of personality-related words similar to those present in earlier and more recent manifestations of the construct; examples include "friendly," "good-natured," "cooperative," "trustful," "nurturing," "sociable," and "considerate | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness " Beginning in the 1970s, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae began researching the development of personality assessments based on factor models. Beginning with cluster analyses of Cattell's 16 Personality Factors, Costa and McCrae initially settled on a three-factor model of personality. These three factors were neuroticism (vs. emotional stability), extraversion (vs. introversion), and openness (vs. closedness) to experience, resulting in the acronym "NEO." Due to similarities between their three-factor NEO Personality Inventory and Goldberg's Big Five, Costa and McCrae began to develop scales to assess agreeableness and conscientiousness in the early 1980s | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness This work culminated in the 1985 publication of the first NEO PI Manual to be based on the full Five Factor Model. Although this marked the introduction of agreeableness to the NEO PI, Costa and McCrae worked for an additional seven years to identify and elaborate on the facets comprising this factor in the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. In the NEO PI, each of the five factors identified by Costa and McCrae are identified with six lower-level traits. Known as facets, the lower-level traits subsumed by agreeableness were first introduced with the 1992 publication of the revised version of the NEO PI. Based on the modern NEO PI-R, the six facets of agreeableness are: Trust, straightforwardness, Altruism, Compliance, Modesty, and Tender-Mindedness | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Trust is a defining feature of psychosocial development, personality theory, and folk psychological conceptions of personality. Individuals who score high on this facet generally believe others' intentions to be benevolent. Those scoring low on this facet tend to be cynical and view others as suspicious, dishonest, or dangerous. Straightforwardness is the quality of directness and honesty in communicating with others. Despite a long history in moral philosophy, straightforwardness is not as vital to personality theory as the other facets of agreeableness. Those scoring high on straightforwardness tend to interact with others in a direct and honest manner | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Low scorers are less direct, tend to be high in self-monitoring, and are generally deceitful or manipulative. Although the two concepts are not identical, those who score low on this facet tend to be high in Machiavellianism. Straightforwardness is similar to a dimension in the Interpersonal circumplex called "Ingenuous versus calculating." According to Michael C. Ashton and Kibeom Lee, straightforwardness is similar to the honesty aspect of honesty-humility in the HEXACO Model. Similar to altruism in animals and ethical altruism, this facet is defined by measures of selflessness, self-sacrifice, generosity, and consideration, courtesy, and concern for others | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Altruism is similar to Alfred Adler's concept of social interest, which is a tendency to direct one's actions toward the betterment of society. Individuals who score low on Altruism tend to be discourteous, selfish, or greedy, a pattern of behaviors known as "self-interest" in Adlerian psychology. As a facet of agreeableness, compliance is defined as an individual's typical response to conflict. Those who score high on compliance tend to be meek and mild, and to prefer cooperation or deference as a means of resolving conflict. Low scorers tend to be aggressive, antagonistic, quarrelsome, and vindictive. While trust, straightforwardness, altruism, and compliance all refer to interpersonal or social behaviors, modesty refers to an individual's self-concept | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Those who score high on modesty tend to be humble and other-focused, while low scorers tend to be arrogant and self-aggrandizing. Low modesty is otherwise known as conceitedness or Narcissism and, in extreme cases, can manifest as Narcissistic personality disorder. Otherwise known as "humility" in the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, modesty resembles the humility aspect of Honesty-Humility in the HEXACO Model. Tender-mindedness is defined as the extent to which an individual's judgments and attitudes are determined by emotion. Coined by William James, this term was also prominent in early versions of the 16PF. Tender-mindedness is primarily defined by sympathy and corresponds to the International Personality Item Pool's "sympathy" scale | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness In contrast, "tough minded" is a trait associated with Psychoticism on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. Models based on psychobiological theories of personality have each incorporated a factor similar to agreeableness. In Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory the character trait known as cooperativeness is highly similar to and positively correlated with agreeableness. In Zuckerman's alternative five model of personality the trait known as Aggression-hostility is inversely related to agreeableness. To address the absence of measures of Dark triad traits (i.e., narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy), Michael Ashton and Kibeom Lee proposed the addition of a sixth factor to the Five Factor Model | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Validated with psycholexical studies similar to those used in the development of the Five Factor Model, the HEXACO Model adds Honesty-Humility to five factors resembling those in the NEO PI. Although Honesty-Humility does not directly correspond to any Big Five trait, it is strongly correlated with the Straightforwardness and Modesty facets of Big Five Agreeableness. As both of these facets are only weakly correlated with Big Five Agreeableness, Ashton and Lee suggest dividing NEO PI into two factors similar to those in the HEXACO Model: Honesty-Humility (i.e., Straightforwardness and Modesty) and a redefined (Trust, Altruism, Compliance, and Tender-Mindedness) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Reflecting this conception of Honesty-Humility and HEXACO as unique though similar concepts, Ashton and Lee propose that they represent different aspects of reciprocal altruism: fairness (Honesty-Humility) and tolerance (Agreeableness). Despite suggesting this reconceptualization of for the NEO PI, Ashton and Lee do not believe HEXACO is accurately captured by Trust, Altruism, Compliance, and Tender-Mindedness. In addition to accounting for these four facets of Big Five Agreeableness, the HEXACO Model's construction of includes content categorized under Neuroticism in the NEO PI (i.e., temperamentalness and irritability). To reflect the negative emotional content at the low end of HEXACO Agreeableness, this factor is also referred to as "(versus Anger) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness " The inclusion of anger in the definition of HEXACO further helps to differentiate this factor from Honesty-Humility. In response to offensive or transgressive actions, individuals who score low on Honesty-Humility tend not to respond immediately. Instead, they defer their response by planning their revenge and waiting for the perfect opportunity to enact it. Although those who score low on HEXACO also employ this premeditated strategy, they also tend to respond immediately with anger. To help capture the numerous distinctions between the Big Five and HEXACO models, Ashton and Lee propose four new facet labels in their conceptualization of Agreeableness: Forgiveness, Gentleness, Flexibility, and Patience | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness In addition to these four Agreeableness-specific facets, Lee and Ashton have proposed an additional "interstitial" facet located in a space shared by Agreeableness, Honesty-Humility, and Emotionality: Altruism versus Antagonism. is an asset in situations that require getting along with others. Compared to disagreeable persons, agreeable individuals display a tendency to perceive others in a more positive light. Because agreeable children are more sensitive to the needs and perspectives of others, they are less likely to suffer from social rejection. Specifically, research indicates that children who are less disruptive, less aggressive, and more skilled at entering play groups are more likely to gain acceptance by their peers | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness One study found that people high in agreeableness are more emotionally responsive in social situations. This effect was measured on both self-report questionnaires and physiological measures, and offers evidence that extraversion and neuroticism are not the only Big Five personality factors that influence emotion. The effect was especially pronounced among women. Research also shows that people high in agreeableness are more likely to control negative emotions like anger in conflict situations. Those who are high in agreeableness are more likely to use conflict-avoidant tactics when in conflict with others (whereas people low in agreeableness are more likely to use coercive tactics) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness They are also more willing to give ground to their adversary and may lose arguments with people who are less agreeable. From their perspective, they have not really lost an argument as much as maintained a congenial relationship with another person. A central feature of agreeableness is its positive association with altruism and helping behaviour. Across situations, people who are high in agreeableness are more likely to report an interest and involvement with helping others. Experiments have shown that most people are likely to help their own kin, and help when empathy has been aroused. Agreeable people are likely to help even when these conditions are not present | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness In other words, agreeable people appear to be "traited for helping" and do not need any other motivations. While agreeable individuals are habitually likely to help others, disagreeable people may be more likely to cause harm. Researchers have found that low levels of agreeableness are associated with hostile thoughts and aggression in adolescents, as well as poor social adjustment. People low in agreeableness are also more likely to be prejudiced against stigmatized groups such as the overweight. When mental illness is present, low agreeableness may be associated with narcissistic and anti-social tendencies. In theory, individuals who are extremely high in agreeableness are at risk for problems of dependency | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Empirical studies show that many more problems are associated with low agreeableness. However, high agreeableness does not always lead to prosocial behaviour, in a Milgram experiment conscientious and agreeable people, when forced by ill-intent authority, are more willing to administer high-intensity electric shocks to a victim, because conscientious and agreeable people are less capable of resistance. is of fundamental importance to psychological well-being, predicting mental health, positive affect, and good relations with others. In both childhood and adolescence agreeableness has been tied to externalizing issues. Along with this it has also been implicated in outcomes to conflict management skills, school adjustment, peer-social status and self-esteem | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Some work has been done looking into whether agreeableness levels through childhood have effects on adjustment and agreeableness into adulthood. Among young adults, individuals that have been diagnosed with either externalizing as well as internalizing disorders present lower levels of agreeableness and communion, and higher levels of negative emotionality, than those young adults without such disorders. also is reported to mediate links between anger and depression in young adults. Among college students, agreeableness is often associated with self-reports of emotional experience and control along with psycho-physiological responses to affectively charged stimuli. Across adulthood, low agreeableness has been found to be a health risk | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness High agreeableness, especially trust and honesty, has been linked to longevity. A study done by Caspi, Elder, and Bem (1987) found that explosive and ill-tempered children were found to have higher rates of divorce as adults when compared with their even-tempered peers | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Further, ill-tempered men had lower educational attainment, occupational status, and work stability, and ill-tempered women married men with similar low achievement profiles A second and more recent study by Shiner (2000) found that composite variables describing middle-childhood agreeableness and friendly compliance predicted adolescent academic performance, behavioral conduct, and social competence 10 years later Most recent is a study done by Larsen, Pulkkinen, and Adams (2002) in which they looked at many different levels of childhood behavior and emotion and the correlation into adulthood agreeableness | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness In their first analyses, structure coefficients showed that childhood compliance, aggression, and self-control, discriminated high-agreeableness from low-agreeableness in adults better than did activity versus passivity, constructiveness, and anxiety. In their second analyses, structure coefficients indicated that adulthood socialization and impulsivity discriminated high-agreeableness from low-agreeableness in adults better than did inhibition of aggression and anxiety. In linking childhood behavioral profiles to adulthood personality profiles, high-compliant, high-self-control, and low-aggressive children were most likely to become high-agreeable, high-socialized, and low-impulsive adults | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness These children were more unlikely to become low-agreeable, low-socialized, and high-impulsive adults. Further, low-compliant, low-self-control, and high-aggressive children were likely to become low-agreeable, low-socialized, and high-impulsive adults and these children were unlikely to become high-agreeable, high-socialized, and low-impulsive adults. In addition to this, children classified as low-compliance, low-self-control, low-aggression types and children classified as high-compliance, high-self-control, low-aggression types had a greater probability of becoming adults with high-agreeableness, high-socialization, high-impulsivity profiles | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness Looking at stability of agreeableness they found results that indicated that stable low agreeable individuals reported less career stability and more depression when compared with stable high agreeable individuals and low to high agreeable individuals. Further, stable high agreeable individuals reported lower levels of alcoholism than did the other groups and fewer arrests than did stable low agreeable individuals. In the United States, people in the West, Midwest, and South tend to have higher average scores on agreeableness than people living in other regions. According to researchers, the top ten most agreeable states are North Dakota, Minnesota, Mississippi, Utah, Wisconsin, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Oklahoma, and Nebraska | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness These findings are consistent with well-known expressions in these states, such as "southern hospitality" and "Minnesota nice." Because these states are generally less urbanized than the east and west coasts, people may be more likely to live in small communities and know their neighbors. Consequently, they may be more willing to care about and help their neighbours. In a study done by Albright et al. (1997) groups of college students from China and the United States rated strangers from both countries on the "Big Five" personality traits, external traits, and how well they were dressed. They found that both Chinese and U.S. students rated faces as showing similar levels of agreeableness and extroversion | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Agreeableness The people who were thought to be the most agreeable wore smiles, a facial expression that is recognized around the world. The findings of the research seem to suggest that the trait of agreeableness is attributed to people in a universal way. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7748323 | Agreeableness |
Psychopathy is traditionally a personality disorder characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, disinhibited, and egotistical traits. It is sometimes considered synonymous with sociopathy. Different conceptions of psychopathy have been used throughout history that are only partly overlapping and may sometimes be contradictory. Hervey M. Cleckley, an American psychiatrist, influenced the initial diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality reaction/disturbance in the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM), as did American psychologist George E. Partridge | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy The DSM and "International Classification of Diseases" (ICD) subsequently introduced the diagnoses of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and dissocial personality disorder (DPD) respectively, stating that these diagnoses have been referred to (or include what is referred to) as psychopathy or sociopathy. The creation of ASPD and DPD was driven by the fact that many of the classic traits of psychopathy were impossible to measure objectively. Canadian psychologist Robert D. Hare later repopularized the construct of psychopathy in criminology with his Checklist | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Although no psychiatric or psychological organization has sanctioned a diagnosis titled "psychopathy", assessments of psychopathic characteristics are widely used in criminal justice settings in some nations and may have important consequences for individuals. The study of psychopathy is an active field of research, and the term is also used by the general public, popular press, and in fictional portrayals. While the term is often employed in common usage along with "crazy", "insane", and "mentally ill", there is a categorical difference between psychosis and psychopathy. A person suffering from a chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy There are multiple conceptualizations of psychopathy, including "Cleckleyan psychopathy" (Hervey Cleckley's conception entailing bold, disinhibited behavior, and "feckless disregard") and "criminal psychopathy" (a meaner, more aggressive and disinhibited conception explicitly entailing persistent and sometimes serious criminal behavior). The latter conceptualization is typically used as the modern clinical concept and assessed by the Checklist. The label "psychopath" may have implications and stigma related to decisions about punishment severity for criminal acts, medical treatment, civil commitments, etc. Efforts have therefore been made to clarify the meaning of the term | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy The triarchic model suggests that different conceptions of psychopathy emphasize three observable characteristics to various degrees. Analyses have been made with respect to the applicability of measurement tools such as the Checklist (PCL, PCL-R) and Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) to this model. An early and influential analysis from Harris and colleagues indicated that a discrete category, or taxon, may underlie PCL-R psychopathy, allowing it to be measured and analyzed. However, this was only found for the behavioral Factor 2 items they identified, child problem behaviors; adult criminal behavior did not support the existence of a taxon | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Marcus, John, and Edens more recently performed a series of statistical analyses on PPI scores and concluded that psychopathy may best be conceptualized as having a "dimensional latent structure" like depression. Marcus et al. repeated the study on a larger sample of prisoners, using the PCL-R and seeking to rule out other experimental or statistical issues that may have produced the previously different findings. They again found that the psychopathy measurements do not appear to be identifying a discrete type (a taxon) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy They suggest that while for legal or other practical purposes an arbitrary cut-off point on trait scores might be used, there is actually no clear scientific evidence for an objective point of difference by which to label some people "psychopaths"; in other words, a "psychopath" may be more accurately described as someone who is "relatively psychopathic". The PCL-R was developed for research, not clinical forensic diagnosis, and even for research purposes to improve understanding of the underlying issues, it is necessary to examine dimensions of personality in general rather than only a constellation of traits. Studies have linked psychopathy to alternative dimensions such as antagonism (high), conscientiousness (low) and anxiousness (low) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy has also been linked to high psychoticism—a theorized dimension referring to tough, aggressive or hostile tendencies. Aspects of this that appear associated with psychopathy are lack of socialization and responsibility, impulsivity, sensation-seeking (in some cases), and aggression. Otto Kernberg, from a particular psychoanalytic perspective, believed psychopathy should be considered as part of a spectrum of pathological narcissism, that would range from narcissistic personality on the low end, malignant narcissism in the middle, and psychopathy at the high end | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism, three personality traits that are together referred to as the dark triad, share certain characteristics, such as a callous-manipulative interpersonal style. The dark tetrad refers to these traits with the addition of sadism. The current conceptions of psychopathy have been criticized for being poorly conceptualized, highly subjective, and encompassing a wide variety of underlying disorders. Dorothy Otnow Lewis has written Half of the Hare Checklist consists of symptoms of mania, hypomania, and frontal-lobe dysfunction, which frequently results in underlying disorders being dismissed | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Hare's conception of psychopathy has also been criticized for being reductionist, dismissive, tautological, and ignorant of context as well as the dynamic nature of human behavior. Some have called for rejection of the concept altogether, due to its vague, subjective and judgmental nature that makes it prone to misuse. Socially, psychopathy expresses extensive callous and manipulative self-serving behaviors with no regard for others, and often is associated with repeated delinquency, crime and violence. Mentally, impairments in processes related to affect and cognition, particularly socially related mental processes, have been found in those with the disorder | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Developmentally, symptoms of psychopathy have been identified in young children with conduct disorder, and is suggestive of at least a partial constitutional factor that influences its development. In terms of simple correlations, the PCL-R manual states an average score of 22.1 has been found in North American prisoner samples, and that 20.5% scored 30 or higher. An analysis of prisoner samples from outside North America found a somewhat lower average value of 17.5. Studies have found that psychopathy scores correlated with repeated imprisonment, detention in higher security, disciplinary infractions, and substance misuse | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Psychopathy, as measured with the PCL-R in institutional settings, shows in meta-analyses small to moderate effect sizes with institutional misbehavior, postrelease crime, or postrelease violent crime with similar effects for the three outcomes. Individual studies give similar results for adult offenders, forensic psychiatric samples, community samples, and youth. The PCL-R is poorer at predicting sexual re-offending. This small to moderate effect appears to be due largely to the scale items that assess impulsive behaviors and past criminal history, which are well-established but very general risk factors. The aspects of core personality often held to be distinctively psychopathic generally show little or no predictive link to crime by themselves | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy For example, Factor 1 of the PCL-R and Fearless dominance of the PPI-R have smaller or no relationship to crime, including violent crime. In contrast, Factor 2 and Impulsive antisociality of the PPI-R are associated more strongly with criminality. Factor 2 has a relationship of similar strength to that of the PCL-R as a whole. The antisocial facet of the PCL-R is still predictive of future violence after controlling for past criminal behavior which, together with results regarding the PPI-R which by design does not include past criminal behavior, suggests that impulsive behaviors is an independent risk factor. Thus, the concept of psychopathy may perform poorly when attempted to be used as a general theory of crime | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Studies have suggested a strong correlation between psychopathy scores and violence, and the PCL-R emphasizes features that are somewhat predictive of violent behavior. Researchers, however, have noted that psychopathy is dissociable from and not synonymous with violence. It has been suggested that psychopathy is associated with "instrumental", also known as predatory, proactive, or "cold blooded" aggression, a form of aggression characterized by reduced emotion and conducted with a goal differing from but facilitated by the commission of harm. One conclusion in this regard was made by a 2002 study of homicide offenders, which reported that the homicides committed by homicidal offenders with psychopathy were almost always (93 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy 3%) primarily instrumental, significantly more than the proportion (48.4%) of those committed by non-psychopathic homicidal offenders, with the instrumentality of the homicide also correlated with the total PCL-R score of the offender as well as their scores on the Factor 1 "interpersonal-affective" dimension. However, contrary to the equating of this to mean exclusively "in cold blood", more than a third of the homicides committed by psychopathic offenders involved some component of emotional reactivity as well. In any case, FBI profilers indicate that serious victim injury is generally an emotional offense, and some research supports this, at least with regard to sexual offending | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy One study has found more serious offending by non-psychopathic offenders on average than by offenders with psychopathy (e.g. more homicides versus more armed robbery and property offenses) and another that the Affective facet of the PCL-R predicted reduced offense seriousness. Studies on perpetrators of domestic violence find that abusers have high rates of psychopathy, with the prevalence estimated to be at around 15-30%. Furthermore, the commission of domestic violence is correlated with Factor 1 of the PCL-R, which describes the emotional deficits and the callous and exploitative interpersonal style found in psychopathy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy The prevalence of psychopathy among domestic abusers indicate that the core characteristics of psychopathy, such as callousness, remorselessness, and a lack of close interpersonal bonds, predispose those with psychopathy to committing domestic abuse, and suggest that the domestic abuses committed by these individuals are callously perpetrated (i.e. instrumentally aggressive) rather than a case of emotional aggression and therefore may not be amenable to the types of psychosocial interventions commonly given to domestic abuse perpetrators. Some clinicians suggest that assessment of the construct of psychopathy does not necessarily add value to violence risk assessment | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy A large systematic review and meta-regression found that the PCL performed the poorest out of nine tools for predicting violence. In addition, studies conducted by the authors or translators of violence prediction measures, including the PCL, show on average more positive results than those conducted by more independent investigators. There are several other risk assessment instruments which can predict further crime with an accuracy similar to the PCL-R and some of these are considerably easier, quicker, and less expensive to administer. This may even be done automatically by a computer simply based on data such as age, gender, number of previous convictions and age of first conviction | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Some of these assessments may also identify treatment change and goals, identify quick changes that may help short-term management, identify more specific kinds of violence that may be at risk, and may have established specific probabilities of offending for specific scores. Nonetheless, the PCL-R may continue to be popular for risk assessment because of its pioneering role and the large amount of research done using it. The Federal Bureau of Investigation reports that psychopathic behavior is consistent with traits common to some serial killers, including sensation seeking, a lack of remorse or guilt, impulsivity, the need for control, and predatory behavior | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy It has also been found that the homicide victims of psychopathic offenders were disproportionately female in comparison to the more equitable gender distribution of victims of non-psychopathic offenders. has been associated with commission of sexual crime, with some researchers arguing that it is correlated with a preference for violent sexual behavior. A 2011 study of conditional releases for Canadian male federal offenders found that psychopathy was related to more violent and non-violent offences but not more sexual offences. For child molesters, psychopathy was associated with more offences. A study on the relationship between psychopathy scores and types of aggression in a sample of sexual murderers, in which 84 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy 2% of the sample had PCL-R scores above 20 and 47.4% above 30, found that 82.4% of those with scores above 30 had engaged in sadistic violence (defined as enjoyment indicated by self-report or evidence) compared to 52.6% of those with scores below 30, and total PCL-R and Factor 1 scores correlated significantly with sadistic violence. Despite this, it is reported that offenders with psychopathy (both sexual and non-sexual offenders) are about 2.5 times more likely to be granted conditional release compared to non-psychopathic offenders | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy In considering the issue of possible reunification of some sex offenders into homes with a non-offending parent and children, it has been advised that any sex offender with a significant criminal history should be assessed on the PCL-R, and if they score 18 or higher, then they should be excluded from any consideration of being placed in a home with children under any circumstances. There is, however, increasing concern that PCL scores are too inconsistent between different examiners, including in its use to evaluate sex offenders. The possibility of psychopathy has been associated with organized crime, economic crime and war crimes | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Terrorists are sometimes considered psychopathic, and comparisons may be drawn with traits such as antisocial violence, a selfish world view that precludes the welfare of others, a lack of remorse or guilt, and blame externalization. However, John Horgan, author of "The Psychology of Terrorism", argues that such comparisons could also then be drawn more widely: for example, to soldiers in wars. Coordinated terrorist activity requires organization, loyalty and ideological fanaticism often to the extreme of sacrificing oneself for an ideological cause. Traits such as a self-centered disposition, unreliability, poor behavioral controls, and unusual behaviors may disadvantage or preclude psychopathic individuals in conducting organized terrorism | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy It may be that a significant portion of people with the disorder are socially successful and tend to express their antisocial behavior through more covert avenues such as social manipulation or white collar crime. Such individuals are sometimes referred to as "successful psychopaths", and may not necessarily always have extensive histories of traditional antisocial behavior as characteristic of traditional psychopathy. The PCL:YV is an adaptation of the PCL-R for individuals aged 13–18 years. It is, like the PCL-R, done by a trained rater based on an interview and an examination of criminal and other records. The "Antisocial Process Screening Device" (APSD) is also an adaptation of the PCL-R | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy It can be administered by parents or teachers for individuals aged 6–13 years. High psychopathy scores for both juveniles, as measured with these instruments, and adults, as measured with the PCL-R and other measurement tools, have similar associations with other variables, including similar ability in predicting violence and criminality. Juvenile psychopathy may also be associated with more negative emotionality such as anger, hostility, anxiety, and depression. Psychopathic traits in youth typically comprise three factors: callous/unemotional, narcissism, and impulsivity/irresponsibility. There is positive correlation between early negative life events of the ages 0–4 and the emotion-based aspects of psychopathy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy There are moderate to high correlations between psychopathy rankings from late childhood to early adolescence. The correlations are considerably lower from early- or mid-adolescence to adulthood. In one study most of the similarities were on the Impulsive- and Antisocial-Behavior scales. Of those adolescents who scored in the top 5% highest psychopathy scores at age 13, less than one third (29%) were classified as psychopathic at age 24. Some recent studies have also found poorer ability at predicting long-term, adult offending. Conduct disorder is diagnosed based on a prolonged pattern of antisocial behavior in childhood and/or adolescence, and may be seen as a precursor to ASPD | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Some researchers have speculated that there are two subtypes of conduct disorder which mark dual developmental pathways to adult psychopathy. The DSM allows differentiating between childhood onset before age 10 and adolescent onset at age 10 and later. Childhood onset is argued to be more due to a personality disorder caused by neurological deficits interacting with an adverse environment. For many, but not all, childhood onset is associated with what is in Terrie Moffitt's developmental theory of crime referred to as "life-course- persistent" antisocial behavior as well as poorer health and economic status. Adolescent onset is argued to more typically be associated with short-term antisocial behavior | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy It has been suggested that the combination of early-onset conduct disorder and ADHD may be associated with life-course-persistent antisocial behaviors as well as psychopathy. There is evidence that this combination is more aggressive and antisocial than those with conduct disorder alone. However, it is not a particularly distinct group since the vast majority of young children with conduct disorder also have ADHD. Some evidence indicates that this group has deficits in behavioral inhibition, similar to that of adults with psychopathy. They may not be more likely than those with conduct disorder alone to have the interpersonal/affective features and the deficits in emotional processing characteristic of adults with psychopathy | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |
Psychopathy Proponents of different types/dimensions of psychopathy have seen this type as possibly corresponding to adult secondary psychopathy and increased disinhibition in the triarchic model. The DSM-5 includes a specifier for those with conduct disorder who also display a callous, unemotional interpersonal style across multiple settings and relationships. The specifier is based on research which suggests that those with conduct disorder who also meet criteria for the specifier tend to have a more severe form of the disorder with an earlier onset as well as a different response to treatment | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7753430 | Psychopathy |