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History of animal testing Prophylactic treatment with anti-virals has been evaluated in macaques because an introduction of the virus can only be controlled in an animal model. The finding that prophylaxis can be effective at blocking infection has altered the treatment for occupational exposures, such as needle exposures. Such exposures are now followed rapidly with anti-HIV drugs, and this practice has resulted in measurable transient virus infection similar to the NHP model. Similarly, the mother-to-fetus transmission, and its fetal prophylaxis with antivirals such as tenofovir and AZT, has been evaluated in controlled testing in macaques not possible in humans, and this knowledge has guided antiviral treatment in pregnant mothers with HIV | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing "The comparison and correlation of results obtained in monkey and human studies are leading to a growing validation and recognition of the relevance of the animal model. Although each animal model has its limitations, carefully designed drug studies in nonhuman primates can continue to advance our scientific knowledge and guide future clinical trials." Throughout the 20th century, research that used live animals has led to many other medical advances and treatments for human diseases, such as: organ transplant techniques and anti-transplant rejection medications, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics like penicillin, and whooping cough vaccine | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing Presently, animal experimentation continues to be used in research that aims to solve medical problems including Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis spinal cord injury, and many more conditions in which there is no useful "in vitro" model system available. Animal testing for veterinary studies accounts for around five percent of research using animals. Treatments to each of the following animal diseases have been derived from animal studies: rabies, anthrax, glanders, Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis, Texas cattle fever, Classical swine fever (hog cholera), Heartworm and other parasitic infections. Testing animals for rabies do require the animal to be dead, and it takes two hours to conduct the test | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing Basic and applied research in veterinary medicine continues in varied topics, such as searching for improved treatments and vaccines for feline leukemia virus and improving veterinary oncology. In 1655, physiologist Edmund O'Meara was recorded as saying that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state." O'Meara thus expressed one of the chief scientific objections to vivisection: that the pain that the subject endured would interfere with the accuracy of the results. In 1822, the first animal protection law was enacted in the British parliament, followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act (1876), the first law specifically aimed at regulating animal testing | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing The legislation was promoted by Charles Darwin, who wrote to Ray Lankester in March 1871: You ask about my opinion on vivisection. I quite agree that it is justifiable for real investigations on physiology; but not for mere damnable and detestable curiosity. It is a subject which makes me sick with horror, so I will not say another word about it, else I shall not sleep to-night." Opposition to the use of animals in medical research arose in the United States during the 1860s, when Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), with America's first specifically anti-vivisection organization being the American AntiVivisection Society (AAVS), founded in 1883 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing In the UK, an article in the "Medical Times and Gazette" on April 28, 1877, indicates that anti-vivisectionist campaigners, mainly clergymen, had prepared a number of posters entitled, "This is vivisection," "This is a living dog," and "This is a living rabbit," depicting animals in a poses that they said copied the work of Elias von Cyon in St. Petersburg, though the article says the images differ from the originals. It states that no more than 10 or a dozen men were actively involved in animal testing on living animals in the UK at that time. Antivivisectionists of the era believed the spread of mercy was the great cause of civilization, and vivisection was cruel. However, in the U.S | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing , the antivivisectionists' efforts were defeated in every legislature because of the widespread support of an informed public for the careful and judicious use of animals. The early antivivisectionist movement in the U.S. dwindled greatly in the 1920s, potentially caused by a variety of factors including the opposition of the medical community, enormous improvements in medicine through the use of animals, and the tendency of the antivivisectionists to misrepresentation and exaggeration, and their use of inaccurate, vague and outdated references. Overall, this movement had no US legislative success | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing The passing of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act, in 1966 was more focused on protecting the welfare of animals that are used in all fields, including research, food production, consumer product development, etc. On the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing held that experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge and to ensure the safety of products intended for human and animal use. In 1831, the founders of the Dublin Zoo—the fourth oldest zoo in Europe, after Vienna, Paris, and London—were members of the medical profession, interested in studying the animals both while they were alive and when they were dead | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing Claude Bernard, known as the "prince of vivisectors" and the father of physiology—whose wife, Marie Françoise Martin, founded the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883—famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen." Arguing that "experiments on animals...are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man...the effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree," Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard scientific method. In 1896, the physiologist and physician Dr. Walter B | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
History of animal testing Cannon said "The antivivisectionists are the second of the two types Theodore Roosevelt described when he said, 'Common sense without conscience may lead to crime, but conscience without common sense may lead to folly, which is the handmaiden of crime.'" These divisions between pro- and anti- animal testing groups first came to public attention during the brown dog affair in the early 20th century, when hundreds of medical students clashed with anti-vivisectionists and police over a memorial to a vivisected dog. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800672 | History of animal testing |
Phenomenology (psychology) Phenomenology within psychology (phenomenological psychology) is the psychological study of subjective experience. It is an approach to psychological subject matter that has its roots in the phenomenological philosophical work of Edmund Husserl. Early phenomenologists such as Husserl, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty conducted philosophical investigations of consciousness in the early 20th century | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) Their critiques of psychologism and positivism later influenced at least two main fields of contemporary psychology: the phenomenological psychological approach of the Duquesne School (The Descriptive Phenomenological Method in Psychology), including Amedeo Giorgi and Frederick Wertz; and the experimental approaches associated with Francisco Varela, Shaun Gallagher, Evan Thompson, and others (embodied mind thesis). Other names associated with the movement include Jonathan Smith (interpretative phenomenological analysis), Steinar Kvale, and Wolfgang Köhler. But "an even stronger influence on psychopathology came from Heidegger (1963), particularly through Kunz (1931), Blankenburg (1971), Tellenbach (1983), Binswanger (1994), and others | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) " Phenomenological psychologists have also figured prominently in the history of the humanistic psychology movement. The experiencing subject can be considered to be the person or self, for purposes of convenience. In phenomenological philosophy (and in particular in the work of Husserl, Heidegger, and Merleau-Ponty), "experience" is a considerably more complex concept than it is usually taken to be in everyday use. Instead, experience (or being, or existence itself) is an "in-relation-to" phenomenon, and it is defined by qualities of directedness, embodiment, and worldliness, which are evoked by the term "Being-in-the-World". The quality or nature of a given experience is often referred to by the term qualia, whose archetypical exemplar is "redness" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) For example, we might ask, "Is my experience of redness the same as yours?" While it is difficult to answer such a question in any concrete way, the concept of intersubjectivity is often used as a mechanism for understanding how it is that humans are able to empathise with one another's experiences, and indeed to engage in meaningful communication about them. The phenomenological formulation of Being-in-the-World, where person and world are mutually constitutive, is central here. The philosophical psychology prevalent before the end of the 19th century relied heavily on introspection | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) The speculations concerning the mind based on those observations were criticized by the pioneering advocates of a more scientific approach to psychology, such as William James and the behaviorists Edward Thorndike, Clark Hull, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner. However, not everyone agrees that introspection is intrinsically problematic, such as Francisco Varela, who has trained experimental participants in the structured "introspection" of phenomenological reduction | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) In the early 1970s, Amedeo Giorgi applied phenomenological theory to his development of the Descriptive Phenomenological Method in Psychology in order to overcome certain problems he perceived, from his work in psychophysics, with approaching subjective phenomena from the traditional hypothetical-deductive framework of the natural sciences. Giorgi hoped to use what he had learned from his natural science background to develop a rigorous qualitative research method. Giorgi has thus described his overall project as such: "[Phenomenological psychology] is nothing like natural sciences... because its [sic] [dealing with] human experiences and human phenomena | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) [However] I want to be sure that our criteria is [sic] this: that every natural scientist will have to respect our method. I'm not just trying to satisfy clinicians, or therapists, or humanists, I'm trying to satisfy the most severe criterion—natural scientists... because I anticipate that some day, when qualitative research develops and gets strong, the natural science people are going to criticize it. And I want to be able to stand up and say, 'Go ahead, criticize it—but you won't find any flaws here'." Philosophers have long confronted the problem of "qualia" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) Few philosophers believe that it is possible to be sure that one person's experience of the "redness" of an object is the same as another person's, even if both persons had effectively identical genetic and experiential histories. In principle, the same difficulty arises in feelings (the subjective experience of emotion), in the experience of effort, and especially in the "meaning" of concepts. As a result, many qualitative psychologists have claimed phenomenological inquiry to be essentially a matter of "meaning-making" and thus a question to be addressed by interpretive approaches. Carl Rogers's person-centered psychotherapy theory is based directly on the "phenomenal field" personality theory of Combs and Snygg | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Phenomenology (psychology) That theory in turn was grounded in phenomenological thinking. Rogers attempts to put a therapist in closer contact with a person by listening to the person's report of their recent subjective experiences, especially emotions of which the person is not fully aware. For example, in relationships the problem at hand is often not based around what actually happened but, instead, based around the perceptions and feelings of each individual in the relationship. The phenomenal field focuses on "how one feels right now". | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7802146 | Phenomenology (psychology) |
Mental reservation (or mental equivocation) is an ethical theory and a doctrine in moral theology that recognizes the "lie of necessity", and holds that when there is a conflict between justice and veracity, it is justice that should prevail. The doctrine is a special branch of casuistry (case-based reasoning) developed in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. While associated with the Jesuits, it did not originate with them. It is a theory debated by moral theologians, but not part of Canon Law. It was argued in moral theology, and now in ethics, that mental reservation was a way to fulfill obligations both to tell the truth and to keep secrets from those not entitled to know them (for example, because of the seal of the confessional or other clauses of confidentiality) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Mental reservation, however, is regarded as unjustifiable without grave reason for withholding the truth. This condition was necessary to preserve a general idea of truth in social relations. Social psychologists have advanced cases where the actor is confronted with an avoidance-avoidance conflict, in which he both doesn't want to say the truth and doesn't want to make an outright lie; in such circumstances, equivocal statements are generally preferred. This type of equivocation has been defined as “nonstraightforward communication...ambiguous, contradictory, tangential, obscure or even evasive | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation ” People typically equivocate when posed a question to which all of the possible replies have potentially negative consequences, yet a reply is still expected (the situational theory of communicative conflict). The Bible contains a good example of equivocation. Abraham was married to Sarah/Sarai, his half-sister by a different mother. Fearing that as he traveled people would covet his beautiful wife and as a result kill him to take her, he counselled her to agree with him when he would say that "she is my sister." This happened on two occasions, first with the Pharaoh of Egypt, told in Genesis 12:11-13, and second, with a king called Abimelech in Gen 20:12 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Abraham later explained to Abimelech that Sarah was indeed his sister, as they shared the same father, although had different mothers. A frequently cited example of equivocation is a well-known incident from the life of Athanasius of Alexandria. When Julian the Apostate was seeking Athanasius's death, Athanasius fled Alexandria and was pursued up the Nile. Seeing the imperial officers were gaining on him, Athanasius took advantage of a bend in the river that hid his boat from its pursuers and ordered his boat turned around. When the two boats crossed paths, the Roman officers shouted out, asking if anyone had seen Athanasius. As instructed by Athanasius, his followers shouted back, "Yes, he is not very far off | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation " The pursuing boat hastily continued up the river, while Athanasius returned to Alexandria, where he remained in hiding until the end of the persecution. Another anecdote often used to illustrate equivocation concerns Francis of Assisi. He once saw a man fleeing from a murderer. When the murderer then came upon Francis, he demanded to know if his quarry had passed that way. Francis answered, "He did not pass this way," sliding his forefinger into the sleeve of his cassock, thus misleading the murderer and saving a life. A variant of this anecdote is cited by the canonist Martin de Azpilcueta to illustrate his doctrine of a mixed speech ("oratoria mixta") combining speech and gestural communication | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation When there was good reason for using equivocation, its lawfulness was admitted by all moral theologians. Traditionally, the doctrine of mental reservation was intimately linked with the concept of equivocation, which allowed the speaker to employ double meanings of words to tell the "literal" truth while concealing a deeper meaning. The traditional teaching of moral theologians is that a lie is intrinsically evil, and therefore, never allowed. However, there are instances where one is also under an obligation to keep secrets faithfully, and sometimes the easiest way of fulfilling that duty is to say what is false, or to tell a lie. Writers of all creeds and of none, both ancient and modern, have frankly accepted this position | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation They admit the doctrine of the "lie of necessity", and maintain that when there is a conflict between justice and veracity it is justice that should prevail. The common Catholic teaching has formulated the theory of mental reservation as a means by which the claims of both justice and veracity can be satisfied. If there is no good reason to the contrary, truth requires all to speak frankly and openly in such a way as to be understood by those who are addressed. A sin is committed if mental reservations are used without just cause, or in cases when the questioner has a right to the naked truth | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation In "wide mental reservation" the qualification comes from the ambiguity of the words themselves, or from the circumstances of time, place, or person in which they are uttered. Spanish Dominican Raymond of Penafort was a noted canon lawyer, and one of the first writers on casuistry, i.e., seeking to resolve moral problems by extracting or extending theoretical rules from a particular case and applying them to new instances. He noted that Augustine of Hippo said that a man must not slay his own soul by lying in order to preserve the life of another, and that it would be a most perilous doctrine to admit that we may do a less evil to prevent another doing a greater | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation He said that while most doctors teach this, he acknowledged that others allow that a lie should be told when a man's life is at stake. Raymond gave as an example, if one is asked by murderers bent on taking the life of someone hiding in the house whether he is in: Raymond did not believe that Augustine would have objection to any of these. Those who hear them may understand them in a sense which is not true, but their self-deception may be permitted by the speaker for a good reason. According to Malloch and Huntley (1966), this doctrine of permissible "equivocation" did not originate with the Jesuits | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation They cite a short treatise, "", that had been written by Martin Azpilcueta (also known as Doctor Navarrus), an Augustinian who was serving as a consultant to the Apostolic Penitentiary. It was published in Rome in 1584. The first Jesuit influence upon this doctrine was not until 1609, "when Suarez rejected Azpilcueta's basic proof and supplied another" (speaking of Francisco Suárez). The 16th-century Spanish theologian Martin de Azpilcueta (often called "Navarrus" because he was born in the Kingdom of Navarre) wrote at length about the doctrine of "mentalis restrictio" or mental reservation | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Navarrus held that mental reservation involved truths "expressed partly in speech and partly in the mind," relying upon the idea that God hears what is in one's mind while human beings hear only what one speaks. Therefore, the Christian's moral duty was to tell the truth to God. Reserving some of that truth from the ears of human hearers was moral if it served a greater good. This is the doctrine of "strict mental reservation", by which the speaker mentally adds some qualification to the words which they utter, and the words together with the mental qualification make a true assertion in accordance with fact. Navarrus gave the doctrine of mental reservation a far broader and more liberal interpretation than had anyone up to that time | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Although some other Catholic theological thinkers and writers took up the argument in favor of strict mental reservation, canonist Paul Laymann opposed it; the concept remained controversial within the Roman Catholic Church, which never officially endorsed or upheld the doctrine and eventually condemned as formulated by Sanchez by Pope Innocent XI in 1679. After this condemnation by the Holy See no Catholic theologian has defended the lawfulness of strict mental reservations. The linked theories of mental reservation and equivocation became notorious in England during the Elizabethan era and the Jacobean era, when Jesuits who had entered England to minister to the spiritual needs of Catholics were captured by the authorities. The Jesuits Robert Southwell (c | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation 1561–1595) (who was also a poet of note) and Henry Garnet (1555–1606) both wrote treatises on the topic, which was of far more than academic interest to them. Both risked their lives bringing the sacraments to recusant Catholics — and not only "their" lives, since sheltering a priest was a capital offence. In 1586, Margaret Clitherow had been pressed to death for refusing to enter a plea on the charge of harbouring two priests at York. When caught, tortured and interrogated, Southwell and Garnet practiced mental reservation not to save themselves — their deaths were a foregone conclusion — but to protect their fellow believers | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Southwell, who was arrested in 1592, was accused at his trial of having told a witness that even if she was forced by the authorities to swear under oath, it was permissible to lie to conceal the whereabouts of a priest. Southwell replied that that was not what he had said. He had said that "to an oath were required justice, judgement and truth", but the rest of his answer goes unrecorded because one of the judges angrily shouted him down. Convicted in 1595, Southwell was hanged, drawn and quartered. More famous in his own era was Henry Garnet, who wrote a defense of Southwell in 1598; Garnet was captured by the authorities in 1606 due to his alleged involvement in the Gunpowder Plot | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Facing the same accusations as Southwell, his attempts to defend himself met with no better result: later that year, Garnet was executed in the same fashion. The Protestants considered these doctrines as mere justifications for lies. Catholic ethicists also voiced objections: the Jansenist "Blaise Pascal...attacked the Jesuits in the seventeenth century for what he saw as their moral laxity." "By 1679, the doctrine of strict mental reservation put forward by Navarrus had become such a scandal that Pope Innocent XI officially condemned it | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation " Other casuists justifying mental reservation included Thomas Sanchez, who was criticized by Pascal in his "Provincial Letters" – although Sanchez added various restrictions (it should not be used in ordinary circumstances, when one is interrogated by competent magistrates, when a creed is requested, even for heretics, etc.), which were ignored by Pascal. This type of equivocation was famously mocked in the porter's speech in Shakespeare's "Macbeth", in which the porter directly alludes to the practice of deceiving under oath by means of equivocation. "Faith, here's an equivocator, that could swear in both the scales against either scale; who committed treason enough for God's sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation " ("Macbeth", Act 2, Scene 3) See, for example Robert Southwell and Henry Garnet, author of "A Treatise of Equivocation" (published secretly c. 1595)—to whom, it is supposed, Shakespeare was specifically referring. Shakespeare made the reference to priests because the religious use of equivocation was well known in those periods of early modern England (e.g. under James VI/I) when it was a capital offence for a Roman Catholic priest to enter England. A Jesuit priest would equivocate in order to protect himself from the secular authorities without (in his eyes) committing the sin of lying | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation Following Innocent XI's condemnation of strict mental reservation, equivocation (or wide mental reservation) was still considered orthodox, and was revived and defended by Alphonsus Liguori. The Jesuit Gabriel Daniel wrote in 1694 "Entretiens de Cleanthe et d'Eudoxe sur les lettres provinciales", a reply to Pascal's "Provincial Letters" in which he accused Pascal of lying, or even of having himself used mental reservation, by not mentioning all the restrictions imposed by Sanchez on the use of this form of deception | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation In his licentiate thesis, Edouard Guilloux says that it is shown from the study of language "that there can be a gap between what a speaker means when he utters a given sentence and the literal meaning of that same sentence", yet "the literal meaning of a sentence must be apt to convey what the speaker means: the speaker cannot authentically be said to have meant to say something that has no relation to the literal meaning of the sentence he utters." "Since the non-literal meaning intended by the speaker can be detected in the circumstances of his utterance, he can authentically be said to have meant to say it, and if that meaning yields a true statement, then he has said nothing false | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation " According to Alphonsus Liguori, for the licit use of a mental reservation, "an absolutely serious cause is not required; any reasonable cause is enough, for instance to free oneself from the inconvenient and unjust interrogation of another." Alphonsus said, "we do not deceive our neighbor, but for a just cause we allow that he deceive himself." The "New Catholic Encyclopedia" says, "A man can affirm that he had coffee and toast for breakfast without denying that he had an egg, or he might affirm that he has a lesser amount of money in his pocket without denying that he also has a greater amount | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation So long as he has reasonable cause to conceal part of the truth, he does no wrong, provided, of course, that he is careful not to indicate that he has 'only' so much to eat or that he has 'only' so much money." Also, if "a wife, who has been unfaithful but after her lapse has received the Sacrament of Penance, is asked by her husband if she has committed adultery, she could truthfully reply: 'I am free from sin.'" This type of untruth was condemned by Kant in "On a supposed 'right to lie’". Kant was debating against Benjamin Constant, who had claimed, from a consequentialist stance opposed to Kant's categorical imperative, that: "To tell the truth is thus a duty; but it is only in respect to one who has a right to the truth | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation But no one has a right to a truth which injures others." On the other hand, Kant asserted, in the "Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals", that lying, or deception of any kind, would be forbidden under any interpretation and in any circumstance. In "Groundwork", Kant gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money without intending to pay it back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts perfect duty) because it would logically contradict the reliability of language | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation If it is universally acceptable to lie, then no one would believe anyone and all truths would be assumed to be lies (this last clause was accepted by casuists, hence the reasons for restrictions given to the cases where deception was authorized). The right to deceive could also not be claimed because it would deny the status of the person deceived as an end in himself. And the theft would be incompatible with a possible kingdom of ends. Therefore, Kant denied the right to lie or deceive for any reason, regardless of context or anticipated consequences. However, it was permissible to remain silent or say no more than needed (such as in the infamous example of a murderer asking to know where someone is) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation The doctrines have also been criticized by Sissela Bok and by Paul Ekman, who defines lies by omission as the main form of lying – though larger and more complex moral and ethical issues of lying and truth-telling extend far beyond these specific doctrines. Ekman, however, does not consider cases of deception where "it is improper to question" the truth as real form of deceptions – this sort of case, where communication of truth is not to be expected and so deception is justified, was included by casuists | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation The Irish Catholic Church allegedly misused the concept of mental reservation when dealing with situations relating to clerical child sexual abuse, by disregarding the restrictions placed on its employment by moral theologians and treating it as a method that "allows clerics (to) mislead people...without being guilty of lying", for example when dealing with the police, victims, civil authorities and media | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation In the Murphy Report into the sexual abuse scandal in the Catholic archdiocese of Dublin, Cardinal Desmond Connell describes it thus: Cathleen Kaveny, writing in the Catholic magazine "Commonweal", notes that Henry Garnet in his treatise on the topic took pains to argue that no form of mental reservation was justified — and might even be a mortal sin — if it would run contrary to the requirements of faith, charity or justice. But according to the Murphy Report: Kaveny concludes: "The truths of faith are illuminated by the lives of the martyrs. Southwell and Garnet practiced mental reservation to save innocent victims while sacrificing themselves. The Irish prelates practiced mental reservation to save themselves while sacrificing innocent victims | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Mental reservation And that difference makes all the difference." | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7803345 | Mental reservation |
Poor relief In English and British history, poor relief refers to government and ecclesiastical action to relieve poverty. Over the centuries, various authorities have needed to decide whose poverty deserves relief and also who should bear the cost of helping the poor. Alongside ever-changing attitudes towards poverty, many methods have been attempted to answer these questions. Since the early 16th century legislation on poverty enacted by the English Parliament, poor relief has developed from being little more than a systematic means of punishment into a complex system of government-funded support and protection, especially following the creation in the 1940s of the welfare state | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief In the late 15th century, parliament took action on the growing problem of poverty, focusing on punishing people for being "vagabonds" and for begging. In 1495, during the reign of King Henry VII, Parliament enacted the Vagabond Act. This provided for officers of the law to arrest and hold "all such vagabonds, idle and suspect persons living suspiciously and them so taken to set in stocks, there to remain three nights and to have none other sustenance but bread and water; and after the said three days and three nights, to be had out and set at large and to be commanded to avoid the town | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief " As historian Mark Rathbone has discussed in his article "Vagabond!", this Act of Parliament relied on a very loose definition of a vagabond and did not make any distinction between those who were simply unemployed and looking for employment and those who chose to live the life of a vagabond. In addition, the Act failed to recognise the impotent poor, those who could not provide for themselves. These included the sick, the elderly, and the disabled. This lack of a precise definition of a vagabond would hinder the effectiveness of the Vagabond Act for years to come. The problem of poverty in England was exacerbated during the early 16th century by a dramatic increase in the population. This rose "…from little more than 2 million in 1485,…(to) about 2 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief 8 million by the end of Henry VII's reign (1509)". The population was growing faster than the economy's ability to provide employment opportunities. The problem was made worse because during the English Reformation, Henry VIII severed the ecclesiastical governance of his kingdoms of England and Ireland and made himself the "Supreme Governor" of the Church of England. This involved the Dissolution of the Monasteries in England and Wales: the assets of hundreds of rich religious institutions, including their great estates, were taken by the Crown. This had a devastating impact on poor relief | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief According to the historian Paul Slack, prior to the Dissolution "it has been estimated that monasteries alone provided 6,500 pounds a year in alms before 1537 (); and that sum was not made good by private benefactions until after 1580." In addition to the closing of the monasteries, most hospitals (which in the 16th century were generally almshouses rather than medical institutions) were also closed, as they "had come to be seen as special types of religious houses". This left many of the elderly and sick without accommodation or care. In 1531, the Vagabonds and Beggars Act was revised, and a new Act was passed by parliament which did make some provision for the different classes of the poor | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief The sick, the elderly, and the disabled were to be issued with licences to beg. But those who were out of work and in search of employment were still not spared punishment. Throughout the 16th century, a fear of social unrest was the primary motive for much legislation that was passed by parliament. This fear of social unrest carried into the reign of Edward VI. A new level of punishment was introduced in the Duke of Somerset's Vagrancy Act of 1547. "Two years' servitude and branding with a 'V' was the penalty for the first offense, and attempts to run away were to be punished by lifelong slavery and, there for a second time, execution." However, "there is no evidence that the Act was enforced | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief " In 1550 these punishments were revised in a new act that was passed. The act of 1550 makes a reference to the limited enforcement of the punishments established by the Act of 1547 by stating "the extremity of some [of the laws] have been occasion that they have not been put into use." Following the revision of the Duke of Somerset’s Act of 1547, parliament passed the poor Act in 1552. This focused on using the parishes as a source of funds to combat the increasing poverty epidemic. This statute appointed two "overseers" from each parish to collect money to be distributed to the poor who were considered to belong to the parish | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief These overseers were to 'gently ask' for donations for poor relief; refusal would ultimately result in a meeting with the local bishop, who would 'induce and persuade' the recalcitrant parishioners. However, at times even such a meeting with the bishop would often fail to achieve its object. Sensing that voluntary donation was ineffective, parliament passed new legislation in 1563, and once this Act took effect parishioners could be brought by the bishop before the Justices, and continued refusal could lead to imprisonment until contribution was made. However, even this Act still suffered from shortcomings, because individuals could decide for themselves how much money to give in order to gain their freedom | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief A more structured system of donations was established by the Vagabonds Act 1572. After determining the amount of funds needed to provide for the poor of each parish, Justices of the Peace were granted the authority to determine the amount of the donation from each parish's more wealthy property-owners. This Act finally turned these donations into what was effectively a local tax. In addition to creating these new imposed taxes, the Act of 1572 created a new set of punishments to inflict upon the population of vagabonds. These included being "bored through the ear" for a first offense and hanging for "persistent beggars". Unlike the previous brutal punishments established by the Act of 1547, these extreme measures were enforced with great frequency | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief However, despite its introduction of such violent actions to deter vagabonding, the Act of 1572 was the first time that parliament had passed legislation which began to distinguish between different categories of vagabonds. "Peddlers, tinkers, workmen on strike, fortune tellers, and minstrels" were not spared these gruesome acts of deterrence. This law punished all able bodied men "without land or master" who would neither accept employment nor explain the source of their livelihood. In this newly established definition of what constituted a vagabond, men who had been discharged from the military, released servants, and servants whose masters had died were specifically exempted from the Act's punishments | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief This legislation did not establish any means to support these individuals. A system to support individuals who were willing to work, but who were having difficulty in finding employment, was established by the Act of 1576. As provided for in this, Justices of the Peace were authorized to provide any town which needed it with a stock of flax, hemp, or other materials on which paupers could be employed and to erect a "house of correction" in every county for the punishment of those who refused work. This was the first time Parliament had attempted to provide labour to individuals as a means to combat the increasing numbers of "vagabonds" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief Two years after the Act of 1576 was passed into law, yet more dramatic changes were made to the methods to fight vagabondage and to provide relief to the poor. The Act of 1578 transferred power from the Justices of the Peace to church officials in the area of collecting the new taxes for the relief of poverty established in the Act of 1572. In addition, this Act of 1578 also extended the power of the church by stating that "…vagrants were to be summarily whipped and returned to their place of settlement by parish constables." By eliminating the need for the involvement of the Justices, law enforcement was streamlined. Starting as early as 1590, public authorities began to take a more selective approach to supporting the poor | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief Those who were considered to be legitimately needy, sometimes called the "deserving poor", were allowed assistance, while those who were idle were not. People incapable of providing for themselves, such as young orphans, the elderly, and the mentally and physically handicapped, were seen to be deserving, whereas those who were physically able but were too lazy to work were considered as "idle" and were seen as of bad moral character, and thus undeserving of help. Most poor relief in the 17th century came from voluntary charity which mostly was in the form of food and clothing. Parishes distributed land and animals. Institutionalized charities offered loans to help craftsmen to alms houses and hospitals | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 provided the first complete code of poor relief, established Overseers of the Poor and was later amended by the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601, which was one of the longest-lasting achievements of her reign, left unaltered until 1834. This law made each parish responsible for supporting the legitimately needy in their community. It taxed wealthier citizens of the country to provide basic shelter, food and clothing, though they were not obligated to provide for those outside of their community. Parishes responsible for their own community caused problems because some were more generous than others. This caused the poor to migrate to other parishes that were not their own | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief In order to counteract this problem, the Poor Relief Act 1662, also known as the Settlement Act, was implemented. This created many sojourners, people who resided in different settlements that were not their legal one. The Settlement Act allowed such people to be forcefully removed, and garnered a negative reaction from the population. In order to fix the flaws of the 1662 act, the act of 1691 came into effect such that it presented methods by which people could gain settlement in new locations. Such methods included "owning or renting property above a certain value or paying parish rates, but also by completing a legal apprenticeship or a one-year service while unmarried, or by serving a public office" for that identical length of time | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief The main points of this system were the following: During the 16th & 17th centuries, the population of England nearly doubled. Capitalism in the agricultural and manufacturing arenas started to emerge, and trade abroad significantly increased. Despite this flourishing of expansion, sufficient employment rates had yet to be attained by the late 1600s. The population increased at alarming rates, outpacing the increase in productivity, which resulted inevitably in inflation. Concurrently, wages decreased, declining to a point roughly half that of average wages of a century before. "The boom-and-bust nature of European trade in woolen cloth, England's major manufacture and export" caused a larger fraction of the population of England to fall under poverty | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief With this increase in poverty, all charities operated by the Catholic Church were abolished due to the impact of protestant reformation. A law passed by the British government by Sir Edward Knatchbull in 1723 introduced a "workhouse test", which meant that a person who wanted to receive poor relief had to enter a workhouse and undertake a set amount of work. The test was intended to prevent irresponsible claims on a parish's poor rate. By the mid to late 18th century most of the British Isles was involved in the process of industrialization in terms of production of goods, manner of markets and concepts of economic class. In some cases, factory owners "employed" children without paying them, thus exacerbating poverty levels | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief Furthermore, the Poor Laws of this era encouraged children to work through an apprenticeship, but by the end of the 18th century the situation changed as masters became less willing to apprentice children, and factory owners then set about employing them to keep wages down. This meant that there were not many jobs for adult labourers. For those who could not find work there was the workhouse as a means of sustenance. The 1782 poor relief law proposed by Thomas Gilbert aimed to organise poor relief on a county basis, counties being organised into parishes which could set up workhouses between them. However, these workhouses were intended to help only the elderly, sick and orphaned, not the able-bodied poor | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief The sick, elderly and infirm were cared for in poorhouses whereas the able-bodied poor were provided with poor relief in their own homes. The "Speenhamland system" was a form of outdoor relief intended to mitigate rural poverty at the end of the 18th century and during the early 19th century. The system was named after a 1795 meeting at the Pelican Inn in Speenhamland, Berkshire, where a number of local magistrates devised the system as a means to alleviate the distress caused by high grain prices. The increase in the price of grain most probably occurred as a result of a poor harvest in the years 1795–96, though at the time this was subject to great debate. Many blamed middlemen and hoarders as the ultimate architects of the shortage | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief The authorities at Speenhamland approved a means-tested sliding-scale of wage supplements in order to mitigate the worst effects of rural poverty. Families were paid extra to top up wages to a set level according to a table. This level varied according to the number of children and the price of bread. Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution, in 1834 the Parliament of the United Kingdom revised the Elizabethan Poor Law (1601) after studying the conditions found in 1832. Over the next decade they began phasing out outdoor relief and pushing the paupers towards indoor relief. The differences between the two was that outdoor relief was a monetary contribution to the needy, whereas indoor relief meant the individual was sent to one of the workhouses | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief Following the reformation of the Poor Laws in 1834, Ireland experienced a severe potato blight that lasted from 1845–1849 and killed an estimated 1.5 million people. The effects of the famine lasted until 1851. During this period the people of Ireland lost much land and many jobs, and appealed to the Westminster Parliament for aid. This aid generally came in the form of establishing more workhouses as indoor relief. Some people argue that as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was in its prime as an empire, it could have given more aid in the form of money, food or rent subsidies. In other parts of the United Kingdom, amendments to and adoptions of poor laws came in and around the same time | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Poor relief In Scotland, for example, the 1845 Scottish Poor Law Act revised the Poor Laws that were implemented under the 1601 Acts. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7806603 | Poor relief |
Kevin Wildes Reverend Kevin William Wildes, S.J., Ph.D., (born September 27, 1954) is the former president of Loyola University New Orleans. He was formally installed as the school's 16th president on July 1, 2004. During his second year in the position, he was charged with seeing the school through Hurricane Katrina. On April 10, 2006, President Wildes unveiled "Pathways - Toward Our Second Century", Loyola's strategic plan in response to the university's 15 million dollar budget deficit following Hurricane Katrina. The proposal restructured the academic colleges of Loyola and included program and personnel cuts. The Pathways plan encountered opposition from the university community | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7816144 | Kevin Wildes |
Kevin Wildes The Board of Trustees however unanimously approved and passed the plan in a meeting on May 19, 2006. On 26 September 2006, the faculty of the College of Humanities and Natural Sciences, the largest college, voted "no confidence" in President Wildes with 76% of voting faculty supporting the measure. Prior to joining the Jesuits, Wildes was a boxer, a sport he continues as an amateur and a teacher. Wildes entered the Society of Jesus in 1976, and was ordained a priest in 1986, completing his vows in March 2004. He holds advanced degrees in theology from the Weston Jesuit School of Theology in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and in philosophy from Fordham University and Rice University, where he received his Ph.D. in 1993 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7816144 | Kevin Wildes |
Kevin Wildes Before taking his current position, he worked at Georgetown University where he was a chaplain in residence, beginning his tradition of living in the student residences, and an important advocate for fund raising for the school. His weekly informal masses in his residence attracted a loyal following among students. As an author, he has published numerous works on ethics and morality, especially in the field of bioethics which he has lectured widely on. He has been called upon to give analysis on bioethics issues on nightly talk shows in Washington, and on July 22, 1997 to testify before the House Committee on Sciences on the topic of human cloning | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7816144 | Kevin Wildes |
Kevin Wildes He is Associate Director and a Senior Research Scholar at the Kennedy Institute of Ethics and frequent contributor to its journal. He served as an editor of four compendiums of bioethics essays, such as "Choosing Life: A Dialogue on Evangelium Vitae". In 2000, he published "Moral Acquaintances: Methodology in Bioethics", his most successful work to date. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7816144 | Kevin Wildes |
Asha (; also arta ; Avestan:"𐬀𐬴𐬀" "aṣ̌a/arta") is a Zoroastrian concept with a complex and highly nuanced range of meaning. It is commonly summarized in accord with its contextual implications of 'truth' and 'right(eousness)', 'order' and 'right working'. For other connotations, see meaning below. It is of cardinal importance to Zoroastrian theology and doctrine. In the moral sphere, "aṣ̌a/arta" represents what has been called "the decisive confessional concept of Zoroastrianism". The opposite of Avestan "aṣ̌a" is "𐬛𐬭𐬎𐬘 druj", "deceit, falsehood". Its Old Persian equivalent is "arta-". In Middle Iranian languages the term appears as "ard-" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha The word is also the proper name of the divinity Asha, the Amesha Spenta that is the hypostasis or "genius" of "Truth" or "Righteousness". In the Younger Avesta, this figure is more commonly referred to as Vahishta ("Aṣ̌a Vahišta", "Arta Vahišta"), "Best Truth". The Middle Persian descendant is "Ashawahist" or "Ardwahisht"; New Persian "Ardibehesht" or "Ordibehesht". In the Gathas, the oldest texts of Zoroastrianism and thought to have been composed by Zoroaster, it is seldom possible to distinguish between moral principle and the divinity. Later texts consistently use the 'Best' epithet when speaking of the Amesha Spenta, only once in the Gathas is 'best' an adjective of "aṣ̌a/arta" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Avestan "" and its Vedic equivalent "" both derive from Proto-Indo-Iranian "*ṛtá-" "truth", which in turn continues Proto-Indo-European "*" "properly joined, right, true", from the root "*". The word is attested in Old Persian as "". It is unclear whether the Avestan variation between "aṣ̌a" and "arta" is merely orthographical. Benveniste suggested "š" was only a convenient way of writing "rt" and should not be considered phonetically relevant. According to Gray, "ṣ̌" is a misreading, representing – not /ʃ/ - but /rr/, of uncertain phonetic value but "probably" representing a voiceless "r" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Miller suggested that "rt" was restored when a scribe was aware of the morpheme boundary between the /r/ and /t/ (that is, whether the writer maintained the "–ta" suffix). Avestan "druj", like its Vedic Sanskrit cousin "druh", appears to derive from the PIE root "*", also continued in Persian دروغ / "d[o]rūġ" "lie", German "Trug" "fraud, deception". Old Norse "draugr" and Middle Irish "airddrach" mean "spectre, spook". The Sanskrit cognate "druh" means "affliction, afflicting demon". In Avestan, " druj-" has a secondary derivation, the adjective "drəguuaṇt-" (Young Avestan " druuaṇt-"), "partisan of deception, deceiver" for which the superlative "draojišta-" and perhaps the comparative "draoj(ii)ah-" are attested (Kellens, 2010, pp. 69 ff.) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha "Aṣ̌a" "cannot be precisely rendered by some single word in another tongue" but may be summarized as follows: It is, first of all, 'true statement'. This 'true statement', because it is true, corresponds to an objective, material reality that embraces all of existence. Recognized in it is a great cosmic principle since all things happen according to it. "This cosmic [...] force is imbued also with morality, as verbal Truth, 'la parole conforme', and Righteousness, action conforming with the moral order." The correspondence between 'truth', reality and an all-encompassing cosmic principle is not far removed from Heraclitus' conception of Logos | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Both Avestan "aṣ̌a/arta" and Vedic "ŗtá-" are commonly translated as "truth" as this best reflects both the original meaning of the term as well as the opposition to their respective antonyms. The opposite of Avestan "aṣ̌a/arta" is "druj-", "lie." Similarly, the opposites of Vedic ' are ' and "druh", likewise "lie". That "truth" is also what was commonly understood by the term as attested in Greek myth of: "Isis and Osiris" 47, Plutarch calls the divinity Αλήθεια "Aletheia", "Truth." The adjective corresponding to the noun "aṣ̌a/arta", "truth", is Avestan "haithya-" ("haiθiia-"), "true", the opposite of which is also "druj-". Avestan "haithya-" derives from Indo-Iranian "*sātya" that in turn derives from Indo-European "*sat-" "being, existing" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha The Sanskrit cognate "sátya-" means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression "haiθīm var"ə"z", "to make true" as in "to bring to realization." Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the "aṣ̌a/arta": from (root) "ŗ" with a substantivizing "-ta" suffix. The root "ŗ" corresponds to Old Avestan "ar"ə"ta-" and Younger Avestan ə"r"ə"ta-" "established", hence "aṣ̌a/arta" "that which is established." The synonymy of "aṣ̌a" and "existence" overlaps with the stock identification of Ahura Mazda as the creator (of existence itself). Truth is existence (creation) inasmuch as falsehood is non-existence (uncreated, anti-created) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Also, because "aṣ̌a" is everything that "druj-" is not (or vice versa), since "aṣ̌a" is, "druj-" is not. This notion is already expressed in the Avesta itself, such as in the first "Yasht", dedicated to Ahura Mazda, in which the "fifth name is the whole good existence of Mazda, the seed of Asha" ( "Yasht" 1.7). Similarly, in the mythology of "Gandar"ə"βa", the 'yellow-heeled' dragon of the "druj-" that emerges from the deep to destroy the "living world (creation) of Aṣ̌a" ("Yasht" 19.41) In the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism ("good thoughts, good words, good deeds"), Vohu Manah is active in good thoughts, Sraosha in good words and Aṣ̌a in good deeds. ("Denkard" 3.13-14). Aṣ̌a is thus "represented as active and effective | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha " Subject to context, "aṣ̌a/arta-" is also frequently translated as "right working" or "[that which is] right". The word then ("cf." Bartholomae's and Geldner's translations as German language ""Recht"") has the same range of meaning of "right" as in the English language: truth, righteousness, rightfulness, lawfullness, conformity, accord, order (cosmic order, social order, moral order). These various meanings of "right" are frequently combined, such as "the inexorable law of righteousness," or as "the eternal fitness of things that are in accord with the divine order." As (the hypostasis of) regularity and "right working", "aṣ̌a/arta-" is present when Ahura Mazda fixed the course of the sun, the moon and the stars ("Yasna" 44 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha 3), and it is through "aṣ̌a" that plants grow ("Yasna" 48.6). "Right working" also overlaps with both Indo-European "*ár-" "to (properly) join together" and with the notion of existence and realization (to make real). The word for "established", "ar"ə"ta-", also means "proper". The antonymic "anar"ə"ta-" (or "anar"ə"θa-") means "improper" In Zoroastrian tradition, prayers must be enunciated with care for them to be effective. The Indo-Iranian formula "*sātyas mantras" ("Yasna" 31.6: "haiθīm mathrem") "does not simply mean 'true Word' but formulated thought which is in conformity with the reality' or 'poetic (religious) formula with inherent fulfillment (realization)'" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha It perhaps has also suggestions of harmoniousness or cooperativeness The kinship between Old Iranian "aṣ̌a-/arta-" and Vedic "ŗtá-" is evident in numerous formulaic phrases and expressions that appear in both the Avesta and in the RigVeda. For instance, the "*ŗtásya path-", "path of truth", is attested multiple times in both sources: Y 51.13, 72.11; RV 3.12.7, 7.66.3. Similarly "source of truth," Avestan "aṣ̌a khá" and Vedic "" (Y 10.4; RV 2.28.5) The adjective corresponding to Avestan "aṣ̌a/arta-" is "haiθiia-" "true". Similarly, the adjective corresponding to Vedic "ŗtá-" "truth" is "sátya-" "true". The opposite of both "aṣ̌a/arta-" and "haithya-" is "druj-" "lie" or "false" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha In contrast, in the Vedas the opposite of both "ŗtá-" and "sátya-" is "druj-" and "ánŗta-", also "lie" or "false". However, while the Indo-Iranian concept of truth is attested throughout Zoroastrian tradition, "ŗtá-" disappears in post-Vedic literature and is not preserved in post-Vedic texts. On the other hand, "sátya-" and "ánrta-" both survive in classical Sanskrit. The main theme of the Rig Veda, "the truth and the gods", is not evident in the Gathas. Thematic parallels between "aṣ̌a/arta" and "ŗtá-", however, exist such aa in "Yasht" 10, the Avestan hymn to Mithra. There, Mithra, who is the hypostasis and the preserver of covenant, is the protector of "aṣ̌a/arta". RigVedic Mitra is likewise preserver of "ŗtá-". Vahishta is closely associated with fire | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Fire is "grandly conceived as a force informing all the "other" Amesha Spentas, giving them warmth and the spark of life." In "Yasht" 17.20, Angra Mainyu clamours that Zoroaster burns him with Vahishta. In "Vendidad" 4.54-55, speaking against the truth and violating the sanctity of promise is detected by the consumption of "water, blazing, of golden color, having the power to detect guilt." This analogy of truth that burns and detecting truth through fire is already attested in the very earliest texts, that is, in the Gathas and in the "Yasna Haptanghaiti". In "Yasna" 43-44, Ahura Mazda dispenses justice through radiance of His fire and the strength of aṣ̌a. Fire "detects" sinners "by hand-grasping" ("Yasna" 34.4) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha An individual who has passed the fiery test ("garmo-varah", ordeal by heat), has attained physical and spiritual strength, wisdom, truth and love with serenity ("Yasna" 30.7). Altogether, "there are said to have been some 30 kinds of fiery tests in all." According to the post-Sassanid "Dadestan i denig" (I.31.10), at the final judgement a river of molten metal will cover the earth. The righteous, as they wade through this river, will perceive the molten metal as a bath of warm milk. The wicked will be scorched. For details on aṣ̌a's role in personal and final judgement, see "aṣ̌a" in eschatology, below. Fire is moreover the "auxiliary of the truth," "and not only, as in the ordeal, of justice and of truth at the same time." In "Yasna" 31 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha 19, "the man who thinks of "aṣ̌a", [...] who uses his tongue in order to speak correctly, [does so] with the aid of brilliant fire". In "Yasna" 34-44 devotees "ardently desire [Mazda's] mighty fire, through aṣ̌a." In "Yasna" 43-44, Ahura Mazda "shall come to [Zoroaster] through the splendour of [Mazda's] fire, possessing the strength of (through) aṣ̌a and good mind (=Vohu Manah)." That fire "possesses strength through "aṣ̌a"" is repeated again in "Yasna" 43.4. In "Yasna" 43.9, Zoroaster, wishing to serve fire, gives his attention to "aṣ̌a". In "Yasna" 37.1, in a list of what are otherwise all physical creations, "aṣ̌a" takes the place of fire | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Vahishta's association with "atar" is carried forward in the post-Gathic texts, and they are often mentioned together. In Zoroastrian cosmogony, each of the Amesha Spentas represents one aspect of creation and one of seven primordial elements that in Zoroastrian tradition are the basis of that creation. In this matrix, "aṣ̌a/arta" is the origin of fire, Avestan "atar", which permeates through all Creation. The correspondence then is that "aṣ̌a/arta" "penetrates all ethical life, as fire penetrates all physical being." In the liturgy Vahishta is frequently invoked together with fire. ("Yasna" l.4, 2.4, 3.6, 4.9, 6.3, 7.6, 17.3, 22.6, 59.3, 62.3 etc.) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha In one passage, fire is a protector of "aṣ̌a": "when the Evil Spirit assailed the creation of Good Truth, Good Thought and Fire intervened" ("Yasht" 13.77) In later Zoroastrian tradition, Vahishta is still at times identified with the fire of the household hearth. In addition to the role of fire as the agent of Truth, fire, among its various other manifestations, is also "the fire of judicial ordeal, prototype of the fiery torrent of judgement day, when all will receive their just deserts 'by fire and by Aṣ̌a' ("Y" 31.3)." In the Avesta, the "radiant quarters" of "aṣ̌a" is "the best existence", i.e. Paradise (cf. "Vendidad" 19.36), entry to which is restricted to those who are recognized as "possessing truth" ("aṣ̌avan") | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha The key to this doctrine is "Yasna" 16.7: "We worship the radiant quarters of "Aṣ̌a" in which dwell the souls of the dead, the Fravašis of the "aṣ̌avan"s; the best existence (=Paradise) of the "aṣ̌avan"s we worship, (which is) light and according all comforts." 'Aṣ̌a' derives from the same Proto-Indo-European root as 'Airyaman', the divinity of healing who is closely associated with Vahishta. At the last judgement, the common noun "airyaman" is an epithet of the "saoshyans", the saviours that bring about the final renovation of the world. The standing epithet of these saviour figures is <nowiki>'</nowiki>"astvat"ә"r"ә"ta"<nowiki>'</nowiki>, which likewise has "arta" as an element of the name | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha These saviours are those who follow Ahura Mazda's teaching "with acts inspired by aṣ̌a" ("Yasna" 48.12). Both Airyaman and Vahishta (as also Atar) are closely associated with Sraosha "[Voice of] Conscience" and guardian of the Chinvat bridge across which souls must pass. According to a lost Avestan passage that is only preserved in a later (9th century) Pahlavi text, towards the end of time and the final renovation, Aṣ̌a and Airyaman will together come upon the earth to do battle with the Az, the daeva of greed ("Zatspram" 34.38-39). The third "Yasht", which is nominally addressed to Vahishta, is in fact mostly devoted to the praise of the "airyaman ishya" ("airy"ә"mā īšyo", "Longed-for "airyaman""), the fourth of the four great Gathic prayers | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha In present-day Zoroastrianism it is considered to invoke Airyaman just as the "Ashem Vohu", is the second of the four great Gathic prayers, is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. All four prayers (the first is the Ahuna Vairya, the third is the Yenghe Hatam) have judgement and/or salvation as a theme, and all four call on the Truth. It is Airyaman that – together with fire – will "melt the metal in the hills and mountains, and it will be upon the earth like a river" ("Bundahishn" 34.18). In Zoroastrian tradition, metal is the domain of Xshathra [Vairya], the Amesha Spenta of "[Desirable] Dominion", with whom Aṣ̌a is again frequently identified. Dominion is moreover "a form of truth and results from truth." In "Denkard" 8.37 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha 13, Vahishta actually takes over Airyaman's healer role as the healer of all spiritual ills and Airyaman then only retains the role of healer of corporeal ills. Although Airyaman has no dedication in the Siroza, the invocations to the divinities of the Zoroastrian calendar, Airyaman is twice invoked together with Aṣ̌a. ("Siroza" 1.3 and 2.3) "Aogemadaecha" 41-47 prototypes death as a journey that has to be properly prepared for: As mortals acquires material goods as they go through life, so also should they furnish themselves with spiritual stores of righteousness. They will then be well provisioned when they embark on the journey from which they will not return. Aṣ̌a's role is not limited to judgement: In "Bundahishn" 26 | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha 35, Aṣ̌a prevents daevas from exacting too great a punishment to souls consigned to the House of Lies. Here, Aṣ̌a occupies the position that other texts assign to Mithra, who is traditionally identified with fairness. For the relationship between Aṣ̌a, eschatology and Nowruz, see in the Zoroastrian calendar, below. Although there are numerous eschatological parallels between Aṣ̌a and Aši "recompense, reward" (most notably their respective associations with Sraosha and Vohu Manah), and are on occasion even mentioned together ("Yasna" 51.10), the two are not etymologically related. The feminine abstract noun "aši/arti" derives from "ar-", "to allot, to grant." Aši also has no Vedic equivalent | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha In Zoroastrian cosmogony and , which—though alluded to in the Gathas—is only systematically described in Zoroastrian tradition (e.g. "Bundahishn" 3.12), "aṣ̌a" is the second (cf. "Yasna" 47.1) of the six primeval creations realized ("created by His thought") by Ahura Mazda. It is through these six, the Amesha Spentas that all subsequent creation was accomplished. In addition to Vahishta's role as an Amesha Spenta and hence one of the primordial creations through which all other creation was realized, Truth is one of the "organs, aspects or emanations" of Ahura Mazda through which the Creator acts and is immanent in the world | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Although Vohu Manah regularly stands first in the list of the Amesha Spenta (and of Ahura Mazda's creations), in the Gathas Vahishta is the most evident of the six, and also the most commonly associated with Wisdom (Mazda). In the 238 verses of these hymns, Aṣ̌a appears 157 times. Of the other concepts, only "Vohu Manah" "Good Purpose" appears nearly as often (136 occurrences). In comparison, the remaining four of the great sextet appear only 121 times altogether. Although a formal hierarchy is not evident in the Gathas, the group of six "divides naturally into three dyads." In this arrangement, Aṣ̌a is paired with Vohu Manah. This reflects the frequency in which the two appear (together) in the Gathas and is in turn reflected in Zoroastrian tradition | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha In "Bundahishn" 26.8, Vohu Manah stands at the left hand of God, while Aṣ̌a stands at the right. Yasht 1, the hymn dedicated to Ahura Mazda, provides a list of 74 "names" by which the Creator is invoked. In the numbered list of "Yasht" 1.7, 'Vahishta' "Best Truth" is the fourth name. A later verse, "Yasht" 1.12, includes 'Aṣ̌avan' "Possessing Truth" and 'Aṣ̌avastəma' "Most Righteous". In "Yasna" 40.3, Ahura Mazda is "aṣ̌aŋāč" "having "aṣ̌a" following". One of Haoma's stock epithets is "aṣ̌avazah-" "furthering "aṣ̌a"" ("Yasht" 20.3; "Yasna" 8.9, 10.1.14, 11.10 et al.). Atar "possesses strength through "aṣ̌a"" ("aṣ̌a-ahojah", Yasna 43.4) | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha In the Zoroastrian calendar, the third day of the month and the second month of the year are dedicated to and named after "aṣ̌a" and Vahishta (calledارديبهشت "Ordibehesht" in Modern Persian both in Iranian Calendar and Yazdgerdi calendar). A special service to "aṣ̌a" and Aṣ̌a, known as the '"Jashan" of Ardavisht', is held on the day on which month-name and day-name dedications intersect. In the "Fasli" and "Bastani" variants of the Zoroastrian calendar, this falls on April 22. Rapithwin, one of the five "gah"s (watches) of the day, under the protection of Aṣ̌a. ("Bundahishn" 3.22) This implies that all prayers recited between noon and three invoke Aṣ̌a | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha Noon is considered to be the "perfect" time, at which instant the world was created and at which instant time will stop on the day of the final renovation of the world. In the winter months, the "daev"ic time of year, Rapithwin is known as the "Second Havan" (the first Havan being from dawn to noon), and with the first day of spring, March 21, Rapithwin symbolically returns. This day, March 21, is Nowruz Nowruz, the holiest of all Zoroastrian festivals is dedicated to Aṣ̌a. It follows immediately after Pateti, the day of introspection and the Zoroastrian equivalent of All-Souls Day. Nowruz, Zoroastrianism's New Year's Day, is celebrated on the first day of spring, traditionally understood to be the day of rebirth, and literally translated means "New Day" | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |
Asha The first month of the year of the Zoroastrian calendar is Farvadin, which is dedicated to and named after the Fravašis, the ancestral higher spirits. "The underlying idea of the dedication" of the second month of the year to Vahishta "may be revivification of the earth after the death of winter." On Kushan coins, Vahishta "appears as Aṣ̌aeixšo, with a diadem and nimbus, like Mithra in the same series." ""Arta-" (Mid. Iranian "ard-"), representing either the Av. divinity Aṣ̌a or the principle "aṣ̌a", occurs frequently as an element in Iranian personal names." Hellenized/Latinized names include: Other names include: Middle Iranian "ard-" is also suggested to be the root of names of the current day Iranian cities of Ardabil, Ardekan, Ardehal and Ardestan. | Religion&Philosophy&Ethics | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7820125 | Asha |