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= James Fisher Robinson =
James Fisher Robinson ( October 4 , 1800 β October 31 , 1882 ) was the 22nd Governor of Kentucky , serving the remainder of the unfinished term of Governor Beriah Magoffin . Magoffin , a Confederate sympathizer , became increasingly ineffective after the elections of 1861 yielded a supermajority to pro @-@ Union forces in both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly . Magoffin agreed to resign the governorship , provided he could select his successor . He selected Robinson .
Politically , Robinson opposed both secession and abolition . Though he had Union sympathies , he was considered a moderate , opposing both fugitive slave laws and the enlistment of black soldiers . As a state senator , he supported the Crittenden Compromise and opposed the Civil War . As governor , he drew criticism from the administration of President Abraham Lincoln for opposing the Emancipation Proclamation .
= = Early life = =
Robinson was born to Jonathan and Jane Black Robinson in Scott County , Kentucky on October 4 , 1800 . His early studies were done under a private tutor , then under Presbyterian minister Robert Marshall . He was of English and Scottish descent . He attended Forest Hill Academy and Transylvania University , graduating in 1818 . His brother , John McCracken Robinson graduated in the same class and moved to Illinois , where he eventually served two terms as a U.S. Senator . James Robinson studied law under William T. Barry , and was admitted to the bar , beginning his practice in Georgetown , Kentucky .
On December 29 , 1821 , Robinson married Susan Mansell of Georgetown , the first of his three wives . Mansell and Robinson had two children , a son and a daughter , before Mansell died in 1835 . Robinson married Willina S. Herndon of Scott County on March 21 , 1839 . The couple had eight children , seven of whom survived to adulthood . Herndon died in 1861 .
= = Political career = =
Robinson 's political career began in 1851 , when he was elected to the Kentucky Senate as a Whig without opposition . He did not immediately seek re @-@ election , but was again elected to the state Senate in 1861 over challenger James B. Beck . He was elected Speaker of the Senate on September 2 , 1861 , but resigned the post only a few days later .
Robinson again assumed the position as Speaker of the Senate on August 16 , 1862 as part of a political deal to effect the resignation of Governor Beriah Magoffin . Magoffin 's lieutenant governor , Linn Boyd , had died in office in 1859 , and Magoffin was unwilling to allow John Fisk , then Senate Speaker and next in line for the governorship , to succeed him . Magoffin agreed to resign if the Senate would elect Robinson as Speaker , putting him next in line for the governorship . This was done , and at 10 : 00 am on August 18 , 1862 , Robinson succeeded Magoffin upon the latter 's resignation . Because he never resigned from the Senate , Robinson technically held both his legislative seat and the governorship concurrently .
The Civil War was ongoing during Robinson 's administration . During Robinson 's tenure , the Confederacy made its major advance into the Commonwealth . In an attempt to protect the citizens of the Commonwealth , Robinson raised taxes in an effort to revive Kentucky 's state militia . He was also concerned with the effect the war had on public education in the state . He asked the General Assembly to investigate the condition of state schools , especially in war @-@ ravaged areas , and encouraged them to accept the Lincoln administration 's offer of land to establish an agricultural and mechanical college .
Robinson proudly noted that by January 1 , 1863 , a divided Kentucky had still managed to send 44 @,@ 000 soldiers β fifty @-@ one regiments β to aid the Union cause . At the same time , he lamented what he perceived as poor treatment of the state as disloyal by the Federal government . He cited examples such as the declaration of martial law in the Commonwealth and the suspension of the right of habeas corpus for its citizens . He answered President Lincoln 's contention " that military necessity is not to be measured by Constitutional limits " by warning " If military necessity is not to be measured by Constitutional limits , we are no longer a free people . "
On completion of his term , Robinson supported his eventual successor , Thomas E. Bramlette . The constitutional questions Robinson raised during his administration shaped much of the political debate for Bramlette 's term .
= = Later life and death = =
Following his term as governor , Robinson retired to " Cardome , " his family farm in Scott County . Politically , he became more distant from the national administration , supporting George B. McClellan for president in 1864 . He served as president of the Farmers ' Bank of Georgetown and chair of the Georgetown College Board of Trustees . On December 1 , 1873 , he married his third wife , Caroline " Carrie " Hening of Georgetown , who was 36 years his junior . He died on October 31 , 1882 , and is buried in the Georgetown Cemetery in Georgetown , Kentucky .
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= Fakih Usman =
Kyai Hajji Fakih Usman ( also Faqih Usman ; [ faΛkΙͺh ΚsΛman ] ; 2 March 1904 β 3 October 1968 ) was an Indonesian Islamic leader and politician with the Masyumi Party . He twice served as the Minister of Religious Affairs : under the Halim Cabinet in the State of the Republic of Indonesia in 1950 , and in the national government during the Wilopo Cabinet from 1952 to 1953 . In his early years Fakih was criticised by conservative Muslims for his involvement with the modernist Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah , though that group remembers him warmly .
Born to a merchant and his wife in Gresik , Dutch East Indies , Fakih studied with his father and at a series of pesantren ( Islamic boarding schools ) until the 1920s . In 1925 he became involved with the Muhammadiyah , rising quickly through the leadership until he became the head of the Surabaya branch in 1938 . He was also active in local politics . When a group of Islamic organisations formed the Indonesian Islamic Assembly in 1937 , Fakih became treasurer . He continued to be involved in politics and Islamic groups during the Japanese occupation and ensuing national revolution . While serving as minister of religious affairs , he oversaw educational and institutional reform , growing in prominence within the Muhammadiyah . He served as deputy chairman of the organisation under several different leaders before being chosen as its chairman in late 1968 , several days before his death .
= = Early life = =
Fakih was born in Gresik , East Java , Dutch East Indies , on 2 March 1904 . His father , Usman Iskandar , was a wood merchant , and his mother , a housewife , was the daughter of an ulama ( scholar of Islam ) . The couple , who were of modest means , had four other children , and the family 's lack of a noble background meant the children were ineligible to receive an education at Dutch @-@ run schools . Instead , Fakih studied Islam from a young age , receiving much of his instruction from his father . At the age of ten he began studying at a pesantren ( Islamic boarding school ) in Gresik , finishing four years later . In 1919 he continued his studies at several pesantren outside the city , including ones in rural Gresik and in nearby Bungah .
= = Work with the Muhammadiyah = =
Fakih 's father helped him become a trader , although Fakih continued to study independently . When the modernist Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah opened a branch in Gresik in 1922 , Fakih was one of the first to join . Extremely active in the group , he became the Gresik branch 's leader within three years , and under his leadership the group was formally recognised by the central Muhammadiyah administration . Through his work with the Muhammadiyah in Gresik , Fakih became better known . He later transferred to the branch in Surabaya , a much larger city where , in 1929 , he was chosen to sit on the city council . He also remained active in commerce , running a construction material trade and shipbuilding shop . During this period he served on the local chamber of commerce .
From 1932 to 1936 Fakih was a member of the Muhammadiyah 's regional council , serving concurrently as the editor of the organisation 's official magazine Bintang Islam and on the Legal Affairs Committee . As he became more active , Fakih began commuting regularly from Surabaya to Gresik , handling Muhammadiyah business in Surabaya and the wood company in Gresik ; this commute was done in Fakih 's personal car , a rare luxury at the time . Studying Dutch in his spare time , Fakih continued to improve his knowledge of Islam by studying the thoughts of Muhammad Abduh . However , conservative Muslims disapproved of Fakih 's work with Muhammadiyah , giving him the nickname Londho silit ireng ( " Dutchman with the black arse " ) , and often throwing stones at his home .
On 21 September 1937 , Muhammadiyah , the conservative Nahdatul Ulama ( NU ) , the merchants ' cooperative Sarekat Islam , and several other Islamic groups β which for the past decade had been feuding β united to form an umbrella group : the Indonesian Islamic Assembly ( Majilis Islam Ala Indonesia , or MIAI ) , based in Surabaya . Fakih served as treasurer . In 1938 he was made the head of the Surabaya branch of the Muhammadiyah , replacing Mas Mansoer . Two years later he began working full @-@ time with the MIAI , having been selected as the head of its secretariat in mid @-@ September 1940 . To take this position , he resigned as head of the Surabaya branch of Muhammadiyah and as a city council member .
= = Masyumi and National Revolution = =
On 9 March 1942 Governor @-@ General Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and head of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army General Hein ter Poorten capitulated to the Empire of Japan , which had invaded the Indies the month before . As a result , the Indies fell under Japanese control . The Japanese banned all forms of organisations , and the MIAI was disbanded in May . It was reformed on 5 September 1942 following a meeting of 30 ulamas in the Des Indes Hotel in Jakarta , and was recognised by the occupation government as the sole Islamic organisation in the country . At the end of 1943 , the organisation was renamed the Council of Indonesian Muslim Associations ( Partai Majelis Syura Muslimin Indonesia , or Masyumi ) . Fakih was made a member of the Japanese @-@ sponsored advisory board , or Syu Sangi In , for Surabaya . He held this position until the end of the occupation , concurrently serving on the Masyumi board .
After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the proclamation of Indonesian independence in August 1945 , the Japanese began withdrawing from the nascent republic . The Indonesian republican government , based in Jakarta and including Sukarno as president and Mohammad Hatta as vice president , began to take over infrastructure from the departing Japanese . By September 1945 , however , allied British and Dutch forces had begun to enter the archipelago , hoping to reestablish the status quo ante . The British initially focused on Java and Sumatra and attempted to avoid armed confrontations with the Republican forces ; the Dutch , meanwhile , spent the first months after the Japanese surrender reclaiming the eastern islands with help from Australia .
Fakih , who had begun making contacts within the republican government , participated in the Indonesian Islamic Conference ( Muktamar Islam Indonesia ) in Yogyakarta from 7 to 8 November 1945 . As a result of these talks , Masyumi was made into a political party representing Islamic interests . Although Fakih returned to Gresik after the conference , he and his family soon evacuated to Malang due to the outbreak of a battle at Surabaya between Republican soldiers and British forces tasked with repatriating Dutch prisoners of war .
In Malang , Fakih worked with Masjkur and Zainul Arifin to start an armed resistance to fight in the revolution against the returning Europeans . He served as deputy chief in command of this resistance , which consisted of the Japanese @-@ trained Islamic units Sabilillah and Hizbullah . After the Dutch launched Operation Kraai in December 1948 , Fakih and his family escaped to Surakarta , where he again became active in Muhammadiyah . Fakih , serving as deputy chair under Bagus Hadikusumo , frequently commuted between Surakarta and the organisation 's head office in Yogyakarta .
= = Minister of Religious Affairs = =
In late 1949 the Indonesian and Dutch governments held a conference lasting several months , which resulted in Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty on 27 December 1949 . This led to the formation of the United States of Indonesia ( Republik Indonesia Serikat , or RIS ) , which consisted of sixteen member states . On 21 January 1950 Fakih replaced Masjkur as the Minister of Religious Affairs in the Halim Cabinet , representing the Republic of Indonesia ; at this point the republic consisted of Yogyakarta , Banten , and much of Sumatra . Working with the RIS Minister of Religious Affairs Wahid Hasyim , Fakih began instituting a standardised religious curriculum in the public schools and modernising education at religious schools . The two also worked to unite the ministries . On 17 August 1950 the RIS and its member states became a unified republic . Hasyim was kept on as minister of religious affairs , with Fakih appointed director of religious education .
Meanwhile , the different factions in Masyumi were in conflict over the path the party was taking ; the NU members thought Masyumi was becoming too political , abandoning its Islamic roots . When the Natsir Cabinet began to collapse , the Masyumi put forth Fakih as a potential Minister for Religious Affairs . This act was controversial because four of the five allocated slots for the party were already filled by non @-@ NU members , and ultimately the NU pulled out of Masyumi , effective 5 April 1952 . Fakih had been chosen with a majority of five votes , while the next leading candidate , Usman Raliby , received four .
Fakih was made the Minister of Religious Affairs in the Wilopo Cabinet and sworn in on 3 April 1952 , which led to him and his family moving to the capital at Jakarta . He began to work on reforming the ministry , including formalising its mission statement : to provide religious teachers , promote interfaith relations , and to establish the dates of religious holidays . He worked on internal structure , including formalising the ministry 's leadership hierarchy and the opening of the provincial and regional branches . The ministry also continued its promotion of religious education and was tasked with handling the numerous Indonesian pilgrims who went on the hajj . The Wilopo Cabinet collapsed on 30 July 1953 , following an immigration and land dispute in Medan . Fakih was replaced by Masjkur .
= = Later work = =
Fakih continued to work with the ministry and the Muhammadiyah , serving as the organisation 's First Deputy Chair under Ahmad Rasyid Sutan Mansur . In 1956 he was one of three Muhammadiyah members who presented their concept of a truly Islamic society , one which emphasised social education . During this time he was more active with Masyumi , and after the 1955 Constituent Assembly election , Fakih was made a member of the Constitutional Assembly of Indonesia . This assembly , meant to reach an agreement for a new national constitution , failed to gain a consensus , and was disbanded by president Sukarno with his decree of 5 July 1959 . That year Fakih collaborated with Hamka , Joesoef Poear Abdullah , and Ahmad Joesoef to launch the magazine Pandji Masjarakat . Sukarno later disbanded Masyumi on 17 August 1960 after leading Masyumi members , such as Mohammad Natsir and Sjafruddin Prawiranegara , were involved with the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia ; Fakih had been involved in the negotiations with the Revolutionary Government , working with Mohammad Roem .
The disbanding of Masyumi left Fakih with more time to focus on the Muhammadiyah , serving as the Second Deputy Chair under Junus Anis . During a leadership course run by the organisation during Ramadhan of 1380 AH ( February / March 1961 ) , Fakih began promoting an institutional identity through his lecture " Apakah Muhammadiyah Itu " ( " What is Muhammadiyah ? " ) . This outlined the organisation as one based in dawah , focusing on real @-@ world issues , and willing to work with the government to ensure a prosperous future for Muslims . These concepts were later formulated through 1962 and established as an institutional identity , one which called for Muhammadiyah to work towards creating a truly Islamic society while opposing leftist politics . This , in turn , was followed by refactoring within the organisation to better adapt the new identity .
From 1962 until 1965 Fakih served as the First Deputy Chair of Muhammadiyah under Ahmad Badawi , providing guidance for young religious leaders . During the killings and power shift which followed the 30 September Movement coup attempt , Fakih and several Muhammadiyah members sent a letter requesting that Masyumi be allowed to reform ; this permission was not granted . For Badawi 's second term , Fakih served as an advisor to the chairman , often taking management responsibilities . He was selected as the organisation 's chairman at the 37th Muhammadiyah Congress in 1968 .
= = Death and legacy = =
On being chosen as chairman , Fakih began work to ensure there would be a successor , as his health was failing . On 2 October , at a joint meeting of the board at his home , he outlined his plans for his three @-@ year period of leadership ; Fakih also appointed Rasjidi and Abdul Rozak Fachruddin as temporary leaders while he went abroad for medical treatment . Fakih died on 3 October 1968 , only a few days after being selected , and was replaced by Fachruddin on the day of his death ; Fachruddin served as chairman for 24 years .
The street where Fakih lived as a child is now known as Fakih Usman Street . Within Muhammadiyah Fakih continues to be well respected . He is credited with the formulation of the " Muhammadiyah Personality " ( Kepribadian Muhammadiyah ) , Muhammadiyah 's institutional identity . Out of respect towards Fakih , the Muhammadiyah continues to record his period as chairman as lasting the full three @-@ year term . Didin Syafruddin , a faculty member at the Jakarta Islamic State University , writes that Fakih was highly dedicated to education , noting that five of Fakih 's seven children eventually became doctors ; Syafruddin also writes that , owing to a lack of human resources , Fakih was limited in his reforms while Minister of Religious Affairs . Former Muhammadiyah chairman Ahmad Syafi 'i Maarif described Fakih as the " tranquil , cleansing water " who served as a calming influence for Muhammadiyah when the organisation was in turmoil .
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= Battles of Latrun ( 1948 ) =
The Battles of Latrun were a series of military engagements between the Israel Defense Forces and the Jordanian Arab Legion on the outskirts of Latrun between 25 May and 18 July 1948 , during the 1948 Arab β Israeli War . Latrun takes its name from the monastery close to the junction of two major highways : Jerusalem to Jaffa / Tel Aviv and Gaza to Ramallah . During the British Mandate it became a Palestine Police base with a Tegart fort . The United Nations Resolution 181 placed this area within the proposed Arab state . In May 1948 , it was under the control of the Arab Legion . It commanded the only road linking the Yishuv @-@ controlled area of Jerusalem to Israel , giving Latrun strategic importance in the battle for Jerusalem .
Despite assaulting Latrun on five separate occasions Israel was ultimately unable to capture Latrun , and it remained under Jordanian control until the Six @-@ Day War . The battles were so decisive that the Israelis decided to construct a bypass surrounding Latrun so as to allow vehicular movement between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem , thus avoiding the main road . Regardless , during the Battle for Jerusalem , the Jewish population of Jerusalem could still be supplied by a new road , named the " Burma Road " , that bypassed Latrun and was suitable for convoys . The Battle of Latrun left its imprint on the Israeli collective imagination and constitutes part of the " founding myth " of the Jewish State . The attacks cost the lives of 168 Israeli soldiers , but some accounts inflated this number to as many as 2 @,@ 000 . The combat at Latrun also carries a symbolic significance because of the participation of Holocaust survivors .
Today , the battleground site has an Israeli military museum dedicated to the Israeli Armored Corps and a memorial to the Israeli War of Independence .
= = Background = =
= = = 1948 Arab β Israeli War = = =
After the adoption of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine in November 1947 , a civil war erupted in the British Mandate of Palestine . The Jews living in Jerusalem constituted one of the weak points of the Yishuv and a main cause for concern to its leaders . With nearly 100 @,@ 000 inhabitants , a sixth of the total Jewish population in the Mandate , the city was isolated in the heart of territory under Arab control .
In January , in the context of the " War of the Roads " , the Holy War Army of Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Husayni besieged the Jewish part of the city and stopped convoys passing between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem . By the end of March , the tactic proved its worth and the city was cut off . The Haganah then launched Operation Nachshon , 4 β 20 April , and managed to force through a number of large convoys . Following the death of Abd al @-@ Qader al @-@ Husayni at al @-@ Qastal , the Arab League 's military committee ordered the other Arab force in Palestine , the Arab Liberation Army , to move its forces from Samaria ( the northern part of today 's West Bank ) to the road of Jerusalem and the areas of Latrun , Ramla , and Lydda .
In the middle of May , the situation for the 50 @,@ 000 Arab inhabitants of the city and the 30 @,@ 000 β 40 @,@ 000 in the outlying neighbourhoods was no better . After the massacre at Deir Yassin and the Jewish offensive of April that triggered the large @-@ scale exodus of the Palestinian Arabs in other mixed cities , the Arab population of Jerusalem was frightened and feared for its fate . With the departure of the British on 14 May , the Haganah launched several operations to take control of the city and the local Arab leadership requested King Abdullah of Jordan to deploy his army to come to their aid .
On 15 May , the situation in the newly declared State of Israel and the remnants of Palestine was chaotic with the British leaving . The Jewish forces gained advantage over the Arab forces , but they feared the intervention of the Arab armies that had been announced for that day .
= = = Geography = = =
Latrun is located at the crossroads between the Tel Aviv β Ramla β Jerusalem and Ramallah β Isdud roads in the area allocated to the Arab state by the United Nations Partition Plan . At that point , the Jerusalem road enters the foothills of Judea at Bab al @-@ Wad ( Sha 'ar HaGai ) . The fort dominated the Valley of Ayalon , and the force that occupied it commanded the road to Jerusalem .
In 1948 , Latrun comprised a detention camp and a fortified police station occupied by the British , a Trappist monastery , and several Arab villages : Latrun , Imwas , Dayr Ayyub and Bayt Nuba . During the civil war , after the death of Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Husayni , the forces of the Arab Liberation Army positioned themselves around the police fort and the surrounding villages , to the indifference of the British . They regularly attacked supply convoys heading for Jerusalem . At that time , neither the Israeli nor Jordanian military staffs had prepared for the strategic importance of the place .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Operation Maccabi ( 8 β 16 May ) = = =
On 8 May , Haganah launched Operation Maccabi against the Arab Liberation Army and the Palestinian irregulars who occupied several villages along the Jerusalem road and prevented the resupplying of Jerusalem 's Jewish community . The Givati Brigade ( on the west side ) and Harel Brigade ( on the east side ) were engaged in fighting , notably in the Latrun area .
Between 9 β 11 May , a battalion of the Harel brigade attacked and took the village of Bayt Mahsir , used by Palestinians as a base for the control of Bab al @-@ Wad . The " Sha 'ar HaGai " battalion of the Harel brigade also took up a position on the hills north and south of the road . It had to withstand the fire of the Arab Liberation Army artillery and the " unusual " fire of British armoured vehicles , but succeeded in holding the position and entrenched there .
To the west , on 12 May , Givati brigade troops took the British detention camp on the road leading to Latrun , but abandoned it the next day . Between 14 and 15 May , its 52nd battalion took the villages of Abu Shusha , Al @-@ Na 'ani and al @-@ Qubab north of Latrun , thus cutting off the zone from Ramla , the main Arab town in the area . Lapierre and Collins report also that a platoon of the Givati brigade fired on and then penetrated the fort without encountering any resistance on the morning of 15 May . Again to the east , on 15 May , the troops of the Harel brigade took Dayr Ayyub , which they abandoned the next day .
It is at this time that the Israeli officers in the field appreciated the strategic importance of Latrun . A report was sent from OC Harel brigade to OC Palmach that concluded that " The Latrun junction became the main point in the battle [ of Jerusalem ] " [ exact words must be taken from the source ] , but " that appreciation was not shared by the staff one week previously " . Meanwhile , because of the Egyptian Army 's advance , the Givati brigade got an order to redeploy on a more southern front , and the Harel brigade to remain in the Jerusalem sector . This decision to leave the area , and the fact of not planning for its strategic importance , would later be a source of controversy between Haganah chief of operations Yigael Yadin and Yitzhak Rabin , commander of the Harel brigade .
= = = The Arab Legion takes control = = =
During the confusion of the last days of the British Mandate and with the " entry in war " of the Arab armies , the position at Latrun changed hands without combat . Firstly , around 14 β 15 May , an order was given to Fawzi al @-@ Qawuqji and his Arab Liberation Army to withdraw and to leave the place to the Arab Legion . According to Yoav Gelber , this departure occurred before the arrival of the Jordanian troops at Latrun and the position was held by just 200 irregulars . Benny Morris nevertheless points out that a platoon of legionnaires of the 11th Company along with irregulars was there and took over the fort .
Indeed , as auxiliary forces of the British in Mandatory Palestine , several elements of the Arab Legion served in Palestine during the Mandate . The British had promised that these units would be withdrawn before the end of April , but for " technical reasons " , several companies didn 't leave the country . John Bagot Glubb , the commander of the Arab Legion , formed them into one division with two brigades , each made up of two infantry battalions , in addition to several independent infantry companies . Each battalion was given an armored @-@ car company , and the artillery was made into a separate battalion with three batteries . Another " dummy " brigade was formed to make the Israelis believe it was a reserve brigade , thus deterring them from counterattacking into Transjordan .
On 15 May , the Arab states entered the war , and Syrian , Iraqi , Jordanian and Egyptian contingents deployed in Palestine . Among these , the Jordanian expeditionary corps was mainly constituted by an elite mechanized force " encadrΓ©e " by British officers and named Arab Legion . It comprised :
the 1st Brigade comprising the 1st and 3rd Battalions in areas that lead to Nablus ;
the 3rd Brigade under the orders of Colonel Ashton comprising the 2nd Battalion under the orders of Major Geoffrey Lockett and the 4th battalion under the orders of Lieutenant Colonel Habes al @-@ Majali that took position at Ramallah ;
the 5th and 6th Battalions acting independently .
Glubb first realized ( " pris conscience " ) the strategical importance of Latrun in the Battle of Jerusalem . His objective was twofold : he wanted to prevent the Israelis from strengthening Jerusalem and from supplying the city , and he wanted to " make a diversion " to keep the strengths of the Haganah far from the city , warranting to the Arabs the control of East Jerusalem . In addition to the 11th Company already there , he sent to Latrun the whole 4th Regiment . During the night between 15 and 16 May , the first contingent of 40 legionnaires seconded by an undetermined number of Bedouins strengthened the position , and the remainder of the regiment reached the area on 17 May .
On 18 May , the strength of the Arab Legion deployed around Latrun and Bab al @-@ Wad was sufficient , and the road was blocked again . The Israeli general staff needed several days to assess the actual disposition of the Jordanian forces around Latrun and Jerusalem because these latter were thought to be at several locations in the country .
= = = Situation in Jerusalem = = =
At Jerusalem , after the successful offensives that enabled the Jewish forces to take control of the buildings and strongholds that had been abandoned by the British , Glubb Pasha sent the 3rd Regiment of the Arab Legion to strengthen the Arab irregulars and fight the Jewish forces . After " violent " fighting , the Jewish positions in the Old City of Jerusalem were threatened ( this felt indeed on 28 May ) . " We have surrounded the town " : on 22 and 23 May , the second Egyptian brigade , composed mainly of several battalions of irregulars and several units of the regular army , reached the southern outskirts of Jerusalem and continued to attack at Ramat Rachel .
Glubb nevertheless knew that the Israeli army would sooner or later be stronger than his and that he had to prevent the strengthening of the Harel and Etzioni brigades to secure East Jerusalem . He redeployed his strength on 23 May to reinforce the blockade . The Iraqi army , at that time seconded by tanks , relieved the Legion units in northern Samaria and these were redeployed towards the Jerusalem sector . The 2nd Regiment of the Legion moved to Latrun . A full Jordanian brigade was placed in the area .
On the Israeli side , several leaders of the Jewish city sent emergency telegrams to David Ben @-@ Gurion where they described the situation as desperate and that they could not hold out more than two weeks . Fearing that without a supply the city would collapse , Ben @-@ Gurion ordered the taking of Latrun . This decision seemed strategically necessary but was politically delicate , because Latrun was in the area allocated to the Arab State according to the terms of the Partition Plan and this attack was contrary to the non @-@ aggression agreements , concluded with King Abdullah This decision was also opposed by the Chief of Operations , Yigael Yadin who considered that there were other military priorities at that moment , in particular on the southern front , where the Egyptian army was threatening Tel Aviv if Yad Mordechai fell . But Ben @-@ Gurion set Israeli military policy . This difference in strategy influenced the outcome of the battle , and has been debated in Israel for many years .
= = Battles = =
= = = Operation Bin Nun Alef ( 24 β 25 May ) = = =
The task to lead Operation Bin Nun ( lit . Nun 's son , in reference to Joshua , Nun 's son , conqueror of Canaan according to the Book of Joshua ) was given to Shlomo Shamir , a former officer of the British army . His force consisted of 450 men of the Alexandroni Brigade and 1 @,@ 650 men of the 7th Brigade . Of these , about 140 to 145 were immigrants who had just arrived in Israel , nearly 7 % of the total . Their heavy weaponry was limited to two French 65 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) mortars of 1906 ( nicknamed Napoleonchik ) , one 88 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) mortar with 15 rounds of ammunition , one Davidka , ten 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) mortars and twelve armored vehicles . Three hundred soldiers of the Harel Brigade were also in the area but were not aware of the operation , but assisted after finding out about it by intercepting a radio transmission .
The Jordanian forces were under the order of Lieutenant Colonel Habes al @-@ Majali . He " disposed " of the 4th Regiment and 600 Jordanian volunteers seconded by 600 local volunteers . The 2nd Regiment of the brigade , commanded by Major Geoffrey Lockett , had just left Jerusalem and arrived at Latrun during the battle . The brigade totalled 2 @,@ 300 men seconded by 800 auxiliaries . It had at its disposal 35 armoured vehicles with 17 Marmon @-@ Herrington Armoured Cars each armed with an anti @-@ tank 2 pounder gun . For artillery it had eight 25 pounder Howitzers / Field guns , eight 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns , ten 2 pounder anti @-@ tank guns also sixteen 3 @-@ inch mortars .
Zero Hour ( that is , the start of the attack ) was first fixed for midnight 23 May . But it was delayed 24 hours because it had not been possible to gather troops and weapons in time . Because no reconnaissance patrol was made the Israelis didn 't know the exact composition of enemy forces . Intelligence reports just talked about " local irregular forces " . On 24 May at 19 : 30 , Shlomo Shamir was warned that an enemy force of around 120 vehicles , comprising armoured vehicles and artillery , was probably moving towards Latrun , urged an attack . The attack was postponed by 2 hours and fixed at 22 : 00 . The attack was planned on two axes :
The battalion of the Alexandroni brigade had to take the town of Latrun , the police fort and then Imwas in order to block any new Arab reinforcement , and also to protect the passage of supply convoys ;
The 72nd Battalion would circle the position by the south to join the Jerusalem road at the level of Bab al @-@ Wad ; it would then cross the road and climb the ridges to take Dayr Ayyub , Yalu and Bayt Nuba , and would ambush there to cover the passage of convoys . It would be supported by three armored cars and two half @-@ tracks of the 73rd Battalion .
During the night , something unexpected happened : a roadblock on the road that had to be used by the brigade had to be dismantled . Zero hour was once more modified and set at midnight . At last , the troops fought battle between 2 am and 5 am but with no benefit of cover . The attackers were rapidly discovered , depriving the Israelis of the surprise effect . The battle started at 4am . The Israeli forces were submitted to a strong fire . The artillery tried to intervene but felt rapidly out of ammunition or was not within range to provide a counter @-@ battery fire .
In front of the total failure of the attack , Shlomo Shamir ordered the retreat at 11 @.@ 30 am . But this occurred on open ground under a heavy sun and the soldiers had no water . Numerous men were killed or injured by Arab fire . It was only at 2 pm that the first injured men reached the transport they had left in the morning . However , the Arab Legion didn 't take advantage of this victory while , according to Benny Morris , it could easily have performed a counter @-@ attack up to the Israeli headquarters located at Hulda .
Jordanians and Arab irregulars had 5 deaths and 6 injured . The Israelis counted 72 deaths ( 52 from the 32nd Battalion and 20 from the 72nd Battalion ) , 6 prisoners and 140 injured . Ariel Sharon , the future Prime Minister of Israel , a lieutenant at the time , headed a platoon of the 32nd Battalion and suffered serious injury to his stomach during the battle .
= = = Reorganisation of the central front = = =
At the end of May , David Ben @-@ Gurion was convinced that the Arab Legion expected to take control of all Jerusalem . Moreover , after the fighting , the situation there deteriorated : the Jewish community had very small reserves of fuel , bread , sugar and tea , which would last for only 10 days , and water for 3 months . In Glubb 's opinion , the aim was still to prevent the Israelis from reinforcing the city and taking control of its Arab part . On 29 May , the UN Security Council announced its intention to impose a ceasefire for 4 weeks , which would prevent further capture of territory and thus prevent resupplying the besieged city .
From a military point of view , the 10th Harel Brigade required reinforcements and Ben @-@ Gurion dispatched a battalion of the 6th Etzioni Brigade . He considered it imperative that the 7th Brigade join the forces in Jerusalem as well as a contingent of 400 new recruits to reinforce the Harel Brigade . Weapons and spare parts that had arrived in Israel by air were also now ready for combat on the Jerusalem front . The commander of the 7th Brigade wished to neutralize the negative effects of the debacle on the morale of the troops and on his prestige . The central front was reorganized and its command given to an American volunteer fighting on the Israeli side , Colonel David Marcus , who was subsequently appointed Aluf ( Major General ) . He took command of the Etzioni and 7th Brigades , and the 10th Palmach Harel Brigade .
= = = Operation Bin Nun Bet = = =
Shlomor Shamir was once again given the command of the operation . He sent the 7th Brigade and the 52nd Battalion of the Givati Brigade that replaced the 32nd that had been decimated in the previous battle . The 73rd Battalion was an armored force of light infantry with flame @-@ throwers and 22 " military cars " made locally .
The Israelis sent numerous reconnaissance patrols but they nevertheless had no clear idea of the adversary 's forces . They expected to fight 600 men of the Legion and of the Arab Liberation Army , so a force was allocated that was not enough to hold the 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) Latrun front . Jordanians still had in fact a full brigade and are supported by several hundreds of irregulars . Taking into account the mistakes of the previous attacks , the renewed assault was organised with precision , and the area from where the units had to launch their attack had been cleared on 28 May . In particular the two hamlets of Bayt Jiz and Bayt Susin , where a counter @-@ attacks had been launched by the Arab militants during the first battle , and Hill 369 . The attack was once more foreseen on two axes :
The 72nd and 52nd Infantry Battalions were to counter @-@ attack on foot from the south up to Bayt Susin and then take Bab al @-@ Wad and attack respectively Dayr Ayyub and Yalu , then head for Latrun and attack this from the east ;
The 71st Infantry Battalion and 73rd Mechanised Battalion were to assault the police fort , the monastery and the town of Latrun by south @-@ west .
Around midnight , the men of the 72nd and the 52nd passed Bab al @-@ Wad noiselessly and then separated towards their respective targets . One company took Deir Ayyub , which was empty , but then were discovered as they did so by enemies on a nearby hill . They suffered the joint fire of the Legion 's artillery and machines guns . Thirteen men were killed and several other injured . The company , composed mainly of immigrants , then retreated to Bab al @-@ Wad . The 52nd Battalion was preparing to take the hill in front of Yalu , but received an order to retreat .
On the other front , the forces divided in two parts . The infantry of the 71st rapidly took the monastery and then fought for the control of the town . On the other side , the Israeli artillery succeeded in neutralizing the fort 's weapons . The volunteers crossed the defence fence and their flame @-@ throwers took the defenders by surprise . Nevertheless , the light coming from the fire they created lost their cover and they became easy targets for the 60 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) mortars of the Jordanians . They were quickly knocked out and destroyed . The sappers succeeded nevertheless to make the door explode , but in the confusion were not followed by the infantrymen . Chaim Laskov , the chief of operations on that front , ordered company D of the 71st Battalion ( that had been kept in reserve ) to intervene , but one of the soldiers accidentally exploded a landmine , killing three men and injuring several others . They were then attacked by heavy fire from the Jordanian artillery and the men retreated towards the west in panic .
The battle was still not lost for the Israelis although the wake was coming , and Laskov considered that his men could not hold in front of a Legion 's counter @-@ attack and he preferred to order the retreat . It was also time for the Jordanians to regroup , their 4th Regiment was completely out of ammunition . 73rd Battalion suffered 50 % losses and the whole of the engaged forces had counted 44 deaths and twice that number injured . According to the sources , the Legion suffered between 12 and 20 deaths , including the lieutenant commanding the fort . In contrast , the Jordanians reported 2 just deaths on their side , and 161 of the Israelis .
David Marcus later attributed the responsibility for the defeat to the infantry , stating : " the artillery cover was correct . The armoury were good . The infantry , very bad " . Benny Morris considers that the mistake was rather to disperse the forces on several objectives instead of concentrating the full brigade on the main objective : the fort .
= = = " Burma Road " = = =
On 28 May , after they took Bayt Susin , the Israelis controlled a narrow corridor between the coastal plain and Jerusalem . But this corridor was not crossed by a road that could have let trucks supply the city . A foot patrol of the Palmach discovered some paths that linked several villages in the hills south of the main road controlled by the Arab Legion . In the night of 29 β 30 May , Jeeps sent into the hills confirmed there was a path suitable for vehicles . The decision was then taken to build a road in the zone . This was given the name of " Burma Road " , referring to the supply road between Burma and China built by the British during World War II .
Engineers immediately started to build the road while convoys of jeeps , mules and camels were organised from Hulda to carry 65 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) mortars to Jerusalem . Without knowing the goals of these works , the Jordanians realised a game was afoot in the hills . They performed artillery bombings , that would anyway have been rapidly stopped under the orders of the top British officer , and they sent patrols to stop the works , but without success .
Nevertheless , it was mainly food that the inhabitants of Jerusalem needed . Starting 5 June , the Israeli engineers started to fix the road so that it let civil transport trucks pass to supply the city . 150 workers , working in four teams , installed a pipeline to supply the city with water , because the other pipeline , crossing Latrun , had been cut by the Jordanians . In O Jerusalem , Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins talked about heroic action , when during the night of 6 β 7 June , in fear of the critical situation of Jerusalem and to improve the morale of the population , 300 inhabitants of Tel Aviv were requisitioned to carry on their backs , for the few kilometers not yet ready for the trucks , what would be needed to feed the inhabitants of Jerusalem one more day .
The first phase of these works was achieved for the 10 June truce and on 19 June a convoy of 140 trucks , each carrying three tons of merchandise as well as numerous weapons and ammunition , reached Jerusalem . The siege of the city was then definitively over . This Israeli success was punctuated by an incident that became marked in memory : the death of Aluf Mickey Marcus , accidentally killed by an Israeli sentry during the night of 10 β 11 June .
= = = Operation Yoram ( 8 β 9 June 1948 ) = = =
Between 30 May and 8 June the status between the Israeli and Arabic armies became a stand @-@ off . They were used to fighting small , violent battles and taking heavy losses of people and arms , and the United Nations renewed its call for a truce on 11 June . It was in this context that David Ben @-@ Gurion took the decision to withdraw from Galilee the elite 11th Yiftach Brigade under the orders of Yigal Allon to launch a third assault against Latrun . He had at his disposal an artillery support composed of four 65 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) mortars and four 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns that were part of the heavy weapons recently delivered to Israel by Operation Balak .
This time , the general staff decided on an attack concentrated on the centre of the Legion disposal , with several diversion attacks to the north to disrupt the Jordanians . While a battalion from the Yiftach Brigade was performed some diversions attacks on Salbit , Imwas and Bayt Nuba , a battalion from the Harel brigade was to take Hill 346 , between the fourth and second Legion regiments and a battalion from the Yiftach Brigade was then to pass through it , take Hill 315 and Latrun village and the police fort by the East . The Israeli operation started with an artillery barrage on the fort , the village of Latrun and the positions around . Hills 315 and 346 occupied with a company from the Legion , were not targeted not to alert the Jordanians .
The men of the Harel brigade made leave on foot from Bab al @-@ Oued but took a wrong way and mistakenly attacked Hill 315 . Located by the Jordanian sentries , they launch the attack of the hill . The Legionnaires were outnumbered but counterattacked with violence , going as far as requiring an artillery bombing on their own position . The Israelis suffered some heavy losses . When the Yiftach arrived at the bottom of Hill 346 , they are targeted by firearms , grenades and artillery . Thinking that Harel men were there , they called by radio to the headquarters to ceasefire , and laid down arms . They refused , not believing that account of the events and Harel soldiers stayed in place .
Confusion among Jordanians was as important as among Israelis with the attack on Hill 315 and those of diversion . With the incoming morning and unable to evaluate properly the situation , the Israeli HQ gave orders at 5 @.@ 30 am for the soldiers to retreat to Bad al @-@ Oued . The losses were also significant . Indeed , the 400 @-@ strong Harel battalion numbered 16 dead and 79 injured , and the Yiftach an handful of dead and injured . The Legion numbered several dozen victims .
The following day , Jordan mounted two counter @-@ attacks . The first was over Beit Susin . The Legionnaires took several Israeli guard posts but could not keep them more than a few hours . The fighting took lives and some 20 injuries on the Israeli side . The second was at Kibbutz Gezer from where the diversion attacks had been launched . A force the strength of a battalion , made up of Legionnaires and irregulars and supported by a dozen armoured vehicles , attacked the kibbutz in the morning . It was defended by 68 soldiers of the Haganah ( including 13 women ) .
After the four @-@ hour battle , the kibbutz fell . A dozen of the defenders escaped . Most others surrendered and one or two were executed . The Legionnaires protected the prisoners from irregulars and the next day freed the women . The toll was 39 dead on the Israeli side and 2 on the Legionnaires ' side . The kibbutz was looted by the irregulars and the Legionnaires evacuated the area after the fights . In the evening the Yiftach Brigade retook the kibbutz .
= = = Attacks organised during Operation Danny = = =
After the month of truce , during which Tsahal increased forces and re @-@ equipped , the weakest point of the Israeli dispositions were on the central front and the corridor to Jerusalem . The High Command decided to launch " Operation Larlar " with the objective of taking Lydda , Ramle , Latrun and Ramallah and relieving the threat on Tel Aviv on a side and West Jerusalem on the other .
To achieve this objective Yigal Allon in entrusted 5 brigades : the Harel and Yiftach ( now totalling five battalions ) , the 8th armoury brigade ( newly constituted as the 82nd and 89th battalions ) , several infantry battalions from the Kiryati and Alexandroni brigades , and 30 pieces of artillery . The 7th brigade was sent to the northern front . In a first phase , between 9 and 13 July , the Israelis took Lydda and Ramle and reasserted the area around Latrun by taking Salbit , but the forces are exhausted and the High Command renounced to the objective of taking Ramallah . Two attacks was launched against Latrun .
= = = On the east of the Jordanian positions ( 16 July ) = = =
On the night of 15 β 16 July , several companies of the Harel brigade laid on an assault against Latrun by the east , around the " artillery ridge " and the villages of Yalo and Bayt Nuba . They carried on to the hills by way of the villages of Bayt Thul and Nitaf transporting their armoury using pack mules . After several hours of fighting and counter @-@ attacks by armoured vehicles of the Arab Legion , they were finally pushed back but could keep control of several hills . In total , the Israelis lost 23 dead and numerous injured .
= = = Frontal assault against the police fort ( 18 July ) = = =
One hour before the truce , the High Command decided to try a frontal assault against the police fort . Intelligence indicated that , in effect , it was " more likely than not " that the Legion 's forces in the sector were " substantial " . In the morning , reconnaissance patrols had sized up the sector , but could not confirm or deny the information that had been gathered by the intelligence . At 6 pm two Cromwell tanks driven by British deserters , seconded by a mechanised battalion of the Yiftach and supported by artillery launched the attack of the police fort .
When the Israeli forces arrived 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) from the fort , they were shelled by Jordanian artillery . Around 6 : 15 pm. one of the tanks was hit by a shell ( or sustained a mechanical damage ) and had to retreat to al @-@ Qubab for repairs . The remaining forces waited for its return and the attack resumed around 7 : 30 pm , but was abandoned around 8 pm . The Israelis counted between 8 and 12 victims . At the same time , elements of the Harel brigade took about 10 villages to the south of Latrun to enlarge and secure the area of the Burma road . The majority of inhabitants had fled the fights in April but those who remained were systematically expelled .
= = = The final assault = = =
After the ten @-@ day campaign , the Israelis were military superior to their enemies and the Cabinet subsequently considered where and when to attack next . Three options were offered : attacking the Arabic enclave in Galilee held by the Arab Liberation Army ; moving eastward as far as possible in Samarian and Judean areas , taken by the Iraqis and Jordanians ; or attacking southern Negev taken by the Egyptians .
On 24 September , an incursion made by the Palestinian irregulars in the Latrun sector ( killing 23 Israeli soldiers ) precipitated the debate . On 26 September , David Ben @-@ Gurion put his argument to the Cabinet to attack Latrun again and conquer the whole or a large part of West Bank .
The motion was rejected by 5 votes to 7 after discussions . According to Benny Morris , the arguments that were advanced not to launch the attack were : the negative international repercussions for Israel already accentuated by the recent assassination of Count Bernadotte ; the consequences of an attack on an agreement with Abdallah ; the fact that defeating the Arab Legion could provoke a British military intervention because of Britain and Jordan 's common defense pact and lastly because conquering this area would add hundreds of thousands of Arab citizens to Israel .
Ben @-@ Gurion judged the decision bechiya ledorot ( " A cause for lamentation for generations " ) in considering that Israel could never renounce its claim in Judea , Samaria and over Old Jerusalem .
= = Aftermath = =
At the operational level , the five assaults on Latrun were solved with Israeli defeats and Jordanian victories : the Jordanians repelled all assaults and kept control of the road between the coastal plain and Jerusalem , with Israel losing 168 killed and many more injured . Strategically , the outcome was more nuanced :
The opening of the Burma Road enabled the Israelis to bypass Latrun and supply the 100 @,@ 000 Jewish inhabitants of West Jerusalem with food , arms , munitions , and equipment and reinforce their military position there ;
If the control of West Jerusalem by Israel hold some of the Arab forces , the Arab Legion control of Latrun , 15 kilometres ( 10 mi ) from Tel Aviv , was a thorn in the side of Israeli forces ;
Latrun was a pivot point of the Legion 's deployment ; Glubb Pacha massed a third of his troops there ; its fall would have caused the one of Jerusalem and probably of Cisjordan as a whole .
At the discussions of the Israeli @-@ Jordano Armistice at Rhodes , the Israelis requested unsuccessfully the removal of the legion from Latrun . It subsequently remained under Jordanian control until the Six @-@ Day War .
= = Historiography = =
= = = Israeli historiography and collective memory = = =
According to Israeli historian Anita Shapira , there is a gap , at times quite wide , between the ' facts established by historical research ' and the image of the battle as retained in collective memory . This is certainly the case for the battle of Latrun , which has become , in Israel , a founding myth .
= = = = The clear @-@ sightedness of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = = =
The first version of the battle of Latrun was contrived by David Ben @-@ Gurion and his entourage .
Initially , the governing power within Israel remained silent . However , on May 27 , the Israeli daily Maariv printed a sceptical coverage of Arab accounts , which spoke of a great victory by the Arab Legion , involving some 800 Israeli dead . In response , the Israeli press stressed that the aim of the operation was not to take Latrun , but to strike the Legion and , on June 1 , it published casualty figures of 250 deaths for the Arab side and 10 deaths , with 20 badly wounded , and another 20 lightly wounded on the Israeli side .
From 14 June , the press shifted its focus to the ' opening of the Burma route ' and , in the context of a conflict between the military 's senior command and Ben @-@ Gurion , Yigael Yadin called the operation a ' great catastrophe ' while the latter replied that , in his view , it had been " a great , although costly , victory " .
The " official version " entered in the historiography in 1955 following the work of lieutenant colonel Israel Beer , whereas adviser and support of Yadin at the time of the events , who published ' The battles of Latrun ' . This study , considered by the historian Anita Shapira as " the most clever ever written on the topic " , puts the battles in their military and political context . It concludes that given the strategic and symbolic importance of Jerusalem , " the three tactical defeats that occurred at Latrun ( ... ) permitted the supply [ of the city ] and were a diversal manoeuvre ( ... ) [ and ] are the consequence of the strategic clear @-@ sightedness of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , able to identify the key points and subordinate to his general sight the tactical considerations , limited , of the military command .
Ber put the responsibility of the tactical defeats on the failures of the intelligence services and on the " absence de commandement sΓ©parΓ© sur les diffΓ©rents fronts . " He also points out the badly trained immigrants , the defective equipment , and the difficulty for a new army to succeed a first operation targeting to capture a defended area that was organised by advance . He gives the first estimates for the losses : 50 deaths in the 32nd battalion of the Alexandroni brigade and the 25 deaths in the 72nd battalion of the 7th brigade ( composed mainly of immigrants ) .
Finally , Ber founded the myth and pictured the events of Latrun as " an heroic saga , as the ones that occurs at the birth of a nation or at the historical breakthrough of movements of national liberation " .
= = = = Criminal negligence = = = =
[ About the First Battle of Latrun : ] " the Jordanians broke the attack by noon , with fewer than two thousand Israeli deaths . "
Whereas many events in the war were more bloody for the Israelis , like the massacre at Kfar Etzion with 150 deaths or the one of the Mount Scopus with 78 , the Battle of Latrun is the event of the war to provoke most rumours , narratives and controversies in Israel . The main reason is that Latrun had still been the mainstay for the road to Jerusalem until the Six @-@ Day War , keeping the Israelis at the margins and having to go round and maintain the town , but struggling to bypass it , which played each day on their minds . According to Anita Shapira , the primary reason was nothing but people 's grievous memories , of David Ben @-@ Gurion and the veterans of the British Armies on one side and former Palmah and Haganah soldiers on the other . In this sphere of influence during the 1970s and in the controversies that continued until the 1980s , the " Strategic Necessity " was said , if it were not done , it would be " Criminal negligence " , with a heavy toll on bring in immigrants to the battle , and forging a new founding myth .
On one side , the opponents of Ben @-@ Gurion attacked his " moral authority " . They said that the intrusion into Latrun by the " scum of the earth " immigrants who died had changed the situation for the worse . And the number of victims , and the proportion of immigrants , inflated in the narratives : from " several hundreds of dead " to " 500 to 700 dead and even " 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 dead " . The proportion of immigrants making up this total of victims was up to 75 % . His opponents accused Ben @-@ Gurion of wanting to take out the myth of the " invincible Arab Legion " and to justify the abandonment of the city of David to Abdallah . ( Anita Shapira considers this story to be at the origin of the theory of Avi Shlaim who brought forth what she considers as the myth of the collusion between Ben @-@ Gurion and Abdallah . ) On the other side , those supporting Ben @-@ Gurion put everything to advance the case of the " historic sacrifice " by the immigrants , laying the failure to their poor training .
Many contemporary books about the 1948 War were published at this time : John and David Kimche , The two sides of the hill ( 1960 ) ( the more reliable ) ; Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins , O Jerusalem ( 1972 ) ( the best known internationally ) and Dan Kurzman , Genesis , 1948 ( 1970 ) ( the only one that got reviews in the Israeli press ) . With this political writing , historical research on Latrun tends to concentrate on the 1980s with the work of AriΓ© Itzhaki , " Latrun " ( in 2 volumes ) . It gives the exact number of victims , but , at the contrary of Israel Beer ( meanwhile caught as spying for USSR ) , it depicts the battle as " The hardest in the history of Tsahal " , and it puts the responsibility of the defeat on Ben @-@ Gurion , who panicked about Jerusalem , and tactical errors on the brigade commanders and not on the immigrants who received ( from his point of view ) a sufficient training .
= = = = The drama of alienation = = = =
In the first years after its foundation , Israel met a problem with social integration of new immigrants who had arrived after the war , who had received much trauma from their exodus from Arab lands or from the death camps , and had suffered six years of war . Their integration was difficult with Sabra Israelis , born in the Palestinian Mandate , and taking the essential jobs and around who Israel had built an image of " Sabras , strong and courageous , fearless heroes , disdaining feebleness and trouble " . The phenomenon rose up again with the Israeli victory of the Six @-@ Day War .
All the while , these uncertainties and the reparations from the Yom Kippur War polished the sheen on the Shoah . The collective memory resurfaced and looked to reconcile its history of difficulties , suffering and sacrifices . A new elite arose from the Sephardic Jews and the " can @-@ do " of Menahem Begin . In this context , the " myth " of Latrun derived from the frustrations and the death of the new immigrants and was catalysed by their integration in a society where " the survivor of Shoah carried the new collective memory , immigrant refugees who had troubled pasts , and then were confronted with hostility and threat and still took their place with their blood and taking part in the war " .
This myth was founded in the factual knowledge of the immigrants ' participation in the battles , and the mythical knowledge because of the differences in the number of victims , the leaving of the injured on the fields of battle , and that the Latrun battle was the hardest and most important in the war . The influence on written history appeared primarily in books and commentary , where " the immigrants wanted only to make sure that their contribution at the battle was written in the collective memory with a plus sign " . It didn 't bring new documents but it expressed itself in memoirs , reminiscences and obituaries by or of those involved in the events . It was a view that was seldom heard in polemics giving two preceding versions of events but that had a life of its own , given to it by the immigrants .
= = = = Myth of guilt = = = =
In the 1980s , a schism arose within the post @-@ Zionism movement , and the history of the battle of Latrun came to represent the culpability of the Israeli state and a way of pointing out that it was born in the context of massacres and the exodus of the Palestinian population . It shouted " hypocrisy " , " false truths " , and " the blood of the escapees of Shoah who came to find a new life and yet found death " .
This version was put into several poems by the celebrated provocative poet Gabi Daniel ( pseudonym of Benjamin Harushovsky @-@ Harshav ) and entitled " Peter the Great " . Themes in the poem include dehumanisation and how Ben @-@ Gurion got Shoah into his pocket , by the work of the other " innocent young Jews of the Superior Race , who , without name or vision , found themselves the saviours of Israel " .
Peter the Great
Paved the city of St Petersburg
In the northern seas
On the backs of his serfs .
David Ben @-@ Gurion
Paved
The Burma Road , which turned around
The road , by the road to the capital Jerusalem ,
With the backs of the young refugees from Shoah .
Anita Shapira considers this " New myth " was necessary not to reject identity with the past and to be able to renounce their common memory . While Israel in the 1980s was under much criticism from myths about the state 's founding , the reception of this idea was mitigated and " this version of Latrun that was destined to blow up the myth that the regathering was solely in the hands of a group of radicals in the middle of the [ Israeli ] intellectual community " .
= = = = Qirbet Quriqur = = = =
A battle fought in this zone and tragic for the Israelis was completely eclipsed from their collective memory . On 18 July , a company from the 1st Battalion of Yiftach Brigade received the order to capture Qirbet Quriqur , an outpost protecting the only way for the Legion to get to Latrun located several kilometres to the north of the place . Intelligence services had not informed the responsible officer that nearby there was another outpost , occupied by a reinforced company of the Legion . From there the legionnaires could observe all the operations of the Israelis and called for reinforcements , notably armoured vehicles . When they mounted the counter @-@ attack , the Israelis were taken by a lightning strike in an encircling movement . No troops were available there to reinforce them , so they had to retreat in plain daylight . 45 Israeli soldiers , nineteen of them aged 18 or less , lost their lives .
Despite this bloodbath , Anita Shapira underlines that this battle didn 't remain in the Israeli collective memory . " If success has numerous fathers , [ ... ] defeat remains an orphan . [ ... ] The deaths of Qurikur did not enter into the pantheon of the Israeli national memory . [ ... ] [ While there were numerous polemics about Latrun ] , that 45 soldiers perished [ ... ] should have begged a question . But they died in a side of the arena that proved to be unimportant , given it was not to decide the outcome of the campaign .
= = = = Commemoration = = = =
After the Suez Crisis and the Six @-@ Day War , the army came to arm the most important place . For technical reasons ( distance of communication with bases ) and because new places of historical interest were accessible , the top brass debated whether to transfer the postings of new recruits at Massada to a more appropriate place . It was Latrun that was finally chosen . In the 1980s , a commemorative site and a museum was built on the old police site . The complex has a wall listing all the names of the fallen soldiers since the War Of Independence , and a monument to the glory of the heroes and another for reverence . The museum has nearly 200 tanks and other armoured vehicles of many kinds .
= = = Jordanian historiography = = =
According to Eugène Rogan , the Jordanian history of the war is essentially that of the recollections by Jordanian officers who took part in the fighting , or of nationalist historians . He states that these " non @-@ critical " works are largely loyal to the Jordanian regime and quotes My memoirs by Habes al @-@ Majali , commander of the 4th Regiment ; The battles of Bad al @-@ Oued by Mahmoud al @-@ Ghussan , one of the High Command officers ; On the road to Jerusalem by Ma 'n Abu Nuwar , an officer of the Arab Legion , Jordanian soldier and Soldier with the Arabs with John Bagot Glubb . Jordanian historiography declares Latrun as a great success of the Arab Legion in the defense of Jerusalem , where a contingent of 1 @,@ 200 men resisted an assault of 6 @,@ 500 Israeli soldiers , and claiming Israeli casualties of between 400 and 800 killed . Glubb claimed 600 deaths on the first assault and 600 others for the two after .
Habes al @-@ Majali is quoted as the only Arab commander to have defeated the Israelis in 1948 and who restored a little honour to the Arabs . By his version of events , he would even have caught Ariel Sharon in the course of the battle and it is Colonel Ashton ( his British superior from 3rd Brigade ) would have forbidden him to use the artillery against the Burma road , action by which he could have prevented its construction . After the war , he was appointed bodyguard of Abdallah and in 1957 Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff of the Jordanian army . He became Jordanian Minister of Defence in 1967 .
= = = Palestinian historiography and collective memory = = =
The Palestinian account of the battle is much the same as the Israeli one . It is , after , all , based on the Israeli one but gives no weight or symbolic character to it . In his work " All That Remains : The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948 " Walid Khalidi refers to Operation Maccabi as the first assault . He reports that the resistance offered by the Arab Legion and the volunteer army were " inspired by Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Husayni " ( who had been killed a month before ) .
Nevertheless , Palestinian historiography and collective memory point out that during the exodus of Palestinian Arab population of the 1948 War the massacres and forced expulsions that happened could be seen as ethnic cleansing . In the Latrun zone , this affected about 20 villages and ten thousand Palestinian Arabs . Some inhabitants fled during the fights of April but most fled when the Israelis attacked their village during the following operations . After capturing a village , the Israeli soldiers systematically expelled the non @-@ combatants , intimidating them to leave and demolishing houses . A massacre of between thirty and seventy Arabs took place some days after Abu Shusha was taken . Most villages were levelled , so as not to be used by the Arab volunteers and to prevent the inhabitants returning . In some cases Jewish settlements were established on village land .
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= 27th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 27th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was initially raised in 1915 as part of the First Australian Imperial Force for service during World War I. During the conflict , the battalion saw action briefly at Gallipoli before later fighting on the Western Front between 1916 and 1918 . It was disbanded in 1919 , but was re @-@ raised in 1921 as part of the Citizens Force , which later became the " Militia " . During World War II the battalion was used mainly in a garrison role until the last year of the war when it was committed to the fighting against the Japanese during the Bougainville campaign . Following the end of hostilities it was disbanded in May 1946 . Between 1948 and 1965 the battalion was re @-@ raised and disbanded a number of times before eventually becoming part of the Royal South Australia Regiment . It was disbanded for a final time in 1987 , when it was amalgamated with the 10th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment to form the 10th / 27th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Gallipoli = = = =
Because of the restrictions that the Defence Act ( 1903 ) placed upon deploying units of the Citizens Force overseas , following the outbreak of World War I , the Australian government decided to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service . This force was known as the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . Initially , the AIF was to consist of only one infantry division , but following the despatch of the 1st Division in late 1914 further units were raised and these were eventually organised to form the 2nd Division . As part of the 2nd Division , the 27th Battalion was formed on 16 March 1915 at Ascot Park Camp , Adelaide , from recruits drawn mainly from South Australia , who had originally been allocated to the 24th Battalion . After a period of basic training , the battalion embarked for the Middle East on the troopship HMAT A2 Geelong on 31 May 1915 , arriving there on 6 July .
They then undertook a further two months of training in Egypt before an urgent request for reinforcements led to them being dispatched to Gallipoli where they landed on 12 September . Attached to the 7th Brigade , along with the 25th , 26th and 28th Battalions , they reinforced the battle @-@ worn New Zealand and Australian Division and took up a defensive position on Cheshire Ridge . Throughout October they defended the ridge , during which time they suffered five killed and 29 wounded , before being relieved by New Zealanders in early November . After this they moved to new positions in Mule Gulley where they undertook further defensive operations alongside the 26th Battalion . Losses during this time amounted to two killed and eight wounded . In December , they took over from the 28th Battalion around Happy Valley , before the decision was made to evacuate the Allied forces from the peninsula . On 12 December 1915 , the battalion embarked upon the Osmaliegh , bound for Lemnos Island .
Following this the 27th Battalion returned to Egypt , where the AIF undertook a period of training and re @-@ organisation as reinforcements arrived from Australia . During this time the AIF was expanded from two infantry divisions to four β with a fifth forming in Australia β and many infantry battalions that had seen service at Gallipoli were split up to provide cadre staff for the newly raised battalions . The battalions of the 2nd Division , however , were not split up in this manner and the 27th Battalion remained intact .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
In early 1916 , the decision was made to transfer part of the AIF to Europe to take part in the fighting in the trenches along the Western Front in France and Belgium . Still attached to the 7th Brigade , the 27th Battalion entered the front @-@ line for the first time on 7 April 1916 as the Australians took over a quiet sector near Armentières . On 8 July 1916 , the 7th Brigade was ordered to march to the Somme to support the Australian 1st Division which was taking part in the fighting around Pozières . On 28 July , the 7th Brigade undertook an attack on the German line , however , during this time the 27th Battalion was held back in reserve . The attack proved unsuccessful and as a result it was ordered to launch a second attack on 4 August , centred upon German positions around Bapaume .
This time the 27th Battalion was to play a key role . Moving off from positions around La Boiselle in the afternoon , the battalion advanced with two companies forward and two back in reserve under the cover of an intense artillery barrage . Due to congestion around the assembly trenches , the battalion arrived at its objective late . Nevertheless , the first wave managed to capture the first line of German trenches and although the follow @-@ up waves became lost amidst thick smoke , the two assault companies began to consolidate their position during the night . In the early morning of 5 August , a heavy German counterattack was launched . This was turned back with considerable cost , with the Germans suffering an estimated 100 men killed and 60 men captured . Following this , the battalion sent out patrols into No Man 's Land as reinforcements were brought up . Later during the day their positions were subjected to heavy shellfire from German guns positioned around Thiepval . Although successful , the attack proved costly with the battalion reporting the following casualties : 40 killed , 289 wounded and 67 missing . Afterwards they were relieved by the 48th Battalion and were eventually transferred to Belgium where they were rested in a ' quiet ' sector south of Zillebeke .
In early October , they undertook a number of small scale raids on the German line , capturing a number of prisoners , before they were withdrawn from the line on 27 October and transferred back to the Somme where they subsequently took part in two unsuccessful attacks against German positions east of Flers . In January 1917 , the 7th Brigade moved into the Le Sars sector where they took over from British units that were holding the line near Mametz . Offensive operations during this time were largely curtailed by bad weather , but on 2 March the battalions of the 5th and 7th Brigades launched a combined attack north of Warlencourt . The initial assault yielded some ground , but the Germans completed a successful outflanking move on the left , which threatened to take the momentum out of the attack . As reinforcements were brought up , the 27th Battalion linked up with the 26th Battalion on its left flank near the Loupart Road and , under the cover of mist , managed to establish a new trench line 500 yards ( 460 m ) long and captured a number of prisoners .
The battalion 's next engagement came on 26 March 1917 when they undertook an attack on Lagnicourt , during which they lost 11 killed and 29 wounded . The 27th Battalion did not undertake a major engagement until 20 September when they took part in the Battle of Menin Road , which resulted in success for the Australians . During the battle , they were committed to the fighting as part of the first wave which routed the German forces . Advancing under a cover of artillery and machine gun fire , the battalion captured a section of the German line known as the ' Blue Line ' between Polygon Wood and a position known as the Iron Cross Redoubt . Later , they successfully took part in the Battle of Broodseinde on 4 October , which was their last major offensive action in 1917 .
In early 1918 , the 7th Brigade was placed in divisional reserve around Romarin as extreme winter weather conditions set in . At the end of January the brigade was relieved and moved back to Henneveux where it was tasked with covering a 24 miles ( 39 km ) length of the line . During this time the 27th Battalion was near full strength , with 43 officers and 993 men , and was positioned between Bellebrune and Cremarest . They remained there throughout February and March during which time they undertook training and the men were given leave to visit Boulogne . In March 1918 , the Germans launched their Spring Offensive in an effort to bring about an end to the war . The offensive saw considerable tactical gains , and although the Australian Corps missed the opening phase of the offensive as they were out of line at the time , they were brought up in April to help stem the tide of the German advance . As a part of this effort , the 27th Battalion returned to the battlefields of the Somme , as the 7th Brigade relieved the 13th Brigade around the Somme Canal on the night of 7 / 8 April . At the end of the month they moved to the Camon β Rivery area . As the German offensive became focused upon Villers β Bretonneux they were called upon to undertake a supporting role to the Australian counterattack , relieving the 6th Brigade around Ville @-@ sur @-@ Ancre following the 6th 's assault on the town .
In early June , plans were made for the Australian 2nd Division to attack around Morlancourt in preparation for a more significant attack at Hamel . On 10 June , the battalion advanced on the right of the 7th Brigade 's line , capturing the German front line trenches around Morlancourt and wiping out a whole battalion , taking 325 prisoners for the loss of 400 men . On 4 July the battalion undertook a supporting role in the successful Australian attack at Hamel , following up the initial success with a further , albeit small , advance on 8 July . After the German offensive petered out , the 27th Battalion undertook peaceful penetration operations against the German line as the Allies began to prepare to launch their own offensive .
On 8 August 1918 , the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive . During the fighting around Amiens , the battalion was responsible for capturing 200 prisoners as well as a number of machine guns and artillery pieces . They remained in the line throughout August and September , undertaking further attacks at Biaches and Mont St Quentin . Casualties during this time were high and by the end of September 1918 the battalion 's strength had fallen to 31 officers and 537 men . Their final engagement of the war came on the night of 3 October 1918 , when they took part in the Battle of Beaurevoir . During this battle , the battalion attacked around Prospect Hill , suffering 67 casualties . The following night they crossed the Estrees Road and took up position northeast of Estrees to support the 6th Brigade which was attacking positions beyond Beaurevoir .
Following this , the battalions of the Australian Corps were removed from the line for rest on 5 October , after a request from the Australian prime minister , Billy Hughes . They had been severely depleted and were suffering from acute manpower shortages as a result of the combination of a decrease in the number of volunteers from Australia and the decision to grant home leave to men who had served for over four years . Subsequently , when the armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 , the Australian Corps had not returned to the front and was still in the rear reorganising and training . With the end of hostilities the demobilisation process began , and men were slowly repatriated back to Australia . The process took a considerable period of time , though , and a large number of men were able to undertake tertiary and vocational training in England and France to prepare for their return to civilian life . Finally , as numbers dwindled , the battalion was disbanded on 4 June 1919 .
The battalion suffered 762 men killed or died on active service during the war , as well as a further 2 @,@ 155 wounded . Members of the 27th Battalion received a number of decorations , including : one Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) , five Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) , 20 Military Crosses ( MCs ) and two bars , 14 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 69 Military Medals ( MMs ) and two bars , five Meritorious Service Medals ( MSMs ) , 21 Mentions in Despatches ( MIDs ) and six foreign awards . A total of 16 battle honours were awarded to the 27th Battalion for its involvement in the fighting on Gallipoli and the Western Front .
= = = Interwar years = = =
In 1921 , the decision was made to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF by re @-@ organising the units of the Citizens Force to adopt the numerical designations of their related AIF units . The 27th Battalion had been recruited mainly from personnel that had served in the 74th ( Boothby ) Infantry Regiment , and as a result , on 1 May 1921 , the 74th 's successor units β the 2nd and 5th Battalions , 27th Regiment β were amalgamated to re @-@ raise the 27th Battalion . Through this link , the 27th inherited the battle honour " South Africa 1899 β 1902 " . Upon establishment , the battalion formed part of the 3rd Brigade and was based in South Australia where it formed part of the 4th Military District .
In 1927 , territorial titles were adopted by the units of the Citizens Force , and as a result the battalion adopted the title of the " South Australian Regiment " . It also adopted the motto of " Primus inter Pares " , meaning " First Among Equals " . The following year , 1928 , the battalion formed an alliance with the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers , which were also known as the 27th Regiment of Foot . A year later , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and in its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Forces would be maintained on a part @-@ time , voluntary basis only . It was also renamed the " Militia " at this time . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and as a result the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . The 27th Battalion , however , did not suffer this fate and in 1938 it adopted the territorial title of " South Australian Scottish Regiment " and was afforded the right to wear the MacKenzie tartan , after forming an alliance with the Seaforth Highlanders . At the same time it also raised a pipe band .
= = = World War II = = =
Following the outbreak of World War II , due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which precluded deploying the Militia outside of Australian territory , the government decided to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service , known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) . As such while the Militia would provide a cadre for this force , its main role was to provide training to conscripts as part of the compulsory training scheme which was re @-@ established in early 1940 . During this time the Militia were called up in cohorts for periods of continuous training and the 27th Battalion , along with the rest of the 3rd Brigade , undertook garrison duties in South Australia as well as running number of training camps designed to increase the nation 's defences in case of war in the Pacific . With Japan 's entry into the war following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and Malaya , the battalion was mobilised for wartime service on 9 December 1941 and transported to Darwin in northern Australia where it formed part of the garrison force to defend against possible Japanese attack . During this time it was based at Winnellie and took part in building defences in the north .
Later , in December 1942 , the 27th Battalion was transferred from the 3rd Brigade to the 23rd Brigade . This unit had previously been a 2nd AIF unit , but the loss of several of its battalions when they had been deployed to Ambon , Timor and Rabaul , had resulted in it being re @-@ formed with Militia battalions and the 27th joined the 7th and 8th Battalions to round out its establishment . In March 1943 , after having endured several bombings by Japanese aircraft since their arrival in Darwin the previous year , the battalion was replaced in the Darwin garrison and its personnel returned Adelaide for leave . In December , they regrouped on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland for jungle training , as the 23rd Brigade β then part of the 3rd Division β was converted to the jungle establishment , in preparation for them undertaking active service in New Guinea . Around this time the battalion was gazetted as an AIF battalion , meaning that because more than 65 per cent of its personnel had volunteered for service outside of Australian territory , it could be deployed beyond the limits set out in the Defence Act ( 1903 ) .
In September 1944 , the 27th Battalion was deployed to Green Island where they relieved the American troops defending Lagoon Airfield . The Americans were subsequently redeployed to the fighting in the Philippines . In 1945 , the battalion moved to Bougainville to take part in the Australian campaign there . Initially , it was tasked with relieving the 55th / 53rd Battalion at Laruma River in the central sector of the island , which it did so in March . In April , the battalion pressed on to Pearl Ridge where they took over from the 31st / 51st Battalion and began to carry out patrols in front of the ridge . Over the course of six weeks , the battalion carried out a number of minor attacks and in the process captured several key features before moving to the northern sector of the island on the Bonis Peninsula around Ratsua where they continued to harass Japanese forces through active patrolling and ambushing . This continued until the end of the war in August 1945 .
Following the Japanese surrender , the 27th Battalion ceased operations and was transported to Torokina , where they had to wait for shipping to become available for repatriation back to Australia to begin the demobilisation process . This process began in October 1945 , albeit slowly , and gradually the battalion 's numbers decreased as men were repatriated back to Australia or were transferred to other units for further service . Long service men received priority for discharge , while some men volunteered to be transferred to the battalions of the 34th Brigade that were being formed on Morotai Island for service as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . Finally , on 1 May 1946 , the battalion was disbanded .
The 27th Battalion lost 22 men killed in action or died and 54 wounded during its service in World War II , the majority of these coming in the final weeks of the war . In addition to the normal campaign ribbons , the battalion 's personnel also received a number of decorations for distinguished service and bravery , these included : one DSO , one MC , one MM and 16 MIDs . The battalion received one battle honour for its involvement in the war .
= = = Post World War II = = =
In 1948 , with demobilisation of Australia 's wartime army complete , the decision was made to re @-@ raise the part @-@ time forces of the Militia , albeit with the new name of the Citizens Military Force , on a reduced establishment . The 27th Battalion was re @-@ raised in May 1948 , and was once again assigned to the 3rd Division , attached to the 9th Brigade . In 1951 , the compulsory training scheme was reintroduced and as a result the size of many CMF units swelled . The march , The Campbells Are Coming , was approved as the battalion 's regimental march in 1953 . In 1959 , the national service scheme was suspended , and as a result numbers dropped once more . Following the introduction of the Pentropic divisional structure in early 1960 , the CMF was reorganised and a number of infantry battalions were disbanded or amalgamated together to form six new State @-@ based regiments .
As part of these changes , in July 1960 the 27th Battalion was amalgamated with the 43rd / 48th Battalion ( Hindmarsh Regiment ) and 10th Battalion ( The Adelaide Rifles ) to form the Pentropic 1st Battalion , Royal South Australian Regiment ( 1 RSAR ) , with the 27th Battalion 's personnel forming ' A ' and ' B ' Companies within this organisation . The 16 battle honours awarded to the 2nd AIF 's 2 / 27th Battalion , which had served in North Africa , Syria , and New Guinea with the 7th Division were entrusted to the battalion in 1961 , through the promulgation of Army Order 135 . In 1965 , the Australian Army 's experiment with the Pentropic structure was abandoned and the CMF was once again reorganised with many of the Pentropic battalions being split once again to form additional battalions . On 1 July 1965 , 1 RSAR was split and the 10th , 27th and 43rd Battalions were reformed in their own right as battalions of the Royal South Australia Regiment . On 29 November 1987 , the 10th and 27th Battalions were linked to form the 10th / 27th Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment ( 10 / 27 RSAR ) . This unit continues to exist to this day , maintaining the battle honours and traditions of its predecessor units .
= = Alliances = =
The 27th Battalion held the following alliances :
United Kingdom β Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers ;
United Kingdom β Seaforth Highlanders .
= = Battle honours = =
The 27th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
South Africa 1899 β 1902 ( inherited ) ;
World War I : Somme 1916 β 18 , PoziΓ¨res , Bapaume 1917 , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Mont St Quentin , Hindenburg Line , Beaurevoir , France and Flanders 1916 β 18 , Gallipoli 1915 β 16 ;
World War II : Liberation of Australian New Guinea .
In 1961 , the battalion β although no longer on the Australian Army 's order of battle β was entrusted with the battle honours awarded to the 2 / 27th Battalion for its service with the 2nd AIF during World War II . The honours it inherited at this time were : North Africa ; Syria 1941 ; The Litani ; Sidon ; Adlun ; Damour ; South @-@ West Pacific 1942 β 1945 ; Kokoda Trail ; Efogi β Menari ; Buna β Gona ; Gona ; Liberation of Australian New Guinea ; Ramu Valley ; Shaggy Ridge ; Borneo 1945 ; Balikpapan .
= = Commanding officers = =
World War I
Lieutenant Colonel Walter Dollman ( 16 March 1915 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel James Charles Frederick Slane ( 22 August 1916 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Royden Chalmers ( 1 October 1917 ) .
World War II
Lieutenant Colonel Francis Mayfield Best ( 1 May 1934 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Lindsay Keith Farquhar ( 6 November 1939 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Pope ( 14 April 1942 ) .
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= Manuel Marques de Sousa , Count of Porto Alegre =
Manuel Marques de Sousa , Count of Porto Alegre ( 13 June 1804 β 18 July 1875 ) , nicknamed " the Gloved Centaur " , was an army officer , politician , abolitionist and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil . Born into a wealthy family of military background , Porto Alegre joined the army in 1817 when he was little more than a child . His military initiation occurred in the conquest of the Banda Oriental ( Eastern Bank ) , which was annexed and became the southernmost Brazilian province of Cisplatina in 1821 . For most of the 1820s , he was embroiled in the Brazilian effort to keep Cisplatina as part of its territory : first during the struggle for Brazilian independence and then in the Cisplatine War . It would ultimately prove a futile attempt , as Cisplatina successfully separated from Brazil to become the independent nation of Uruguay in 1828 .
A few years later , in 1835 , his native province of Rio Grande do Sul was engulfed in a secessionist rebellion , the Ragamuffin War . The conflict lasted for almost ten years , and the Count was leading military engagements for most of that time . He played a decisive role in saving the provincial capital from the Ragamuffin rebels , allowing forces loyal to the legitimate government to secure a key foothold . In 1852 , he led a Brazilian division during the Platine War in an invasion of the Argentine Confederation that overthrew its dictator . He was awarded a noble title , eventually raised from baron to viscount and finally to count .
In the postwar years , Porto Alegre turned his attention to politics , retiring from his military career as a lieutenant general , the second @-@ highest rank in the Imperial army . He was an affiliate of the Liberal Party at the national level and was elected to the legislature of Rio Grande do Sul . He also founded a provincial party , the Progressive @-@ Liberal Party β a coalition of Liberals like him and some members of the Conservative Party . Porto Alegre later entered the lower house of the Brazilian parliament and was briefly Minister of War . When the Paraguayan War erupted in 1864 , he returned to active duty . One of the main Brazilian commanders during the conflict , his participation was marked by important battlefield victories , as well as constant quarrels with his Argentine and Uruguayan allies .
Upon his return from the war , Porto Alegre resumed his political career . He became an active advocate for the abolition of slavery and a patron in the fields of literature and science . His death came on 18 July 1875 while again serving in Parliament . He was highly esteemed until the downfall of the monarchy in 1889 . Regarded as too closely associated with the fallen regime , Porto Alegre slipped into obscurity . His reputation was eventually rehabilitated to a certain degree by historians , some of whom consider him to be among Brazil 's greatest military figures .
= = Early years = =
= = = Birth and background = = =
Manuel Marques de Sousa was born on 13 June 1804 ( sometimes erroneously given as 1805 ) in Rio Grande . The town was located in Rio Grande do Sul , a southern captaincy ( later province ) of Brazil , then part of the Portuguese Colonial Empire . His parents were Manuel Marques de Sousa and Senhorinha InΓ‘cia da Silveira . He had four younger siblings : two sisters and two brothers . An archetypal leading family of Rio Grande do Sul , Marques de Sousa 's Portuguese @-@ descended family was wealthy and influential , owning ranches and huge cattle herds . His father and his paternal grandfather , both also named Manuel Marques de Sousa , were seasoned soldiers who took part in the colonial wars . His grandfather , the elder Marques de Sousa , was the wealthiest person in Rio Grande do Sul .
Thinly populated , far from the colonial capital of Rio de Janeiro ( which exercised little actual control ) , Rio Grande do Sul was often the target of invasions from its neighboring Hispanic @-@ American colony , the United Provinces of the RΓo de la Plata ( later Argentina ) . Because the captaincy had to be self @-@ sufficient , the inhabitants of Rio Grande do Sul led lives as merchants , farmers or ranchers , while often also serving as soldiers or militiamen . Owners of large landholdings such as Marques de Sousa 's father and grandfather provided food , equipment and protection for themselves and for families living in areas under their control . Their private defense forces consisted primarily of laborers who were drafted as soldiers . Marques de Sousa grew up in that hostile environment , and from a very young age he listened to war stories recounting the exploits of his relatives against Hispanic @-@ American invaders .
= = = Conquest of the Banda Oriental = = =
In 1808 , the Portuguese Royal Family arrived in Brazil , settling in Rio de Janeiro . The Hispanic @-@ American colonies became easy prey , as they were engulfed in turmoil and beset by wars of independence against Spain . In 1811 Prince Regent Dom JoΓ£o ( later King Dom JoΓ£o VI ) ordered the invasion of the Banda Oriental ( Eastern Bank ) , which bordered Rio Grande do Sul . JoΓ£o 's attempt at conquering the entire region met with failure . He launched another invasion a few years later , in 1816 , who counted among their ranks Marques de Sousa 's father and paternal grandfather . In 1817 , around age 13 , he asked his grandfather to allow him to fight in the war . The elder Marques de Sousa agreed , and the youngster learned guerrilla hit @-@ and @-@ run tactics on horseback near the border town of JaguarΓ£o .
Months later , on 20 January 1818 , Marques de Sousa was enlisted into the army as a cadet in the 1st Regiment of Light Cavalry in the Division of Royal Volunteers . The regiment had been deployed to Montevideo , the largest town in the Banda Oriental . He fought in the Battle of Pando on 30 March and in the Battle of Manga near Montevideo on 1 April . Successful in both battles , on 24 June he was promoted to alferes ( equivalent to a modern @-@ day second lieutenant ) and named adjutant to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Lieutenant General Carlos Frederico Lecor ( then Baron and later Viscount of Laguna ) .
Years later as an elderly man near the end of his life , Marques de Sousa would fondly recall his advancement : " Never in my life had I judged myself so great , nor experienced such ineffable rejoicing ... as in the day I placed my fists into the cuffs of alferes . I walked through all the streets of the city , looking at myself , conceited , believing that everyone looking with admiration envied my luck , that all enamored ladies vied for my hand . " For the remainder of the conflict he was stationed in the defense of Montevideo . The conquest of the Banda Oriental was ended in July 1821 , when Portugal declared it a province of Brazil with the name of Cisplatina .
= = = Wars for Cisplatina = = =
News arrived in Montevideo in late 1822 that Prince Dom Pedro , son and heir of King JoΓ£o VI , had declared the independence of Brazil on 7 September and had been acclaimed emperor as Dom Pedro I on 12 October . Marques de Sousa was dispatched to Rio de Janeiro by the Baron of Laguna to pledge loyalty to the Emperor on behalf of the army in the south . The young alferes was an apt choice for the task ; he was well connected in the imperial capital ( his uncle , married to a paternal aunt , was Minister of War ) , cultured , and well educated . Marques de Sousa was a handsome man of average height with dark , curly hair and brown eyes . Fastidious about his appearance , he always took care to dress well , even during battles , and contemporaries made note of his trimmed and clean nails . He was also merry and gallant , with a " pleasant and well @-@ tuned voice in conversation , ample and resounding in command " .
Brazilian independence did not meet with unanimous approval in the south . Part of the army , led by Dom Γlvaro de Macedo ( later Count of Ilha da Madeira ) , entrenched itself in Montevideo and remained loyal to Portugal . The town was besieged by forces under Laguna . Following his return from the imperial capital , Marques de Sousa served under his father 's command , taking part in the siege and later fighting in the successful Battle of Las Piedras on 18 May 1823 . In early 1824 , Macedo and his men surrendered . The end of the Brazilian War of Independence came at a cost for Marques de Sousa . His father was mysteriously murdered with poison in Montevideo on 21 November 1824 , leaving him the head of his family at age 20 , as his paternal grandfather had died ( of old age ) on 22 April 1822 . He was promoted to lieutenant ( modern @-@ day first lieutenant ) on 1 December 1824 for his acts of bravery during the war .
A few months after his promotion , in April 1825 , secessionists in Cisplatina rebelled . The United Provinces of the RΓo de la Plata attempted to annex the province , and in retaliation Brazil declared war , triggering the Cisplatine War . Although Marques de Sousa was living in Rio de Janeiro and enrolled in the Military Academy , he was ordered to return to Montevideo . He was soon named adjutant to Brigadier SebastiΓ£o Barreto Pereira Pinto , commander of the 1st Division , which was defending Rio Grande do Sul . Marques de Sousa fought in the unsuccessful Battle of ItuzaingΓ³ ( known to Brazilians as the Battle of the Passo do RosΓ‘rio ) on 20 February 1827 . For his acts of bravery during the ill @-@ fated battle , he was promoted on 20 March to captain , and , on 16 August , he was assigned as adjutant to the now Viscount of Laguna , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Brazilian land forces in the conflict . Marques de Sousa subsequently fought in the Battle of CamaquΓ£ on 28 April and participated in other , smaller skirmishes .
= = Ragamuffin rebellion = =
= = = Secessionist threat = = =
By 1828 , Brazil could no longer sustain the war effort in the south and in April relinquished Cisplatina , which became the independent nation of Uruguay . Marques de Sousa was sent to Montevideo to serve under field marshal ( present @-@ day divisional general ) Manuel Jorge Rodrigues , who commanded a Brazilian force temporarily stationed in the new country . On 29 March 1829 , Marques de Sousa was made brevet ( acting ) major , and , on 28 August 1830 , he was placed in command of the 6th company of 4th Regiment of Light Cavalry . Stationed in Rio Grande do Sul , the unit had previously been commanded by his father and his paternal grandfather .
The peaceful lull following the Cisplatine conflict did not last long . On 20 September 1835 , a civil war erupted in Rio Grande do Sul . The revolt , known as the Ragamuffin War , began after the provincial president ( governor ) was removed from office in a coup d 'état . Despite the nickname , the Ragamuffin rebels were landlords , like Marques de Sousa , who after losing elections tried to take power by force . Marques de Sousa was among the army officers in the province who remained loyal to the deposed president . He fought in the Battle of Arroio Grande on 14 October 1835 , in which rebel troops were defeated . But the forces loyal to the legitimate government were heavily outnumbered . Marques de Sousa and the deposed president departed for Rio de Janeiro to request aid , but the central government was unable to render much assistance , as rebellions and riots had broken out all over the country . With the infantry 's 1st Battalion of Caçadores ( Sharpshooters ) placed under his command , Marques de Sousa embarked on 8 March 1836 for Pelotas , in southeastern Rio Grande do Sul , after being named its military commander .
Pelotas was besieged and conquered by the Ragamuffins on 7 April 1836 . Marques de Sousa was taken prisoner and removed to Porto Alegre , capital of Rio Grande do Sul , which had been under rebel control since the beginning of the conflict . He was held in a presiganga ( prison ship ) . During his imprisonment , with the aid of the people of Porto Alegre , he managed to convince some of the rebel soldiers to switch sides , taking control of the entire town during the early hours of 15 June and arresting the remaining Ragamuffins . He repulsed rebel land and sea assaults against Porto Alegre on 18 June , 30 June , 15 July and 20 July ; thereafter , the town remained in the hands of the legitimate government until the end of the conflict . The central government in Rio de Janeiro promoted Marques de Sousa to permanent major on 18 February 1837 in recognition of his vital role . The balance of power tipped against the Ragamuffins only a few months after the declaration of Rio Grande do Sul 's independence on 11 September 1836 . The Ragamuffins , although emboldened by their initial successes , never managed to gain control of the entire province .
= = = Province pacification = = =
The long , strenuous walk from Pelotas to Porto Alegre and the hardships endured in the presiganga ruined Marques de Sousa 's health , and he was afflicted with articular rheumatism for the rest of his life . With Porto Alegre safe , he was granted a leave of absence to recover . In the middle of 1837 he traveled to Europe for medical treatment . After a year away , and still feeling ill , Marques de Sousa secluded himself in Porto Alegre . He was brevetted lieutenant colonel on 20 August 1838 . He only returned to active duty in early 1840 after he was made permanent lieutenant colonel on 2 December 1839 and given the command of the 2nd Regiment of Light Cavalry . But the war against the Ragamuffins was still being waged , and Marques de Sousa met and defeated a rebel force in the Battle of the VΓ‘rzea do VarejΓ£o on 16 September 1841 . A new promotion came on 27 March 1842 , when he was given the rank of colonel .
The course of the conflict took a radical turn when the central government charged LuΓs Alves de Lima e Silva ( then Count and later Duke of Caxias ) with putting an end to the rebellion in late 1842 . Marques de Sousa probably met him during Caxias ' short trip to Rio Grande do Sul in 1839 as part of the Minister of War 's entourage . They subsequently maintained a friendly correspondence . Marques de Sousa was removed from his position over the 2nd Regiment of Light Cavalry and instead was given command of the 7th Brigade , which formed part of the 1st Division . The brigade consisted of his former 2nd Regiment of Light Cavalry and a National Guard cavalry corps .
Unlike his predecessors , who were notable for their inertia , Caxias went on the offensive from the start . In July 1843 , Marques de Sousa attacked the rebel capital , Piratini , which had been all but abandoned by the Ragamuffins . He marched from there to Pelotas and recaptured the town he had lost in 1836 . On 2 December , he fought and won a small skirmish with rebels near the imperial army 's main encampment . He remained in the village of SΓ£o Gabriel for most of 1844 , guarding it undisturbed . The Ragamuffins were by this time on the run , and they sued for peace . Caxias chose Marques de Sousa to take a Ragamuffin representative to discuss a peace accord with the central government ; they arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 12 December . The negotiations were successful and the war came to an end on 1 March 1845 .
= = War and politics = =
= = = Platine War = = =
The Provincial Assembly of Rio Grande do Sul was closed in 1837 and no elections were held because of the Ragamuffin rebellion . In 1845 , Marques de Sousa ran and was elected as provincial deputy in the legislature that met in 1846 , though he had no party affiliation . He married Maria Balbina Γlvares da Gama , daughter of JosΓ© Gama Lobo de EΓ§a ( later Baron of SaicΓ£ ) , on 28 November 1846 . The couple 's only child , Maria Manuela da Gama Marques , was born less than a year and a half later . Marques de Sousa was made brevet brigadier on 14 March 1847 , and the 2nd Cavalry Brigade was placed under his command ( until April 1848 ) . He was later confirmed in the rank of brigadier on 14 August 1850 . On 11 June 1851 , his wife died in childbirth ( aged 29 ) , leaving him with a three @-@ year @-@ old daughter .
Barely a month later on 18 August 1851 , Juan Manuel de Rosas , dictator of the Argentine Confederation , declared war on Brazil , beginning the Platine War . Marques de Sousa had been warned by Caxias as early as 27 July 1844 of the possibility of an armed conflict between Brazil and its Platine neighbor . The government in Rio de Janeiro had prepared against the threat and formed an anti @-@ Rosas alliance consisting of Brazil , Uruguay and dissident Argentine provinces . Caxias , who had been appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Brazilian land forces , placed Marques de Sousa at the head of the 2nd Brigade , part of the 2nd Division . The Brazilian army crossed into Uruguay in September 1851 . On 17 November , while the army was camped in the village of Santa LucΓa near the Uruguayan capital , Marques de Sousa was promoted to a higher command , the 1st division . The choice was controversial , as there were two more senior and experienced officers next in line who were bypassed owing to their foreign birth .
The allies decided to divide their forces into two armies : a multinational force that included the 1st Division and a second army composed entirely of Brazilians under Caxias . The 1st Division led by Marques de Sousa , along with Uruguayan and Argentine rebel troops , invaded Argentina . He found the long march to Buenos Aires , the Argentine capital , highly uncomfortable . He had spent his life up to that point fighting Hispanic @-@ Americans , and he was now marching as their ally , surrounded by them . He did not trust them , and they trusted neither him nor his men . The only person among the allies with whom he shared his thoughts , and guardedly at that , was Domingo Faustino Sarmiento ( later president of Argentina ) : " We [ Brazilians ] form in here a separate group ; we do not talk to anyone ; no one approaches us and we could say that we walk among enemies . " On 3 February 1852 , in the Battle of Caseros , they faced Rosas and his army . The allies were victorious , Rosas fled to the United Kingdom , and Marques de Sousa acquired his carriage as a war trophy .
= = = Party leader = = =
On 3 March 1852 , Marques de Sousa was raised to the rank of field marshal , and Emperor Dom Pedro II conferred on him the noble title of BarΓ£o de Porto Alegre ( Baron of Porto Alegre ) . It was a reward for his victory at Caseros , but also a nod to his role in saving the capital of Rio Grande do Sul during 1836 . His exploits achieved great renown in Brazil , where he was referred to as the " Vanquisher of the Platine Tiger [ Rosas ] " . He replaced Caxias as head of the army that had fought in the war on 26 June , after its return to Brazil . Soon after , on 24 September , the Baron of Porto Alegre was removed from that post and made comandante das armas ( military commander ) of Rio Grande do Sul , a position he held until he requested to be relieved on 5 March 1853 .
As one of the largest landowners in Rio Grande do Sul , and now a war hero , Porto Alegre believed that he could win a senatorial seat in 1852 , but his candidacy was a failure . From a list containing the names of the candidates who had received the most votes , Pedro II chose one of Porto Alegre 's rivals as senator . During his campaign , Porto Alegre founded and became head of the " Progressive @-@ Liberal Party " , a provincial coalition drawn from members of both national political parties : the Liberal Party and the Party of Order ( then increasingly known as the Conservative Party ) . His personal life greatly improved after he married Bernardina Soares de Paiva , who was thirty @-@ three years his junior , on 11 June 1855 . Their marriage was happy and produced two daughters , Maria Bernardina in 1860 and Clara in 1873 . Between the death of his first wife and his second marriage , he had a daughter named Maria Manuela Marques , whom he legitimized . Porto Alegre petitioned for , and was granted , a military retirement on 7 July 1856 and was raised to lieutenant general , the second highest rank in the imperial army .
The opportunity to graduate from provincial to national politics came soon after . The Conservative prime minister HonΓ³rio Hermeto Carneiro LeΓ£o , Marquis of ParanΓ‘ , faced overwhelming opposition from his own party in parliament . ParanΓ‘ knew that the party 's principles were seen as irrelevant and ignored at local and provincial levels . A cabinet could use patronage alone to gain backing from local bosses for its national candidates , including in the province of Rio Grande do Sul . Porto Alegre was a Liberal allied to Conservatives in his province . He pledged support to ParanΓ‘ and in 1857 was elected general deputy ( member of the Chamber of Deputies , the national legislature 's lower house ) . He was reelected in 1860 .
On 19 February 1860 , he founded and became the first and only president of the Historic and Geographic Institute of the Province of SΓ£o Pedro ( as Rio Grande do Sul was also known ) . The institute was short @-@ lived , lasting from 1860 until 1864 . In 1862 , Porto Alegre was among the Liberals who , along with dissident Conservatives , founded the Liga Progressista ( Progressive League ) , which replaced the Liberal Party . He became Minister of War on 24 May as a member of the first Progressive cabinet , headed by Zacarias de GΓ³is e Vasconcelos . However , the cabinet fell after a vote of no confidence six days later . When the Chamber of Deputies was dissolved in 1863 and new elections were called , he was elected and served until 1866 .
= = Paraguayan War = =
= = = Siege of Uruguaiana = = =
In December 1864 , the dictator of Paraguay , Francisco Solano LΓ³pez , ordered the invasion of the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso ( currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ) , triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later , Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory in preparation for an attack on Rio Grande do Sul . The situation in Rio Grande do Sul was chaotic , and the local military commanders were incapable of mounting an effective resistance to the Paraguayan army . The Baron of Porto Alegre offered to return to active duty , and on 21 July 1865 , the government gave him command of the Brazilian land forces in Rio Grande do Sul . He set out for Uruguaiana , a small town in the province 's west , where the Paraguayan army was besieged by a combined force of Brazilian , Argentine and Uruguayan units .
Porto Alegre assumed the command of the Brazilian army in Uruguaiana on 21 August 1865 . From the very beginning , he had an acrimonious relationship with Brazil 's allies BartolomΓ© Mitre , president of Argentina , and Venancio Flores , president of Uruguay , who led the armies of their respective nations . The years had not lessened Porto Alegre 's prejudice against Hispanic @-@ Americans ; on the contrary , his antagonism had increased . On 2 September , Flores suggested an immediate attack on Uruguaiana , an option rejected by Porto Alegre and Joaquim Marques Lisboa ( then Viscount and later Marquis of TamandarΓ© ) , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Brazilian navy . TamandarΓ© was a first cousin of Porto Alegre ; their mothers were sisters . When Flores claimed that he could defeat the Paraguayan army alone , he was mocked by both Brazilian officers .
Since his arrival in Uruguaiana , Mitre had claimed the position of commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all allied forces participating in the siege β a precedence Porto Alegre vehemently refused to recognize . He reminded the Argentine president that , according to the Treaty of the Triple Alliance , the imperial army would be led by a Brazilian officer while on Brazilian soil . Porto Alegre later argued that " I would prefer to answer to a court @-@ martial rather than to subject myself , in our territory , to the command of a foreign general " . The dispute was temporarily forgotten when Pedro II arrived at the front . The Brazilian monarch settled the dispute when , at his suggestion , the allied army was divided into three forces , one led by Porto Alegre and the other two by Mitre and Flores . On 18 September , the Paraguayan garrison surrendered without further bloodshed .
= = = Offensive in Paraguayan territory = = =
The allies invaded Paraguay in April 1866 , but after initial success , their advance was blocked by fortifications at HumaitΓ‘ and along the Paraguay River . Porto Alegre had remained behind , leading the 2nd Corps and guarding Rio Grande do Sul . Mitre , no longer on Brazilian territory and acknowledged as the allied commander @-@ in @-@ chief , planned to use Porto Alegre 's army to march through Paraguayan territory from the rear to surround HumaitΓ‘ . As a result of a suggestion by TamandarΓ© β though Mitre had not issued orders for the move β Porto Alegre boarded his army onto Brazilian ships and instead brought them up to the positions occupied by the other allied troops .
On 18 August , Porto Alegre received instructions from Mitre to attack the Paraguayan fort at CuruzΓΊ . The operation would be carried out under the command of TamandarΓ© . Porto Alegre not only refused to defer to his cousin , arguing that both held the same rank , but also warned that he would operate by himself at CuruzΓΊ . Porto Alegre was incapable of submitting his forces to foreign direction and was unwilling to comply with orders issued by the allied commander . Nor was the situation among the allied forces improved once Porto Alegre and TamandarΓ© found common ground in their distaste for the Brazilian commander of the 1st Corps , Field Marshal Polidoro Quintanilha JordΓ£o ( later the Viscount of Santa Teresa ) . JordΓ£o was ostracized for supporting Mitre and for being a member of the Conservative Party , while Porto Alegre and TamandarΓ© were Progressives .
Porto Alegre , who had been promoted from baron to viscount , led an amphibious attack that lasted from 1 September until the 3rd . His forces were victorious in the Battle of CuruzΓΊ . The allied army next marched to Curupayty , an outer line of defense of HumaitΓ‘ . The Battle of Curupayty that ensued on 22 September was an immense allied defeat . The allied leaders blamed each other for disastrous failure at Curupayty , but the main focus of Porto Alegre 's denunciations was Mitre . He said : " Here is the result of the Brazilian government 's lack of confidence in its generals and giving its armies to foreign generals . " To end the internecine squabbling , the Brazilian government placed Caxias in command of all Brazilian forces in Paraguay . Formerly friends , Porto Alegre and Caxias ( a member of the Conservative Party ) had been estranged by politics . TamandarΓ© was replaced by Caxias ' fellow Conservative Chief of Fleet Joaquim JosΓ© InΓ‘cio ( later the Viscount of InhaΓΊma ) , but Porto Alegre was kept on as head of the 2nd Corps .
A little before dawn on 3 November 1867 , the Paraguayans made a surprise attack on the allied camp at TuyutΓ , breaching the Argentine lines . When Porto Alegre saw the mayhem β Argentine soldiers fleeing and Paraguayans inside the Brazilian perimeter β he shouted : " Aqui morre atΓ© o ΓΊltimo brasileiro ! " ( " In here shall die the very last Brazilian ! " ) . During the Second Battle of TuyutΓ , as it was called , he fought with his saber in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and lost two horses one after the other . Porto Alegre and his troops , outnumbered three to one , stopped the Paraguayan advance and forced the enemy to retreat . Feeling very ill , and unable to mount a horse for a month , Porto Alegre was relieved of command on 27 January 1868 . He returned to Rio Grande do Sul and was raised from viscount to count a few months later .
= = Later years = =
= = = Return to politics and death = = =
On 16 July 1868 , a Progressive cabinet led by Zacarias resigned following a political crisis and Pedro II asked the Conservatives to form a new government . As always when a party returned to power , new elections were held , though marked by fraud . The two main wings of the Progressive Party ( Progressive , to which Porto Alegre belonged , and Historical ) set aside their disputes , became more disciplined in their unity and renamed their party the Liberal Party . When Porto Alegre 's term as general deputy ended in 1866 , the ongoing war precluded elections in Rio Grande do Sul . Predictably , in the elections organized under the Conservative Party 's direction in early 1869 , he was not elected . He turned his attention to organizing a Liberal stronghold in his native province . At the request of the national Liberal Center , Porto Alegre created and became president of the province 's Liberal board of directors .
Around the same time , the count focused on two other projects : the first grew out of his longstanding interest in promoting literature and sciences , and the second , more ambitious aim was to fight for the gradual abolition of slavery . When in 1867 Pedro II openly asked for the gradual eradication of slavery in his Speech from the Throne , Porto Alegre was one of the few individuals who supported him , sending him a letter of congratulation . On 18 June 1869 , the Partenon LiterΓ‘rio ( Literary Parthenon ) , a spiritual successor to the Historic and Geographic Institute of the Province of SΓ£o Pedro , was created and Porto Alegre was made an honorary member . In one of its sessions , the count , who had already embarked on a plan of gradually freeing his own slaves , proposed the creation of a civil association devoted to slavery 's abolition . His idea was not only welcomed , but came to fruition . The Sociedade Libertadora ( Liberation Society ) was founded on 29 August , with Porto Alegre as its president , its primary purpose being the purchase of freedom for enslaved children .
Porto Alegre was elected general deputy in 1872 for the legislature that would be seated in that year . JosΓ© Paranhos , Viscount of Rio Branco , headed a Conservative cabinet that faced strong opposition from its own party members . To widen the cabinet 's base of support , the prime minister set the 1872 elections to gain more supporters of his cabinet , even members of the Liberal Party like Porto Alegre , in Parliament . While serving as a general deputy , he lived in a hotel . He spent his time either attending Parliament or in the house of his sister Joaquina Marques de Sousa , who had married a member of the influential Carneiro LeΓ£o clan . While leaving the house of fellow Liberal JoΓ£o Lustosa da Cunha ParanaguΓ‘ ( later Marquis of ParanaguΓ‘ ) , Porto Alegre fell while boarding his coupΓ© . The injury he suffered led to an abscess and subsequently gangrene . Despite the pain he complained little , other than to utter : " This is too much . " He died at 07 : 00 on the morning of 18 July 1875 . His remains were accorded solemn funereal honors in Rio de Janeiro , Rio Grande and lastly , Porto Alegre . Among the men who carried his coffin in the imperial capital were Caxias , Rio Branco , TamandarΓ© and Irineu Evangelista de Sousa , Viscount of MauΓ‘ . He was interred in the cemitΓ©rio da Santa Casa de MisericΓ³rdia ( Holy House of Mercy cemetery ) in Porto Alegre .
= = = Legacy = = =
The Count of Porto Alegre was admired during his lifetime and for sometime thereafter . Felisberto Caldeira Brant , Baron of Barbacena ( son of the Marquis of Barbacena ) thought that " Marques de Sousa was the most brilliant type of soldier : heroic and patriotic . " JosΓ© Paranhos , Baron of Rio Branco , said that he was " one of the most illustrious warriors that Brazil has had . " Alfredo d 'Escragnolle Taunay , Viscount of Taunay , regarded him a " great warrior " . Almost ten years after the count 's death , a marble statue representing him was unveiled on 2 February 1885 in the city of Porto Alegre . The celebration was accompanied by popular joy and an artillery salute , and was attended by Dona Isabel , daughter and heiress of Pedro II , and her husband Prince Gaston , Count of Eu .
The downfall of the monarchy in 1889 brought sudden changes in how past events were viewed . The Ragamuffins were reframed as heroes in Rio Grande do Sul , and Porto Alegre became an awkward reminder and symbol of the fallen regime . The memories of other imperial officers , Porto Alegre 's contemporaries , were subject to the same sort of revisionism , including the Duke of Caxias . After Porto Alegre 's death a marble tablet with the inscription " Here was born the worthy Count of Porto Alegre " was put at the entrance of the house where he was born . The plaque was removed in 1893 by the property 's owner and left to deteriorate . In the late 1890s , historian Afredo Ferreira Rodrigues lamented that it was the " testimony of one day 's passing gratitude and of the indifference , of the abandonment , of the ingratitude , in which we [ Brazilians ] , a people without civic education , know how to prize the services of the great men of the past . " Although the Brazilian army remembered Caxias and celebrated his centennial in 1903 , Porto Alegre 's centennial in 1904 passed unnoticed .
The work of historians has restored Porto Alegre 's reputation to a certain extent . Heitor Lira said that " Porto Alegre was certainly an officer of great valor " . AntΓ΄nio da Rocha Almeida considered Porto Alegre " one of the greatest soldiers of Brazil " . Gustavo Barroso regarded him " the greatest military figure in Brazil , after Caxias and OsΓ³rio " . Dante de Laytano said that he " was one of the most brilliant military leaders in the History of Brazil . " On 16 October 1974 , Porto Alegre was accorded the minor honor of being designated the patrono ( protector ) of the 8th Cavalry regiment , which was given the name " Regimento Conde de Porto Alegre " ( Count of Porto Alegre Regiment ) .
= = Titles and honors = =
= = = Titles of nobility = = =
Baron of Porto Alegre ( Grandee ) on 3 March 1852 .
Viscount of Porto Alegre ( Grandee ) on 28 August 1866 .
Count of Porto Alegre on 11 April 1868 .
= = = Other titles = = =
President of the Historic and Geographic Institute of the Province of SΓ£o Pedro ( Rio Grande do Sul ) .
Honorary member of the Literary Parthenon of Porto Alegre .
President of the Liberation Society .
= = = Honors = = =
Grand Cross of the Order of Christ .
Dignitary of the Brazilian Order of the Southern Cross .
Knight of the Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz .
= = = Military honors = = =
Medal of the Cisplatine Campaign ( 1811 and 1812 ) .
Medal of the Cisplatine Campaign ( 1815 to 1820 ) .
Medal of Monte Caseros .
Medal of Uruguaiana .
Medal of Merit due to military bravery .
Medal of Paraguay .
= = Endnotes = =
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= Dream Logic =
" Dream Logic " is the fifth episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 25th episode overall . It was written by Josh Singer and directed by Paul A. Edwards . The episode follows several people seemingly dreaming while still awake , leading the Fringe team to investigate the dangerous side effects of a sleep study .
On its initial American broadcast on October 15 , 2009 on the Fox network , " Dream Logic " was watched by an estimated 5 @.@ 78 million viewers . It received mixed reviews , with multiple critics noting it was considerably worse in quality than the previous week 's episode while at the same time praising the case 's ties to Peter 's past as well as the return of Sam Weiss .
= = Plot = =
In Seattle a man named Greg Leiter ( Jim Thorburn ) hallucinates that his boss and coworkers are demons , leading Greg to attack and murder the boss . Greg is hospitalized and falls asleep for sixteen hours ; when Olivia ( Anna Torv ) and Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) interview him in the hospital , he tells them his boss was a demon out of a bad dream before suffering a seizure and having his hair turn white . Walter ( John Noble ) posits that Greg died from " acute exhaustion " . However , believing Seattle to be like the mental institution , Walter desires to go home to Boston and run tests on the corpse from there .
Olivia and Peter learn Greg was being treated for a sleep disorder , and that his dreams had involved demons until they stopped several months ago . Another hallucinating victim turns up in Seattle and dies . The Fringe team discover that both victims had a brain β computer interface chip attached to their thalamus , the part of the brain controlling dreams . Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) and Nina ( Blair Brown ) reveal new information leading to the sleep researcher Dr. Nayak ( Ravi Kapoor ) who implanted the chips . Another victim named Diana ( Jovanna Huguet ) hallucinates at a restaurant and kills a coworker before similarly dying of exhaustion .
Olivia and Peter first suspect Dr. Nayak 's research assistant Zach ( Jarrett Knowles ) but find him dead . Back in Boston Walter believes the chips lead to mind control and tests this on the FBI agent assigned to him while Peter and Olivia are away . However , during these tests Walter soon changes his theory ; the dreams are being stolen from their hosts to cause a " high " in Dr. Nayak , who is receiving them and has two personalities . Peter and Olivia shut down the dream equipment before Nayak kills another victim , but the doctor dies in the process . The final scene shows Peter dreaming about his childhood when Walter kidnaps him , an event Peter normally has no memory of ; Peter wakes up confused but still unaware of what his father did .
In a sideplot , Olivia is grieving for her partner Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) , whom she discovered was murdered by a shapeshifter in the previous episode . Sam Weiss ( Kevin Corrigan ) helps her work through it by giving her a " project " that requires her to collect business cards from people wearing the color red . She is told to grab random letters from the names , that once unscrambled read " you 're gonna be fine " .
= = Production = =
" Dream Logic " was written by co @-@ executive producer Josh Singer and was directed by cinematographer Paul A. Edwards . It was filmed in August 2009 . Shooting partly took place in the basement of a semi @-@ functioning mental hospital in Vancouver , leading actress Anna Torv to remark during filming , " I heard this is where they kept dead bodies . Bad vibes in this place . " Actor Joshua Jackson noted that the hospital 's " patients are known to wander through a shot . This has the potential for being a very interesting day . "
" Dream Logic " featured a guest appearance by recurring guest star Kevin Corrigan , as well as one time guest actors Ravi Kapoor , Jim Thorburn , Travis Schuldt , Drew Nelson , and Alex Zahara .
= = Music and cultural references = =
" Dream Logic " featured the song " From the Beginning " by the progressive rock trio Emerson , Lake & Palmer . Dr. Nayak 's lab assistant is named Zack Miller , which was perceived by some media outlets to be a reference to frequent Fringe writing partners Zack Stentz and Ashley Edward Miller . In the final scene set in the young Peter 's bedroom in the parallel universe , a poster depicts the Space Shuttle Challenger in its 11th mission ( 1984 ) . However , in the prime universe the Challenger exploded in its 10th mission two years later . One viewer noted this as yet another sign that the parallel universe is more technologically advanced than ours , as they began their space program earlier than ours .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its initial American broadcast on October 15 , 2009 , an estimated 5 @.@ 78 million viewers watched " Dream Logic " , helping it earn a 3 @.@ 5 / 6 ratings share among all households and a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 ratings share in the important 18 β 49 demographic .
= = = Reviews = = =
AOL TV writer Jane Boursaw wrote , " The whole storyline with the creepy dual @-@ personality doc and the mind @-@ control @-@ dreams was good , though I sort of knew the doc must be involved from the beginning . I also wonder how it fits in with the alternate universe . " The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen graded the episode with a B- . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly believed that " in some ways , this was one of the less @-@ distinctive , more X @-@ Files @-@ ish episodes of Fringe on Thursday night ... But as usual , there was another narrative layer at work here " involving a grieving Olivia . IGN 's Ramsey Isler rated the episode 7 @.@ 4 / 10 , explaining the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week failed to have " excitement , surprise , and suspense " and lacked " what makes a typical Fringe episode unique and intriguing " . While calling certain parts " kind of boring " , Isler did however praise the episode 's directing , acting , sets , and other technical aspects . He concluded his review by noting the best part of " Dream Logic " was the ending depicting a young Peter , " It 's a haunting scene , and it adds yet another stone in this long pathway to revelation that the Fringe team is building up to ... But besides that great little scene at the end , I thought this was an average episode . Granted , Fringe 's ' average ' episodes are still better than a lot of the other stuff on TV . "
MTV writer Josh Wigler thought the episode " nearly put [ him ] to sleep , " as it was " bland " and " a bit of a dud " . The episode however did lead Wigler to " start dig [ ging ] " Sam Weiss , and also to enjoying Olivia 's subplot , but believed the episode 's monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week could have been used to actually parallel her trauma ; Wigler appreciated how the Fringe case tied into Walter and Peter 's backstories . He concluded , " It wasn 't bad enough to make me concerned for the future of Fringe or anything , but it certainly didn 't keep me on the edge of my seat waiting for the next crazy twist like last week . I 'm still loving this season , but tonight 's episode was one of the weaker outings . " Newsarama 's Chanel Reeder stated " Dream Logic " " certainly put the brakes on the speed that Fringe had gained in the previous " episode , but praised the connection with Peter 's past as " one of the most interesting underlying parts " . Reeder 's favorite part was Sam Weiss , calling him " a fantastic dimension to the show " . Josie Kafka of Open Salon was more positive than other reviewers , and in particular highlighted the episode 's humor , " Almost all of the Cambridge scenes were funny : Astrid and Walter have a great rapport , especially when there 's a rube in the room for them to play with . " She concluded " I liked this one , more for the great Peter / Olivia and Walter / Astrid stuff than the plot of the week , " and gave the episode " Three out of four anagrams " .
After the episode 's broadcast , Popular Mechanics published an article analyzing the science depicted . They concluded that the Brain β computer interface ( BCI ) chips , like the ones used in the episode to tie the victims ' brains to the computer used by Dr. Laxmeesh Nayak , have also been used on real @-@ life human subjects , though not in relation to controlling sleep cycles . However , the article continued that it is " not currently possible " for BCI chips to " facilitate direct transfer of understandable information from one person 's brain to another " , nor is it possible for the chips to " directly read another person 's thoughts or dreams " and steal them . In addition , Popular Mechanics noted that Walter 's theory of the victims ' deaths being caused by exhaustion is " pure bunk " , as there are many long @-@ term experiments that have safely tested humans ' deprivation of REM sleep . According to one scientist interviewed , though chips shown in " Dream Logic " cause hallucinations , paranoid thoughts , and a disconnect from reality , these traits are " not even remotely possible " outside of fiction .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Director Paul A. Edwards submitted " Dream Logic " for consideration in the Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series category at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards . He did not receive a nomination .
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= Charles McKnight =
Charles McKnight ( October 10 , 1750 β November 16 , 1791 ) was an American physician during and after the American Revolutionary War . He served as a surgeon and physician in the Hospital Department of the Continental Army under General George Washington and other subordinate commanders . McKnight was one of the most respected surgeons of his day and was remembered by one colleague as " particularly distinguished as a practical surgeon β¦ at the time of his death ( he ) was without a rival in that branch of his profession . "
= = Early life = =
McKnight was born in Cranbury Township in the colonial Province of New Jersey in 1750 . His only sibling was his younger brother , Richard . His father , also named Charles McKnight , emigrated to the colonies from Ireland sometime around 1740 and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister in 1742 . He became a minister of some note , and was one of the founders and trustees of the College of New Jersey ( now Princeton University ) . Reverend McKnight opposed British governance in Colonial America and was a loud voice for opposition and overthrow of the British government in New Jersey . According to Martha J. Lamb , Reverend McKnight received a severe saber cut to his head in the slashing melee that mortally wounded General Hugh Mercer at the Battle of Princeton . His church at Middletown Point was burned in 1777 and Reverend McKnight was arrested . While in custody aboard the British prison ship HMS Jersey in New York City , Rev. McKnight 's health rapidly failed , and he was released shortly before his death on January 1 , 1778 .
The younger McKnight attended schools in New Jersey and graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1771 , in the same class as James Madison , Gunning Bedford , Jr . , Henry Brackenridge , and Philip Freneau . He was one of the founders of the American Whig Society , along with Brackenridge , Madison , Samuel Stanhope Smith , Bedford , Freneau , John Beatty , John Henry of Maryland , and William Bradford . McKnight studied medicine and surgery privately with eminent Philadelphia surgeon William Shippen , but left before he completed his studies and entered the Continental Army in 1775 .
= = Continental Army surgeon = =
In late 1775 , Benjamin Church , the Director General , assigned McKnight to the Putnam House building , one of six hospitals of the army 's Hospital Department in Cambridge , Massachusetts . He remained in that division , which supported Washington 's army , until , during a period of great scarcity of medical and surgical supplies for the sick and wounded , McKnight went with other surgeons and physicians to North Castle , New York with Washington 's army when the Battle of White Plains began in October 1776 . The Continental Army lost the battle , and the British took Fort Washington and Fort Lee , which pushed Washington 's ragged army south toward New Jersey in December 1776 , which set the stage for the Battle of Trenton .
McKnight remained at North Castle until John Morgan , the Director General , ordered him and Samuel Adams , Jr . ( the son of Samuel Adams of Massachusetts ) to set up a new hospital near Peekskill , New York , for more than 300 sick soldiers of General William Heath 's division . Unable to find an acceptable site for a hospital , the two surgeons took over accommodations in Fishkill , New York , twenty miles north of Peekskill . Washington , however , sent convalescents to Peekskill because Morgan told him the hospital was there . Morgan was dismissed as Director General soon thereafter , in January 1777 , due to rancor with Washington over supplies and a rampant smallpox epidemic then raging its way through the army . Morgan 's management style rankled the surgeons , including McKnight , as Morgan was wrestling with Shippen , McKnight 's mentor , over control of the hospitals in New Jersey . Isaac Foster took over temporary supervision of the hospitals on the east side of the Hudson River after Morgan 's dismissal at Washington 's request .
McKnight served later as a surgeon in the Pennsylvania Battalion of the Flying Camp . On April 11 , 1777 , He was appointed Surgeon General ( also called Senior Surgeon , a subordinate position to Physician General and Director General , not to be confused with Surgeon General of the United States Army ) of the Flying Hospital of the Middle Department , which moved with the army during the New York and New Jersey campaign . He served as Senior Surgeon for three years . In December 1779 , McKnight was in Morristown , New Jersey with Washington , at the encampment near Jockey Hollow , during the worst winter of the Revolutionary War .
The Hospital Department of the army was reorganized in 1780 , and McKnight was promoted to Chief Hospital Physician , the highest medical position of the Middle Department . He served there until he left the army in January 1782 . According to records , he was one of the original members of the New York State Society of the Cincinnati .
= = Later years and death = =
After the war ended , McKnight settled in New York City , where he married Mary Morin Scott , daughter of General John Morin Scott . He opened a private practice and was one of the first physicians to use a carriage to visit his patients . McKnight published only one article , the surgical removal of an ectopic pregnancy , but the piece was cited later by the Medical Society of London in its London Medical Observations and Inquiries .
On November 26 , 1784 , McKnight was appointed one of the first regents of the University of the State of New York . In 1785 , McKnight became professor of anatomy and surgery at Columbia College ( now the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons ) , which his father @-@ in @-@ law co @-@ founded . He also was appointed Port Physician of New York . McKnight maintained a steady surgical practice and held his professorship until his death from pneumonia , the result of an old war injury , on November 16 , 1791 at age 41 .
McKnight was interred at the corner of Wall Street and Broadway in Lower Manhattan , just beyond the gates of the historic Trinity Churchyard , next to his wife , Mary , and her father . They left four daughters and one son , John Morin Scott McKnight , who also became a physician .
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= Boys ( Britney Spears song ) =
" Boys " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . It was written and produced by Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams ( known collectively as The Neptunes ) . A version of the song , entitled the " The Co @-@ Ed Remix " , was released as the sixth and final single from Britney on July 29 , 2002 . The new version also served as the second single from the soundtrack of Austin Powers in Goldmember . " Boys " is a R & B and hip hop song , including funk influences . The remix carries a slower tempo than the album version , and both versions are noted to be reminiscent of Janet Jackson . Some critics praised Williams and Spears ' chemistry , as well as the production on the track , while others did not think the song worked well .
While the song did not perform well on the Billboard charts in the United States , it reached the top ten on the Belgian charts and in Ireland and the United Kingdom , and charted in the top 20 in Australia , Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Sweden , Finland , and Denmark . The song would later be certified Gold in Australia . The song 's accompanying music video , directed by Dave Meyers , was nominated at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards for " Best Video from a Film . " The clip features Spears and Williams at a party . The singer has performed " Boys " a number of times including at the 2002 NBA All @-@ Star Game , on Saturday Night Live , and on several of her concert tours .
= = Background = =
" Boys " was originally recorded by Janet Jackson before it was given to Spears . The song was originally included on Spears ' third , self @-@ titled studio album . It was written and produced by The Neptunes ( Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams ) β members of American rap group N.E.R.D .. The song was re @-@ recorded as " The Co @-@ Ed Remix " , with a slightly different sound , and added featured vocals from Pharrell Williams . Following its inclusion on the Austin Powers in Goldmember OST , it was released as the second single from the soundtrack , following " Work It Out " , performed by one of the film 's stars ' , BeyoncΓ© . The release also made it the sixth single release to come from Britney . A press release for Maverick Records called the track a standout from the film 's soundtrack , and said that Spears ' cameo in the film " brings superstar status to the Fembot brigade . " The release also stated that the song and video " stays true to the fractured funk [ at ] the heart of the film . " AOL Music premiered the new track on June 13 , 2002 , and it was streamed more than 1 @.@ 35 million times , setting a new record an AOL Music " First Listen . "
= = Composition = =
" Boys " is a song that combines R & B with hip hop . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , it is set in the time signature of common time and has a tempo of 108 beats per minute . While the original Britney version features Spears solely , " The Co @-@ ed Remix " which was released as a single , sees the singer and the song 's co @-@ producer , rapper Pharrell Williams trading lines . The remix version of the track contains a slower tempo then that of the original . According to the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel , Williams and Spears put on a " rap @-@ lite teen @-@ pop tease . " The song also includes influences of funk music . During the time of the album 's release , her official site stated that the song had aspects of 70 's soul music and influences of Prince 's music . According to Alex Needham of New Musical Express , the track takes influence from Janet Jackson . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said the song was " cut @-@ rate ' 80s Janet Jackson . " Lyrical content sees Spears eying a guy with an intent to " get nasty . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Calling the song " a decidedly lubricious duet " , Alex Needham of New Musical Express said that " She sings about boys , he sings about girls . A simple concept , but an effective one , resulting in Britney β s best single [ in ] ages . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said that The Neptunes ' productions on the album , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " and " Boys " " swaddle her in writhing , kick @-@ the @-@ can beats , but never have a groove and a verse been so betrayed by a limp chorus . " Nicki Tranter of PopMatters said that the remainder of the album was " tried and tested " dance @-@ pop , noting " Boys " and " Cinderella " revisiting " old Britney territory exploring predictable issues including her love being irreplaceable , her use of the dance floor as an appropriate courting place , and her much @-@ loved girl @-@ ness . " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly called it a " popping , Janet @-@ esque groove . " Yale Daily News writer Catherine Halaby considered the song " an envelope @-@ pushing ( when you consider her claims of wholesomeness ) smutfest . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
The song failed to make much of an impact in the United States , only appearing on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart , where it appeared at number 22 . " Boys " is so far Britney Spears least successful single in the U.S. It appeared on the Billboard Pop Songs chart at number 32 . In Canada , on the Canadian Singles Chart , the song performed better , reaching number 21 . " Boys " fared better internationally , appearing in the top 20 in several markets in which it charted . On the UK Singles Chart , the song peaked at number seven . It also peaked in the top ten of the Irish Singles Chart and both the Belgian Flanders and Wallonia Ultratop charts . On the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia , the song spent 12 weeks on the chart , peaking at number 14 . " Boys " would go on to be certified Gold in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association . Furthermore , it peaked in the top 20 of the charts in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Sweden , Finland , and Denmark .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Boys " was directed by Dave Meyers . In the video , a man DJ Qualls , tries to get into a castle which is hosting a party being attended by Spears . When the security guards refuse to grant him access , he begins to scream for Spears . As the music starts , Spears , readying herself for the party in one of the castle 's towers , is dancing with a group of women . The scene shifts to a castle courtyard , where Spears and a man are sit at opposite ends of a long table . Following this , Spears walks around a pool , in which she sees a man ( Justin Bruening ) swimming . As they begin to interact with each other , Pharrell is at the bar with a woman . Spears walks over to him and they begin to talk . Following this , Spears dances with a group of people , including Mike Myers as Austin Powers . Actors Jason Priestley , Justin Bruening and Taye Diggs also make cameo appearances in the video . Its choreography was favorably likened to Janet Jackson . The video was nominated for at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Video from a Film , but lost to Eminem 's " Lose Yourself . "
= = Live performances = =
Spears performed " Boys " on multiple occasions . She performed the song on February 10 , 2002 at the 2002 NBA All @-@ Star Game . She also performed it on the twenty @-@ seventh season of Saturday Night Live on February 2 , 2002 . She performed the song as a mash @-@ up with " I 'm a Slave 4 U " on her ABC special , In the Zone , to promote her fourth album In the Zone . In the United Kingdom , Spears performed the song on CD : UK . On the 2001 Dream Within a Dream Tour , Spears performed it wearing a tank @-@ top and suspenders . In the tour 's extension in 2002 , she replaced the original version with the remix on the tour .
On The Onyx Hotel Tour in 2004 , it featured male dancers pushing her while she was standing in luggage carts . During her performance of the song on The Circus Starring Britney Spears , the singer performed wearing a military costume , while surrounded by her dancers , some of them riding bicycles . The rendition was described as a " Rhythm Nation @-@ like military stomp . " On 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour , Spears wears a golden cape for a snake charming number of the song . Spears included " Boys " on the setlist of her 2013 @-@ 15 Las Vegas residency , Britney : Piece of Me . During this performance , she and her dancers wear neon outfits . Sophie Schillaci from MTV considered the performance " crowd @-@ pleasing " .
= = Usage in media = =
The song has been performed in a mash up with Justin Bieber 's " Boyfriend " by Kevin McHale and Darren Criss ( respectively as their characters Artie Abrams and Blaine Anderson ) in the musical TV series Glee in the second episode of season four , " Britney 2 @.@ 0 " ( aired on September 20 , 2012 ) , which is also the show 's second tribute episode to Britney Spears .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Klein Bikes =
Klein Bikes was a bicycle company founded by Gary Klein that pioneered the use of large diameter aluminum alloy tubes for greater stiffness and lower weight .
Klein produced his first bicycle frames whilst a student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology during the 1970s , and full production runs of frames began in the 1980s . In 1995 the company was purchased by the Trek Bicycle Corporation , and the original Klein factory at Chehalis closed in 2002 as production moved to the Trek headquarters at Waterloo . Widespread distribution in the United States stopped in 2007 , and ceased altogether in the rest of the world in 2009 .
= = History = =
Gary Klein , born ( 1952 @-@ 06 @-@ 09 ) June 9 , 1952 , attended the University of California at Davis before transferring to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . During the Independent Activities Period in 1973 , a group of students including Klein worked together under Professor Buckley to produce an aluminum framed bicycle . After analysing a number of contemporary steel frames , and examining ones that had broken in use , they were able to determine the stresses placed on a bicycle frame . Faced with limited available types of aluminum alloy tubing , the students chose to construct frames from 6061 aluminium alloy seamless drawn tube ; alternatives such as the stronger 7075 aluminum alloy were discarded because of the tubing dimensions .
After graduating from MIT in 1974 with a degree in chemical engineering , Klein took a business course for entrepreneurs . As a keen road racer , in 1975 , he started a business project with three other people and built a limited run of aluminum alloy framed bikes at the MIT Innovation Center , using a US $ 20 @,@ 000 grant provided by MIT and US $ 1 @,@ 000 of capital from each partner . The prototypes , with larger diameter tubes and thinner walls than those produced in 1973 , were displayed at the International cycle show in New York in the February of 1975 .
The next year , he relocated to some disused buildings on his parents ' farm in San Martin , California that had previously been used for dehydrating prunes . In 1977 , he patented use of large diameter aluminum alloy tubes to increase stiffness , and in 1980 , he moved from San Jose , California , to Chehalis , Washington . He started production runs of road bicycles in the early 1980s and mountain bikes in the mid 1980s .
Whilst Klein 's use of aluminium for a bicycle frames was not entirely novel , his use of large diameter tubes was . Aluminium alloys have a Young 's modulus around a third that of steel , but with thicker tubes he was able to make a bicycle that weighed around 15 % less than a conventional model .
In 1995 , Trek bought Klein bikes , after Klein found it hard to compete without the sales network of a larger company in place .
At its peak , around 250 people worked at the Chehalis plant , but operation gradually moved to the main Trek factory in Wisconsin . In 2001 , a workforce of around 70 people produced 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 frames a year . In 2002 , all production moved to the Trek headquarters at Waterloo , Wisconsin . Bikes were still sold under the Klein name until around 2009 in Japan , but widespread distribution ceased circa 2007 in the United States .
A green Klein mountain bike can be seen hanging on the wall in Jerry Seinfeld 's apartment in the television show Seinfeld .
= = Innovations = =
Some off @-@ road models featured two designs of one @-@ piece welded stem @-@ bar combination , marketed as " Mission Control " ( MC ) , that eliminated clamping bolts and excess material . The original version , MC1 , used a quill stem and required a 1 inch ( 25 mm ) threaded steerer . MC2 used a locknut tightening against a collet that sat between the fork steerer and the stem , and a special eight pointed wrench was required to remove it . The steerer had to be cut to the correct length in order to adjust the height of the stem . MC3 was a third version that was only the stem , thus the handlebar was not welded .
Klein held a patent ( US 5433465 ) for an improved method of routing cables through the frame of a bicycle , that reduced aerodynamic drag and stress on the frame . The front and rear derailleur cables were routed through the down tube , and the rear brake cable through the top tube , although some models changed in 2002 to top tube cable routing for greater harmonisation with Shimano components .
In the 2002 model year , Klein replaced 6061 aluminium alloy with a new alloy called ZR 9000 , that used zirconium in place of chromium ; the new alloy had not been assigned an industry number and it was named after the unused 9000 series . Advertised improvements included a 190 grams ( 6 @.@ 7 oz ) decrease in weight per frame and a fatigue life five times longer than the 2001 model year frames .
= = Techniques = =
Klein bicycles were famous for their paintwork , and offered a large number of custom colours and patterns . The paint used was a Durethane enamel non @-@ metallic paint that cost up to US $ 1 @,@ 800 per gallon . The Klein logo was debossed into the frame by painting the frame in the colour of the logo , then applying a mask and painting the pattern .
Beginning with the MC2 frames , Klein used " Gradient tubing " , where the wall thickness varied along the length and diameter of the tube . Highly manipulated chainstays on mountain bikes allowed a tighter rear triangle to accommodate large off @-@ road tyres , and facilitated efficient transfer of power .
Welded aluminium needed heat treating to restore strength lost in welding . After the treatment , frames were required to be aligned to within 0 @.@ 004 inches ( 0 @.@ 10 mm ) on all alignment surfaces , and were then machined to within 0 @.@ 0002 inches ( 0 @.@ 0051 mm ) .
= = Models = =
Klein produced both mountain bikes and road bikes .
Models are sourced from the official catalogue for that particular year . Years marked in red are incomplete due to a lack of reliable source information .
= = Sponsored teams = =
Klein made custom bikes for San Francisco 's Lombardi team which were ridden in 2001 . German cycling team Gerolsteiner rode Klein Quantum frames before 2003 , when Gerolsteiner changed their bike sponsor to Wilier Triestina . For the 2004 season , Klein sponsored the Jittery Joe 's cycling team .
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= Onefin electric ray =
The onefin electric ray or Cape numbfish ( Narke capensis ) is a common but little @-@ known species of electric ray in the family Narkidae , native to South Africa and Namibia . It is a benthic fish found in shallow coastal bays over sandy or muddy bottoms . This small species reaches 38 cm ( 15 in ) in length , and has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc and a short , muscular tail that supports a large caudal fin . It can be identified by its single dorsal fin , which is located over the large pelvic fins . Its dorsal coloration is yellowish to dusky brown .
Like other members of its family , the onefin electric ray can defend itself with a strong electric shock produced from a pair of kidney @-@ shaped electric organs beside its head . It feeds mainly on polychaete worms , and likely gives birth to live young . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks enough information to assess the conservation status of this species . It is often caught incidentally by bottom trawl fisheries off South Africa , and may also be impacted by pollution from coastal development .
= = Taxonomy = =
The onefin electric ray was described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 , in the 13th edition of Systema Naturae . Gmelin 's name for the species was printed as Raja capensis in some copies of the book , and as Raja rapensis in others . The original spelling was probably rapensis , which modern taxonomists regard as a typesetting error as the etymology of capensis ( " of the Cape [ of Good Hope ] " ) is far more reasonable . Later sources have consistently used capensis , though to officially fix the specific epithet under that spelling would require a decision by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) . Gmelin did not refer to any type specimens . In 1826 , German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup created the new genus Narke for this species , separating it from the other electric rays known at the time on the basis of its curved back and single dorsal fin . Later , more species were assigned to Narke .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the onefin electric ray is wider than long and almost circular in shape . The two large , kidney @-@ shaped electric organs are visible beneath the skin on either side of the head . The eyes are small and protruding ; the larger spiracles lie closely behind and have three small finger @-@ like projections on their rims . The nostrils are placed rather close together , and between them is a long skirt @-@ like flap of skin that reaches the mouth . The small and protrusible mouth is nearly straight and surrounded by prominent furrows . The teeth are tiny and pointed . There are five pairs of small gill slits on the underside of the disc .
The large and broad pelvic fins have convex margins and originate beneath the pectoral fins . Adult males have stubby claspers . There is a single rounded dorsal fin positioned over the pelvic fins . The short and thick tail has a skin fold running along either side and terminates in a large triangular caudal fin with rounded corners , which is almost symmetrical above and below . The soft skin is completely devoid of dermal denticles . This species varies from yellowish brown to dusky brown above ; parts of the tail 's upper surface are yellowish . The underside is white to yellow with brown fin margins . It grows up to 38 cm ( 15 in ) long and 26 cm ( 10 in ) across , though individuals of this size are rare .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The onefin electric ray is common off the Eastern and Western Cape Provinces of South Africa . Its range extends to central Namibia , with a single specimen recorded from Meob Bay and a second unconfirmed sighting from Walvis Bay . A historical record of this species from Madagascar may be a misidentification . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the onefin electric ray mainly inhabits bays with sandy or muddy bottoms . It is most often found in waters shallower than 50 β 100 m ( 160 β 330 ft ) , though it has been recorded from as deep as 183 m ( 600 ft ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Relative to its small size , the onefin electric ray can deliver an extremely powerful electric shock to defend itself against predators , which include the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) . It propels itself using its muscular tail rather than its pectoral fins . The diet of this species consists mainly of polychaete worms . The reproductive biology of the onefin electric ray has not been documented ; presumably it is viviparous like other electric rays . Males mature sexually at somewhere between 11 and 17 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 and 6 @.@ 7 in ) long , while females mature at around 16 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) long .
= = Human interactions = =
The shock produced by the onefin electric ray can be painful , but is not substantially dangerous to humans . Though not utilized economically , this ray is frequently caught as bycatch in bottom trawls in South African waters . Because of its inshore habits , it may also be negatively affected by water pollution from coastal development . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Data Deficient due to lack of specific data , while noting that its vulnerability to fishing and habitat degradation may merit concern .
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= Anarky =
Anarky is a fictional character , appearing in comic books published by DC Comics . Co @-@ created by Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle , he first appeared in Detective Comics No. 608 ( November 1989 ) , as an adversary of Batman . Introduced as Lonnie Machin , a child prodigy with knowledge of radical philosophy and driven to overthrow governments to improve social conditions , stories revolving around Anarky often focus on political and philosophical themes . The character , who is named after the philosophy of anarchism , primarily espouses anti @-@ statism ; however , multiple social issues have been addressed through the character , including environmentalism , antimilitarism , economic inequality , and political corruption . Inspired by multiple sources , early stories featuring the character often included homages to political and philosophical books , and referenced anarchist philosophers and theorists . The inspiration for the creation of the character and its early development was based in Grant 's personal interest in anti @-@ authoritarian philosophy and politics . However , when Grant himself transitioned to the philosophy of Neo @-@ Tech , developed by Frank R. Wallace , he shifted the focus of Anarky from a vehicle for socialist and populist philosophy , to rationalist , atheist , and free market thinking .
Originally intended to only be used in the debut story in which he appeared , Grant decided to continue using Anarky as a sporadically recurring character throughout the early 1990s , following positive reception by readers and Dennis O 'Neil . The character experienced a brief surge in media exposure during the late 1990s when Norm Breyfogle convinced Grant to produce a limited series based on the character . The 1997 spin @-@ off series , Anarky , was received with positive reviews and sales , and later declared by Grant to be among his " career highlights " . Batman : Anarky , a trade paperback collection of stories featuring the character , soon followed . This popular acclaim culminated , however , in a financially and critically unsuccessful ongoing solo series . The 1999 Anarky series , in which even Grant has expressed his distaste , was quickly canceled after eight issues .
Following the cancellation of the Anarky series , and Grant 's departure from DC Comics , Anarky experienced a prolonged period of absence from DC publications , despite professional and fan interest in his return . This period of obscurity lasted approximately nine years , with three brief interruptions for minor cameo appearances in 2000 , 2001 , and 2005 . In 2008 , Anarky reappeared in an issue of Robin authored by Fabian Nicieza , with the intention of ending this period of obscurity . The storyline drastically altered the character 's presentation , prompting a series of responses by Nicieza to concerned readers . Anarky became a recurring character in issues of Red Robin , authored by Nicieza , until the series was cancelled in 2011 in the aftermath of The New 52 . A new Anarky was introduced into the New 52 continuity in October 2013 , in an issue of Green Lantern Corps , which itself was a tie @-@ in to the " Batman : Zero Year " storyline . Yet more characters have been authored as using the Anarky alias in the New 52 continuity via the pages of Detective Comics and Earth 2 : Society .
From 2013 , Anarky began to be featured more heavily in media adaptations of DC Comics properties , across multiple platforms . In July , a revamped version of Anarky was debuted as the primary antagonist in Beware the Batman , a Batman animated series produced by Warner Bros. Animation . In October , the character made his video game debut in Batman : Arkham Origins , as a villain who threatens government and corporate institutions with destruction . Anarky made his live action debut in the Green Arrow television series Arrow in 2015 , portrayed by Alexander Calvert , once again as a villain .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation and debut = = =
Originally inspired by his personal political leanings , Alan Grant entertained the idea of interjecting anarchist philosophy into Batman comic books . In an attempt to emulate the success of Chopper , a rebellious youth in Judge Dredd , he conceptualized a character as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old anarchist vigilante , who readers would sympathize with despite the character 's harsh methods . Creating the character without any consultation from his partner , illustrator Norm Breyfogle , his only instructions to Breyfogle were that Anarky be designed as a cross between V and the black spy from Mad magazine 's Spy vs. Spy . The character was also intended to wear a costume that disguised his youth , and so was fitted with a crude " head extender " that elongated his neck , creating a jarring appearance . This was in fact intended as a ruse on the part of writer Alan Grant to disguise the character 's true identity , and to confuse the reader into believing Anarky to be an adult . While both of these design elements have since been dropped , more enduring aspects of the character have been his golden face mask , " priestly " hat , and his golden cane .
The first Anarky story , " Anarky in Gotham City , Part 1 : Letters to the Editor " , appeared in Detective Comics No.608 , in November 1989 . Lonnie Machin is introduced as " Anarky " as early as his first appearance in Detective Comics No.608 , withholding his origin story for a later point . He is established as an uncommonly philosophical and intelligent twelve @-@ year @-@ old . Lonnie Machin made his debut as " Anarky " by responding to complaints in the newspaper by attacking the offending sources , such as the owner of a factory whose byproduct waste is polluting local river water . Anarky and Batman ultimately come to blows , and during their brief fight , Batman deduces that Anarky is actually a young child . During this first confrontation , Anarky is aided by a band of homeless men , including Legs , a homeless cripple who becomes loyal to him and would assist him in later appearances . After being caught , Lonnie is locked away in a juvenile detention center .
= = = Anarky series = = =
Following the comic book industry crash of 1996 , Norm Breyfogle sought new employment at DC Comics . Darren Vincenzo , then an editorial assistant at the company , suggested multiple projects which Breyfogle could take part in . Among his suggestions was an Anarky limited series , to be written by Grant or another specified author . Following encouragement from Breyfogle , Grant agreed to participate in the project . The four @-@ issue limited series , Anarky , was published in May 1997 . Entitled " Metamorphosis " , the story maintained the character 's anti @-@ authoritarian sentiments , but was instead based on Neo @-@ Tech , a philosophy developed by Frank R. Wallace .
Well received by critics and financially successful , Grant has referred to the limited series as one of his favorite projects , and ranked it among his " career highlights " . With its success , Vincenzo suggested continuing the book as an ongoing series to Breyfogle and Grant . Although Grant was concerned that such a series would not be viable , he agreed to write it at Breyfogle 's insistence , as the illustrator was still struggling for employment . Building on the increasing exposure of the series , a trade paperback featuring the character titled Batman : Anarky was published . However , Grant 's doubts concerning the ongoing series 's prospects eventually proved correct . The second series was panned by critics , failed to catch on among readers , and was canceled after eight issues ; however Grant has noted that it was popular in Latin American countries , supposing this was due to a history of political repression in the region .
= = = Absence from DC publications = = =
After the financial failure of Anarky vol . 2 , the character entered a period of absence from DC publications that lasted several years . Norm Breyfogle attempted to continue using the character in other comics during this time . However , when his efforts were rejected , he came to suspect the character 's prolonged absence was due in part to censorship . Since the cancellation of the Anarky series , Grant has disassociated himself from the direction of the character , simply stating , " you have to let these things go . "
In 2005 , James Peaty succeeded in temporarily returning Anarky to publication , writing Green Arrow No.51 , Anarky in the USA . Although the front cover of the issue advertised the comic as the " return " of the character , Anarky failed to make any further appearances . This was despite comments by Peaty that he had further plans to write stories for the character .
Anarky retained interest among a cult fan base during this obscure period . During a panel at WonderCon 2006 , multiple requests were made by the audience for Anarky to appear in DC Comic 's limited series , 52 . In response , editors and writers of 52 indicated Anarky would be included in the series . However , the series concluded without Anarky making an appearance , and with no explanation given by anyone involved in the production of the series for the failed appearance .
= = = Return as " Moneyspider " = = =
On August 15 , 2008 , DC Comics announced that Anarky would reappear in the December issue of Robin , issue No.181. With the publication of Robin No.181 , " Search For a Hero , Part 5 : Pushing Buttons , Pulling Strings " , on December 17 , 2008 , it was revealed that Lonnie Machin 's role as Anarky had been supplanted by another Batman villain , Ulysses Armstrong . Fabian Nicieza , author of the issue and storyline in which Anarky appeared , depicted the character as being held hostage by Armstrong , " paralyzed and catatonic " , encased in an iron lung , and connected to computers through his brain . This final feature allowed the character to connect to the internet and communicate with others via a speech synthesizer . Nicieza 's decision to give Machin 's mantle as Anarky to another character was due to his desire to establish him as a nemesis for Tim Drake , while respecting the original characterization of Anarky , who Nicieza recognized as neither immature , nor a villain . Regardless , Nicieza did desire to use Machin and properly return the character to publication , and so favored presenting Ulysses H. Armstrong as Anarky , and Lonnie Machin as Moneyspider , a reference to a secondary name briefly used by Grant for Anarky in storyline published in 1990 .
The reactions to Robin No.181 included negative commentary from political commentator and scholar , Roderick Long , and Alan Grant himself . Among fans who interacted with Nicieza in a forum discussion , some responses were also negative , prompting responses from Nicieza in his own defense .
With the conclusion of Robin , Nicieza began authoring the 2009 Azrael series , leaving any future use of Anarky or Moneyspider to author Christopher Yost , who would pick up the Robin character in a new Red Robin series . However , in the ensuing months , Yost only made one brief reference to Anarky , without directly involving the character in a story plot . In April 2010 , it was announced that Nicieza would replace Yost as the author of Red Robin , and Nicieza was quick to note his interest in using Anarky and Moneyspider in future issues of the series . Nicieza reintroduced Ulysses Armstrong and Lonnie Machin within his first storyline , beginning in Red Robin No.16 , " The Hit List " , in December 2010 . Nicieza then proceeded to regularly use Lonnie as a cast member of the ongoing Red Robin series , until its cancellation in October 2011 . The series was concluded as a result of The New 52 , a revamp and relaunch by DC Comics of its entire line of ongoing monthly superhero books , in which all of its existing titles were canceled . 52 new series debuted in September 2011 with new No. 1 issues to replace the cancelled titles .
= = = Debuts in alternate media = = =
At the MIPJunior conference , on October 1 , 2011 , Sam Register , executive vice president for creative affairs at Warner Bros. Animation , announced several upcoming events for 2012 , including a new CGI animated series , Beware the Batman . Intended to focus on lesser known villains for an unfamiliar audience . A Cartoon Network press release announced that Anarky would be one of the planned villains to be included , while series developers later explained that the character would be revamped for the series and chosen as the primary antagonist . Series producers Glen Murakami and Mitch Watson compared his role to that of " Moriarty to Batman 's Sherlock Holmes " , explaining that he would indirectly challenge Batman through complex machinations .
Anarky debuted in the first season 's third episode , " Tests " , on July 27 , 2013 . The episode was written by Jim Krieg , with direction by Curt Geda , while the character was voiced by Wallace Langham . The episode made heavy use of chess as a symbol for the conflict between Batman and Anarky . This theme had been forecasted in pre @-@ production interviews when Murakami described the relationship the characters were to have , and explained " Batman is the black king and Anarky is the white king . So it 's sort of this psychological chess game . " This version of the character was also used in the first issue of the tie @-@ in comic Beware the Batman No.1 , " Law and ( Dis ) Order " .
On May 20 , 2013 , Computer and Video Games 's website confirmed that Anarky would make his video game debut in Batman : Arkham Origins . Anarky was among the first villains premiered during the game 's first demonstration at the 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo , and was introduced by creative director of WB Games MontrΓ©al , Eric Holmes . The game was released worldwide on October 25 , 2013 , and as earlier described , Anarky 's role in the game was that of an anti @-@ villain , who appealed to Batman for an alliance , while simultaneously threatening corrupt government and capitalist institutions . This portrayal , voiced by Matthew Mercer , was chosen because Anarky , as Holmes expressed , " is multidimensional in the Batman universe . " Holmes also warned players unfamiliar with Anarky against investigating the character through published material online , as he felt it would potentially spoil surprises the game held .
= = = The New 52 = = =
While Anarky was " rising in profile in other media " by mid 2013 , the character had yet to be reintroduced to the status quo of the post @-@ New 52 DC Universe . This changed on August 12 , when DC Comics announced that Anarky would be reintroduced in Green Lantern Corps No. 25 , " Powers That Be " , on November 13 , 2013 . The issue was a tie @-@ in to the " Batman : Zero Year " crossover event , authored by Van Jensen and co @-@ plotted by Robert Venditti .
In the lead up to the publication date , at a panel event at the New York Comic Con , Jensen was asked by a fan holding a " plush Anarky doll " what the character 's role would be in the story . Jensen explained that Anarky " would have a very big hand " in the story , and further explained , " you can understand what he 's doing even if you don 't agree with what he 's doing . " Jensen had also indicated that his version of Anarky would be a " fresh take that also honors his legacy . " The story featured a character study of John Stewart , narrating Stewart 's final mission as a young Marine in the midst of a Gotham City power blackout and citywide evacuation , mere days before a major storm is to hit the city . Anarky is depicted as rallying a group of followers and evacuees to occupy a sports stadium , on the basis that the area the stadium was built upon was gentrified at the expense of the local community and should be returned to them . The storyline brought two particular additions to the revamped version of Anarky ; the first being that this new version of Anarky is portrayed as an African American ; the second being to preserve the character 's anonymity , as Anarky escapes custody at the end of the story without an identity behind the mask being revealed .
Another version of Anarky debuted in the post @-@ New 52 Detective Comics series , written by Francis Manapul and Brian Buccellato . This character isn 't the same Anarky that appeared in " Batman : Zero Year " , but rather a corrupt politician named Sam Young who used the Anarky persona to exact revenge on the Mad Hatter for murdering his sister .
A female version of Anarky from the alternate reality of Earth @-@ Two was introduced in Earth 2 : Society 's 2015 story line , " Godhood " , by Daniel H. Wilson . Prior to the fictional events of the series , this Anarky detonated a bomb in the city of Neotropolis that resulted in a public riot . She disappears before Superman and Power Girl can apprehend her . In the series , she is portrayed as a hacker that is allied with such characters as Doctor Impossible , Hourman , and Johnny Sorrow .
= = = Live action debut in Arrow = = =
Anarky made his live action debut in the Green Arrow television series Arrow in 2015 , portrayed by Alexander Calvert , once again as a villain . An official description of the character presented to the media stated : " Lonnie Machin ( AKA Anarky ) is a deranged freelancing criminal who is willing to do whatever it takes to impress a potential employer . "
= = Characterization = =
Anarky has undergone several shifts in his characterization over the course of the character 's existence . These were largely decided upon by Alan Grant , who between the creation of Anarky to the end of the 1999 Anarky series , was largely the sole author of the character . After the departure of Grant and Breyfogle from DC Comics , Anarky 's characterization fell to various authors who utilized him thereafter .
= = = Description and motivations = = =
Lonnie Machin is introduced as a twelve @-@ year @-@ old school boy . An only child , he shares his physical traits of light skin and red hair with both of his parents , Mike and Roxanne Machin , a middle @-@ class family living in Gotham City . The character 's age was continuously adjusted over the course of several years ; stated to be fourteen during " The Anarky Ultimatum " in Robin Annual No.1 , it is reestablished as fifteen during the events of the Anarky limited series , and adjusted as sixteen the following year during the ongoing series .
Grant laconically described Lonnie Machin as " a serious @-@ beyond @-@ his @-@ years teenager who wants to set the world to rights . " As the character was based on a theme of ideas , he had initially been given no personal , tragic past ; a common motivator in superhero fiction . This was intended to contrast with Batman , who fought crime due to personal tragedy , while Anarky would do so in the name of ideals and beliefs . As the character was further developed , he was also intended to contrast with common teenage superheroes . Referring to the tradition established by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby of saddling teenagers with personal problems , Grant purposely gave Anarky none , nor did he develop a girlfriend or social life for the character . As Grant wrote for the Batman : Anarky introduction , this was intended to convey the idea that Anarky was single minded in his goals . In one of the earliest explorations of Lonnie Machin 's back story in " The Anarky Ultimatum " , Grant described Lonnie as a prolific reader , but also of being isolated from peers his own age during his childhood . This was elaborated upon years later in the " Anarky " storyline , which described Lonnie as having lost a childhood friend living in an impoverished nation , the latter suffering the loss of his family due to civil war and strife before disappearing entirely . The resulting shock of discovering at such a young age that the world was in turmoil precipitated Lonnie Machin 's rapid maturation and eventual radicalization .
= = = Heroic and villainous themes = = =
Anarky 's introduction during the late 1980s was part of a larger shift among supervillains in the Batman franchise of the time . While many naive and goofy villains of previous eras were abandoned , and more iconic villains made more violent to cater to tastes of a maturing readership , some were introduced to challenge readers to " question the whole bad / good guy divide . " Falling into " the stereotype anarchist bomb @-@ toting image " , Anarky 's design was countered by his principled stances to create an odd contrast . In a review of the Anarky miniseries , Anarky was dubbed an " anti @-@ villain " , as opposed to " antihero " , due to his highly principled philosophy , which runs counter to most villains : " In the age of the anti @-@ hero , it only makes sense to have the occasional anti @-@ villain as well . But unlike sociopathic vigilante anti @-@ heroes like the Punisher , an anti @-@ villain like Anarky provides some interesting food for thought . Sure , he breaks the law , but what he really wants is to save the world ... and maybe he 's right . "
Breyfogle 's characterization of Anarky has shifted on occasion , with him at times referring to Anarky as a villain , and at other times as a hero . In his 1998 introductory essay composed for Batman : Anarky , Breyfogle characterized Anarky as not being a villain , but rather a " misunderstood hero " , and continued " he 's a philosophical action hero , an Aristotle in tights , rising above mere ' crime @-@ fighter ' status into the realm of incisive social commentary . " A year later , Breyfogle conceded that Anarky was " technically " a villain , but insisted " I don 't consider him a villain ... " Breyfogle later reconsidered the character in more ambiguous terms for a 2005 interview : " Anarky isn 't a villain , he 's his own character . He 's definitely not a superhero , although it depends on who you talk to . "
Grant has been more direct in his description of Anarky 's virtuous attributes : " In my eyes , Anarky 's a hero . Anarky 's the hero I want to be if I was smart enough and physically fit enough . " Acknowledging that Anarky 's moral perspective was guided by his own , Grant expressed that the conflict between Anarky and other heroes is a result of their political divisions : " In my eyes , he 's a hero , but to others , they see him as a villain . That is because most people might gripe about the political situation , or various aspects of the political situation , and wouldn 't advocate the total overthrow of the system under which we live . Anarky certainly does that , and more . "
In creating stories involving Anarky , other writers have played off this anti @-@ heroic and anti @-@ villainous tension . James Peaty made the heroic and political comparisons between Lonnie Machin and Oliver Queen the central theme of his 2005 Green Arrow story , " Anarky in the USA " : " Anarky comes to find Ollie because of his reputation and is quite disappointed in Ollie 's reaction towards him . However , as the story unfolds , Ollie has to re @-@ assess his initial reaction to Anarky and his own much vaunted ' radical ' credentials . " With his controversial revival of the character in 2008 , Fabian Nicieza chose to portray the mantle of Anarky as being possessed by a villain other than Lonnie Machin on the grounds that Lonnie was too heroic to act out the part of a black hat : " Since Lonnie is too smart to be immature and NOT a ' villain , ' I wanted Anarky , but it couldn 't be Lonnie without compromising who he is as a character . "
In the character 's 2013 video game debut in Batman : Arkham Origins , creative director Eric Holmes dubbed Anarky a " classic anti @-@ villain " . A " social activist " who wishes to " liberate and free people " , Anarky views himself as a hero akin to Batman and offers an alliance with him . However his approach is rebuked on the basis that their methods are nothing alike . Nonetheless , he attracts a following among the city 's downtrodden and particularly the homeless , whom he protects from the hostility of police officers . This " special relationship " between the homeless who look up to a villain , who in turn acts as their protector against police who prey upon them , was intended to present an area of grey morality for the player to consider .
On two occasions Grant nearly went against Dennis O 'Neil 's early wish that Anarky not kill opponents . These events include his appearance during the Batman : Knightfall saga , in which Grant briefly portrayed Anarky as preparing to kill both the Scarecrow and Batman @-@ Azrael . Grant also implied Anarky was a lethal figure in " The Last Batman Story " , part of Armageddon 2001 crossover event . In the story , a time traveler shows Batman a possible future in the ( relatively ) not @-@ too @-@ distant year of 2001 . An aged Batman is framed and sentenced to death for murder , but Anarky , now an adult , sympathizes with the fallen hero and breaks into the prison in an attempt to rescue Batman . However , Batman resists his help , on the basis that Anarky has killed others in the past , and the two never reconciled their differences .
Grant later expressed relief that he had not fully committed to portraying Anarky as a potential murderer , as he felt " Anarky would have compromised his own beliefs if he had taken the route of the criminal @-@ killer . " Anarky was given a non @-@ lethal approach in The Batman Adventures No.31 , " Anarky " , written by Alan Grant , who acted as a guest author for the issue . Anarky takes business elites hostage and places them on public trial , broadcast from a pirate television show . He charges these men with such crimes as the creation of land mines that kill or cripple thousands , funding Third World dictators , polluting the air with toxic chemicals , and profiting from wage slavery , and threatens each man with a bomb if the public should find them guilty . When the explosions take place , it is revealed that the bombs are fake , and the public trials were only intended to expose the men and raise public awareness . One bomb explosion carried a specific message . It unfurled a banner that denounced lethal weapons .
Contradicting Anarky 's non @-@ lethal portrayal , entries for the character in Who 's Who in the DC Universe , The DC Comics Encyclopedia , and The Supervillain Book , have falsely referred to Anarky as having killed criminals in early appearances . Norm Breyfogle was also under the false impression that Anarky had killed for several years , having failed to realize the original script for Anarky 's debut storyline had been rewritten . Grant eventually explained the situation to Breyfogle in 2006 , during a joint interview . Despite this regular equivocation of Anarky with murder and villainy in DC Comics character guides , the company made efforts to describe the character in heroic terms in promoting the 1999 Anarky series . During this time , DC Comics described Anarky as an " anti @-@ establishment loose cannon trying to do good as a hero to the disenfranchised " .
= = = Political and philosophical themes = = =
In the initial years following Anarky 's creation , Grant rarely incorporated the character into Batman stories , being reserved for stories in which the author wished to make a philosophical point . Originally , Grant created Anarky as an anarchist with socialist and populist leanings . In this early incarnation , Anarky was designed as an avatar for Grant 's personal meditations on political philosophy , and specifically for his burgeoning sympathy for anarchism .
Within the books , the nature of the character 's political opinions were often expressed through the character 's rhetoric , and by heavy use of the circle @-@ A as a character gimmick . The character 's tools often incorporate the circle @-@ A motif into them . In his earliest incarnation , he would also use red spray @-@ paint to leave the circle @-@ A as a calling card at crime scenes . The circle @-@ A has also been used to decorate the character 's base of operations , either as graffiti or suspended from wall tapestries .
In some instances , Anarky 's political behavior would stand as the only political element of the story , while in other instances , entire stories would be framed to create a political parable . In Batman : Shadow of the Bat Annual No.2 , an Elseworlds story entitled " The Tyrant " , Grant made dictatorship and the corrupting influence of power the primary theme . Batman ( under the influence of Jonathan Crane ) uses his resources to usurp power in the city of Gotham and institute a police state in which he exercises hegemonic control over the city 's population . Anarky becomes a resistance leader , undermining the centers of Batman 's power and ultimately overthrowing Bruce Wayne 's tyranny . The story ends with a quote by Mikhail Bakunin : " ( For reasons of the state ) black becomes white and white becomes black , the horrible becomes humane and the most dastardly felonies and atrocious crimes become meritorious acts . " During the early years of the character 's development , virtually no writers other than Grant used Anarky in DC publications . In the singular portrayal by an author other than Grant during this period , writer Kevin Dooley used Anarky in an issue of Green Arrow , producing an explicitly anti @-@ firearm themed story . Throughout the narrative , dialogue between Anarky and Green Arrow conveys the need for direct action , as Anarky attempts to persuade Oliver Queen to sympathize with militant , economic sabotage in pursuit of social justice .
Literary cues illustrated into scenes were occasionally used whenever Anarky was a featured character in a comic . During the Anarky limited series , fluttering newspapers were used to bear headlines alluding to social problems . Occasionally , the titles of books found in Anarky 's room would express the character 's philosophical , political , or generally esoteric agenda . In both Detective Comics No.620 and Batman : Shadow of the Bat No.40 , a copy of V for Vendetta can be seen on Lonnie Machin 's bookshelf as homage . Other books in his room at different times have included Apostles of Revolution by Max Nomad , The Anarchists by James Joll , books labeled " Proudhon " and " Bakunin " , and an issue of Black Flag . Non @-@ anarchist material included books labeled " Plato " , " Aristotle " , and " Swedenborg " , and a copy of Synergetics , by Buckminster Fuller . The character also made references to Universe by Scudder Klyce , an extremely rare book . When asked if he was concerned readers would be unable to follow some of the more obscure literary references , Grant explained that he hadn 't expected many to do so , but reported encountering some who had , and that one particular reader of the 1999 Anarky series had carried out an ongoing correspondence with him on the topic as of 2005 .
Over the course of several years , Grant 's political opinions shifted from libertarian socialism to free market based philosophies . Grant later speculated that this transformation would be detectable within stories he 'd written . By 1997 , Grant 's philosophy settled on Neo @-@ Tech , which was developed by Frank R. Wallace , and when given the opportunity to write an Anarky miniseries , he decided to redesign the character accordingly . Grant laid out his reasoning in an interview just before the first issue 's publication . " I felt he was the perfect character " to express Neo @-@ Tech philosophy , Grant explained , " because he 's human , he has no special powers , the only power he 's got is the power of his own rational consciousness " . This new characterization was continued in the 1999 Anarky ongoing series .
The limited and ongoing series were both heavily influenced by Neo @-@ Tech , despite the term never appearing in a single issue . New emphasis was placed on previously unexplored themes , such as the depiction of Anarky as an atheist and a rationalist . Grant also expressed a desire to use the comic as a vehicle for his thoughts concerning the mind and consciousness , and made bicameralism a major theme of both series . While this trend led the character away from the philosophies he had espoused previously , the primary theme of the character remained anti @-@ statism . In one issue of the 1999 series , a character asked what the nature of Anarky 's politics were . The response was that Anarky was neither right @-@ wing , nor left @-@ wing , and that he " transcends the political divide " . Grant has specified that he categorized Anarky politically as an anarchist who " tried to put anarchist values into action . " Norm Breyfogle also stated in 1999 that the character represented anarchist philosophy , but said in 2003 that he believed the Neo @-@ Tech influence allowed Anarky to be classified as an objectivist .
= = Skills , abilities , and resources = =
Grant developed Anarky as a gadgeteer β a character who relies on inventions and gadgets to compensate for a lack of superpowers β and as a child prodigy . In early incarnations he was portrayed as highly intelligent , but inexperienced . Lacking in many skills , he survived largely by his ingenuity . In accordance with this , he would occasionally quote the maxim , " the essence of anarchy is surprise " . By 1991 a profile of the character , following the introduction of Anarky 's skills as a hacker in the " Rite of Passage " storyline of Detective Comics No.620 , described that " Lonnie 's inventive genius is equaled only by his computer wizardry . "
Anarky 's abilities were increased during the character 's two eponymous series , being portrayed as having enormous talents in both engineering and computer technology , as well as prodigiously developing skills in martial arts . This was indicated in several comics published just before the Anarky miniseries , and later elaborated upon within the series itself .
= = = Early skills and equipment = = =
Described as physically frail in comparison to the adults he opposes , the character often utilizes cunning , improvisation , and intelligence as tools for victory . During the Knightfall saga , the character states , " The essence of anarchy is surprise β spontaneous action ... even when it does require a little planning ! "
Early descriptions of the character 's gadgets focused on low @-@ tech , improvised tools and munitions , such as flare guns , swing lines , throwing stars , small spherical shelled explosives with burning fuses ( mimicking round mortar bombs stereotypically associated with 19th @-@ century anarchists ) , gas @-@ bombs , smoke bombs , and his primary weapon , a powerful electric stun baton shaped as a golden cane .
As a wanted criminal , Anarky 's methods and goals were described as leaving him with little logistical support amongst the heroic community , or the public at large , relegating him to underground operation . When in need of assistance , he would call on the help of the homeless community in Gotham who had supported him since his first appearance .
Anarky was described as having developed skills as a computer hacker to steal enormous sums of money from various corporations in his second appearance , part of the " Rite of Passage " storyline in Detective Comics No.620. This addition to the character 's skill set made him the second major hacker in the DC Universe , being preceded by Barbara Gordon 's debut as Oracle , and was quickly adapted by 1992 to allow the character to gain information on other heroes and villains from police computer networks .
= = = Anarky series ability upgrades = = =
According to Alan Grant , the urgency with which Anarky views his cause has necessitated that the character forsake any social life , and increase his abilities drastically over the years . " The kid 's whole life is dedicated to self @-@ improvement , " wrote Grant for the Batman : Anarky introduction , " with the sole aim of destroying the parasitic elites who he considers feast off ordinary folks . " A review of the first issue of the 1999 series described Anarky as akin to a " Batman Jr . " The reviewer continued , " [ Grant ] writes Lonnie like a teenager who is head and shoulders above the rest of the population , but still a kid . "
In 1995 , Grant used the two part " Anarky " storyline in Batman : Shadow of the Bat to alter the character 's status quo in several ways that would reach their fruition in the first Anarky series . To accomplish this feat , several plot devices were used to increase Lonnie 's abilities . To justify the character 's financial independence , Anarky was described as using the internet to earn money through his online bookstore , Anarco , which he used as a front company to propagate his philosophy . A second front organization , The Anarkist Foundation , was also developed to offer grants to radical causes he supports . A Biofeedback Learning Enhancer was employed to increase Lonnie 's abilities . The cybernetic device was described as being capable of amplifying brain functions by a multiple of ten . Anarky was also described as having begun to train in martial arts , following the character 's time in juvenile hall .
The 1997 Anarky limited series saw the earlier plot devices of the preceding " Anarky " storyline become narrative justifications for drastically upgraded skill sets . Anarky 's earlier brain augmentation was now described as having " fused " the hemispheres of his brain , in a reference to bicameralism . Meanwhile , the character 's business enterprises were said to have gained him millions of dollars in the dot @-@ com bubble . The character 's combat abilities were described as having progressed remarkably , and to have included training in multiple styles which he " integrated " into a hybrid fighting style . Even the character 's primary stun baton weapon was enhanced , with a grappling hook incorporated into the walking stick itself to allow dual functionality .
With this enhanced intelligence and financial assets , the 1999 ongoing series narrates that Anarky went on to create an on @-@ board AI computer , MAX ( Multi @-@ Augmented X @-@ Program ) ; a crude but fully functioning teleportation device capable of summoning a boom tube , and secretly excavated an underground base below the Washington Monument . Portrayed as an atheist by Grant , Anarky espoused the belief that " science is magic explained " , and was shown to use scientific analysis to explain and manipulate esoteric forces of magic and energy . Anarky 's skill in software cracking was further increased to allow him to tap into Batman 's supercomputer , and the Justice League Watchtower .
This evolution in Anarky 's abilities was criticized as having overpowered the character in a Fanzing review of the Anarky ongoing series . The rapid development was seen as preventing the suspension of disbelief in the young character 's adventures , which was said to have contributed to the failure of the series . This view stood in contrast with that of Breyfogle , who considered Anarky 's heightened skill set to be a complementary feature , and contended that Anarky 's advanced abilities lent uniqueness to the character . Breyfogle wrote , " Anarky 's singularity is due partly to his being , at his age , nearly as competent as Batman . "
= = = Abilities as Moneyspider = = =
In Fabian Niciza 's stories for Red Robin , Lonnie Machin 's abilities as Moneyspider were revamped , with the character taking on the persona of an " electronic ghost . " Comatose , Moneyspider was free to act through his mind via connections to the internet , and interacted with others via text messaging and a speech synthesizer . In this condition , he acts to " create an international web that will [ access ] the ins and outs of criminal and corporate operations . " Within virtual reality , the character 's augmented intelligence was described as a " fused bicameral mind " , able to maintain a presence online at all times , while another part of his mind separately interacted with others offline .
= = = Costume = = =
= = = = Designs by Norm Breyfogle = = = =
Anarky 's costume has undergone several phases in design , the first two of which were created by Norm Breyfogle , in accordance with Grant 's suggestions . The original costume was composed of a large , flowing red robe , over a matching red jumpsuit . A red , wide brimmed hat baring the circle @-@ A insignia ; a golden , metallic face mask ; and red hood , completed the outfit . The folds of the robe concealed various weapons and gadgets . Breyfogle later expressed that the color scheme chosen held symbolic purpose . The red robes " represented the blood of all the innocents sacrificed in war . " The gold cane , face mask , and circle @-@ A symbol represented purity and spirituality . The connection to spirituality was also emphasized through the hat and loose fabric , which mimicked that of a priest . Breyfogle believed the loose clothes " [ went ] better with a wide @-@ brimmed hat . It 's more of a colloquial style of clothing ... " However , observers have noted that Breyfogle 's Christian upbringing may have also inspired the " priestly analogy . "
This costume was also designed to disguise Anarky 's height , and so included a " head extender " under his hood , which elongated his neck . This design was also intended to create a subtle awkwardness that the reader would subconsciously suspect as being fake , until the reveal at the end of Anarky 's first appearance . Despite the revelation of this false head , which would no longer serve its intended purpose at misdirecting the reader , the head extender was included in several return appearances , while at irregular times other artists drew the character without the extender . This discontinuity in the character 's design ended when Breyfogle finally eliminated this aspect of the character during the 1997 limited series , expressing that the character 's height growth had ended its usefulness . In reality , Breyfogle 's decision was also as a result of the difficulty the design presented , being " awkward [ to draw ] in action situations . "
Anarky 's second costume was used during the 1999 ongoing Anarky series . It retained the red jumpsuit , gold mask , and hat , but excised the character 's red robes . New additions to the costume included a red cape , a utility belt modeled after Batman 's utility belt , and a single , large circle @-@ A across the chest , akin to Superman 's iconic " S " shield . The golden mask was also redesigned as a reflective , but flexible material that wrapped around Anarky 's head , allowing for the display of facial movement and emotion . This had previously been impossible , as the first mask was made of inflexible metal . Being a relatively new creation , Breyfogle encountered no editorial resistance in the new character design : " Because [ Anarky ] doesn 't have 50 years of merchandising behind him , I can change his costume whenever I want ... " Within the Anarky series , secondary costumes were displayed in Anarky 's base of operations . Each was slightly altered in design , but followed the same basic theme of color , jumpsuit , cloak , and hat . These were designed for use in various situations , but only one , a " universal battle suit " , was used during the brief series . These suits were also intended to be seen in the unpublished ninth issue of the series .
= = = = Post @-@ Breyfogle designs = = = =
In 2005 , James Peaty 's Green Arrow story , " Anarky in the USA " , featured a return to some of the costume elements used prior to the Anarky series . Drawn by Eric Battle , the circle @-@ A chest icon was removed in favor of a loose fabric jumpsuit completed with a flowing cape . The flexible mask was replaced with the previous , unmoving metallic mask , but illustrated with a new reflective quality . This design element was used at times to reflect the face of someone Anarky looked at , creating a mirroring of a person 's emotions upon Anarky 's own mask . This same effect was later reused in two issues of Red Robin . For the usurpation of the " Anarky " mantle by Ulysses Armstrong , Freddie Williams II illustrated a new costume design for Armstrong that featured several different design elements . While retaining the primary colors of gold and red , the traditional hat was replaced with a hood , and a new three @-@ piece cuirass with shoulder guards and leather belt was added . The mask was also altered from an expressionless visage to a menacing grimace . This design was later re @-@ illustrated by Marcus To in the Red Robin series , but with a new color scheme in which red was replaced with black .
= = = = Alternative media designs = = = =
In attempting to present the character as a figurative mirror to Batman , the costume worn by Anarky in Beware the Batman was radially redesigned as entirely white , in contrast to Batman 's black Batsuit . It consists of a tightly worn jumpsuit , cape , hood , flexible mask with white @-@ eye lenses , and a utility belt . Upon the chest is a small , stylized circle @-@ A in black . The design was negatively compared by reviewers to the longstanding design for Moon Knight , a Marvel Comics superhero .
The costume redesign for Anarky in Batman : Arkham Origins , while stylized , attempted to thematically highlight the character 's anarchist sentiments by updating his appearance utilizing black bloc iconography . Donning a red puffer flight jacket , hoodie and cargo pants , the character sported gold accents decorating his black belt , backpack and combat boots , and completed this with an orange bandana wrapped below his neck . His metallic mask was replaced with a white theatrical stage mask , evocative of the Guy Fawkes mask made popular among protesters by V for Vendetta and Anonymous . The jacket is itself emblazoned with a painted circle @-@ A. " He looks like a street protester in our game , " commented Eric Holmes , the creative director of the game , " and there 's no accident to that . " This design was later used as model for a DC Collectibles figure , released as part of a series based on villains featured in the game .
= = Reception = =
= = = Impact on creators = = =
In the years that followed the creation of Anarky , both Norm Breyfogle and Alan Grant experienced changes in their personal and professional lives which they attributed to that collaboration . Each man acknowledged the primary impact of the character to have been on their mutual friendship and intellectual understanding . In particular , their time developing the Anarky series led to a working relationship centered on esoteric debate , discussion , and mutual respect .
Over time , Anarky emerged as each man 's favorite character , with Grant wishing he could emulate the character , and remarking that " Anarky in Gotham City " was the most personal story he had ever written , and the foremost among his three favorite stories he had ever written for the Batman mythos . Of Breyfogle , Grant complimented that the former " draws Anarky as if he loves the character . " While Breyfogle acknowledged that Anarky was his favorite of the creations they collaborated on , he felt that his own appreciation was not as great as Grant 's , commenting that Anarky was " Alan 's baby " .
With the cancellation of the Anarky series , and the eventual departure of each artist from DC Comics β first by Grant , followed by Breyfogle β their mutual career paths split , and Anarky entered into a period of obscurity . During this period , Breyfogle came to suspect that the treatment each man , and Anarky , had received from their former employer was suspect . While acknowledging that he lacked evidence , he held a " nagging feeling " that he and Grant had each been " blacklisted " from DC Comics as a result of the controversial views expressed in the Anarky series ' second volume .
While professing that Anarky was the character for whom he was proudest , and that the character 's narratives were among his best achievements for the amount of reaction they generated among readers , the character was also a source of some regret for Grant . Reflecting on his early secret plan to transform Lonnie Machin into a new Robin , Grant has stated that though he came to appreciate the character of Tim Drake , he occasionally experiences " twinges of regret that Anarky wasn β t chosen as the new sidekick for comics ' greatest hero . " Grant has also stated that he attempted to distance himself from the direction of Anarky following his termination from DC Comics , and actively tried to avoid learning about the fate of Anarky and other characters he had come to care about . He often found himself disappointed to see how some characters were used or , as he felt , were mismanaged . Grant later joked on his disillusion in the handling of Anarky , " if you create something that 's close to your heart and you don 't own it , ' Oh woe is me ! ' " In 2011 , DC Comics initiated a special DC Retroactive series of comics , exploring different periods in the publication history of popular characters . Both Grant and Breyfogle were invited to participate , and collaborated to reproduce a story in the style of their classic Batman : Shadow of the Bat series . Grant chose to author a story featuring the Ventriloquist . However , he had been tempted to author a story featuring Anarky , only reconsidering the idea on the basis that his disassociation from the character had left him unfamiliar with what had become of Anarky 's canonical status at the time .
As Anarky was created while Grant and Breyfogle were operating under " work @-@ for @-@ hire " rules , DC Comics owns all rights to the Anarky character . Following the cancellation of the Anarky series , both men attempted to buy the rights to Anarky from the company , but their offer was declined .
= = = Readership reaction = = =
When an interviewer commented that Anarky was popular among fans in 2003 , in the midst of the character 's period of obscurity , Norm Breyfogle offered a caveat : " Well , in certain segments of the comic book industry , I suppose . " Breyfogle continued , " It has some diehard fans . But , DC doesn 't seem to want to do anything with him . Maybe it 's because of his anti @-@ authoritarian philosophy , a very touchy subject in today 's world . "
The sense that Anarky is appreciated by certain fans is one shared by Alan Grant , who noted that the character 's stories routinely generated more reader mail than any other he wrote . Commenting on the popularity of the Anarky series , Grant acknowledged the failure of the series , but pointed out that it was very popular among some readers : " It wasn 't terribly popular in the States , although I received quite a few letters ( especially from philosophy students ) saying the comic had changed their entire mindset . But Anarky was very popular in South America , where people have had a long and painful taste of totalitarianism , in a way the US is just entering . "
Sales of the Anarky limited series were high enough to green light an ongoing series , with Breyfogle commenting , " [ it ] did well enough so that DC is willing to listen to Alan β s idea for a sequel if we wanted to pitch them . " However , despite the sales , Grant was still concerned the character lacked enough support among fans to sustain an ongoing series . While the ongoing series did find an audience amongst Latin American nations β Mexico and Argentina in particular β it failed in the United States , where Alan Grant has lamented that the comic was doomed to eventual cancellation , as DC Comics " [ doesn 't ] take foreign sales into consideration when counting their cash " .
Acknowledging the failure of the ongoing Anarky series , Grant has conceeded that its themes , in particular his interest in exploring esoteric concepts such as philosophy of mind , likely resulted in " plummeting " sales . Breyfogle claimed the difficulty of combining escapist entertainment with social commentary as his explanation for the series ' failure . Breyfogle wrote at the time : " Anarky is a hybrid of the mainstream and the not @-@ quite @-@ so @-@ mainstream . This title may have experienced exactly what every ' half @-@ breed ' suffers : rejection by both groups with which it claims identity . " Besides the themes , commentators have also found the escalation of Anarky 's skills and special heroics as a source of criticism among readers . " I liked the original concept behind Anarky : a teenage geek who reads The Will to Power one too many times and decides to go out and fix the world , " wrote a critic for Fanzing , an online newsletter produced by comic book fans and professionals . " But the minute he wound up getting $ 100 million in a Swiss Bank account , owning a building , impressing Darksied [ sic ] , getting a Boom Tube and was shown as being able to outsmart Batman , outhack Oracle and generally be invincible , I lost all interest I had in the character . "
In 2014 , Comic Book Resources held an informal poll which asked readers to vote for the best characters within the Batman franchise , in celebration of the 75th anniversary of the 1939 creation of " the Caped Crusader " . Anarky was placed at No.31 among the best villains , coming nearly 25 years after the character 's own creation .
= = = Political analysis and relevance = = =
The philosophical nature of the character has invited political critiques , and resulted in comparisons drawn against the political and philosophical views of other fictional characters . Of the various positive analyses drawn from Anarky , two points which are continuously touched upon by critics are that Anarky is among the most unusual of Batman 's rogue gallery , and that his challenge to the ideologies of superheroes is his best feature .
The authors of " I 'm Not Fooled By That Cheap Disguise " , a 1991 essay deconstructing the Batman mythos , refer to Anarky as a challenge to Batman 's social and political world view , and to the political position indirectly endorsed by the themes of a Batman adventure . As the Batman mythos is centered on themes of retribution and the protection of property rights , the invitation to readers to identify with Batman 's vigilantism is an invitation to adopt political authoritarianism . The authors summarize that position as " the inviolability of property relations and the justification of their defense by any means necessary ( short of death ) . " However , the authors contend that Anarky " potentially redefines crime " and invites the reader to identify with a new political position in favor of the disenfranchised , which Batman " can not utterly condemn " . The authors contend that the creation of Anarky and dialogue by other characters represented a shift towards " self @-@ conscious awareness of the Batman 's hegemonic function , questioning the most central component of the Batman 's identity β the nature of crime and his relation to it . " However , the authors remain skeptical of Anarky 's commercial nature , pointing out Anarky could be " incorporated as another marketing technique [ ... ] The contradictions of capitalism would thus permit the commodification of criticisms as long as they resulted in profits . "
With the publication in 2005 of an issue of Green Arrow in which Anarky guest @-@ starred , writer James Peaty juxtaposed Anarky 's radical philosophy with the liberal progressive beliefs of Green Arrow : " Everyone always goes on about what a radical Ollie is and I wanted to show that maybe that isn 't the case ... especially as Ollie 's radical credentials are pretty antiquated ... Anarky as a character β and as a broader idea β is much more radical than Ollie . "
Greg Burgas , of Comic Book Resources , critiqued Anarky as " one of the more interesting characters of the past fifteen or twenty years [ ... ] because of what he wants to accomplish ... " Burgas continued , comparing the nature of Anarky as a change agent against Batman : " He is able to show how ineffective Batman is against the real problems of society , and although Batman stops his spree , we find ourselves sympathizing much more with Anarky than with the representative of the status quo . "
Anarky 's appearance in Batman : Arkham Origins included a speech delivered at the conclusion of the character 's story arch . The player is given the opportunity to observe Anarky after he has been defeated , and watch as the teenager enters a monologue in which he laments the downfall of society , tries to reconcile his admiration for Batman , and ultimately denounces the Caped Crusader as a false hero . Nick Dinicola of PopMatters , in comparing the game to its predecessor , Batman : Arkham City , asserted that the narrative of Origins consistently challenged Batman 's ideological reasons for acting as he does , whereas City uncritically took his motivations as a given . " Anarky β s wonderful speech takes Batman to task for the contradictions in his symbolism , " writes Dinicola , choosing that moment in the game as one of several examples of this theme . " Considering that Batman is very explicitly a symbol of fear , Anarky is equating the rise of Batman with the downfall of society . " Dinicola was also of the opinion that the willingness to use characters like Anarky to scrutinize Batman 's heroism , rather than simply assert it , allowed the game to ultimately prove and uphold Batman as a heroic figure in a way City could not . To Dinicola , this validated the act of challenging a superhero 's traditional interpretation in service to the story .
In Batman and Philosophy , an analysis of various philosophies which intersect with the Batman mythos , Anarky 's critique of the state is compared favorably to that of Friedrich Nietzsche : " The Nietzschean state constitutes a ' new idol , ' one that is no less repressive than its predecessors , as it defines good and evil for , and hangs a ' sword and a hundred appetites ' over , the faithful . No Batman villain sees this as clearly as Anarky ... " However , Anarky 's behavior was also interpreted as an attempt to impose an even more restrictive order , with examples presented from Batman : Anarky , in which Lonnie Machin lectures fellow juvenile detainees in " Tomorrow Belongs to Us " , explains his motivations in a self @-@ righteous farewell letter to his parents in " Anarky " , and creates a fantasy dystopia in a distorted reflection of his desired society in " Metamorphosis " : " His [ Anarky 's ] search for an organizing principle that is less repressive than the state fails . " This is sharply compared with Batman , described as moderating his impulses towards social control . Dialogue from Detective Comics is employed , in which Batman compares himself to Anarky and denies the latter legitimacy : " The fact is , no man can be allowed to set himself up as judge , jury and executioner . "
Far less favorable views of Anarky have also been offered . Newsarama contributor George Marston was especially scathing of the character 's politics and costume , placing Anarky at No.8 on a list of the " Top 10 Worst Batman villains of all time . " Deriding the character as a " living embodiment of an Avril Lavigne t @-@ shirt " , he pointed out the pointlessness of being inspired to super heroics by radical philosophy , and the contradictory nature of fighting crime as an anarchist . He concluded by referring to the unsuccessful Anarky series as proof that " bad decisions are timeless " . Similarly , Cracked contributor Henrik Magnusson listed Anarky 's debut at No.3 on a list of " 5 Disastrous Attempts at Political Commentary in Comic Books . " Magnusson 's scorn focused on Anarky 's poorly written speeches , which he derided as " pedantic " and laden with " pseudo @-@ philosophical catchphrases . " Referring to the original identity of Lonnie Machin as a " naive pre @-@ teen " , Magnusson considered this fine satire of " base @-@ level philosophy " and teen rebellion . However , the understanding that Grant had intended Anarky to be a vehicle for his personal views , and that the " Anarky in Gotham City " narrative describes Batman as sympathetic to his goals , if not his methods , upset Magnusson .
Several global events of the early 2010s included the rise of hacktivist groups such as Anonymous and LulzSec ; large scale protest movements , including the Arab Spring , Occupy movement , and Quebec student protests ; the crypto @-@ anarchist activity on the part of Defense Distributed and Cody Wilson ; and the various information leaks to WikiLeaks by Chelsea Manning , the Stratfor email leak by Anonymous and Jeremy Hammond , and the global surveillance disclosures by Edward Snowden . The rapid succession of these events led some media commentators to insist that Anarky 's relevance as a character had dramatically increased , and recommended that the character receive a higher profile in media . This sentiment led the creative team that developed Batman : Arkham Origins to include Anarky in the game . Describing Anarky 's anti @-@ government and anti @-@ corporate agenda , Holmes acknowledged the relevance of anarchism in the contemporary protest movements of the time as a factor in the choice to include the character in the game , and to update his appearance to that of a street protester with a gang resembling a social movement . Holmes stressed in one interview , " In the real world , this is Anarky 's moment . Right now . Today . " Even as early as 2005 , James Peaty recommended that Anarky should be included in more publications in the midst of the ongoing War on Terror , stating " Anarky is a terrorist ! How can that not be interesting in the modern climate ? "
= = = = Anarchist critique = = = =
Critics have commented on the character 's depiction as an anarchist since his first appearance . According to Alan Grant , anarchists with whom he associated were angered by his creation of the character , seeing it as an act of recuperation for commercial gain . Neither Grant nor Breyfogle could fully agree with this criticism . As Grant put it , " I thought I was doing them a favour you know ? "
In the years following the Anarky publications of the late 1990s , more receptive critiques have been offered . In assessing the presentation of anarchist philosophy in fiction , Mark Leier , the director for the Centre for Labour Studies from Simon Fraser University , cited Anarky as an example of the favorable treatment anarchist philosophy has occasionally received in mainstream comic books . Leier took particular note of quotations derived from the dialogue in " Anarky in Gotham City " story , in which Batman speaks positively of Anarky 's intentions . Following the cancellation of the ongoing series , Roderick T. Long , an anarchist / libertarian political commentator and Senior Scholar at the Ludwig von Mises Institute , praised Anarky as " an impressive voice for liberty in today 's comics " . Margaret Killjoy 's examination of anarchist fiction , Mythmakers & Lawbreakers , afforded Alan Grant and Anarky brief mention . Explaining the relationship Grant had with anarchism , Killjoy reviewed the characters ' early incarnations as " quite wonderful . "
Greg Burgas , in reviewing the career of Alan Grant , specifically cited Anarky 's anarchist philosophy as one of the character 's most empathetic traits . Lamenting the obscurity of the character , Burgas wished Anarky and anarchism would be presented more often : " ... anarchy as a concept is often dismissed , but it 's worth looking at simply because it is so radical and untenable yet noble . "
= = Media = =
As a lesser known character in the DC Universe , Anarky has a smaller library of associated comic books and significant story lines than more popular DC Comics characters . Between 1989 and 1996 , Anarky was primarily written by Alan Grant in Batman @-@ related comics , received a guest appearance in a single issue of Green Arrow by Kevin Dooley , and was given an entry in Who 's Who in the DC Universe .
In the late 1990s , Anarky entered a brief period of minor prominence ; first with the publication of the first Anarky volume in 1997 ; followed in 1998 with the Batman : Anarky collection ; and in 1999 , with featured appearances in both DCU Heroes Secret Files and Origins No.1 , and the second Anarky volume series . After the cancellation of the ongoing series , Anarky lapsed into obscurity lasting approximately nine years . This ambiguous condition was not complete , as Anarky was sporadically used during this time . These appearances include marginal cameos in issues of Young Justice , Wonder Woman , and Green Arrow .
Anarky made an appearance in a 2008 issue of Robin as part of an effort to return the character to regular publication , and became a recurring cast member in the Red Robin series in November 2010 , until the series was cancelled in October 2011 .
Lesser known among the cast of characters in the DC universe , Anarky went unused for adaptations to other media platforms throughout much of the character 's existence . However , in 2013 the character was chosen to recur in Beware the Batman , an animated series on Cartoon Network , voiced by Wallace Langham . Anarky debuted in the third episode , " Tests " , and appeared in seven total episodes of the series before its cancellation . Later that year , Anarky was also included in the Batman video game , Batman : Arkham Origins , voiced by Matthew Mercer , and Scribblenauts Unmasked : A DC Comics Adventure . Lonnie Machin made his live action debut in 2016 , during the fourth season of Arrow , in a villainous adaptation portrayed by Alexander Calvert .
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= Summer Hill , New South Wales =
Summer Hill is a suburb of Sydney , in the state of New South Wales , Australia . Summer Hill is located 8 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district , in the local government area of the Inner West Council .
Summer Hill is a primarily residential suburb of Sydney 's Inner West , adjoining two of Sydney 's major arterial roads , Parramatta Road and Liverpool Road . The first land grant was made in 1794 to former convict and jailor Henry Kable , and the suburb began growing following the opening of the railway station on the Main Suburban railway line in 1879 .
By the 1920s , the suburb had become relatively upper class , with large estates and mansions built throughout the suburb . Some of these still exist today . Following a transition to a working @-@ class suburb in the mid @-@ 20th century , when many of the large estates were demolished or subdivided , the suburb today has a " village " character and a mix of medium @-@ density apartment blocks and federation houses .
= = Characteristics = =
Summer Hill 's boundaries are Parramatta Road and Liverpool Road to the north , the rear of the properties on the west side of Prospect Road ( with a detour around Trinity Grammar School ) to the West , Old Canterbury Road to the south , and the Inner West Light Rail to the east . North of Summer Hill is the suburb of Haberfield , to the east is Lewisham , to the south is Dulwich Hill , and to the west is Ashfield .
Summer Hill has a mix of Federation @-@ era houses , with medium density apartment blocks near the railway station . Local independent business people run most of the shops . The local council has defined a village character for the suburb . Summer Hill is a suburb rich in heritage . More than one hundred properties are heritage listed , and the strong feelings of some residents of the suburb towards protecting the local architecture has seen the introduction of a heritage review , which is expected to add more properties to the heritage register .
Despite formerly being working class , Summer Hill and many of the surrounding suburbs have gradually undergone gentrification over recent years . Culturally , Summer Hill is a blend of medium @-@ density European Sydney suburbia , with Italian influences ( which are most evident in Leichhardt to the east and Haberfield to the north ) , Eastern influences ( which are most strongly evident in Ashfield to the West ) , and smaller influences from many other cultures .
= = History = =
= = = Aboriginal Anthropology = = =
Before the First Fleet arrived at Port Jackson in 1788 , what is now known as Summer Hill was part of a larger area where people of the Wangal and Cadigal tribes hunted , fought , and lived . There is research to show in the greater Sydney region 8000 - 10000 aborigines were resident , fluctuating on seasons and during tribal conflicts . What is now called the Hawthorne Canal ( originally Long Cove Creek ) appears to have been the boundary between the Cadigal and Wangal aboriginal group lands . Today there is a small park in Summer Hill , called Cadigal Reserve , located at 1 @-@ 4 Grosvenor Crescent . A bronze plaque placed by Ashfield Council names the reserve after the Cadigal ( Eora ) group of Koori people . Iron Cove and the mangrove @-@ lined estuaries of the Long Cove and Iron Cove Creeks would have provided a good source of fish and molluscs , the most common food of the coastal tribes in the Sydney basin .
In the early days of the colony , the land between Iron Cove and the Cook 's River was known as the Kangaroo Ground . This suggests that the land was open terrain favoured by kangaroos , that they were common in the area and may have formed a significant part of the Aboriginal diet .
= = = European settlement = = =
The first land grant in this area was for a farm in 1794 , to former convict and jailor Henry Kable . The land in the eastern corner of Summer Hill was an additional grant of 30 acres ( 12 ha ) made to Henry Kable in 1804 . This eastern corner would subsequently become part of the estate of James Underwood . Underwood died in 1844 and left a will so complicated that it required special legislation before it could be subdivided .
The earliest known use of the name " Summer Hill " was in 1876 , for a land subdivision adjacent to the present @-@ day St Andrew 's Anglican Church . The name Summer Hill is thought to be a name chosen by the land sub @-@ divider , presumably based on an attachment for England . Local historians regard the suggestion that the name is a derivation of " Sunning Hill " as a dubious story which has no substance .
Summer Hill 's largest mansion , Carleton ( now the Grosvenor Hospital 's main building ) , was built in the early 1880s on Liverpool Road for Charles Carleton Skarrat . The suburb boomed with the opening of the railway station in 1879 , and was followed by subdivision of much of the surrounding area . Between 1880 and 1910 , the area became an upper @-@ class suburb , and was a popular choice for professionals in banking and insurance who worked in the city . Subdivision of gardens for housing continued in the 1920s and 1930s , and socioeconomically the suburb changed as some of the wealthier inhabitants moved to the North Shore . Demolition of most of the surviving mansions in the 1970s allowed erection of home units , especially within walking distance of the railway station .
= = Churches and other places of worship = =
There are a number of places of worship in Summer Hill . St Patrick 's Catholic Church was built in 1874 , and is the oldest known building in the suburb . There is also a small primary school associated with the church and located next to it .
The building was originally a private home known as Kelvin Grove , and owned by Mrs Jane Drynan . Much of the exterior of the church is original but none of the internal walls were retained when the building was converted into a church . Following Drynan 's death , Kelvin Grove was owned or leased by a succession of different people , including the Haberfield real @-@ estate developer Richard Stanton , Croydon brick @-@ maker William Downton , and two sisters named Freeman ( one of whom was a nurse ) . In the 1920s and 1930s Kelvin Grove may have been used as a nursing home . The first mass was celebrated in Kelvin Grove on St Patrick 's day 1946 , giving the church its name .
St Andrew 's Anglican Church has three distinctive internal transept arches , and was designed by a Presbyterian , Alexander Leckie Elphinstone Junior . The foundation stone was laid in 1883 , and the top of the spire completed in 1906 . The fast construction period , unusual for that time , was indicative of the area 's affluence . Recent Asian influences in Summer Hill have brought about the introduction of non @-@ Christian places of worship . The Wong Tai Sin ( or Kwan Yin Kur ) temple is located on the corners of Kensington Road and Liverpool Road in a building that was a Masonic temple in the 1920s . The same building was converted into the current temple ; the lower floor houses the Taoist deity of Wong Tai Sin , and the upper floor houses the Buddhist Bodhisattva of Kwan Yin .
= = Schools = =
Trinity Grammar School in Prospect Road is a private school catering for students from PreK to Year 12 . The schools 's site has been in continuous use for education for 120 years . The headmaster 's house at Trinity was erected circa 1877 . The site operated as several different teaching institutions until it was purchased by the Anglican Church , becoming known as Trinity Grammar School in 1925 . Trinity Grammar is one of many wealthy schools in New South Wales , and has previously received some of the largest government subsidies , when comparing total government subsidies per school . An expansion plan by Trinity involving the demolition of houses in nearby Seaview Street caused controversy in 2007 . The development was nonetheless approved by the New South Wales Land and Environment Court .
Summer Hill Public School , located in Moonbie Street , is a primary school that caters for students from Kindergarten to Year 6 . It offers a selective program , known as Opportunity Classes , for Year 5 and 6 students under the New South Wales Government 's Opportunity Class program . The school was established in 1883 in a wooden shed on 2 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 m2 ) of land that had been resumed from James Bartlett . The older buildings currently used at the school date back to 1913 while more modern buildings were constructed in 1977 , 1998 and 2010 . The school , designed in the Victorian Classical style , is listed on the Register of the National Estate .
Saint Patrick 's Catholic School is a private primary school , close to Summer Hill Public School .
= = Commercial area = =
Summer Hill 's shopping precinct is centred around a small town square with good pedestrian access , and is surrounded by cafΓ©s and restaurants along Lackey and Smith Streets . The suburb is very small by Australian standards , having a population of just over 6000 , in an area of 110 hectares . It features some fine examples of architecture from the 19th and early 20th century .
The Summer Hill flour mill was built circa 1922 , utilising the north @-@ south goods railway line that was constructed during World War 1 . The silos were added from the 1950s onwards . The flour mill has been owned by various companies , including Mungo Scott , and Goodman Fielder , and then Allied Mills . In October 2007 , the mills were sold to a developer , EG Funds Management , who plans to redevelop the mill site into a residential and commercial precinct .
= = Transport = =
In the 2011 census , for people travelling to work from this suburb , 34 % travelled in a car as the driver , 34 % took the train , 5 % walked , 4 % took the bus and train and 3 % took the bus . Summer Hill is close to the main thoroughfares of Liverpool Road and Parramatta Road ; although they are quite congested at peak times .
From 1915 , Summer Hill was served by trams from Hurlstone Park . Trams left New Canterbury Road and went down Prospect Road , then swung right onto Smith Street . They turned onto Lackey Street , where they went right and terminated at the station . Low usage and rival buses saw the line closed in 1933 , however some remains can be seen .
Summer Hill railway station is located on the Airport , Inner West & South Line of the Sydney Trains network . The railway station was opened on 15 September 1879 , and most of the local shops are clustered close to the station . Travelling towards the city , the railway stops in order are Lewisham , Petersham , Stanmore , Newtown , Macdonaldtown , Redfern , Central , and Town Hall . Travelling west towards Strathfield , the stops are Ashfield , Croydon , Burwood , Strathfield and Homebush . A renovation and easy access upgrade of the railway station was completed in 2004 .
There are two stations serving Summer Hill on the Dulwich Hill Line of Sydney 's light rail network . These are - Lewisham West ( adjacent to the former flour mill on the border with Lewisham ) and Taverners Hill ( near Parramatta Road ) . Access to the city is quicker by train , but the light rail may be used for some cross @-@ regional journeys . It also interchanges with Dulwich Hill railway station on the Bankstown Line .
There are four Sydney Buses routes that service the area β the 480 and 483 follow routes along Parramatta Road and then Liverpool Road , the 461 travels along Parramatta Road and the 413 travels along Junction Road .
The area is also gradually becoming more bicycle friendly , with several bicycle paths in the suburb . A local group , " Friends of the Greenway " wish to see a bicycle and walking corridor built alongside the light rail .
= = Population = =
= = = Demographics = = =
In the 2011 census , the population of the Summer Hill was 6 @,@ 587 , in an area of 1 @.@ 1 square kilometres . The population was 52 % females , 48 % males . 42 % of the population was born overseas with China ( 6 % ) , England ( 4 % ) and New Zealand ( 3 % ) the most common . The five strongest religious affiliations in the area were in descending order : no religion ( 34 % ) , Catholic ( 25 % ) , Anglican ( 11 % ) , Buddhism ( 4 % ) and Hinduism ( 3 % ) . The majority of dwelling were flats , units or apartments ( 57 % ) followed by separate houses ( 24 % ) and semi @-@ detached , terrace houses , or townhouses ( 17 % ) .
= = = Notable residents = = =
Notable people to have been born or lived in Summer Hill include :
Normand Henry Baker ( 1908 β 1955 ) , Archibald Prize winning artist .
Dr John Belisario ( 1820 β 1900 ) , dentist at the later end of the 19th century , recorded as living in Summer Hill in the 1891 census ; first dentist in Australia to administer ether to a patient to carry out dental work .
Colonel Matron Kathleen Best ( 1910 β 1957 ) , first director of the Women 's Australian Army Corps .
David Elphinstone ( 1847 β 1916 ) , architect and builder .
Virginia Gay , All Saints actress and contestant on It Takes Two
Justice Greg James ( born 1944 ) , former judge of the Supreme Court of NSW .
Edwin Johnson ( 1835 β 1894 ) , education reformer , undersecretary to the Department of Public Instruction .
Ninian Melville Jnr ( 1843 β 1897 ) , local furniture maker and member of the NSW Parliament who also became Mayor of Newtown and later Ashfield .
John Paton ( 1833 β 1914 ) , winner of the Victoria Cross for bravery in India in 1857 ; a Summer Hill park is named after him .
Arthur Streeton ( 1867 β 1943 ) , Australian artist who briefly lived in Summer Hill .
Ian Temby QC ( born 1942 ) , first head of the New South Wales Independent Commission Against Corruption .
Rt Hon Sir Cyril Walsh ( 1909 β 1973 ) , lawyer and Justice of the High Court of Australia .
Simon Carter , member of the Australian rock band The Cops .
Emmet Burns , Irish Athlete lived here from 1988 β 90
Robert Barbour , ( 1827 β 1895 ) , Politician .
= = Politics = =
Summer Hill is in the safe Labor federal electoral division of Grayndler . This seat has been held continuously by Labor ( ALP ) since it was proclaimed in 1949 . It has been held by current member Anthony Albanese since 1996 . Anthony Albanese held various ministerial appointments under the Rudd and Gillard goverenments , eventually becoming Deputy Prime Minister . During the 2010 Federal election , Greens candidate former Marrickville Mayor Sam Byrne , received 45 % of the vote in comparison to Albanese 's 54 % . At the 2013 election , Albanese received over 70 % of the two party preferred vote , making it currently the ALP 's safest seat in the country .
For NSW state elections , Summer Hill is in the Electoral district of Summer Hill , which was created in 2015 . It is held by Jo Haylen of the Australian Labor Party .
Local political issues include :
Proposed construction of the M4 East , diverting traffic from Parramatta Road , and which construction option should be used .
Opposition to plans that would result in an increase in traffic at Sydney Airport , and thus more aircraft noise .
Concern over the proposed new supermarket building , and whether it is in keeping with the local shopping area .
The expansion of the Trinity school , including the demolition of housing and development of a new aquatic centre on Prospect Rd , and proposed increase in student numbers ,
Another community concern is the proposed high @-@ rise re @-@ development of the Mungo Scott flour mill .
= = Summer Hill Rainbow Crossing = =
On April 14 , 2013 , in response to the removal of the Rainbow Crossing in Oxford St , Darlinghurst , parents and children from several local schools chalked a rainbow in the public square at Summer Hill , as part of the DIY Rainbow Crossing movement .
On April 15 , 2013 , Ashfield Council workers removed the rainbow . After media attention , council issued a statement labelling it a slip hazard and requested a permit be obtained before it could be re @-@ chalked . The events were covered in The Daily Telegraph , The Australian , Perth Now , and on 2DAY FM .
On April 17 , 2013 , it was rechalked by more than 100 people , including local councillor , Alex Lofts . On April 18 , it was again removed , only to be re @-@ chalked . Since that date it has remained chalked . A group of families and supporters continue to chalk the rainbow , especially after rain . This group has also ensured the area remains free of litter ; they also hold occasional performances and arts @-@ related celebrations at the site . Some local businesses have offered discounts and support for the rainbow , these display a logo with a stylised image of the rainbow crossing on it .
At an Ashfield Council meeting on 28 May 2013 the council passed a motion that a permanent outline of a rainbow be painted in Summer Hill Square , with the understanding that this may be periodically ' chalked in ' by children , families and community members .
The Summer Hill Rainbow Crossing has a following on Twitter , @ SummerHillXing , and on Facebook .
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= Bill Bradley =
William Warren " Bill " Bradley ( born July 28 , 1943 ) is an American Hall of Fame basketball player , Rhodes scholar , and former three @-@ term Democratic U.S. Senator from New Jersey . He ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic Party 's nomination for President in the 2000 election .
Bradley was born and raised in Crystal City , Missouri , a suburb of St. Louis , and excelled at basketball from an early age . He was a member of the Boy Scouts , did well academically and was an all @-@ county and all @-@ state basketball player in high school . He was offered 75 college scholarships , but declined them all to attend Princeton University . He earned a gold medal as a member of the 1964 Olympic basketball team and was the NCAA Player of the Year in 1965 , when Princeton finished third in the NCAA Tournament . After graduating in 1965 , he attended Oxford on a Rhodes Scholarship , delaying a decision for two years on whether or not to play in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) .
While at Oxford , Bradley played one season of professional basketball in Europe , and eventually decided to join the New York Knicks in the 1967 β 68 season , after serving six months in the Air Force Reserve . He spent his entire ten @-@ year professional basketball career playing for the Knicks , winning two championship titles . Retiring in 1977 , he ran for a seat in the United States Senate the following year , from his adopted home state of New Jersey . He was re @-@ elected in 1984 and 1990 , left the Senate in 1997 , and was an unsuccessful candidate for the 2000 Democratic presidential nomination .
Bradley is the author of seven non @-@ fiction books , most recently We Can All Do Better , and hosts a weekly radio show , American Voices , on Sirius Satellite Radio . He is a corporate director of Starbucks and a partner at investment bank Allen & Company in New York City .
In 2008 Bradley was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
Bradley was born on July 28 , 1943 in Crystal City , Missouri , the only child of Warren ( d . 1994 ) , who despite leaving high school after a year had become a bank president , and Susan " Susie " ( nΓ©e Crowe ) Bradley ( d . 1995 ) , a teacher and former high school @-@ basketball player . Politicians and politics were standard dinner @-@ table topics in Bradley 's childhood , and he described his father as a " solid Republican " who was an elector for Thomas E. Dewey in the 1948 presidential election . An active Boy Scout , he became an Eagle Scout and member of the Order of the Arrow .
Bradley began playing basketball at the age of nine . He was a star at Crystal City High School , where he scored 3 @,@ 068 points in his scholastic career , was twice named All @-@ American , and was elected to the Missouri Association of Student Councils . He received 75 college scholarship offers , although he applied to only five schools and only scored a 485 out of 800 on the Verbal portion of the SAT , which β despite being likely in the top third of all test takers that year β normally would have caused selective schools like Princeton University to reject him .
Bradley 's basketball ability benefited from his height β 5 ' 9 " in the 7th grade , 6 ' 1 " in the 8th grade , and his adult size of 6 ' 5 " by the age of 15 β and unusually wide peripheral vision , which he worked to improve by focusing on faraway objects while walking . During his high school years , Bradley maintained a rigorous practice schedule , a habit he carried through college . He would work on the court for " three and a half hours every day after school , nine to five on Saturday , one @-@ thirty to five on Sunday , and , in the summer , about three hours a day . He put ten pounds of lead slivers in his sneakers , set up chairs as opponents and dribbled in a slalom fashion around them , and wore eyeglass frames that had a piece of cardboard taped to them so that he could not see the floor , for " a good dribbler never looks at the ball . "
= = Basketball = =
= = = College = = =
Considered the top high school player in the country , Bradley initially chose to attend Duke University in the fall of 1961 . However , after breaking his foot in the summer of 1961 during a baseball game and thinking about his college decision outside of basketball , Bradley decided to enroll at Princeton due to its record in preparing students for government or United States Foreign Service work . He had been awarded a scholarship at Duke , but not at Princeton ; the Ivy League does not allow its members to award athletic scholarships , and Bradley 's family 's wealth disqualified him from receiving financial aid .
Bradley 's childhood hero Dick Kazmaier had won the Heisman Trophy at Princeton , and he wore # 42 in his honor . In his freshman year , Bradley averaged more than 30 points per game for the freshman team , at one point making 57 consecutive free throws , breaking a record set by a member of the NBA 's Syracuse Nationals . The following year , as a sophomore , he was a varsity starter in Butch van Breda Kolff 's first year as coach of the Tigers .
In his sophomore year Bradley scored 40 points in an 82 β 81 loss to St. Joseph 's and was named to The Sporting News All @-@ American first team in early 1963 . The coach of the St. Louis Hawks believed he was ready to play professional basketball . The AP and United Press International polls both put Bradley on the second team , establishing him as the top sophomore player in the country ; Bradley also hit .316 as a first baseman for the baseball team . The following year The Sporting News again named him to its All @-@ American team as its only junior , and as its player of the year . At the Olympic basketball trials in April 1964 , Bradley played guard instead of his usual forward position but was still a top performer . He was one of three chosen unanimously for the Olympic team , the youngest chosen , and the only undergraduate . The Olympic team won its sixth consecutive gold medal .
As a senior and team captain in the 1964 β 1965 season , Bradley became a household name . Only the third tallest on his team , but called " easily the No. 1 player in college basketball today " , " the best amateur basketball player in the United States " , and " The White Oscar Robertson " , he scored 41 points in an 80 β 78 loss to Michigan and their star player Cazzie Russell in the 1964 ECAC Holiday Basketball Final at Madison Square Garden , then led Princeton to the NCAA Final Four after defeating heavy favorite Providence and Jimmy Walker by 40 points . The team then lost to Michigan in the semifinals , but Bradley scored a record 58 points in the consolation game to lead the team to victory against Wichita State and earn himself the Final Four MVP . In total , Bradley scored 2 @,@ 503 points at Princeton , averaging 30 @.@ 2 points per game . He was awarded the 1965 James E. Sullivan Award , presented annually to the United States ' top amateur athlete , the first basketball player to win the honor , and the second Princeton student to win the award , after runner Bill Bonthron in 1934 .
Bradley holds a number of Ivy League career records , including total and average points ( 1 @,@ 253 / 29 @.@ 83 , respectively ) , and free throws made and attempted ( 409 / 468 , 87 @.@ 4 % ) . Ivy League season records he holds similarly include total and average points ( 464 / 33 @.@ 14 , 1964 ) and most free throws made ( 153 in 170 attempts , 90 @.@ 0 % , 1962 β 1963 ) . He also holds the career point record at Princeton and many other school records , including the top ten slots in the category of total points scored in a game , but likely could have scored many more points if he had not insisted so often on passing the ball , in what his coaches called " Bradley 's hope passes " , to inferior teammates closer to the basket ; he only emphasized his own scoring when Princeton was behind or , as during the Wichita State game , his teammates forced Bradley to shoot by returning passes to him . Van Breda Kolff often encouraged Bradley to be more of a " one on one " player , stating that " Bill is not hungry . At least ninety percent of the time , when he gets the ball , he is looking for a pass . "
Van Breda Kolff described Bradley as " not the most physical player . Others can run faster and jump higher . The difference ... is self @-@ discipline . " At Princeton he had three to four hours of classes and four hours of basketball practice daily , studied an average of seven hours each weekday and up to 24 more hours each weekend , frequently spoke for the Fellowship of Christian Athletes around the country , and taught Sunday School at the local Presbyterian Church . When practicing he did not move from a location on the court unless he made at least ten of 13 shots , and could detect whether a basket was an inch too low from the regulation ten feet .
Improving from his mediocre freshman grades , Bradley graduated magna cum laude after writing his senior thesis about Harry S. Truman 's 1940 United States Senate campaign , titled " On That Record I Stand " , and received a Rhodes Scholarship at Worcester College , University of Oxford . His tenure at Princeton was the subject of Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning author John McPhee 's January 23 , 1965 article " A Sense of Where You Are " in The New Yorker , which McPhee expanded into a book of the same name . The title came from Bradley 's explanation for his ability to repeatedly throw a basketball over his shoulder and into the basket while looking away from it .
= = = Professional = = =
Bradley 's graduation year , 1965 , was the last year that the NBA 's territorial rule was in effect , which gave professional teams first rights to draft players who attended college within 50 miles of the team . The New York Knicks β one mile closer to Princeton than the Philadelphia 76ers β drafted Bradley as a territorial pick in the 1965 draft , but he did not sign a contract with the team immediately . While studying Politics , Philosophy , and Economics at Oxford , he commuted to Italy to play professional basketball in the Lega Basket Serie A for Olimpia Milano during the 1965 β 66 season , where the team won a European Champions Cup .
Bradley dropped out of Oxford two months prior to graduation in April 1967 , to go into the Air Force Reserves . After serving six months active duty as an officer ( the requirement was four years active duty ) , he joined the New York Knicks in December 1967 . The following year Oxford let Bradley take " special exams " and he graduated Oxford in 1968 . ( On March 6 , 1967 , Lyndon B. Johnson in a Special Message to the Congress on Selective Service , declared that he would be issuing an Executive Order that no deferments for post @-@ graduate study be granted in the future , except for those men pursuing medical and dental courses . )
In Bradley 's rookie season , he joined the team late , having also missed the entire preseason . He was placed in the back court , although he had spent his high school and college careers as a forward . Both he and the team did not do well , and in the following season , he was returned to the forward slot . Then , in his third season , the Knicks won their first @-@ ever NBA championship , followed by the second in the 1972 β 73 season , when he made the only All @-@ Star Game appearance of his career . Over 742 NBA games β all with the Knicks β Bradley scored a total of 9 @,@ 217 points , an average of 12 @.@ 4 points per game , with his best season average being 16 @.@ 1 points per game in the 1972 β 73 season . Bradley also averaged 3 @.@ 4 assists per game .
During his NBA career , Bradley used his fame on the court to explore social as well as political issues , meeting with journalists , government officials , academics , businesspeople , and social activists . He also worked as an assistant to the director of the Office of Economic Opportunity in Washington , D.C. , and as a teacher in the street academies of Harlem . In 1976 , he also became an author by publishing Life on the Run . Using a 20 @-@ day stretch of time during one season as the main focus of the book , he chronicled his experiences in the NBA and the people he met along the way . He noted in the book that he had initially signed only a four @-@ year contract , and that he was uncomfortable using his celebrity status to earn extra money endorsing products as other players did .
Retiring from basketball in 1977 , he was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1983 , along with teammate Dave DeBusschere . In 1984 , the Knicks retired his number 24 jersey ; he was the fourth player so honored by the Knicks , after Willis Reed , Walt Frazier , and DeBusschere . He is one of only two players , along with Manu GinΓ³bili , to have won a Euroleague title , an NBA championship , and an Olympic gold medal .
= = Politics = =
Politics was a frequent subject of discussion in the Bradley household , and some of his relatives held local and county political offices . He majored in history at Princeton , and was present in the Senate chamber when the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed . Van Breda Kolff and many others who knew him predicted that Bradley would be Governor of Missouri , or President , by 40 . He spent his time at Oxford focusing on European political and economic history . In 1978 , he said that congressman Mo Udall , himself a former professional basketball player , had told him ten years earlier that professional sports could help prepare him for politics , depending on what he did with his non @-@ playing time .
= = = U.S. Senate = = =
After four years of political campaigning for Democratic candidates around New Jersey , Bradley decided in the summer of 1977 to run for the Senate himself , coinciding with his retirement from the Knicks . He felt his time had been well @-@ spent in " paying his dues " . The seat was held by liberal Republican and four @-@ term incumbent Clifford P. Case . Case lost the primary election to anti @-@ tax conservative Jeffrey Bell , who , like Bradley , was 34 years old as the campaign season began . Bradley won the seat in the general election with about 56 percent of the vote . During the campaign , Yale football player John Spagnola was Bradley 's bodyguard and driver .
In the Senate , Bradley acquired a reputation for being somewhat aloof and was thought of as a " policy wonk " , specializing in complex reform initiatives . Among these was the 1986 overhaul of the federal tax code , co @-@ sponsored with Dick Gephardt , which reduced the tax rate schedule to just two brackets , 15 percent and 28 percent , and eliminated many kinds of deductions . Domestic policy initiatives that Bradley led or was associated with included reform of child support enforcement ; legislation concerning lead @-@ related children 's health problems ; the Earned Income Tax Credit ; campaign finance reform ; a re @-@ apportioning of California water rights ; and federal budget reform to reduce the deficit , which included , in 1981 , supporting Reagan 's spending cuts but opposing his parallel tax cut package , one of only three senators to take this position . He sponsored the Freedom Support Act , an exchange program between the republics of the former Soviet Union and the United States .
Bradley was re @-@ elected in 1984 with 65 percent of the vote against Montclair mayor Mary V. Mochary . In 1988 , he was encouraged to seek the Democratic nomination for President , but he declined to enter the race , saying that he would know when he was ready . In 1990 , a controversy over a state income tax increase β on which he refused to take a position β and his proposal on merit pay for teachers , which led the NJEA to support his opponent , turned his once @-@ obscure rival for the Senate , Christine Todd Whitman , into a viable candidate , and Bradley won by only a slim margin . In 1995 , he announced he would not run for re @-@ election , publicly declaring American politics " broken . "
While he was a senator , Bradley walked the beaches from Cape May to Sandy Hook , a four @-@ day , 127 @-@ mile trip each Labor Day weekend , to assess beach and ocean conditions and talk with constituents . Bradley was criticized for neglecting constituent services while in office .
= = = Presidential candidate = = =
Bradley ran in the 2000 presidential primaries , opposing incumbent Vice President Al Gore for his party 's nomination . Bradley campaigned as the liberal alternative to Gore , taking positions to the left of Gore on a number of issues , including universal health care , gun control , and campaign finance reform . On the issue of taxes , Bradley trumpeted his sponsorship of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 , which had significantly cut tax rates while abolishing dozens of loopholes . He voiced his belief that the best possible tax code would be one with low rates and no loopholes , but he refused to rule out the idea of raising taxes to pay for his health care program , calling the idea of such a pledge " dishonest " .
On public education , he proposed to make over $ 2 billion in block grants available to each state every year . He further promised to bring 60 @,@ 000 new teachers into the education system in hard @-@ to @-@ staff areas over ten years by offering college scholarships to anyone who agreed to become a teacher after graduating ; Gore offered a similar proposal .
Bradley also made child poverty a significant issue in his campaign . He promised to address the minimum wage , expand the Earned Income Tax Credit , allow single parents on welfare to keep their child support payments , make the Dependent Care Tax Credit refundable , build support homes for pregnant teenagers , enroll 400 @,@ 000 more children in Head Start , and increase the availability of food stamps .
Although Gore was considered the party favorite , Bradley received a number of high @-@ profile endorsements , including senators Paul Wellstone , Bob Kerrey , and Daniel Patrick Moynihan ; former Secretary of Labor Robert Reich ; former New York City mayor Ed Koch ; former Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker ; and basketball stars Michael Jordan and Phil Jackson . Bradley and Jackson have been close friends since they were teammates playing for the New York Knicks . Jackson was a vocal supporter of Bradley 's run for the presidency and often wore his campaign button in public . He announced his acceptance of the position of head coach of the Los Angeles Lakers while Bradley was campaigning in California in 1999 , and he was a " regular draw on the Bradley money trail " during the campaign . Bradley later called it a " great honor " to be the presenter when Jackson was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2007 .
In March 2000 , after failing to win any of the first 20 primaries and caucuses in the election process , Bradley withdrew his campaign and endorsed Gore ; he ruled out the idea of running as the vice @-@ presidential candidate and did not answer questions about possible future runs for the presidency . He said that he would continue to speak out regarding his brand of politics , calling for campaign finance reform , gun control , and increased health care insurance .
= = After politics = =
Later in 2000 , Bradley was offered the chairmanship of the United States Olympic Committee , which he turned down . In September 2002 , Bradley turned down a request from New Jersey Democrats to replace Robert Torricelli on the ballot for his old Senate seat , which another former senator , Frank Lautenberg , accepted . Oxford University awarded Bradley an honorary Doctor of Civil Law ( DCL ) in 2003 , with a citation that described him in part as " ... an outstandingly distinguished athlete , a weighty pillar of the Senate , and still a powerful advocate of the weak ... " . In 2007 Bradley was awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award . This award is given in recognition of community service more than 25 years after a scout first earns the Eagle badge .
In January 2004 , Bradley and Gore both endorsed Howard Dean for President in the 2004 Democratic primaries . In January 2008 , Bradley announced that he was supporting Barack Obama in the 2008 Democratic primary . He campaigned for Obama and appeared on political news shows as a surrogate . Bradley 's name was mentioned as a possible replacement for Tom Daschle as nominee for Secretary of Health and Human Services in the Obama administration after Daschle withdrew from consideration ; the position went to Kansas governor Kathleen Sebelius . He has occasionally been involved in political matters , most recently consulting the Senate Finance Committee on tax reform along with former colleague Bob Packwood
He has worked as a corporate consultant and investment banker . He has been a managing director of Allen & Company LLC , since 2001 , was chief outside advisor to McKinsey & Company 's nonprofit division , the McKinsey Global Institute , from 2001 to 2004 , and is a member of the board of directors of QuinStreet and Starbucks and the private company Raydiance . Bradley is a senior advisor to the private equity firm Catterton Partners . Bill Bradley is also a board member of DonorsChoose.org , an online charity that connects individuals to classrooms in need . He is also the Chair of the Advisory Council for Acumen Fund , a non @-@ profit global venture fund that uses entrepreneurial approaches to solve the problems of global poverty . Bradley is also a Co @-@ Chair for the Advisory Board of Issue One , a non @-@ profit whose goal is to reduce the influence of money in American politics .
= = Personal life = =
Bradley married Ernestine ( nΓ©e Misslbeck ) Schlant , a German @-@ born professor of comparative literature , in 1974 . She has a daughter , Stephanie , from a previous marriage , and they have one daughter , Theresa Anne . Bradley and Schlant divorced in 2007 , and he lives with former LBJ Library director Betty Sue Flowers .
= = Published works = =
Bradley , Bill We Can All Do Better ( Vanguard Press , May 8 , 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1593157296
Bradley , Bill The New American Story ( Random House , 2007 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1400065073
Bradley , Bill The Journey from Here ( Artisan , 2000 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 579651658
Bradley , Bill Values of the Game ( Artisan , 1998 ) ISBN 1 @-@ 57965116X
Bradley , Bill Time Present , Time Past : A Memoir ( Alfred A. Knopf , 1996 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0679444886
Bradley , Bill Life on the Run ( Bantam Books , 1977 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 553110551
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= Al @-@ Mu 'tasim =
AbΕ« IsαΈ₯Δq MuαΈ₯ammad ibn HΔrΕ«n al @-@ RashΔ«d ( Arabic : Ψ£Ψ¨Ω Ψ₯Ψ³ΨΨ§Ω Ω
ΨΩ
Ψ― Ψ¨Ω ΩΨ§Ψ±ΩΩ Ψ§ΩΨ±Ψ΄ΩΨ― ; October 796 β 5 January 842 ) , better known by his regnal name al @-@ MuΚΏtaαΉ£im bi β llΔh ( Ψ§ΩΩ
ΨΉΨͺΨ΅Ω
Ψ¨Ψ§ΩΩΩ , " he who seeks refuge in God " ) , was the eighth Abbasid caliph , ruling from 833 to his death in 842 . A son of Harun al @-@ Rashid , he succeeded his half @-@ brother al @-@ Ma 'mun , under whom he had served as a military commander and governor . His reign was marked by the introduction of the Turkish slave @-@ soldiers ( ghilmΔn or mamΔlΔ«k ) and the establishment for them of a new capital at Samarra . This was a watershed in the Caliphate 's history , as the Turks would soon come to dominate the Abbasid government , eclipsing the Arab and Iranian elites that had played a major role in the early period of the Abbasid state . Domestically , al @-@ Mu 'tasim continued al @-@ Ma 'mun 's support of Mu 'tazilism and its inquisition ( miαΈ₯na ) , and centralised administration , reducing the power of provincial governors in favour of a small group of senior civil and military officials in Samarra . Al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's reign was also marked by continuous warfare , both against internal rebellions like the Khurramite revolt of Babak Khorramdin or the uprising of Mazyar of Tabaristan , but also against the Byzantine Empire , where the Caliph personally led the celebrated Sack of Amorium , which secured his reputation as a warrior @-@ caliph .
= = Early life = =
The future al @-@ Mu 'tasim was born to the Caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid ( ruled 786 β 809 ) and Marida , a Turkic slave concubine . He was born in the Khuld ( " Eternity " ) Palace in Baghdad , but the date is unclear : according to al @-@ Tabari , his birth was placed by various authorities either in October 796 ( Sha 'ban AH 180 ) , or earlier , in AH 179 ( i.e. spring 796 or earlier ) . Al @-@ Tabari describes the adult al @-@ Mu 'tasim as " fair @-@ complexioned , with a black beard the hair tips of which were red and the end of which was square and streaked with red , and with handsome eyes " , while other authors stress his physical strength and the fact that he was almost illiterate .
As one of Harun 's younger sons , he was initially of little consequence . During the civil war between his elder half @-@ brothers al @-@ Amin ( r . 809 β 813 ) and al @-@ Ma 'mun ( r . 813 β 833 ) he remained in Baghdad , and , like most members of the Abbasid dynasty and the Abbasid aristocracy ( abnΔΚΎ al @-@ dawla ) , supported the anti @-@ caliph Ibrahim ibn al @-@ Mahdi in 817 β 819 . Al @-@ Tabari records that Abu Ishaq led the pilgrimage in 816 , accompanied by many troops and officials , among whom was Hamdaway ibn Ali ibn Isa ibn Maham , who had just been appointed to the governorship of the Yemen and was on his way there . During his stay in Mecca , his troops defeated and captured a pro @-@ Alid leader who had raided the pilgrim caravans . He also led the pilgrimage in the next year , but no details are known .
From ca . 814 / 5 , Abu Ishaq began forming his corps of Turkish troops . The first members of the corps were domestic slaves he bought in Baghdad ( the distinguished general Itakh was originally a cook ) whom he trained in the art of war , but they were soon complemented by Turkish slaves sent directly from Central Asia after an agreement with the local Samanid rulers . This private force was small β it probably numbered between three and four thousand at the time of his accession β but it was highly trained and disciplined , and made Abu Ishaq a man of power in his own right , as al @-@ Ma 'mun increasingly turned to him for assistance . Abu Ishaq 's Turkish corps was also politically useful to al @-@ Ma 'mun , who aimed to lessen his own dependence on the mostly eastern Iranian leaders who had supported him in the civil war , and who now occupied the senior positions in the new regime . In an effort to counterbalance their influence , al @-@ Ma 'mun granted formal recognition to his brother and his Turkish corps , as well as placing the Arab tribal levies of the Mashriq in the hands of his own son , al @-@ Abbas .
The nature and identity of al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's " Turkish slave soldiers " is a controversial subject , with both the ethnic label and the slave status of its members disputed . Although the bulk of the corps were clearly of servile origin , being either captured in war or purchased as slaves , in the sources they are never referred to as slaves ( mamlΕ«k or ΚΏabid ) , but rather as mawΔlΔ« ( " clients " or " freedmen " ) or ghilmΔn ( " pages " ) , implying that they were manumitted , a view reinforced by the fact that they were paid cash salaries . In addition , although the corps are collectively called simply " Turks " , atrΔk , in the sources , prominent early members were neither Turks nor slaves , but rather Iranian vassal princes from Central Asia like al @-@ Afshin , prince of Usrushana , who were followed by their personal retinues ( Persian chakar , Arabic shΔkiriyya ) .
Al @-@ Tabari mentions that in 819 Abu Ishaq commanded a force sent against some Kharijite rebels . During this campaign , one of the Turkish ghilmΔn placed himself between a Kharijite lancer and the future caliph , shouting , " Recognize me ! " ( in Persian " ashinas ma @-@ ra " ) . To express his appreciation , Abu Ishaq on that same day granted this man the name Ashinas . In 828 , al @-@ Ma 'mun appointed Abu Ishaq as governor of Egypt and Syria in place of Abdallah ibn Tahir , who departed to assume the governorship of Khurasan , while the Jazira and the frontier zone ( thughΕ«r ) with the Byzantine Empire passed to al @-@ Abbas . Egypt had just been brought back under caliphal authority and pacified after the tumults of the civil war with Ibn Tahir , but the situation remained volatile . When Abu Ishaq 's governor , Umayr ibn al @-@ Walid , tried to raise taxes , the Nile Delta and Hawf regions rose in revolt . In 830 , Umayr tried to forcibly subdue the rebels , but was ambushed and killed along with many of his troops . With the government troops now confined to the capital Fustat , Abu Ishaq intervened in person , at the head of his 4 @,@ 000 Turks . The rebels were soundly defeated and their leaders executed . In 831 , however , soon after his departure , the revolt flared up again , this time encompassing both the Arab settlers and the native Christian Copts under the leadership of Ibn Ubaydus , a descendant of one of the original Arab conquerors of the country . The rebels were confronted by the Turks , led by Afshin , who engaged in a systematic campaign , winning a string of victories and engaging in large @-@ scale executions . Thus the male Copts were executed , and their women and children sold into slavery , while the old Arab elites who had ruled the country since the Muslim conquest of Egypt were practically annihilated . In early 832 , al @-@ Ma 'mun visited the province , and soon after that the last bastion of resistance , the Copts of the coastal marshes , were subdued .
In July β September 830 , al @-@ Ma 'mun , encouraged by perceived Byzantine weakness and suspicious of collusion between Emperor Theophilos and the Khurramite rebels of Babak Khorramdin , launched the first large @-@ scale invasion of Byzantine territory since the start of the Abbasid civil war , and sacked a number of Byzantine border fortresses . Following his return from Egypt , Abu Ishaq joined al @-@ Ma 'mun in his 831 campaign against the Byzantines . After rebuffing Theophilos ' offers of peace , the Abbasid army crossed the Cilician Gates and divided into three columns , with the Caliph , his son Abbas , and Abu Ishaq at their head . The Abbasids seized and destroyed several minor forts and the town of Tyana , while Abbas even won a minor skirmish against Theophilos in person , before withdrawing to Syria in September . In 832 al @-@ Ma 'mun repeated his invasion of the Byzantine borderlands , capturing the strategically important fortress of Loulon , a success that consolidated Abbasid control of both exits of the Cilician Gates . So encouraged was al @-@ Ma 'mun by this victory that he repeatedly rejected Theophilos ' ever more generous offers for peace , and publicly announced that he intended to capture Constantinople itself . Consequently Abbas was dispatched in May to convert the deserted town of Tyana into a military colony and prepare the ground for the westwards advance. al @-@ Ma 'mun followed in July , but he suddenly fell ill and died on 7 August 833 .
= = Caliphate = =
On his deathbed , al @-@ Ma 'mun dictated a letter nominating his brother , rather than his son al @-@ Abbas , as his successor . This appointment owed much to Abu Ishaq 's strong personality and leadership skills , but also because he was the only Abbasid prince to control independent military power in the form of his Turkish corps , on which al @-@ Ma 'mun had come to increasingly depend . Consequently , Abu Ishaq was acclaimed as Caliph on 9 August , with the name of al @-@ Mu 'tasim . His position was far from secure , however , as a large part of the army favoured al @-@ Ma 'mun 's son Abbas , and even tried to proclaim him as the new Caliph . Consequently al @-@ Mu 'tasim called off the expedition , abandoned the Tyana project and returned with his army to Baghdad , which he reached on 20 September .
= = = New elites and administration = = =
The rise of al @-@ Mu 'tasim to the caliphate was a watershed moment in the history of the Abbasid state , heralding a radical change in the nature of its administration . Unlike his brother , who tried to use the Arabs and Turks to balance out the Iranian troops , al @-@ Mu 'tasim relied almost exclusively on his Turks , and established " a new regime that was militaristic and centred on the Turkish corps " ( Tayeb El @-@ Hibri ) . This was a decision with long @-@ lasting repercussions in Islamic history . Not only did the military acquire a predominant position , but it also increasingly became the preserve of minority groups from the peoples living on the margins of the Islamic world . Thus it formed an exclusive ruling caste , separated from the Arab @-@ Iranian mainstream of society by ethnic origin , language , and sometimes even religion . This dichotomy would become a " distinctive feature " ( Hugh N. Kennedy ) of many Islamic polities , and would culminate in the Mamluk dynasties that ruled Egypt and Syria in the late Middle Ages .
Although the new professional army proved militarily highly effective , it also posed a potential danger to the stability of the Abbasid regime : the army 's separation from mainstream society meant that the soldiers were entirely reliant on their cash salary ( ΚΏaαΉΔΚΎ ) for their very survival . Consequently , any failure to provide their pay or policies that threatened their position were likely to cause a violent reaction , as became evident a generation later during the " Anarchy at Samarra " . The need to cover military spending would henceforth be a fixture of caliphal government , and that at a time when government income began to decline rapidly β partly through the rise of autonomous dynasties in the provinces and partly through the decline in productivity of the lowlands of Iraq that had traditionally provided the bulk of tax revenue . Eventually , this would lead to the bankruptcy of the Abbasid government and the eclipse of the caliphs ' political power with Ibn Ra 'iq 's rise to the position of amΔ«r al @-@ umarΔΚΎ in 935 .
Al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's accession thus signalled the decline of the previous Arab and Iranian elites , both in Baghdad and the provinces , and an increasing centralisation of administration around the caliphal court . A characteristic example is that of Egypt , where the Arab settler families , who still nominally formed the country 's army ( jund ) and continued to receive a salary from the local revenues . Al @-@ Mu 'tasim discontinued the practice , removing the Arab families from the army registers ( diwΔn ) and ordering that the revenues of Egypt be sent to the central government , which would then pay the ΚΏaαΉΔΚΎ only to the Turkish troops stationed in the province .
Al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's reliance on his ghilmΔn would increase in the aftermath of an abortive plot against him during the Amorium campaign in 838 . Headed by ' Ujayf ibn ' Anbasa , a long @-@ serving Khurasani who had served al @-@ Ma 'mun since the civil war against al @-@ Amin , the conspiracy rallied the traditional Abbasid elites , dissatisfied with al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's policies and especially his favouritism towards to the Turks . The plotters aimed to kill the Caliph and raise al @-@ Ma 'mun 's son al @-@ Abbas in his stead . According to al @-@ Tabari , al @-@ Abbas , although privy to these designs , rejected Ujayf 's urgent suggestions to kill al @-@ Mu 'tasim during the initial stages of the campaign , and the plot was soon uncovered . Al @-@ Abbas was imprisoned , and the Turkish leaders Ashinas , Itakh , and Bugha the Elder undertook to uncover and arrest the other conspirators . The affair was the signal for a large @-@ scale purge of the army of the remaining senior Iranian and abnΔΚΎ officials and commanders β according to the Kitab al- ' Uyun , some seventy commanders were executed β while the influence of the Turkish leaders , who remained conspicuously loyal to al @-@ Mu 'tasim throughout the affair , correspondingly increased . The one exception to this purge of the Iranian element were the Tahirids , who remained in place as governors of their Khurasani super @-@ province , encompassing most of the eastern Caliphate . In addition , the Tahirids provided the governor of Baghdad , a focus of opposition to the Caliph under al @-@ Ma 'mun , which helped keep the city quiescent . The post was held throughout al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's reign by Ishaq ibn Ibrahim ibn Mus 'ab , who was " always one of al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's closest advisers and confidants " ( C. E. Bosworth ) .
Another departure from previous practice was al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's appointment of his senior lieutenants , such as Ashinas or Itakh , as nominal super @-@ governors over several provinces . This measure probably intended to allow his chief followers immediate access to funds with which to pay their troops , but also , according to Hugh Kennedy , " represented a further centralizing of power , for the under @-@ governors of the provinces seldom appeared at court and played little part in the making of political decisions " . Indeed , al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's caliphate marks the apogee of the central government 's authority , in particular as expressed in its right and power to extract taxes from the provinces , an issue that had been controversial and had faced much local opposition since the early days of the Islamic state .
Apart from the Turkish military and the Tahirids , al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's administration depended on the central fiscal bureaucracy . As the main source of revenue were the rich lands of southern Iraq ( the Sawad ) and neighbouring areas , the administration was staffed mostly with men drawn from these regions . The new caliphal bureaucratic class that emerged under al @-@ Mu 'tasim were thus mostly Persian or Aramean in origin , with a large proportion of newly converted Muslims and even a few Nestorian Christians , who came from landowner or merchant families . From his accession until 836 , al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's chief minister or vizier was his old personal secretary al @-@ Fadl ibn Marwan , distinguished for his caution and frugality . His replacement , Muhammad ibn al @-@ Zayyat , was of a completely different character : a rich merchant , he is described by Hugh Kennedy as " a competent financial expert but a callous and brutal man who made many enemies " , even among his fellow members of the administration . Nevertheless , and even though his political authority never exceeded the fiscal domain , he managed to maintain his office throughout the reign , and under al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's successor al @-@ Wathiq ( ruled 842 β 847 ) as well .
= = = Foundation of Samarra = = =
The Turkish army was at first quartered in Baghdad , but quickly came into conflict with the remnants of the old Abbasid establishment in the city ( the abnΔΚΎ ) and the city 's populace , who resented their loss of influence to the foreign troops . This was a major factor in al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's decision in 836 to found a new capital at Samarra , some 80 miles ( 130 km ) north of Baghdad , but there were other considerations at play as well . Founding a new capital was a public statement of the establishment of a new regime , while allowing the court to be " at a distance from the populace of Baghdad and protected by a new guard of foreign troops , and amid a new royal culture revolving around sprawling palatial grounds , public spectacle and a seemingly ceaseless quest for leisurely indulgence " ( Tayeb El @-@ Hibri ) , an arrangement compared by Oleg Grabar to the relationship between Paris and Versailles after Louis XIV . In addition , by creating a new city in a previously uninhabited area , al @-@ Mu 'tasim could reward his followers with land and commercial opportunities without cost to himself and free from any constraints , unlike Baghdad with its established interest groups . In fact , the sale of land seems to have produced considerable profit for the treasury β in the words of Hugh Kennedy , " a sort of gigantic property speculation in which both government and its followers could expect to benefit " .
Space and life in the new capital were strictly regimented : residential areas were separated from the markets , and the military was given its own cantonments , separated from the ordinary populace and each the home of a specific ethnic contingent of the army ( e.g. the Turks , Faraghina , Maghariba and Shakiriyya regiments ) . The city was dominated by its mosques ( most famous among which is the Great Mosque of Samarra built by Caliph al @-@ Mutawakkil ) and palaces , built in grand style by both the caliphs and their senior commanders , who were given extensive properties on the site . Unlike Baghdad , however , the new capital was an entirely artificial creation . Poorly sited in terms of water supply and river communications , its existence was determined solely by the presence of the caliphal court , and when the capital returned to Baghdad , sixty years later , Samarra rapidly declined .
= = = Mu 'tazilism and the miαΈ₯na = = =
Ideologically , al @-@ Mu 'tasim followed the footsteps of al @-@ Ma 'mun , continuing his predecessor 's support for Mu 'tazilism , a theological doctrine that attempted to tread a middle way between secular monarchy and the theocratic nature of rulership espoused by the Alids and the various sects of Shi 'ism . Mu 'tazilis espoused the view that the Quran was created and hence fell within the authority of a God @-@ guided imΔm to interpret according to the changing circumstances . While revering Ali , they also avoided taking a position on the righteousness of the opposing sides in the conflict between Ali and his opponents . Mu 'tazilism was officially adopted by al @-@ Ma 'mun in 827 , and in 833 , shortly before his death , al @-@ Ma 'mun made its doctrines compulsory , with the establishment of an inquisition , the miαΈ₯na . Al @-@ Mu 'tasim played an active role in the enforcement of the miαΈ₯na in the western provinces , and continued on the same course after his accession : the chief advocate of Mu 'tazilism , the head qΔdΔ« Ahmad ibn Abi Duwad , was perhaps the dominant influence at the caliphal court throughout al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's reign .
Thus Mu 'tazilism became closely identified with the new regime of al @-@ Mu 'tasim , and adherence to Mu 'tazilism was transformed into an intensely political issue : to question it was to oppose the authority of the Caliph as the God @-@ sanctioned imΔm . While Mu 'tazilism found broad support , it was also passionately opposed by traditionalists , who held that the Quran 's authority was absolute and unalterable as the word of God , as well as providing a vehicle for criticism by those who disliked the new regime and its elites . In the event , the active repression of the traditionalists was without success , and even proved counterproductive : the beating and imprisonment of one of the most resolute opponents of Mu 'tazilism , Ahmad ibn Hanbal , in 834 , only helped to spread his fame , and by the time Caliph al @-@ Mutawakkil abandoned Mu 'tazilism and returned to traditional orthodoxy in 848 , the strict and conservative Hanbali school had emerged as the leading school of jurisprudence ( fiqh ) in Sunni Islam .
Al @-@ Mu 'tasim continued the patronage of scientists and translators , and Baghdad remained a major centre of learning throughout his reign . Among the notable scholars active during his reign were the astronomers Habash al @-@ Hasib al @-@ Marwazi and Ahmad al @-@ Farghani , the polymath al @-@ Jahiz , and the distinguished Arab mathematician and philosopher al @-@ Kindi , who dedicated his work On First Philosophy to his patron al @-@ Mu 'tasim .
= = = Campaigns = = =
Although al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's reign was a time of peace in the Caliphate 's heartland territories , al @-@ Mu 'tasim himself was an energetic campaigner , and " acquired the reputation of being one of the warrior @-@ caliphs of Islam " . With the exception of the Amorium campaign , most of the military expeditions of al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's reign were domestic , directed against rebels and areas that , although nominally part of the Caliphate , had remained outside effective Muslim rule and where native peoples and princes retained de facto autonomy .
= = = = Domestic campaigns = = = =
An Alid revolt led by Muhammad ibn Qasim broke out in Khurasan in early 834 , but was swiftly defeated and Muhammad brought as a prisoner to the Caliph 's court . He managed to escape during the night of 8 / 9 October 834 , taking advantage of the Eid al @-@ Fitr festivities , and was never heard of again . In June / July of the same year , ' Ujayf ibn ' Anbasa was sent to subdue the Zutt . These were people brought from India by the Sassanid emperors and settled in the Mesopotamian Marshes . The Zutt had rebelled against caliphal authority since ca . 820 , and had been regularly raiding the environs of Basra and Wasit since that time . ' Ujayf was successful in encircling the Zutt and forcing them to surrender after a seven @-@ month campaign , making a triumphal entry into Baghdad in January 835 with his numerous captives . Many of the Zutt were then sent to Ayn Zarba on the Byzantine frontier , where they fell fighting against the Byzantines .
The first major campaign of the new reign was directed against the Khurramites in Azerbaijan and Arran . The Khurramite revolt had been going on since 816 / 7 , aided by the inaccessible mountains of the province and the absence of large Arab Muslim population centres , except for a few cities in the lowlands . Al @-@ Ma 'mun had left the local Muslims largely to their own devices , although a succession of military commanders tried to subdue the rebellion on their own initiative , and thus gain control of the country 's newly discovered mineral resources , only to be defeated by the Khurramites under the capable leadership of Babak . Immediately after his accession , al @-@ Mu 'tasim sent the αΉ£ΔαΈ₯ib al @-@ shurαΉa of Baghdad and Samarra , Ishaq ibn Ibrahim ibn Mus 'ab , to deal with an expansion of the Khurramite rebellion from Jibal into Hamadan . Ishaq achieved success swiftly , and by December 833 had suppressed the rebellion , forcing many Khurramites to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire . It was only in 835 that al @-@ Mu 'tasim took action against Babak when he assigned his trusted and capable lieutenant , Afshin , to command the campaign against him . After three years of cautious and methodical campaigning , Afshin was able to capture Babak at his capital of Budhdh on 26 August 837 , extinguishing the rebellion . Babak was brought in triumph to Samarra , where he was executed .
The second major domestic campaign was against another autonomous ruler , Mazyar of the Qarinid dynasty in Tabaristan . Tabaristan had been subdued in 760 , but Muslim presence was limited to the coastal lowlands of the Caspian Sea and their cities , while the mountainous areas remained under native rulers β chief among whom were the Bavandids in the eastern and the Qarinids in the central and western mountain ranges β who retained their autonomy in exchange for paying a tribute to the Caliphate . With the support of al @-@ Ma 'mun , Mazyar had established himself as the de facto ruler of all Tabaristan , even capturing the Muslim city of Amul and imprisoning the local Abbasid governor . Al @-@ Mu 'tasim confirmed him in his post on his accession , but trouble soon began when Mazyar refused to accept his subordination to the Tahirid viceroy of the east , Abdallah ibn Tahir , instead insisting on paying the taxes of his region directly to al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's agent . Tension mounted as the Tahirids encouraged the local Muslims to resist Mazyar , forcing the latter to adopt an increasingly confrontational stance against the Muslim settlers and turn for support on the native Iranian , and mostly Zoroastrian , peasantry , whom he encouraged to attack the Muslim landowners . Open conflict erupted in 838 , when his troops seized the cities of Amul and Sari , took the Muslim settlers prisoner , and executed many of them . The Tahirids in return invaded Tabaristan and in 839 captured Mazyar , who was betrayed by his brother Quhyar . Quhyar then succeeded his brother as a Tahirid appointee , while Mazyar was taken to Samarra , where he was flogged to death the next year . While the autonomy of the local dynasties was maintained in the aftermath of the revolt , the event marked the onset of the country 's rapid Islamization , including among the native dynasties .
Mazyar 's rebellion had important repercussions in Samarra . The Qarinid 's intransigence had been secretly encouraged by Afshin , who hoped to discredit the Tahirids and assume their vast governorship in the east himself , but after the defeat of Mazyar , their correspondence was discovered . Already an exception among the Samarran elite due to his Iranian princely origins , and possibly suspect in the Caliph 's eyes due to the independent military following he commanded , this discovery served to discredit Afshin and provided the pretext for a show trial , where he was accused , among other things , of being a false Muslim , and of being accorded divine status by his subjects in his native Ushrusana . Afshin was found guilty and thrown into prison , where he was starved to death in 841 . Once more , the affair enhanced the standing of the Turkish leadership , who now received Afshin 's revenue and possessions . At about the same time , Minkajur al @-@ Ushrusani , whom Afshin had appointed as governor of Adharbayjan after the defeat of the Khurramites , rose up in revolt , either because he had been involved in financial irregularities , or because he had been a co @-@ conspirator of Afshin 's . Bugha the Elder marched against him , forcing the rebel to capitulate and receive a safe @-@ passage for Samarra in 839 / 40 .
Near the end of al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's life there were a series of uprisings in the Syrian provinces , including the revolt by Abu Harb , known as al @-@ Mubarqa or " the Veiled One " , which brought to the fore the lingering pro @-@ Umayyad sentiment of a part of the Syrian Arabs .
= = = = The Amorium campaign = = = =
Taking advantage of the Abbasids ' preoccupation with the suppression of the Khurramite rebellion , the Byzantine emperor Theophilos had launched a number of attacks on the Muslim frontier zone in the early 830s , and scored a few successes . His forces were also bolstered by some 14 @,@ 000 Khurramites who under their leader , Nasr , fled into the Empire , became baptized and enrolled into the Byzantine army under the command of Nasr , better known by his Christian name of Theophobos . In 837 , Theophilos , urged by the increasingly hard @-@ pressed Babak , launched a major campaign into the Muslim frontier lands , with an army reportedly numbering over 70 @,@ 000 men , whom he led in an almost unopposed invasion around the upper Euphrates . The Byzantines took the towns of Zibatra ( Sozopetra ) and Arsamosata , ravaged and plundered the countryside , extracted ransom from Malatya and other cities in exchange for not attacking them , and defeated a number of smaller Arab forces . As refugees began arriving at Samarra , the caliphal court was outraged by the brutality and brazenness of the raids : not only had the Byzantines acted in open collusion with the Khurramites , but during the sack of Zibatra all male prisoners were executed and the rest sold into slavery , and some captive women were raped by Theophilos ' Khurramites .
The Caliph took over preparations for a retaliatory expedition himself , as the campaigns against Byzantium were customarily the only ones where caliphs participated in person . Al @-@ Mu 'tasim assembled a huge force β 80 @,@ 000 men with 30 @,@ 000 servants and camp followers according to Michael the Syrian , or even bigger according to other writers β at Tarsus , and declared his target to be Amorium , the birthplace of the reigning Byzantine dynasty . The Caliph reportedly had the name painted on the shields and banners of his army . The campaign began in June , with a smaller force under Afshin attacking through the Pass of Hadath in the east , while the Caliph with the main army crossed the Cilician Gates on 19 β 21 June . Theophilos , who had been caught unaware by the two @-@ pronged Abbasid attack , tried to confront Afshin 's smaller force first , but suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Dazimon on 22 July , barely escaping with his life . Unable to offer any effective resistance to the Abbasid advance , the emperor returned to Constantinople . A week later , Afshin and the main caliphal army joined forces before Ancyra , which had been left defenceless and was plundered .
From Ancyra , the Abbasid army turned to Amorium , to which they laid siege on 1 August . The siege was fiercely contested , even after the Abbasids , informed by a defector , effected a breach in a weak spot of the wall . After two weeks , however , taking advantage of a short truce requested by the Byzantine commanders of the breach for negotiations , the Abbasid army stormed the city . The city was thoroughly plundered and its walls razed , while the populace , numbering into the tens of thousands , was carried off to be sold into slavery . According to al @-@ Tabari , al @-@ Mu 'tasim now pondered extending his campaign to attack Constantinople , when the conspiracy headed by his nephew , al @-@ Abbas , was uncovered . Al @-@ Mu 'tasim was forced to cut short his campaign and return quickly to his realm , without bothering with Theophilos and his forces , encamped in nearby Dorylaion . Taking the direct route from Amorium to the Cilician Gates , both the caliph 's army and its prisoners suffered in the march through the arid countryside of central Anatolia . Some captives were so exhausted that they could not move and were executed , whereupon others found the opportunity to escape . In retaliation , al @-@ Mu 'tasim , after separating the most prominent among them , executed the rest , some 6 @,@ 000 in number .
The sack of Amorium brought al @-@ Mu 'tasim much acclaim as a warrior @-@ caliph and ghΔzΔ« , and was celebrated by contemporaries , most notably in Abu Tammam 's poems . The Abbasids , however , did not follow up on their success . Warfare continued between the two empires with raids and counter @-@ raids along the border , but after a few Byzantine successes a truce was agreed in 841 . At the time of his death in 842 , al @-@ Mu 'tasim was preparing yet another large @-@ scale invasion , but the great fleet he had prepared to assault Constantinople perished in a storm off Cape Chelidonia a few months later . Following al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's death , warfare gradually died down , and the Battle of Mauropotamos in 844 was the last major Arab β Byzantine engagement until the 850s .
= = Death = =
Al @-@ Tabari states that al @-@ Mu 'tasim fell ill on 21 October 841 . His regular doctor , Salmawayh ibn Bunan , whom the Caliph had trusted implicitly , had died the previous year and the new physician Yahya ibn Masawayh did not follow the normal treatment of cupping and purging , which according to Hunayn ibn Ishaq worsened the caliph 's illness and brought about his death on 5 January 842 , after a reign of eight years , eight months and two days according to the Islamic calendar . He was buried in the Jawsaq Palace in Samarra . He was succeeded by his son , al @-@ Wathiq .
Al @-@ Tabari describes al @-@ Mu 'tasim as having a relatively easygoing nature , being kind , agreeable and charitable , while according to the Orientalist C.E. Bosworth , " Not much of [ al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's ] character emerges from the sources , though they stress his lack of culture compared with his brother al @-@ Ma 'mun , with his questing mind ; yet al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's qualities as a military commander seem assured , and the Abbasid caliphate remained under him a mighty political and military entity " .
= = Al @-@ Mu 'tasim in literature = =
The name al @-@ Mu 'tasim is also used for a fictional character in the story The Approach to al @-@ Mu 'tasim by Argentine author Jorge Luis Borges , which appears in his anthology Ficciones . The al @-@ Mu 'tasim referenced there is not the Abbasid caliph , though Borges does state , regarding the original , non @-@ fictional al @-@ Mu 'tasim from whom the name is taken : " the name of that eighth Abbasid caliph who was victorious in eight battles , fathered eight sons and eight daughters , left eight thousand slaves , and ruled for a period of eight years , eight moons , and eight days " .
While not strictly accurate , Borges ' quote paraphrases al @-@ Tabari , who notes that he was " born in the eighth month , was the eighth caliph , in the eighth generation from al- β Abbas , his lifespan was eight and forty years , that he died leaving eight sons and eight daughters , and that he reigned for eight years and eight months " , and reflects the widespread reference to al @-@ Mu 'tasim in the Arabic sources as al @-@ Muthamman ( " the man of eight " ) .
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= Aphthous stomatitis =
Aphthous stomatitis ( also termed recurrent aphthous stomatitis , recurring oral aphthae or recurrent aphthous ulceration ; from Greek : αΌΟΞΈΞ± aphtha , " mouth ulcer " ) is a common condition characterized by the repeated formation of benign and non @-@ contagious mouth ulcers ( aphthae ) in otherwise healthy individuals . The informal term canker sores is also used , mainly in North America , although this may also refer to any mouth ulcer .
The cause is not completely understood , but involves a T cell @-@ mediated immune response triggered by a variety of factors . Different individuals have different triggers , which may include nutritional deficiencies , local trauma , stress , hormonal influences , allergies , genetic predisposition or other factors .
These ulcers occur periodically and heal completely between attacks . In the majority of cases , the individual ulcers last about 7 β 10 days , and ulceration episodes occur 3 β 6 times per year . Most appear on the non @-@ keratinizing epithelial surfaces in the mouth ( i.e. anywhere except the attached gingiva , the hard palate and the dorsum of the tongue ) , although the more severe forms , which are less common , may also involve keratinizing epithelial surfaces . Symptoms range from a minor nuisance to interfering with eating and drinking . The severe forms may be debilitating , even causing weight loss due to malnutrition .
The condition is very common , affecting about 20 % of the general population to some degree . The onset is often during childhood or adolescence , and the condition usually lasts for several years before gradually disappearing . There is no cure , and treatments aim to manage pain , reduce healing time and reduce the frequency of episodes of ulceration .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Persons with aphthous stomatitis have no detectable systemic symptoms or signs ( i.e. , outside the mouth ) . Generally , symptoms may include prodromal sensations such as burning , itching , or stinging , which may precede the appearance of any lesion by some hours ; and pain , which is often out of proportion to the extent of the ulceration and is worsened by physical contact , especially with certain foods and drinks ( e.g. , acidic ) . Pain is worst in the days immediately following the initial formation of the ulcer , and then recedes as healing progresses . If there are lesions on the tongue , speaking and chewing can be uncomfortable , and ulcers on the soft palate , oropharynx , or esophagus can cause odynophagia ( painful swallowing ) . Signs are limited to the lesions themselves .
Ulceration episodes usually occur about 3 β 6 times per year . However , severe disease is characterized by virtually constant ulceration ( new lesions developing before old ones have healed ) and may cause debilitating chronic pain and interfere with comfortable eating . In severe cases , this prevents adequate nutrient intake leading to malnutrition and weight loss .
Aphthous ulcers typically begin as erythematous macules ( reddened , flat area of mucosa ) which develop into ulcers that are covered with a yellow @-@ grey fibrinous membrane that can be scraped away . An erythematous " halo " surrounds the ulcer . The size , number , location , healing time , and periodicity between episodes of ulcer formation are all dependent upon the subtype of aphthous stomatitis .
= = Causes = =
The cause is not entirely clear , but is thought to be multifactorial . It has even been suggested that aphthous stomatitis is not a single entity but rather a group of conditions with different causes . Multiple research studies have attempted to identify a causative organism , but aphthous stomatitis appears to be non @-@ contagious , non @-@ infectious and not sexually transmissible . The mucosal destruction is thought to be the result of a T cell ( T lymphocyte ) mediated immune response which involves the generation of interleukins and tumor necrosis factor alpha ( TNF @-@ Ξ± ) . Mast cells and macrophages are also involved , secreting TNF @-@ Ξ± along with the T cells . When early aphthous ulcers are biopsied , the histologic appearance shows a dense inflammatory infiltrate , 80 % of which is made up of T cells . Persons with aphthous stomatitis also have circulating lymphocytes which react with peptides 91 β 105 of heat shock protein 65 @-@ 60 , and the ratio of CD4 + T cells to CD8 + T cells in the peripheral blood of individuals with aphthous stomatitis is decreased .
Despite this preferred theory of immuno @-@ dysregulation held by most researchers , aphthous stomatitis behaves dissimilarly to autoimmune diseases in many regards . There is no association between aphthous stomatitis and other autoimmune diseases , which often accompany each other ; common autoantibodies are not detected , the condition tends to resolve spontaneously with advancing age rather than worsen , and usually serum immunoglobulins are at normal levels .
Evidence for the T cell @-@ mediated mechanism of mucosal destruction is strong , but the exact triggers for this process are unknown and are thought to be multiple and varied from one person to the next . This suggests that there are a number of possible triggers , each of which is capable of producing the disease in different subgroups . In other words , different subgroups appear to have different causes for the condition . These can be considered in three general groups , namely primary immuno @-@ dysregulation , decrease of the mucosal barrier and states of heightened antigenic sensitivity ( see below ) . Etiologic factors in aphthous stomatitis are also sometimes considered as either host @-@ related or environmental .
= = = Immunity = = =
At least 40 % of people with aphthous stomatitis have a positive family history , suggesting that some people are genetically predisposed to suffering with oral ulceration . HLA @-@ B12 , HLA @-@ B51 , HLA @-@ Cw7 , HLA @-@ A2 , HLA @-@ A11 , and HLA @-@ DR2 are examples of human leukocyte antigen types associated with aphthous stomatitis . However , these HLA types are inconsistently associated with the condition , and also vary according to ethnicity . People who have a positive family history of aphthous stomatitis tend to develop a more severe form of the condition , and at an earlier age than is typical .
Stress has effects on the immune system , which may explain why some cases directly correlate with stress . It is often stated that ulceration is exacerbated during examination periods and lessened during periods of vacation . Alternatively , it has been suggested that oral parafunctional activities such as lip or cheek chewing become more pronounced during periods of stress , and hence the mucosa is subjected to more minor trauma .
Aphthous @-@ like ulceration also occurs in conditions involving systemic immuno @-@ dysregulation , e.g. cyclic neutropenia and human immunodeficiency virus infection . In cyclic neutropenia , more severe oral ulceration occurs during periods of severe immuno @-@ dysregulation , and resolution of the underlying neutropenia prevents the cycle of ulceration . The relative increase in percentage of CD8 + T cells , caused by a reduction in numbers of CD4 + T cells may be implicated in RAS @-@ type ulceration in HIV infection .
= = = Mucosal barrier = = =
The thickness of the mucosa may be an important factor in aphthous stomatitis . Usually , ulcers form on the thinner , non @-@ keratinizing mucosal surfaces in the mouth . Factors which decrease the thickness of mucosa increase the frequency of occurrence , and factors which increase the thickness of the mucosa correlate with decreased ulceration .
The nutritional deficiencies associated with aphthous stomatitis ( B12 , folate , and iron ) can all cause a decrease in the thickness of the oral mucosa ( atrophy ) .
Local trauma is also associated with aphthous stomatitis , and it is known that trauma can decrease the mucosal barrier . Trauma could occur during injections of local anesthetic in the mouth , or otherwise during dental treatments , frictional trauma from a sharp surface in the mouth such as broken tooth , or from tooth brushing .
Hormonal factors are capable of altering the mucosal barrier . In one study , a small group of females with apthous stomatitis had fewer occurrences of aphthous ulcers during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle or with use of the contraceptive pill . This phase is associated with a fall in progestogen levels , mucosal proliferation and keratinization . This subgroup often experiences remission during pregnancy . However , other studies report no correlation between aphthous stomatitis and menstrual period , pregnancy or menopause .
Aphthous stomatitis is uncommon in people who smoke , and there is also a correlation between habit duration and severity of the condition . Tobacco use is associated with an increase in keratinization of the oral mucosa . In extreme forms , this may manifest as leukoplakia or stomatitis nicotina ( smoker 's keratosis ) . This increased keratinization may mechanically reinforce the mucosa and reduce the tendency of ulcers to form after minor trauma , or present a more substantial barrier to microbes and antigens , but this is unclear . Nicotine is also known to stimulate production of adrenal steroids and reduce production of TNF @-@ Ξ± , interleukin @-@ 1 and interleukin @-@ 6 . Smokeless tobacco products also seem to protect against aphthous stomatitis . Cessation of smoking is known to sometimes precede the onset of aphthous stomatitis in people previously unaffected , or exacerbate the condition in those who were already experiencing aphthous ulceration . Despite this correlation , starting smoking again does not usually lessen the condition .
= = = Antigenic sensitivity = = =
It has been hypothesized that the condition represents a state of heightened sensitivity to antigenic stimuli , with cross @-@ reactivity of the resulting cell @-@ mediated immune response with cells of the epithelium . Some hypothesize that aphthous stomatitis is caused by expression of HLA class II antigens along with the normally found HLA class I antigens in epithelial cells , which results in them being recognized by the immune system as foreign cells rather than self . Various antigenic triggers have been implicated as a trigger , including L forms of streptococci , herpes simplex virus , varicella @-@ zoster virus , adenovirus , and cytomegalovirus .
Others argue that there is no available evidence that demonstrates that any of these organisms are capable of causing aphthous stomatitis by themselves . Some people with aphthous stomatitis may show herpes virus within the epithelium of the mucosa , but without any productive infection . In some persons , attacks of ulceration occur at the same time as asymptomatic viral shedding and elevated viral titres . However , antiviral medication has no effect on aphthous stomatitis .
In some instances , recurrent mouth ulcers may be a manifestation of an allergic reaction . Possible allergens include certain foods ( e.g. , chocolate , coffee , strawberries , eggs , nuts , tomatoes , cheese , citrus fruits , benzoates , cinnamaldehyde , and highly acidic foods ) , toothpastes , and mouthwashes . Where dietary allergens are responsible , mouth ulcers usually develop within about 12 β 24 hours of exposure .
Sodium lauryl sulphate ( SLS ) , a detergent present in some brands of toothpaste and other oral healthcare products , may produce oral ulceration in some individuals . It has been shown that aphthous stomatitis is more common in people using toothpastes containing SLS , and that some reduction in ulceration occurs when a SLS @-@ free toothpaste is used . Some have argued that since SLS is almost ubiquitously used in oral hygiene products , there is unlikely to be a true predisposition for aphthous stomatitis caused by SLS .
= = = Systemic disease = = =
Aphthous @-@ like ulceration may occur in association with several systemic disorders ( see table ) . These ulcers are clinically and histopathologically identical to the lesions of aphthous stomatitis , but this type of oral ulceration is not considered to be true aphthous stomatitis by some sources . Some of these conditions may cause ulceration on other mucosal surfaces in addition to the mouth such as the conjunctiva or the genital mucous membranes . Resolution of the systemic condition often leads to decreased frequency and severity of the oral ulceration .
BehΓ§et 's disease is a triad of mouth ulcers , genital ulcers and anterior uveitis . The main feature of BehΓ§et 's disease is aphthous @-@ like ulceration , but this is usually more severe than seen in aphthous stomatitis without a systemic cause , and typically resembles major or herpetiforme ulceration or both . Aphthous @-@ like ulceration is the first sign of the disease in 25 β 75 % of cases . BehΓ§et 's is more common in individuals whose ethnic origin is from regions along the Silk Road ( between the Mediterranean and the Far East ) . It tends to be rare in other countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom . MAGIC syndrome is a possible variant of BehΓ§et disease , and is associated with aphthous @-@ like ulceration . The name stands for " mouth and genital ulcers with inflamed cartilage " ( relapsing polychondritis ) .
PFAPA syndrome is a rare condition that tends to occur in children . The name stands for " periodic fever , aphthae , pharyngitis ( sore throat ) and cervical adenitis " ( inflammation of the lymph nodes in the neck ) . The fevers occur periodically about every 3 β 5 weeks . The condition appears to improve with tonsillectomy or immunosuppression , suggesting an immunologic cause .
In cyclic neutropenia , there is a reduction in the level of circulating neutrophils in the blood that occurs about every 21 days . Opportunistic infections commonly occur and aphthous @-@ like ulceration is worst during this time .
Hematinic deficiencies ( vitamin B12 , folic acid and iron ) , occurring singly or in combination , and with or without any underlying gastrointestinal disease , may be twice as common in people with RAS . However , iron and vitamin supplements only infrequently improve the ulceration . The relationship to vitamin B12 deficiency has been the subject of many studies . Although these studies found that 0 β 42 % of those with recurrent ulcers suffer from vitamin B12 deficiency , an association with deficiency is rare . Even in the absence of deficiency , vitamin B12 supplementation may be helpful due to unclear mechanisms . Hematinic deficiencies can cause anemia , which is also associated with aphthous @-@ like ulceration .
Gastrointestinal disorders are sometimes associated with aphthous @-@ like stomatitis , e.g. most commonly Celiac disease , but also inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn 's disease or ulcerative colitis . The link between gastrointestinal disorders and aphthous stomatitis is probably related to nutritional deficiencies caused by malabsorption . Less than 5 % of people with RAS have Celiac disease , which usually presents with severe malnutrition , anemia , abdominal pain , diarrhea and glossitis ( inflammation of the tongue ) . Sometimes aphthous @-@ like ulcerations can be the only sign of celiac disease . Despite this association , a gluten @-@ free diet does not usually improve the oral ulceration .
Other examples of systemic conditions associated with aphthous @-@ like ulceration include Reactive arthritis ( Reiter 's syndrome ) , and recurrent erythema multiforme .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis is mostly based on the clinical appearance and the medical history . The most important diagnostic feature is a history of recurrent , self healing ulcers at fairly regular intervals . Although there are many causes of oral ulceration , recurrent oral ulceration has relatively few causes , most commonly aphthous stomatitis , but rarely Behçet 's disease , erythema multiforme , ulceration associated with gastrointestinal disease , and recurrent intra @-@ oral herpes simplex infection . A systemic cause is more likely in adults who suddenly develop recurrent oral ulceration with no prior history .
Special investigations may be indicated to rule out other causes of oral ulceration . These include blood tests to exclude anemia , deficiencies of iron , folate or vitamin B12 or celiac disease . However , the nutritional deficiencies may be latent and the peripheral blood picture may appear relatively normal . Some suggest that screening for celiac disease should form part of the routine work up for individuals complaining of recurrent oral ulceration . Many of the systemic diseases cause other symptoms apart from oral ulceration , which is in contrast to aphthous stomatitis where there is isolated oral ulceration . Patch testing may be indicated if allergies are suspected ( e.g. a strong relationship between certain foods and episodes of ulceration ) . Several drugs can cause oral ulceration ( e.g. nicorandil ) , and a trial substitution to an alternative drug may highlight a causal relationship .
Tissue biopsy is not usually required , unless to rule out other suspected conditions such as oral squamous cell carcinoma . The histopathologic appearance is not pathognomonic ( the microscopic appearance is not specific to the condition ) . Early lesions have a central zone of ulceration covered by a fibrinous membrane . In the connective tissue deep to the ulcer there is increased vascularity and a mixed inflammatory infiltrate composed of lymphocytes , histiocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes . The epithelium on the margins of the ulcer shows spongiosis and there are many mononuclear cells in the basal third . There are also lymphocytes and histiocytes in the connective tissue surrounding deeper blood vessels near to the ulcer , described histologically as " perivascular cuffing " .
= = = Classification = = =
Aphthous stomatitis has been classified as a type of non @-@ infectious stomatitis ( inflammation of the mouth ) . One classification distinguishes " common simple aphthae " , accounting for 95 % of cases , with 3 β 6 attacks per year , rapid healing , minimal pain and restriction of ulceration to the mouth ; and " complex aphthae " , accounting for 5 % of cases , where ulcers may be present on the genital mucosa in addition to mouth , healing is slower and pain is more severe . A more common method of classifying aphthous stomatitis is into three variants , distinguished by the size , number and location of the lesions , the healing time of individual ulcers and whether a scar is left after healing ( see below ) .
= = = = Minor aphthous ulceration = = = =
This is the most common type of aphthous stomatitis , accounting for about 80 β 85 % of all cases . This subtype is termed minor aphthous ulceration ( MiAU ) , or minor recurrent aphthous stomatitis ( MiRAS ) . The lesions themselves may be referred to as minor aphthae or minor aphthous ulcers . These lesions are generally less than 10 mm in diameter ( usually about 2 β 3 mm ) , and affect non @-@ keratinized mucosal surfaces ( i.e. the labial and buccal mucosa , lateral borders of the tongue and the floor of the mouth ) . Usually several ulcers appear at the same time , but single ulcers are possible . Healing usually takes seven to ten days and leaves no scar . Between episodes of ulceration , there is usually an ulcer @-@ free period of variable length .
= = = = Major aphthous ulceration = = = =
This subtype makes up about 10 % of all cases of aphthous stomatitis . It is termed major aphthous ulceration ( MaAU ) or major recurrent aphthous stomatitis ( MaRAS ) . Major aphthous ulcers ( major aphthae ) are similar to minor aphthous ulcers , but are more than 10 mm in diameter and the ulceration is deeper . Because the lesions are larger , healing takes longer ( about twenty to thirty days ) , and may leave scars . Each episode of ulceration usually produces a greater number of ulcers , and the time between attacks is less than seen in minor aphthous stomatitis . Major aphthous ulceration usually affects non keratinized mucosal surfaces , but less commonly keratinized mucosa may also be involved , such as the dorsum ( top surface ) of the tongue or the gingiva ( gums ) . The soft palate or the fauces ( back of the throat ) may also be involved , the latter being part of the oropharynx rather than the oral cavity . Compared to minor aphthous ulceration , major aphthae tend to have an irregular outline .
= = = = Herpetiform ulceration = = = =
Herpetiform ulcers , ( also termed stomatitis herpetiformis , or herpes @-@ like ulcerations ) is a subtype of aphthous stomatitis so named because the lesions resemble a primary infection with herpes simplex virus ( primary herpetic gingivostomatitis ) . However , herpetiform ulceration is not caused by herpes viruses . As with all types of aphthous stomatitis , it is not contagious . Unlike true herpetic ulcers , herpetiforme ulcers are not preceded by vesicles ( small , fluid filled blisters ) . Herpetiforme ulcers are less than 1 mm in diameter and occur in variably sized crops up to one hundred at a time . Adjacent ulcers may merge to form larger , continuous areas of ulceration . Healing occurs within fifteen days without scarring . The ulceration may affect keratinized mucosal surfaces in addition to non keratinized . Herpetiform ulceration is often extremely painful , and the lesions recur more frequently than minor or major aphthous ulcers . Recurrence may be so frequent that ulceration is virtually continuous . It generally occurs in a slightly older age group than the other subtypes , and females are affected slightly more frequently than males .
= = = = RAS type ulceration = = = =
Recurrent oral ulceration associated with systemic conditions is termed " RAS type ulceration " , " RAS like ulceration " , or " aphthous @-@ like ulcers " . Aphthous stomatitis occurs in individuals with no associated systemic disease . Persons with certain systemic diseases may be prone to oral ulceration , but this is secondary to the underlying medical condition ( see the systemic disease section ) . This kind of ulceration is considered by some to be separate from true aphthous stomatitis . However , this definition is not strictly applied . For example , many sources refer to oral ulceration caused by anemia and / or nutritional deficiencies as aphthous stomatitis , and some also consider Behçet 's disease to be a variant .
= = Treatment = =
The vast majority of people with aphthous stomatitis have minor symptoms and do not require any specific therapy . The pain is often tolerable with simple dietary modification during an episode of ulceration such as avoiding spicy and acidic foods and beverages . Many different topical and systemic medications have been proposed ( see table ) , sometimes showing little or no evidence of efficacy when formally investigated . Some of the results of interventions for RAS may in truth represent a placebo effect . No therapy is curative , with treatment aiming to relieve pain , promote healing and reduce the frequency of episodes of ulceration .
The first line therapy for aphthous stomatitis is topical agents rather than systemic medication , with topical corticosteroids being the mainstay treatment . Systemic treatment is usually reserved for severe disease due to the risk of adverse side effects associated with many of these agents . The application of glycerin , along with Alchemilla vulgaris , has also been shown to effective in treating aphthous stomatitis . A systematic review found that no single systemic intervention was found to be effective . Good oral hygiene is important to prevent secondary infection of the ulcers .
Occasionally , in females where ulceration is correlated to the menstrual cycle or to an oral contraceptive , progestogen or a change in oral contraceptive may be beneficial . Use of nicotine replacement therapy for people who have developed oral ulceration after stopping smoking has also been reported . Starting smoking again does not usually lessen the condition . Trauma can be reduced by avoiding rough or sharp foodstuffs and by brushing teeth with care . If sodium lauryl sulfate is suspected to be the cause , avoidance of products containing this chemical may be useful and prevent recurrence in some individuals . Similarly patch testing may indicate that food allergy is responsible , and the diet modified accordingly . If investigations reveal deficiency states , correction of the deficiency may result in resolution of the ulceration . For example , there is some evidence that vitamin B12 supplementation may prevent recurrence in some individuals .
Surgical excision of aphthous ulcers has been described , but it is an ineffective and inappropriate treatment . Silver nitrate has also been used as a chemical cauterant . Apart from the mainstream approaches detailed above , there are numerous treatments of unproven effectiveness , ranging from herbal remedies to otherwise alternative treatments , including aloe vera , myrtus communis , Rosa damascena , zinc sulfate , nicotine , polio virus vaccine and prostaglandin E2 .
= = Prognosis = =
By definition , there is no serious underlying medical condition , and most importantly , the ulcers do not represent oral cancer nor are they infectious . However , aphthae are capable of causing significant discomfort . There is a spectrum of severity , with symptoms ranging from a minor nuisance to disabling . Due to pain during eating , weight loss may develop as a result of not eating in severe cases of aphthous stomatitis . Usually , the condition lasts for several years before spontaneously disappearing in later life .
= = Epidemiology = =
Reported prevalence ranges from 5 β 66 % , but in most populations , about 20 % of individuals are affected to some degree , making it the most common disease of the oral mucosa . Aphthous stomatitis occurs worldwide , but is more common in developed countries .
Within nations , there is a slightly higher prevalence in higher socioeconomic groups . Males and females are affected in an equal ratio , and the peak age of onset between 10 and 19 years . About 80 % of people with aphthous stomatitis first developed the condition before the age of 30 . There have been reports of ethnic variation . For example , in the United States , aphthous stomatitis may be three times more common in white @-@ skinned people than black @-@ skinned people .
= = History , society and culture = =
" Aphthous affectations " and " aphthous ulcerations " of the mouth are mentioned several times in the treatise " Of the Epidemics " ( part of the Hippocratic corpus , in the 4th century B.C ) , although it seems likely that this was oral ulceration as a manifestation of some infectious disease , since they are described as occurring in epidemic @-@ like patterns , with concurrent symptoms such as fever .
Aphthous stomatitis was once thought to be a form of recurrent herpes simplex virus infection , and some clinicians still refer to the condition as " herpes " despite this etiology having been disproven .
The informal term " canker sore " is sometimes used , mainly in North America , either to describe this condition generally , or to refer to the individual ulcers of this condition , or mouth ulcers of any cause unrelated to this condition . The origin of the word " canker " is thought to have been influenced by Latin , Old English , Middle English and Old North French . In Latin , cancer translates to " malignant tumor " or literally " crab " ( related to the likening of sectioned tumors to the limbs of a crab ) . The closely related word in Middle English and Old North French , chancre , now more usually applied to syphilis , is also thought to be involved . Despite this etymology , aphthous stomatitis is not a form of cancer but rather entirely benign .
An aphtha ( plural aphthae ) is a non specific term that refers to an ulcer of the mouth . The word is derived from the Greek word aphtha meaning " eruption " or " ulcer " . The lesions of several other oral conditions are sometimes described as aphthae , including Bednar 's aphthae ( infected , traumatic ulcers on the hard palate in infants ) , oral candidiasis , and foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . When used without qualification , aphthae commonly refers to lesions of recurrent aphthous stomatitis . Since the word aphtha is often taken to be synonymous with ulcer , it has been suggested that the term " aphthous ulcer " is redundant , but it remains in common use . Stomatitis is also a non @-@ specific term referring to any inflammatory process in the mouth , with or without oral ulceration . It may describe many different conditions apart from aphthous stomatitis such as angular stomatitis .
The current most widely used medical term is " recurrent aphthous stomatitis " or simply " aphthous stomatitis " . Historically , many different terms have been used to refer to recurrent aphthous stomatitis or its sub @-@ types , and some are still in use . Mikulicz ' aphthae is a synonym of minor RAS , named after Jan Mikulicz @-@ Radecki . Synonyms for major RAS include Sutton 's ulcers ( named after Richard Lightburn Sutton ) , Sutton 's disease , Sutton 's syndrome and pariadenitis mucosa necrotica recurrens . Synonyms for aphthous stomatitis as a whole include ( recurrent ) oral aphthae , ( recurrent ) aphthous ulceration and ( oral ) aphthosis .
In traditional Chinese medicine , treatments for aphthae focus on clearing heat and nourishing Yin .
Rembrandt Gentle White toothpaste did not contain sodium lauryl sulfate , and was specifically marketed as being for the benefit of " canker sore sufferers " . When the manufacturer Johnson & Johnson discontinued the product in 2014 , it caused a backlash of anger from long term customers , and the toothpaste began to sell for many times the original price on the auction website eBay .
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= Star Wars : The Force Unleashed II =
Star Wars : The Force Unleashed II is an action @-@ adventure platform video game developed and published by LucasArts . It is the second installment of the The Force Unleashed multimedia project , and the sequel to Star Wars : The Force Unleashed ( 2008 ) . The game was released in the United States on October 26 , 2010 , and throughout Europe on October 29 for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Nintendo Wii consoles , as well as the Nintendo DS and iOS portable devices .
Players control a clone of Starkiller , who himself was a secret apprentice to Darth Vader in The Force Unleashed . The clone embarks on a quest to find his identity and find Starkiller 's love interest , Juno Eclipse . Production for The Force Unleashed II transpired over an approximate period of nine months ; while it possesses some similarities to the previous game , producers modified several aspects such as the sound effects and gameplay . Sam Witwer again provides the voice and likeness for Starkiller , and several cast members return to voice and provide likeness to their respective roles .
The Force Unleashed II produced varying responses from critics , who despite adulating the sound design and aesthetics , were concerned with several gameplay elements and an underwhelming storyline . Aggregate scores range from the 40 β 70 % range at websites GameRankings and Metacritic . During the first few weeks after its release it placed fifth or higher in sales for several regions .
= = Gameplay = =
The Force Unleashed II is a third @-@ person action game in which the player 's character 's weapons are the Force and a lightsaber . The game has a combo system for stringing lightsaber attacks and for combining lightsaber attacks with Force powers . Like the original Force Unleashed , experience points earned by killing enemies and finding artifacts can be used to increase Starkiller 's powers and traits .
The Force Unleashed II refines gameplay elements from the first Force Unleashed , and adds more variety with such features as puzzle solving . Combat was modified to include the ability to wield dual lightsabers , which can dismember or decapitate enemies . The game also adds more Force powers , such as " Mind Trick " and " Force Rage " .
= = = Platform @-@ specific elements = = =
According to lead producer Vinde Kudirka , the goal of the game across all platforms is to make the player feel like " a super @-@ powerful Jedi " . Executive producer Julio Torres said that while the story is consistent across platforms , gameplay decreases in style across platforms to reflect each platform 's uniqueness and strengths . The Wii 's control scheme is focused on being able to precisely control Starkiller 's Force powers and saber combos . The Wii exclusive " Force rage " power puts the game 's protagonist , Starkiller , into a bullet time mode exclusive to that platform ; the Wii version also has a Force sight power not included on other platforms . The Wii version also has a multiplayer mode , inspired by The Outfoxies , in which four players can challenge each other in a fighting @-@ style combat game . The Wii game also has an extra story @-@ based level , on Dagobah , that is not present in the HD version of the game , making the plot of the Wii game slightly different from the HD version .
The PC , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 versions feature new Force powers , new skins for Force powers that appear in The Force Unleashed , an improved rendering system providing richer colors , and a new audio system . The gameplay also highlights the potential to " destroy " the game environment . Neither of the PC , PlayStation 3 or Xbox 360 versions of the game include multiplayer . The Nintendo DS version features the same Force powers as the console versions , but was designed for shorter play sessions due to its mobile nature .
= = Plot = =
The game takes place approximately six months after the events of the first game , and a year before Star Wars . The Force Unleashed II is described as the " dark entry " in the series , and a more personal story for the game 's protagonist than the first game .
Players control Starkiller 's renegade clone , a failure of Darth Vader 's attempt to create a perfect secret apprentice . After a vision that Darth Vader will kill him due to his inability to kill a test droid , the clone escapes from captivity on Kamino . After eliminating his stormtrooper captors , Starkiller embarks on a quest to understand his identity and to find his template 's love interest from the first game , Juno Eclipse . Meanwhile , Darth Vader has hired Boba Fett to track down Juno Eclipse to lure Starkiller out of hiding . Starkiller rescues Jedi Master Rahm Kota from a gladiatoral arena , and encounters Yoda on Dagobah . After encountering strange visions on Dagobah , Starkiller rushes to Juno 's ship , only to arrive just as Boba captures her .
With help from Kota , the Rebels launch an all @-@ out assault on Kamino . Starkiller crashes a ship into the planet 's shield , allowing Kota to stage a ground assault , while he goes after Juno . In a confrontation with Vader , Juno is thrown out of a window , crashing to the ground . Starkiller , thinking Juno is dead , attacks Vader viciously , cutting off his hand and defeating him . Kota arrives with his men , and tells Starkiller not to kill Vader : he wants to interrogate the Sith Lord for the Empire 's secrets , then put him on trial , and then later execute him . As in the first game , this allows the player to choose either the light path or the dark path :
If the player chooses the dark side , Starkiller raises his saber to kill Vader , only to be stabbed by a shrouded figure who uncloaks behind him . Kota attacks the figure , but is driven back and force pushed over the edge with numerous troops . As the figure removes his cowl , Vader tells the dying Starkiller he lied when he said the cloning process had not been perfected , revealing the figure to be a dark , perfect clone . Starkiller takes one last look at Juno 's corpse and dies . Vader instructs the kneeling clone to take Starkiller 's ship and kill the remaining leaders of the Rebel Alliance . Downloadable content released in December 2010 expands on this ending , with Starkiller 's clone participating in the Battle of Endor in which the remnants of the Rebel Alliance desperately attack Endor in the hopes of destroying the Death Star II . The dark Starkiller is sent to eliminate the threat and kills Ewoks and Rebels ( including Han Solo and Chewbacca ) in the process . Eventually he finds Princess Leia Organa , who is revealed to be a Jedi , waiting for him and duels her . Starkiller succeeds in killing her . Meanwhile , the Emperor scolds Vader for creating the dark copy of his failed apprentice and subdues him with Force Lightning ( calling him Skywalker ) . The Emperor then orders Captain Sarkli to kill the dark Starkiller .
If the player chooses the light side , Starkiller lowers his blade and allows Kota 's men to capture Vader . Starkiller discovers Juno survived the fall , they kiss , and the two travel into hyperspace together aboard the Rogue Shadow , taking Vader prisoner . Starkiller confronts Vader again saying that because he made the conscious choice , of his own free will , to spare Vader 's life , he is finally free of the Dark Lord 's control . Vader 's response is that as long as Juno lives , Vader will always have control over him . Unknown to Starkiller and Juno , Boba Fett pursues in his spacecraft .
= = Development = =
Following the commercial success of its predecessor , a sequel was formally announced at the Spike Video Game Awards . The game was released for the PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Nintendo Wii consoles , as well as the Nintendo DS and iOS portable devices . A version was initially developed for the PlayStation Portable , but was cancelled for undisclosed reasons . The Force Unleashed II was released in North America on October 26 , 2010 , and in Europe on October 29 , 2010 .
= = = Writing = = =
Haden Blackman served as a writer for the sequel . In crafting the dialogue of The Force Unleashed II , Blackman sought influence from Darksiders ( 2010 ) , as well as other video games such as Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves ( 2009 ) and Heavy Rain ( 2010 ) . In the wake the early stages of conceiving The Force Unleashed II , the main protagonist Starkiller was initially intended to be replaced with a new lead character , but such plans never materialized as LucasArts opted to develop more backstory for the character . As the character progression of Starkiller initiates , the story follows a dark nature β much like its predecessor . Blackman suggested that as opposed to his empathic tendencies in The Force Unleashed , Starkiller becomes conflicted with his loss of an identity , ultimately culminating into what he called a " much more personal story " ; " He 's dealing with a sense of identity and not knowing whether he 's going insane or not , " he added , " and the possible collapse of the Rebel Alliance , and his being torn between what he wants and what Kota wants . " Blackman 's main objective was to have the storyline be attractive to a broad audience ; while he asserted that fans with a general understanding of the Star Wars franchise would be more enthralled with the storyline , Blackman emphasized the need to appeal to a more mainstream demographic . " With The Force Unleashed II again we 're trying to create a story that if you β ve played The Force Unleashed , " explained the comic book writer , " you 're going to know a bit more going into it , but hopefully the story still stands on its own and you can enjoy it even if you haven 't played [ the first game ] , whether or not you 're familiar with all the continuity . "
Unlike in its predecessor , Blackman achieved more freedom in developing the story for The Force Unleashed II , as it took place in a relatively uneventful time period . Blackman and the writing staff had to receive approval from Star Wars creator George Lucas to portray the game in their vision . " He had some comments on the way we wanted to use Princess Leia in the first one and he wanted to make sure that we were aware that Bail Organa was one of the founders of the Rebel Alliance , but that was it β those were the only real constraints that we had . " To avoid any perceived constraints , they would travel to the headquarters of Lucasfilm in San Francisco , California to give an overview of their plans . " With The Force Unleashed II , remarked Blackman , " because we β d already established this notion of Darth Vader β s secret apprentice , really it was just sitting down with licensing and saying β this is what we want to do β and getting a few pieces of feedback from them . "
The primary cast from the previous game returns to voice their characters again in The Force Unleashed II . Sam Witwer returns to provide both the likeness and voice of Starkiller , the game 's protagonist . He also voices Emperor Palpatine having earned the part during a read @-@ through of the script during development . Witwer petitioned David Collins , voice of PR0XY and audio lead for the game . He told Collins that " if [ he was not ] going to get Ian McDiarmid to do this [ ... ] I 'll do it . " Actress and model Nathalie Cox reprises her role as Juno Eclipse , as does Cully Fredrickson as General Rahm Kota . Matt Sloan , who portrays Darth Vader in the webseries Chad Vader : Day Shift Manager and voices Vader in the original The Force Unleashed returns to the role in The Force Unleashed II . Veteran Star Wars : The Clone Wars voice actors Tom Kane and Dee Bradley Baker are also included amongst the cast . Kane voices Jedi Master Yoda , a role he has provided several times within the Star Wars franchise . Baker voices bounty hunter Boba Fett , a clone and adopted son of Jango Fett . Baker provides the voice of all of the clone troopers in the Clone Wars series , of which Boba is one .
= = = Technology = = =
The Force Unleashed II derives from LucasArts ' Ronin 2 @.@ 0 game engine , an update to a similarly named proprietary game engine used by its predecessor . Like The Force Unleashed , the game integrates three third @-@ party technologies : Havok for varying types of body physics such as ragdoll animation , NaturalMotion 's Euphoria for realistic non @-@ player character artificial intelligence , and Digital Molecular Matter for dynamic destructible objects . Blackman felt the second game takes better advantage of the powerful engine than does the first game . LucasArts acknowledged players ' frustration with the first game 's targeting system , and worked to revise it in the sequel ; Blackman said fixing the Force grip feature was the developers ' top priority . The game also includes fewer enemy types , instead focusing on making enemies more " ' special and unique ' " ; the game was also designed to offer " epic " boss battles . Other adjustments include allowing players to dismember enemy characters and improving menu speeds .
The game is AMD Eyefinity validated .
= = = = Sound effects = = = =
The audio engine received a massive overhaul to upgrade the quality of sound effects . Brian Tibbetts was declared the lead sound designer of the sound effects team , resuming his endeavors from The Force Unleashed . David Collins , who formerly served as the lead sound designer , sustained a supervisory position . The sound effects team was divided to address specific details ; Tom Bible was in charge of creating sound for weapons and force powers , while Aaron Brown specialized in the spaceships . Although some effects were borrowed from The Force Unleashed , the vast majority of sounds were completely new . Tibbetts thought that collaborating with his peers to be one of the most complex and challenging parts of his job . " I chose to have my office in the main area of game development and always had an open door policy regarding communication with other disciplines . There were many meetings regarding asset changes and in general communication at Lucasarts is good between disciplines . I β ve always stressed that we should work together as much as possible and there were many moments of myself and sound designers working directly with designers , artists , and producers at their desks or ours . "
The nine @-@ month schedule of The Force Unleashed II caused difficulties with Tibbetts , who found it frustrating to keep up with the frenetic schedule . " There are many different ways to integrate our audio assets including scripting or placing sound emitters directly inside environment art and our work was unfortunately blown out many times , " he stated . As production neared its conclusion , Tibbets created an emailing system with a group of engineers that would notify them after audio reference was edited . According to Tibbetts , " This helped a lot especially as the responsible parties didn β t realize or intend to blow us out and were more than happy to help resolve the situation . By the time this tool was built though , we had already had to re @-@ author / integrate excessively though which is always frustrating . "
= = = = Special effects = = = =
Dmitry Andreev devised a framing system that gave the illusion of operating at 60 frames per second ( FPS ) , despite running at 30FPS . To familiarize himself with the process , Andreev observed various 120 Hz television sets that incorporated two frames in producing an intermediate image , resulting in a smoother and clearer picture . The design team utilized a variety of interpolation techniques on multiple parts of an image , such as transparency and reflection . Andreev stated that " as soon as I got back home , I started to play with it and soon after that realised that there are a lot of issues . Mostly the artifacts of a different kind , that appear in more or less complex scenes , as well as performance issues [ ... ] . " In response to the difficulties , he constructed a prototype that performed several enhancement techniques which examined images for vectors that demonstrated how " elements of the image would move from one frame to the next " . The LucasArts coder realized that such processes could be repackaged for a different use . " We already know how things are moving as we have full control over them . This way we don 't need to do any kind of estimation , " he professed .
Interpolating the graphics in 30FPS was opted due to the large variety of rendering technologies that were practical to developers , as well as a less stringent time schedule . Although Andreev felt that it was not impossible to produce a video game in 60FPS graphics , he felt that it would require much more rigorous efforts on art , engineering , and design . " It is fair to say that in a lot of cases , " he explained , " during pre @-@ production , studios try to see what it would take to make a 60FPS game . Then , they get something that doesn 't look very pretty when running at 60 , realising that all the art has to be produced very carefully as well as level and game design . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The Force Unleashed II performed under expectations . In the United States , it sold 500 @,@ 000 copies within its first two weeks , thereby becoming the fifth best @-@ selling video game of October 2010 . The Force Unleashed II was the fifth @-@ highest selling game of the week in the United Kingdom , denoting sales of 56 @,@ 064 copies . In Sweden , The Force Unleashed II was the third best @-@ selling overall game of the week ; the PlayStation 3 version of the game topped its respective chart , while the Xbox 360 version trailed behind Fable 3 as the second @-@ best selling Xbox 360 game of the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
Commentators were divided on The Force Unleashed II . The Wii version of the game was generally considered by reviewers to be the better version of the game , due to the significantly different storyline , extra levels and the addition of a multiplayer mode . This was an unusual occurrence , however most reviewers thought it was simply the most completed version of the game , and that the HD version was rushed , resulting in a less satisfactory product . The Observer columnist Toby Moses avouched that the game failed to live up to the expectations established by its predecessor . Alexander Sliwinski of Joystiq derided it as a " desperate cash grab " , which had no intentions of aspiring to be a " major part of lore or to be nearly as epic " as The Force Unleashed . " It simply cobbles together glorified fan fiction for what amounts to an unexceptional subplot as it abruptly ends in the second act screaming , ' SEQUEL GOES HERE ' , " remarked Sliwinski . Despite proclaiming that The Force Unleashed II had " dazzling " gameplay , The Washington Times ' journalist Joseph Szadkowski concluded that it was " one of the most underachieving games of the year " . In his 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating review , Anthony Gallegos of IGN stated that The Force Unleashed II immediately captivates the audience with its visuals , albeit being plagued with repetitious gameplay , a " shoe @-@ horned in story " , and a nonexistent depth " in the experience " . " Scenery is , of course , massive and massively impressive , and the possible repetitive nature has been broken up with some freefalling levels and the odd exploratory moment , " commented Neil Davey of The Guardian , who issued the game a four out of five stars .
Game Informer ' Andrew Reiner said the game 's mechanics are more fluid than the first game 's , and praised the textures and animations as " among this generation 's best " . GamePro 's Mitch Dyer and Matthew Keast of GamesRadar highlighted the game 's variety of lightsaber crystals and their ability to boost Starkiller 's powers . Keast observed that LucasArts seemed to take player feedback from the first game seriously , and made numerous subtle improvements for the sequel. he also praised " substantial " improvements to the Force grip power , although Alexander Sliwinski of Eurogamer did not detect any improvements . The Writers Guild of America nominated the game for its Outstanding Achievement in Video Game Writing recognition .
John Teti of Eurogamer said the game overall " feels like it was created out of obligation rather than inspiration " , and points toward Blackman 's departure from LucasArts before the game 's release as a potential sign of trouble . IGN 's Anthony Gallegos criticized the game 's repetitive level design and underdeveloped story . He also felt that because Starkiller begins the game as a powerful character , leveling up does not feel as satisfying as in the first game ; while the game does offer increased variety in enemy types that " occasionally present a challenge " , defeating them eventually becomes formulaic . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer criticized the story and the dissatisfying appearances by Boba Fett and Yoda . GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd called the final battle repetitive , and that the game 's end sequence erases the story 's dramatic tension . The Force Unleashed II was later one of GameSpot 's nominees for " Least Improved Sequel of 2010 " . GamePro ' Mitch Dyer faulted several performance issues and the game 's brief , unfocused story . The downloadable content was poorly received by Luke Plunkett of Kotaku , who criticized the expansion 's murder of Han Solo and Chewbacca .
Nintendo Power praised the Wii version 's multiplayer mode , as did Lucas M. Thomas of IGN . GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd was more critical of the multiplayer , calling it " unspectacular " . VanOrd did go on to praise the game 's art , combat , and control scheme .
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= Our Town ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Our Town " is the twenty @-@ fourth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on May 12 , 1995 . It was written by Frank Spotnitz and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Our Town " received a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 and was watched by 9 @.@ 0 million households . The episode received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Dudley , Arkansas is the site of the latest investigation for Mulder and Scully , who are sent to find a missing poultry inspector . The case takes a twist when another poultry worker is shot after she goes insane , giving Mulder a hunch that the townsfolk really are what they eat .
" Our Town " was future executive producer Spotnitz 's first stand @-@ alone episode for the show . Spotnitz was inspired to write the episode after thinking of cannibalism occurring at a chicken processing plant , an idea that he thought was one of the most despicable and vile things . Spotnitz later named the characters after real life cannibals .
= = Plot = =
In Dudley , Arkansas , government health inspector George Kearns follows his seemingly young lover , Paula Gray , into the woods . However , after losing track of Paula , Kearns soon finds himself surrounded by approaching lights in the woods . He is then killed by an axe @-@ wielding assailant wearing a tribal mask .
When Kearns is reported missing ten weeks later and a witness claims to have seen foxfire near Dudley , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate . At the site of the alleged foxfire , the agents find the ground burnt and a witch 's peg staked into the ground . Arens , the local sheriff , arrives and disclaims anything unusual occurring in Dudley . After visiting Kearns ' wife , Doris , the agents discover that he was about to recommend a local chicken plant , Chaco Chicken , to be closed down for several health violations . While giving the agents a tour of the plant , floor manager Jess Harold claims that Kearns held a vendetta against Chaco Chicken . After hearing this , a hallucinatory Paula , who works at the plant , grabs and holds Harold at knife point . Mulder and Scully attempt to reason with Paula until she is shot and killed by Sheriff Arens . The plant 's physician , Dr. Vance Randolph , later claims that Paula was suffering from consistent headaches , which Kearns had also reported .
The agents later see Walter Chaco , Paula 's grandfather and the plant 's owner , who while shaken over Paula 's death gives the agents permission to perform an autopsy . The agents find that while Paula 's personnel file gives her age as 47 , she appears no older than her mid @-@ 20 's . They also discover that Paula suffered from Creutzfeldt β Jakob disease , a rare and fatal illness that causes dementia . When the agents nearly collide with a Chaco Chicken truck , they learn that the driver also suffered from the disease . Noticing the plant 's blood @-@ red runoff in a nearby stream , Mulder orders a reluctant Sheriff Arens to dredge it . They quickly find the bones of nine people , including Kearns . While inspecting the skeletal remains , the agents notice that the skeletons are all missing their skulls , and that the bones appear to have been boiled . Meanwhile , Randolph and Harold discuss the uncovered bones and increase of Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob cases . While Randolph complains about Chaco 's inaction , Harold assures him that he will talk to Chaco .
Using FBI records , Mulder and Scully find that eighty @-@ seven people have vanished within a two @-@ hundred mile radius of Dudley over the past half @-@ century . Mulder suspects that the town 's residents are practicing cannibalism in order to prolong life , possibly explaining Paula 's youthful appearance . Mulder also realizes that Kearns originally had Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob disease , and that the other residents caught the illness after consuming his body . The agents try to search the town 's birth records for confirmation of Paula 's age , but find that they have been destroyed . At Chaco 's mansion , Chaco and Harold meet with Doris , who tearfully implies that she " helped " Chaco kill her husband ; Chaco instructs her to obstruct the FBI 's investigation .
Doris calls Mulder , believing that Chaco wants to kill her ; after she hangs up , she is attacked by the masked figure . Scully goes to help Doris while Mulder searches for Chaco at his mansion . There , he finds the shrunken heads of Kearns and other victims in a cabinet . Mulder calls Scully on the phone and hears her being knocked out by Chaco . She is taken to a secluded field , where Harold has started a bonfire and led the townsfolk in consuming Doris . Chaco berates them for killing one of their own , but Harold chastises him for allowing the Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob epidemic to occur and has Chaco executed by the masked figure . Scully herself is about to be killed when Mulder arrives and shoots the figure ; he is revealed to be Sheriff Arens . Harold tries to shoot Mulder , but is trampled to death by the fleeing townsfolk .
In narration , Scully explains that Chaco 's plant has been closed down by the Department of Agriculture , and that twenty @-@ seven Dudley residents have died from Creutzfeldt @-@ Jakob disease . She reveals that Chaco was ninety @-@ three years old at the time of his death , and had spent time with the allegedly cannibalistic " Jale tribe " after his transport plane was shot down over New Guinea during World War II . She also states that his remains have never been found ; the final scene suggests that Chaco 's remains are being fed to chickens at his plant .
= = Production = =
" Our Town " was written by future executive producer Frank Spotnitz and directed by Rob Bowman . The episode was Spotnitz 's first stand @-@ alone episode for the show . He had wanted to do an episode about cannibalism occurring at a chicken processing plant , thinking it was one of the most despicable and vile things he could imagine . Spotnitz was inspired by the Spencer Tracy movie Bad Day at Black Rock , which is about a town holding a terrible secret . He was also inspired by an article he read at UCLA about salamanders getting sick from eating other salamanders ; Spotnitz 's brother later suggested him to include the theme in the episode .
The concept of discovering human bones that had been boiled in pots was inspired by research done for the episode " Anasazi " . Despite having trouble locating books on cannibalism , Spotniz even named the characters after real life cannibals . Chaco Chicken was based on Chaco Canyon , New Mexico , which is where bones consumed by the Anasazi were found . The idea of cannibals being afflicted by a degenerative neurological disease was inspired by Kuru , a Creutzfeld @-@ Jakob @-@ like prion disease that afflicted the Fore people of Papua New Guinea through cannibalism . Howard Gordon came up with the idea to start the episode with a love affair between George Kearns and Paula Gray . Gary Grubbs , the actor who played the sheriff , was later cast as the fire captain in the 1998 X @-@ Files film .
Of the end result , Spotnitz said " I was very pleased with the way it was executed , and I think it was a good mystery . He later wrote that he " liked [ it ] more as time has gone on . " Director Rob Bowman admitted to being tired and not inspired by the time this episode β the second to last of the season β was produced . This lack of interest later resulted in the episode taking extra time to finish . Bowman later recalled that the most difficult aspect of the episode was filming the climactic human sacrifice scene , if only because of the ceremonial mask featured . He explained , " the mask scared the hell out of me only because I thought , ' Boy , if I don 't shoot this right , it 's going to be silly . "
= = Reception = =
" Our Town " was first broadcast in the United States on May 12 , 1995 , on the Fox Broadcasting Company . In its original broadcast , it was watched by 9 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 9 @.@ 4 rating and a 17 share among viewers , meaning that 9 @.@ 4 percent of all households in the United States and 17 percent of all people watching television at the time , viewed the episode .
The episode received mostly mixed reviews from television critics . In a retrospective review of the second season , Entertainment Weekly gave " Our Town " a C + , describing it as " scary β but mostly because of what transpires in a chicken processing plant . " Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen rated the episode a B β , criticizing the clichΓ©d opening sequence β " Haven 't we seen this before ? Like , a million times , in dozens of horror movies , and even on this very series " β the bland characters and lack of humor . However , he did compliment the fact that the plot explained enough of the villain 's motives and that the episode had " some sense of a community behind everything " . Furthermore , he wrote that the resolution worked well despite again resorting to Scully in danger .
Television Without Pity ranked " Our Town " the fifth most nightmare @-@ inducing episode of the show . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two stars out of five . The two wrote positively of Spotnitz juxtapositions , praising the idea to frame the themes around cannibalism . However , they wrote that " Spotnitz pushes the metaphor too far " , citing the ending scene as evidence . Shearman and Pearson also criticized both Bowman 's directing , noting it lacked the flourishes to make " Spotnitz ' strange black comedy work " , and Mark Snow 's score . They noted that Snow was on " autopilot " and that his soundtrack was " the same horn anthem he gives any character who 's taken a little too much from a tribal culture . " The two further criticized the series ' use of the capture of Scully as a mechanism for Mulder to spring into action .
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= 10 ( MercyMe album ) =
10 is a greatest hits album by American Christian rock band MercyMe . Released on April 7 , 2009 in commemoration of the tenth anniversary of the band 's single " I Can Only Imagine " . The album contains twelve of the band 's number @-@ one singles from five studio albums ( Almost There , Spoken For , Undone , Coming Up to Breathe , and All That Is Within Me ) as well as a re @-@ recording of " I Can Only Imagine " featuring the London Sessions Orchestra , in addition to two other bonus tracks . Additional content , which varies depending on the version of the album , includes music videos , featurettes , and live recordings .
10 received mostly positive reviews from music critics , and the amount of content as well as the videos included with the album received particular praise . It debuted at number 18 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Billboard ranked the album as the 13th best @-@ selling Christian album of 2009 and the 40th best @-@ selling Christian album of 2010 in the United States .
= = Background = =
10 was released to commemorate the tenth anniversary of MercyMe 's single " I Can Only Imagine " . In 1999 , the band was working on an independent record , The Worship Project , and needed one more song to fill out the project . Lead singer Bart Millard wrote the song while reminiscing about his father 's death . Although the band was aiming to produce a worship record of easy @-@ to @-@ sing songs , they included it because it was important to Millard . It was later included on the band 's major @-@ label debut , 2001 's Almost There , where it became a hit on Christian radio before crossing over and becoming successful on mainstream radio in 2003 . Around eight months before the release of 10 , the band had been approached by their label about producing a greatest @-@ hits record . The band was initially against the idea , and according to Millard , they felt it had always meant a band was near the end of their career . However , Millard later remembered he had written the song in 1999 , and the idea shifted from a greatest @-@ hits record to a celebration of the song 's ten @-@ year anniversary , a concept the band was more comfortable with .
= = Content = =
= = = Music = = =
10 includes fifteen songs : twelve of the band 's number @-@ one Christian radio singles ( three each from Undone , Coming Up to Breathe , and All That Is Within Me , two from Spoken For , and one from Almost There ) , as well as three bonus tracks . Live versions of ten of the band 's songs were also included on some versions of the album " I Can Only Imagine ( Symphony Edition ) " was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London with the London Session Orchestra . " Ten Simple Rules " , described as having a " Fifties twist " sound , was originally included as music video on Hoop Dogz , a children 's video DVD . Lyrically , it relates the Ten Commandments . The band had begun playing it in concerts and , according to Millard , it developed a following of fans who wanted it to be put on CD . " Only Temporary " , a rock song with a " distinct southern influence " , was a new track , which the band had not included on any other album or project .
= = = Videos = = =
Physical versions of 10 were released with a ' Sight ' DVD containing video content . In addition to music videos for " I Can Only Imagine " , " So Long Self " , " God with Us " , " You Reign " , and " Finally Home " , it includes live videos for " Word of God Speak " , " Bring the Rain " , and " Hold Fast " that were recorded live throughout the band 's fall 2008 tour by one camera . " Spoken For " and " Homesick " were taken from the band 's 2004 live DVD MercyMe Live , while " In the Blink of an Eye " was taken from the collector 's edition of their 2007 album All That Is Within Me . Two featurettes were also included : " The Making of ' I Can Only Imagine ' " , which had previously appeared on MercyMe Live , and " Gospel Music Channel 's Faith & Fame : MercyMe " , which recounts the band 's career from their early years on . The iTunes version of 10 only includes the two featurettes .
= = Release and commercial performance = =
10 was released on April 7 , 2009 . Several different versions of the album were released . Physically , the album received a release in a two @-@ disc collection , featuring the ' Sound ' CD and ' Sight ' DVD , as well as in a three @-@ disc " Deluxe Edition " including an additional CD of 10 live songs . Digitally , 10 was released to iTunes on October 7 , 2009 , including the sound CD content and live recordings , as well as the two documentaries .
10 sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting at number 18 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart . It spent two weeks atop the Christian Albums chart and 73 weeks on the chart in total . It ranked as the 13th best @-@ selling Christian album of 2009 in the United States and the 40th best @-@ selling Christian album of 2010 in the United States .
= = Critical reception = =
10 received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Jared Johnson of AllMusic gave the album 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and noted it as an ' Album Pick ' , calling it " one of the best and most long @-@ awaited greatest @-@ hits albums in recent memory " . Johnson praised the amount of content , saying " For fans , the videos alone make this worth picking up " . Jenna DeWitt of The Baylor Lariat gave it an A- , praising " I Can Only Imagine ( Symphony Edition ) " as " awe @-@ inspiring " as well as the DVD content , and saying " the only mistake in buying this album is if you are really tired of the extensive radio airplay that these hits have gotten " . Dave Derbyshire of Cross Rhythms gave the album nine out of ten squares , calling it a " brilliant introduction " to the band . His only criticism on the album was that he considered a few of the songs as being overly sentimental . Matt Johnson of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album three out of five stars . Johnson noted the DVD content as being " what really makes this worth your money " , but was critical of the interface ; he also felt the CD content , while solid , did not include enough songs and that the new recordings weren 't particularly impressive . He noted the orchestra and Millard 's vocals as conflicting on the re @-@ recording of " I Can Only Imagine " , but also said that it " takes the song to new heights than previously conceived " . Justin Michael of Sight Magazine gave the album a positive review , calling it " A must for all MercyMe fans , for those who need a hooky melody with a message and for people who love getting a free DVD with their albums ! " ; he also praised the one @-@ camera tour videos , but noted " Ten Simple Rules " is " not their brightest musical moment " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits from the album liner notes
= = Charts = =
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= French cruiser Chanzy =
Chanzy was an Amiral Charner @-@ class armored cruiser built for the French Navy in the 1890s . Upon completion , she served in the Mediterranean Squadron and she was assigned to the International Squadron off the island of Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 to protect French interests and citizens . The ship was in reserve for several years in the middle of the first decade of the 20th century before she was transferred to French Indochina in 1906 . Chanzy ran aground off the Chinese coast in mid @-@ 1907 , where she proved impossible to refloat and was destroyed in place after her crew was rescued without loss .
= = Design and description = =
The Amiral Charner @-@ class ships were designed to be smaller and cheaper than the preceding armored cruiser design , the Dupuy de LΓ΄me . Like the older ship , they were intended to fill the commerce @-@ raiding strategy of the Jeune Γcole .
Chanzy measured 106 @.@ 12 meters ( 348 ft 2 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 04 meters ( 46 ft 1 in ) . The ship had a forward draft of 5 @.@ 55 meters ( 18 ft 3 in ) and drew 6 @.@ 06 meters ( 19 ft 11 in ) aft . She displaced 4 @,@ 748 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 673 long tons ) at normal load and 4 @,@ 990 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 910 long tons ) at deep load .
The Amiral Charner class had two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 16 Belleville boilers and they were rated at a total of 8 @,@ 300 metric horsepower ( 6 @,@ 100 kW ) using forced draft . Amiral Charner had a designed speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and carried up to 535 metric tons ( 527 long tons ; 590 short tons ) of coal that allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ships of the Amiral Charner class had a main armament that consisted of two Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1887 guns that were mounted in single gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Their secondary armament comprised six Canon de 138 @.@ 6 mm Modèle 1887 guns , each in single gun turrets on each broadside . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , they carried four 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) guns , four 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and eight 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) five @-@ barreled revolving Hotchkiss guns . They were also armed with four 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) pivoting torpedo tubes ; two mounted on each broadside above water .
The side of the Amiral Charner class was generally protected by 92 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) of steel armor , from 1 @.@ 3 meters ( 4 ft 3 in ) below the waterline to 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 ft 2 in ) above it . The bottom 20 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) tapered in thickness and the armor at the ends of the ships thinned to 60 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) . The curved protective deck of mild steel had a thickness of 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) along its centerline that increased to 50 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) at its outer edges . Protecting the boiler rooms , engine rooms , and magazines below it was a thin splinter deck . A watertight internal cofferdam , filled with cellulose , ran the length of the ship from the protective deck to a height of 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 4 ft ) above the waterline . Below the protective deck the ship was divided by 13 watertight transverse bulkheads with five more above it . The ship 's conning tower and turrets were protected by 92 millimeters of armor .
= = Construction and career = =
Chanzy , named after General Antoine Chanzy , was ordered from Chantiers et Ateliers de la Gironde on 18 December 1899 and laid down the following month at their shipyard in Bordeaux . She was launched on 24 January 1894 and initially was commissioned for her sea trials on 6 February . These began two days later and revealed so many problems with her engines and boilers that Chanzy was decommissioned for repairs on 6 December . Recommissioned on 1 May 1895 to test the repairs , she entered service on 20 July .
The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Light Division of the Mediterranean Squadron before she was transferred to the 4th Light Division on 18 May 1896 . Chanzy participated in the annual fleet maneuvers that summer before she was placed in reserve for repairs at Toulon in August . The ship began trials on 28 December before she was sent to Crete on 16 February 1897 as part of the French contingent of the International Squadron deployed there during the Greco @-@ Turkish War to protect Western interests and citizens . She remained with the squadron until 25 February 1898 . Upon arriving in France , Chanzy was assigned to the reserve squadron and did little for the rest of the year other than participate in the annual naval maneuvers .
On 1 January 1899 the ship was reassigned to the 1st Light Division and her most notable activities for the year were visits to the Balearic Islands and ports in the Aegean Sea and Middle East . Her main steam pipe fractured on 20 February and injured three crewmen . Chanzy was repaired in time to participate in the annual maneuvers and spent three weeks in September attached to the elderly gunnery ship Couronne before making a cruise to French North Africa . The ship began a brief deployment to the Levant on 1 February 1901 and returned on 4 April for the annual maneuvers before returning to the Levant on 30 October . She arrived back at Toulon on 1 February 1902 and began a long period of relative inactivity that lasted until she was formally placed in reserve when the new armored cruiser Marseillaise replaced her in the squadron in May 1904 .
Chanzy was recommissioned on 15 September 1906 for service with the Far Eastern Squadron and departed on 15 November . She arrived at Saigon , French Indochina , on 10 January 1907 and visited Hong Kong and ports in China , and Japan in April and May . While departing from Shanghai on 20 May in thick fog , she ran aground on rocks off Ballard Island in the Chusan Islands . Her sister ship Bruix and the protected cruisers D 'Entrecasteaux and Alger attempted to pull her off , but could not do so in the heavy seas . Her crew remained aboard attempting to get her off until they were evacuated without loss on 1 June when the ship began to founder and the wreck was demolished by the other cruisers on 12 June .
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= Privy Garden of the Palace of Whitehall =
The Privy Garden of the Palace of Whitehall was a large enclosed space in Westminster , London , that was originally a pleasure garden used by the late Tudor and Stuart monarchs of England . It was created under Henry VIII and was expanded and improved under his successors , but lost its royal patronage after the Palace of Whitehall was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1698 .
From the start of the 18th century onwards , the garden went through major changes as it fell into neglect . It was painted in 1747 by Canaletto during a period of transition , as Westminster was being transformed by the construction of new buildings and roads . By the start of the 19th century it had been redeveloped as the site for a row of townhouses , some of which were occupied by prime ministers seeking homes near the government buildings nearby . The last remnants of the Privy Garden were destroyed in 1938 during the construction of government offices which now house the Ministry of Defence 's headquarters building .
= = Origins and layout = =
The Privy Garden originated in the 16th century as part of the estate of York Place ; Cardinal Wolsey 's London residence . The estate already had a privy , or private , garden that was located behind what is now the Banqueting House . An orchard , which was part of the estate , adjoined it to the south . When Henry VIII seized York Place , he bought more land to the south of the orchard to expand the estate . The old privy garden was cobbled over and later became known as the Pebble Court , while the orchard was converted into a new and much larger Privy Garden , known at first as the " great garden " . At the time , Westminster was not heavily built up as it is now , and York Place β later renamed Whitehall Palace β lay within a suburban area dominated by parks and gardens . St. James 's Park , across the other side of Whitehall , was a royal hunting ground .
Henry 's garden was very ornately decorated , as 16th @-@ century visitors noted . The Spanish Duke of NΓ‘jera wrote of a visit in 1544 in which he saw " a very pleasant garden with great walks and avenues in all directions , containing many sculptures of men and women , children and birds and monsters , and other strange figures in low and high relief . " Von Wedel recorded in 1584 that in the garden were " thirty @-@ four high columns , covered with various fine paintings ; also different animals carved in wood , with their horns gilt , are set on the top of the columns , together with flags bearing the queen 's arms . In the middle of the garden is a nice fountain with a remarkable sun @-@ dial , showing the time in thirty different ways . Between the spaces that are planted in the garden there are fine walks grown with grass , and the spaces are planted very artistically , surrounded by plants in the shape of seats . "
The earliest surviving depiction of the garden , from 1670 , shows a very different layout . By this time the garden had been redesigned in a grid pattern with sixteen squares of grass separated by paths . The relentless expansion of the Palace of Whitehall , which was by now a sprawling jumble of structures , had hemmed in the Privy Garden behind walls and buildings on all sides . A high wall to the west separated it from The Street , the main thoroughfare at the south end of Whitehall that bisected the palace in a north @-@ south direction . To the north , a range of buildings occupied by high @-@ ranking courtiers separated it from the Pebble Court that lay behind the Banqueting House , while to the east the Stone Gallery and state apartments , used by the king 's closest courtiers , blocked it off from the River Thames . The royal apartments were off the Stone Gallery and had a view of the Privy Garden , with a screen in place to prevent passers @-@ by from seeing the naked king in his 7 by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 2 @.@ 1 m ) bathtub . A row of trees on the south side screened it from the Bowling Green , which had been an orchard in Henry VIII 's time but was converted for leisure use after the Restoration . A terrace also separated the Privy Garden from the Bowling Green , but this was removed in 1673 β 4 and part of the Bowling Green was added to the garden .
The Privy Garden was originally created as a private royal pleasure garden and continued to serve a similar purpose during the Interregnum ( 1649 β 1660 ) , when the English Council of State put considerable effort and money into repairing and improving the garden . They appear to have reserved it exclusively for their own use , with their own individual keys for access . By Samuel Pepys ' time , after the Restoration of the monarchy , it had become " a through @-@ passage , and common . " The wall that enclosed the garden was often used by ballad @-@ sellers to display their wares to passers @-@ by , and courtiers used it to air their laundry . Pepys recorded his titillation at the sight of the underwear of Charles II 's mistress , Lady Castlemaine , hanging out to dry in the Privy Garden . A century later , James Boswell wrote in his diary that he had taken a prostitute into the garden and " indulged sensuality " , but he was shocked to find when he got home that she had stolen his handkerchief .
= = Sculptures and other features = =
For a time , each of the grass squares in the garden had a statue in its centre , standing on its own pedestal . They were probably moved there from St James 's Palace in the 1650s but became the target of Puritan zealotry during the Interregnum , due to the perception that they were biblically prohibited " graven images " . A woman named Mary Netherway wrote to Oliver Cromwell to demand that they be taken down , demanding that he " demolish those monsters which are set up as ornaments in [ the ] privy garden , for whilst they stand , though you see no evil in them , yet there is much evil in it , for whilst the crosses and altars of the idols remained untaken away in Jerusalem , the wrath of God continued against Israel . " One man took more direct action ; it was recorded in 1659 that " about this time there was a cook that lived by the Palace Gate , Westminster , that in Sermon time went into Whitehall Garden , and with him carried a smith 's great hammer ; he broke there those goodly statue of brass and marble , which report said they were the neatest made and the best workmanship in Europe , in half an hour 's time [ he ] did above Β£ 500 worth of hurt . "
The statues were eventually taken down when Charles II came to the throne and were either repaired or replaced . A bronze statue of James II by Grinling Gibbons , depicting the king wearing the robes of a Roman emperor , stood just outside the garden in the Pebble Court from 1686 to 1898 ( with a short interruption during the Glorious Revolution ) . It now occupies a spot in Trafalgar Square outside the National Gallery .
A large sundial , set up on the orders of James I , stood in the middle of the garden from 1624 . The dial was designed by Edmund Gunter , professor of astronomy at Gresham College . It consisted of a large stone pedestal with four dials at the four corners and " the great horizontal concave " in the centre , with east , west , north and south dials at the sides . It was subsequently vandalised , allegedly by an intoxicated courtier , and fell into ruin in Charles II 's reign . Andrew Marvell lamented that
In 1669 a new King 's Sun Dial was erected for Charles II , designed by Father Francis Hall , a Jesuit priest . It was an extremely elaborate construction that Hall detailed in a book , Explication of the Diall , that he published in 1673 to explain how it operated . It stood 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high and was constructed of stone , brass and wood , with gilded ironwork and painted glass panels to accompany its 270 component dials . It resembled " a fountain of glass spheres , or a giant candelabrum with tiered , branching arms ending in crystal globes " , which showed not only the hours of the day but " many things also belonging to geography , astrology , and astronomy , by the sun 's shadow made visible to the eye . "
The King was fascinated by astronomy ; his personal association with the science was illustrated by the fact that the sundial was not only his personal pride and joy but was also designed to serve as a symbol of the Stuart family . It had glass portraits mounted on it , depicting Charles , Queen Catherine , the Duke of York , the Queen Mother and Prince Rupert . A watchman was posted to guard it against the kind of vandalism that had wrecked the earlier sundial , but in June 1675 it was severely damaged when it was attacked by John Wilmot , 2nd Earl of Rochester , much to the king 's fury . The fate of the ruined dial is unknown ; it was last recorded standing at Buckingham House ( later Buckingham Palace ) in 1710 .
= = From Privy Garden to Whitehall Gardens = =
After the destruction by fire of the Palace of Whitehall in 1698 , the surroundings of the Privy Garden changed dramatically . Most of the palace buildings had been burned down in the 1698 fire ; others were torn down as the last vestiges of the old Tudor and Stuart Palace were removed . With the demise of the Privy Gallery , the Privy Garden was extended north to include the Pebble Court behind the Banqueting House .
The garden remained in Crown ownership but it became neglected and filthy with the departure of the monarchy from Whitehall . In 1733 the Duke of Richmond and other residents of the surviving properties adjoining the garden petitioned that they be allowed to lease the " void ground " of the garden . The Crown agreed , and in 1734 most of the garden was leased to the Dukes of Richmond and Montagu , the Earl of Loudon and Sir Conyers D 'Arcy .
When Canaletto painted a view of the garden looking north from the Duke of Richmond 's dining room in Richmond House in 1747 , it was a last view of a prospect that was soon to disappear with the demolition of the old palace 's Holbein Gate adjoining the garden . Parliament Street was driven through the western side of the garden in 1750 to connect Whitehall to the Palace of Westminster . At the start of the 19th century the garden 's " decayed wall , long fringed by pamphlets , ballads , and ragged advertisements " was removed and replaced by an iron railing and newly planted trees . Its north side remained " most confused and unpleasant " , terminating in a maze of " fifty narrow passages , formed by sheds , blank walls , the residences of the nobility , and the workshops of the tradesmen . "
The area was ripe for redevelopment by the landholding elite , who wished to have suitably grand townhouses to occupy while attending Parliament and the court . The vestiges of the Privy Garden became the site of a new street . In 1808 a row of houses called Whitehall Gardens was constructed on the site . Behind each house , long grassy gardens planted with rows of trees led directly down to the river , until they were cut off by the construction of the Victoria Embankment along the river bank between 1865 and 1870 . Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli lived in one of the houses between 1873 and 1875 , while Sir Robert Peel lived in another ( and died there in 1850 after falling from his horse on Constitution Hill ) . The trees outside the front entrance to Whitehall Gardens were the last survivors of the original Privy Garden , and stood until as recently as the late 1930s .
Among the houses in Whitehall Gardens were Montagu House and Pembroke House , a Palladian riverside villa with elaborate interiors . The houses were demolished along with the rest of Whitehall Gardens in 1938 , in what the architectural historian John Harris described as " a monstrous act of vandalism " , to make way for the construction of the new offices of the Board of Trade and Air Ministry . The interior decorations of four of Pembroke House 's rooms were saved after its demolition and were reinstalled in the new government offices , now the Ministry of Defence 's Main Building .
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= Prelude to a Million Years =
Prelude to a Million Years : A Book of Wood Engravings is a 1933 wordless novel consisting of thirty wood engravings by American artist Lynd Ward ( 1905 β 1985 ) . It was the fourth of Ward 's six wordless novels , a genre Ward discovered while studying wood engraving in Europe , and delved into under the influence of the works of Frans Masereel and Otto NΓΌckel . The symbol @-@ rich story tells of a sculptor who , in his quest for ideal beauty , neglects the reality of the struggles of his neighbors in the depths of the Great Depression . The engravings are done in a softer Art Deco style in contrast to the German Expressionism @-@ influenced artwork of Ward 's earlier works .
= = Background = =
Lynd Ward ( 1905 β 1985 ) was a son of Methodist minister and social activist Harry F. Ward ( 1873 β 1966 ) . Throughout his career the younger Ward displayed in his work the influence of his father 's interest in social injustice . Ward married writer May McNeer in 1926 and the couple left for Europe , where Ward spent a year studying wood engraving in Leipzig , Germany . There he encountered German Expressionist art and read the wordless novel The Sun ( 1919 ) by Flemish woodcut artist Frans Masereel ( 1889 β 1972 ) .
Ward returned to the United States and freelanced his illustrations . In 1929 , he came across German artist Otto NΓΌckel 's wordless novel Destiny ( 1926 ) in New York City . The work inspired Ward to create a wordless novel of his own , Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) , which he followed with Madman 's Drum ( 1930 ) and Wild Pilgrimage ( 1932 ) . In December 1931 , Ward and McNeer were among the nine cofounders of Equinox Cooperative Press , dedicated to a hands @-@ on approach to bookmaking .
= = Content and style = =
The book opens with a dream sequence in which a sculptor worships before a flower symbolizing beauty . The sculptor struggles to capture his vision of beauty in a sculpture of an idealized woman . In his artistic pursuits he neglects the reality around him and the toll the Depression of the 1930s has taken on the people whose paths he crosses β a neighbor who is beaten by her husband , violent social protest , jingoistic nationalists , and drunkenness . He is engulfed in flames when he returns to his studio trying to flee it all .
Ward returns to the theme of an artist in a decaying culture that he explored in his first wordless novel , Gods ' Man ( 1929 ) , and intended the work as a commentary on how the Depression that had colored outlooks since Gods ' Man ; headlines declaring endless layoffs , strikes , lock @-@ outs , and political spin . To Ward , " Inevitably a process of polarization of the citizenry was set in motion " .
The style has evolved from the angular German Expressionism of Ward 's earlier books to a softer Art Deco one . He uses symbols throughout the book , such as the spinning of a spiderweb to indicate the passage of time , a fire hydrant echoing the emotions of a street riot , towering city buildings for capitalism , and flags for patriotism . The most prominent symbol is a flower , representing the artist 's distracted quest for beauty while he remains indifferent to the turmoil around him .
= = Production , publication , and reception = =
Ward made thirty wood engravings for the book , ranging in size from 5 Γ 3 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 Γ 7 @.@ 6 cm ) to 5 1 β 4 Γ 3 1 β 4 inches ( 13 @.@ 3 Γ 8 @.@ 3 cm ) . It was published in 1933 by the Equinox Cooperative Press , a bookmaking cooperative that Ward had cofounded . The first edition was the third book Equinox published . It was limited to 920 copies and printed from the original woodblocks . It was hand @-@ bound in French folds and a gold foil spine . Modestly priced , it sold well and brought in revenue to sustain Equinox 's other book projects .
Reception was mixed . Reviewer E. L. Tinker praised Ward 's visual mastery , but denigrated Ward 's repetition of plot β the protagonist 's " revolt against the injustices of society his preoccupation with sex , his self @-@ loathing after he has succumbed to the scarlet woman , and his final disillusionment " . Wood engraver John DePol considered Prelude to a Million Years his favorite of Ward 's wordless novels .
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= Nemesis Inferno =
Nemesis Inferno is a steel inverted roller coaster at the Thorpe Park theme park in Surrey , England , UK . Its Layout was conceived and designed by John Wardley and then built by Bolliger & Mabillard with Werner Stengel providing the layout calculations ( as he has with hundreds of roller coasters ) , the same Swiss firm that built the related Nemesis inverted roller coaster at Alton Towers . As a result , Nemesis and Nemesis Inferno are often compared , with Nemesis being cited by many as a superior ride .
The 750 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) Nemesis Inferno is themed around an erupting tropical volcano . The ride stands 29 metres ( 95 ft ) tall , features a top speed of 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) , and four inversions .
= = History = =
In 2002 , after the opening of Colossus , Thorpe Park officially announced the addition of Nemesis Inferno in 2003 . Construction took place throughout 2002 with the first test run being completed in December 2002 . Nemesis Inferno officially opened to the public on 5 April 2003 . According to Nikki Nolan of The Tussauds Group who operated the park at the time , the ride was installed just one year after Colossus to " help transform Thorpe Park into a real thrill park " .
In 2004 , Thorpe Park approached Guinness World Records to set the record for the " Most Naked People on a Rollercoaster " . In May 2004 , 81 students took part in the record , which was set at 28 β the number of seats on a single Nemesis Inferno train . In August 2004 , Nemesis at Alton Towers broke the record with 32 riders .
The roller coaster was used on an episode of The Inbetweeners .
= = Characteristics = =
The 750 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) Nemesis Inferno stands 29 metres ( 95 ft ) tall . With a top speed of 77 kilometres per hour ( 48 mph ) , the ride features four inversions including a vertical loop , a zero @-@ g roll , and a set of interlocking corkscrews . Riders of Nemesis Inferno experience up to 4 @.@ 5 times the force of gravity on the near @-@ two @-@ minute ride . The ride is reported to have cost Β£ 8 million .
Nemesis Inferno operates with two steel and fiberglass trains , each containing seven cars . Each car seats four riders in a single row for a total of 28 riders per train . Two seats on Nemesis Inferno have been modified to cater for larger riders .
The ride is themed around an erupting volcano . The name of the ride suggests that it is related to the original Nemesis , an inverted coaster installed at Alton Towers in 1994 .
= = Ride experience = =
After leaving the station , the train takes a right @-@ hand swing into a dark tunnel , where it is shot with simulated fire . It makes a brief left turn before entering the 29 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 95 ft ) lift hill . At the top , it takes a long left @-@ swing drop into its first inversion , a vertical loop right . This is followed by a zero @-@ g roll , where riders experience a feeling of weightlessness . The ride then turns to the right and enters the first of the interlocking corkscrews , then enters a right @-@ handed , over @-@ banked turn before continuing through the second of the interlocking corkscrews . After a large right turn , followed by a sharp left turn , the car begins to brake . Following a small right turn , it continues to the station .
= = Reception = =
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Nemesis Inferno entered at position 70 in 2003 , before peaking at 51 in 2006 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
Nemesis Inferno is commonly compared with its Alton Towers counterpart , Nemesis , with many citing the latter as the superior ride . Nemesis has ranked favourably in Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , being one of only seven roller coasters to appear in the top 50 steel roller coasters for all 15 years . Nemesis Inferno , on the other hand , has never made an appearance . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll Nemesis Inferno has an average ranking of 80 , while Nemesis ' average ranking is 6 . In a poll conducted by the Los Angeles Times , Nemesis received 37 @.@ 93 % of the vote for title of best roller coaster in England , while Nemesis Inferno received 0 @.@ 32 % . Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy describes Nemesis as " a vastly superior ride " to Nemesis Inferno . Thompson describes Nemesis Inferno as " something a bit better " than his expectations ; however , he was " not sure if it was a particularly good ride or not " .
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= 2007 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2007 Atlantic hurricane season was an active Atlantic hurricane season that produced 17 tropical cyclones , 15 tropical storms , six hurricanes , and two major hurricanes . It officially started on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . The first tropical cyclone , Subtropical Storm Andrea , developed on May 9 , while the last storm , Tropical Storm Olga , dissipated on December 13 . The most intense hurricane , Dean , is tied for the seventh most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded as well as the third most intense Atlantic hurricane at landfall . The season was one of only four on record for the Atlantic with more than one Category 5 storm . It was the second on record in which an Atlantic hurricane , Felix , and an eastern Pacific hurricane , Henriette , made landfall on the same day . September had a record @-@ tying eight storms , although the strengths and durations of most of the storms were low . Aside from hurricanes Dean and Felix , none of the storms in the season exceeded Category 1 intensity .
Pre @-@ season forecasts by Colorado State University called for 14 named storms and 7 hurricanes , of which three were expected to attain major hurricane status . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) later issued its initial forecast , which predicted 13 to 17 named storms , 7 to 10 hurricanes and three to five major hurricanes . After several revisions in the projected number of storms , NOAA and CSU lowered their forecasts by the middle of the season .
Several storms made landfall or directly affected land . Hurricanes Dean and Felix made landfall at Category 5 intensity , causing severe damage in parts of Mexico and Central America , respectively . Both storm names , as well as Noel , the name of a hurricane that affected the Caribbean , were retired from the naming list of Atlantic hurricanes . The United States was affected by five cyclones , although the storms were generally weak ; three tropical depressions and only one tropical storm , Gabrielle , and one hurricane , Humberto , made landfall in the country . Elsewhere , three storms directly affected Canada , although none severely . The combined storms killed at least 423 people and caused about $ 3 billion ( 2007 USD , $ 3 @.@ 42 billion 2016 USD ) in damage .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Noted hurricane experts Philip J. Klotzbach , William M. Gray , and their associates at Colorado State University issue forecasts of hurricane activity each year , separately from NOAA . Klotzbach 's team , formerly led by Gray , determined the average number of storms per season between 1950 and 2000 to be 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , and 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes ( storms exceeding Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 9 to 12 named storms , of which five to seven reach hurricane strength and one to three become major hurricanes .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 8 , 2006 , Klotzbach 's team issued its first extended @-@ range forecast for the 2007 season , predicting above @-@ average activity ( 14 named storms , seven hurricanes , three of Category 3 or higher ) . It listed a 64 percent chance of at least one major hurricane striking the U.S. mainland . This included a 40 percent chance of at least one major hurricane strike on the East Coast , including the Florida peninsula , and a 40 percent chance of at least one such strike on the Gulf Coast from the Florida Panhandle westward . The potential for major hurricane activity in the Caribbean was forecast to be above average , and the team predicted that El NiΓ±o , associated with reduced hurricane activity in the Atlantic , would dissipate by the active portion of the season .
On April 3 a new forecast was issued , calling for a very active hurricane season of 17 named storms , nine hurricanes and five intense hurricanes . The increase in the forecast was attributed to the rapid dissipation of El NiΓ±o conditions . The team also forecast a neutral or weak @-@ to @-@ moderate La NiΓ±a and noted that sea surface temperatures were much higher than average . The estimated potential for at least one major hurricane to affect the U.S. was increased to 74 percent ; the East Coast potential increased to 50 percent , and from the Florida Panhandle westward to Brownsville , Texas , the probability rose to 49 percent . However , the team 's report noted that while they predicted an active season , it was not suggesting that 2007 would be " as active as the 2004 and 2005 seasons " .
= = = Midseason outlooks = = =
On June 19 the UK Met Office ( UKMO ) issued a forecast of 10 tropical storms in the July to November period with a 70 percent chance that the number would be in the range of 7 to 13 . On August 3 , 2007 , Klotzbach 's team lowered its season estimate to 15 named storms , of which eight were to become hurricanes and four to become major hurricanes . Team members noted that conditions had become slightly less favorable for storms than earlier in the year . Sea surface temperature anomalies were cooler , and several Saharan Air Layer events had suppressed development of tropical cyclones . El NiΓ±o @-@ Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) conditions were also noted to have been slightly cooler .
On August 9 , 2007 , NOAA revised its season estimate slightly downwards to 13 to 16 named storms of which seven to nine were to be hurricanes and three to five major hurricanes . However , the agency reaffirmed its prediction of an above @-@ average season , citing warmer @-@ than @-@ normal sea surface temperatures in parts of the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea and the likelihood of La NiΓ±a conditions during the peak of the season .
= = Season summary = =
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 74 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones , such as Andrea or the initial portions of Gabrielle , Jerry , and Olga , are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase .
Only two major hurricanes β storms of Category 3 intensity or higher β formed during the season , the least since the 1997 season , although tied with the 2006 and 2002 seasons . Named storms were active for 33 @.@ 50 days during the season , the lowest number of active days since the 1994 season . There were only 11 @.@ 25 days with active hurricanes , the lowest value since the 2002 season . Despite this , the number of days with major hurricanes was above the long @-@ term average . Four named storms made landfall on the U.S. during the year , but damage from those storms totaled to only about $ 82 million ( 2007 USD ) ; this was the least damage the U.S. saw from any Atlantic hurricane season since the 1990 season . The season was one of only six Atlantic hurricane seasons to produce two Category 5 equivalent hurricanes , the others being the 1932 , 1933 , 1960 , 1961 , and 2005 seasons . The two Category 5 hurricanes , Dean and Felix , had both reached Category 5 strength on two separate occasions , the first time two Atlantic hurricanes have done so in a single season . This was also the first season during which two storms made landfall at Category 5 intensity . When Hurricane Felix was upgraded to a Category 5 storm on September 2 , it became the eighth to form in this basin since 2000 . This gave the decade more hurricanes of such strength than any other on record .
When Tropical Depression Fourteen was upgraded to Tropical Storm Melissa on September 29 , it was the eighth named storm to form in the month of September . That tied a record for the most storms during September , which was first set in 2002 . Hurricane Humberto was the first hurricane to make landfall in Texas since Hurricane Claudette in 2003 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Subtropical Storm Andrea = = =
The first storm of the season , Subtropical Storm Andrea , originated from a large extratropical cyclone that formed off the mid @-@ Atlantic coast on May 6 . It deepened steadily along a cold front that pushed through Florida . When the system lost most of its baroclinic support , development ceased until its low moved into warmer waters near the Bahamas . However , interaction between the low and a strong high @-@ pressure system to the north generated hurricane @-@ force winds in the system . Decreasing vertical wind shear allowed the storm to generate deeper convection much closer to the center . By May 9 the previously extratropical cyclone had transformed into Subtropical Storm Andrea while located about 140 miles ( 225 km ) southeast of Savannah , Georgia . Andrea began its subtropical phase as it was weakening , and continued this deterioration as it moved southward into an environment with higher wind shear . By May 11 , Andrea had lost all significant convection and degenerated into a remnant low . Though it produced intermittent bursts of convection , Andrea 's chance of regeneration was extinguished when an advancing cold front pushed it northward and eventually absorbed the system .
Andrea was short @-@ lived , dissipating on May 11 . It was the first pre @-@ season storm to develop since Tropical Storm Ana in April 2003 and the first Atlantic named storm in May since Tropical Storm Arlene in 1981 . Six people drowned along the Southeast U.S. Coast . However , because Andrea never made landfall , most of the resulting damage was associated with large waves , higher than normal tides , associated coastal flooding , and beach erosion caused by the storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Barry = = =
On June 1 , Tropical Storm Barry developed on the first day of the hurricane season . It originated from a trough of low pressure in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico that previously formed in the northwestern Caribbean . It accelerated to the northeast before reaching a peak intensity of 997 mbar and making landfall on Florida . Barry dissipated on June 2 . In Florida , the rainfall resulted in slick roads , which caused two traffic @-@ related deaths , and a woman was killed after being injured by rough surf .
= = = Tropical Storm Chantal = = =
An area of low pressure formed near the Bahamas on July 28 and gradually began to organize while moving north @-@ northeast . On July 30 it was classified as Tropical Depression Three and was named Tropical Storm Chantal shortly thereafter while south of Nova Scotia . The storm weakened on August 1 and made landfall on Newfoundland ; it later tracked into the North Atlantic as an extratropical storm .
Chantal moved over the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland where flooding was observed , where about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of rain caused the postponement of the annual Royal St. John 's Regatta . Insured damage across the area totaled $ 5 @.@ 8 million ( 2007 CAD ; $ 5 @.@ 5 million 2007 USD , $ 6 @.@ 28 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Dean = = =
On August 11 , a tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa , and , encountering favorable conditions , quickly spawned Tropical Depression Four , roughly 520 miles ( 835 km ) west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde . The depression moved briskly westward , south of a deep layered ridge , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dean on August 14 . The storm continued to strengthen overnight as it gained organization , and became the first hurricane of the season on August 16 . On August 17 the eye of the hurricane passed into the Caribbean between the islands of Martinique and Saint Lucia as a Category 2 hurricane .
In the warm waters of the Caribbean , Dean rapidly strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane with 165 mph ( 266 km / h ) sustained winds . This made it the strongest Atlantic hurricane since Hurricane Wilma β and it was tied for the seventh most intense Atlantic storm of all time . An eyewall replacement cycle weakened Dean , which then passed just south of Jamaica as a Category 4 hurricane . Dean regained Category 5 status late on August 20 and at that strength it made landfall on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula of Mexico near Costa Maya on August 21 . Hurricane Dean was the first storm to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Andrew in 1992 . A dropsonde in the eye of the storm estimated a central pressure of 905 mbar , tying Dean with hurricanes Camille and Mitch for the seventh most intense Atlantic hurricane ever recorded . Dean was the third most intense landfalling Atlantic storm in history ( after the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 and Hurricane Gilbert of 1988 ) . Dean weakened over land , but re @-@ intensified slightly in the Gulf of Mexico . It made its final landfall near Tecolutla , Veracruz on August 22 , dissipating the next day .
In Hispaniola , Dean killed 15 people and destroyed hundreds of homes . Dean also left $ 616 million ( 2007 USD , $ 703 million 2016 USD ) in damage on Martinique and $ 154 million ( 2007 USD , $ 176 million 2016 USD ) on Guadeloupe . In Mexico , Hurricane Dean made landfall on the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula on August 21 as a Category 5 hurricane . Throughout its track , Dean killed 44 people and caused several billion dollars in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Erin = = =
Tropical Storm Erin formed on August 16 in the Gulf of Mexico from a persistent area of convection . Based on reconnaissance data received from an NOAA plane investigating the depression , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Erin on August 15 . It weakened to a tropical depression as it made landfall near Lamar , Texas , on August 16 , and the NHC issued its last advisory on the system shortly thereafter as it moved inland . Early on August 19 after entering Oklahoma , the remnants of Erin suddenly re @-@ intensified to maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) a short distance west of Oklahoma City .
The storm flooded more than 40 homes and businesses . Along its path into the central states , Erin killed 16 people β 9 directly β and left about $ 25 million ( 2007 USD , $ 28 @.@ 5 million 2016 USD ) in total damage .
= = = Hurricane Felix = = =
An area of disturbed weather east of the Windward Islands was designated Tropical Depression Six on August 31 . Early on September 1 , it was named Tropical Storm Felix , and it was upgraded to a hurricane later that day . Tracking generally westward , it rapidly intensified to Category 5 , and after fluctuating in strength , made landfall on Nicaragua with 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) winds . At least 133 deaths and more than $ 50 million ( 2007 USD ) in damage have been attributed to Felix . With Felix , the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season became the only one of its kind known to include two hurricanes making landfall at Category 5 .
Hurricane Felix took a similar path as Hurricane Dean , although its effects were not severe ; damage on Tobago was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 2007 TTD ; $ 40 @,@ 000 2007 USD , $ 45 @.@ 6 thousand 2016 USD ) . Hurricane Felix made landfall just south of the border between Nicaragua and Honduras , in a region historically known as the Mosquito Coast , as a Category 5 hurricane with 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) winds on September 4 . Residents of the region were reported to have been given little warning of the oncoming hurricane , which left many fisherman stranded at sea . In all , Felix killed at least 130 people , and damage in Nicaragua totaled C $ 869 @.@ 3 million ( 2007 NIO ; $ 46 @.@ 7 million 2007 USD , $ 53 @.@ 3 thousand 2016 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Gabrielle = = =
A cold front that moved off the southeastern coast of the United States on September 1 developed a weak low over the waters near Georgia . The low drifted eastward and weakened over the next few days until it joined with convection from an upper @-@ level trough that had been moving over the western Atlantic . On September 8 , the center of circulation became sufficiently organized to be declared Subtropical Storm Gabrielle , about 360 nautical miles ( 670 km ) southeast of Cape Hatteras . For the next twelve hours , the system 's strongest winds and thunderstorms remained separated from the center . On September 8 new convection eventually united with the center , leading the transition of Gabrielle into a tropical storm . Gabrielle gradually strengthened as it traveled northwest towards North Carolina and Virginia . The storm reached its peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) just before it arrived in Cape Lookout , though strong wind shear kept most of the convection and surface winds offshore . Gabrielle weakened over land , and moved back into the Atlantic on September 10 . The circulation deteriorated further , and the storm dissipated southwest of Nova Scotia the next day .
In advance of the storm , tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for coastal areas , while rescue teams and the U.S. Coast Guard were put on standby . The storm dropped heavy rainfall near its immediate landfall location but little precipitation elsewhere . Along the coast , high waves , rip currents , and storm surge were reported . Slight localized flooding was reported . Gusty winds also occurred , though no wind damage was reported . Overall damage was minor , and there were no fatalities .
= = = Tropical Storm Ingrid = = =
A large tropical wave exited Africa on September 6 and initially failed to develop due to strong easterly shear . On September 9 , a broad low pressure area developed about midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . The wind shear slowly weakened , and early on September 12 Tropical Depression Eight developed about 1125 miles ( 1815 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The system moved west @-@ northwestward due to a ridge to its north , and with continued wind shear , it remained a tropical depression for 24 hours before convection increased further . Early on September 13 it intensified into Tropical Storm Ingrid , reaching peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Operationally , it was not upgraded to a tropical storm until that evening .
Ingrid remained a tropical storm until September 15 , when it weakened to a tropical depression due to high shear from a strong tropical upper tropospheric trough . Gradual weakening continued as it passed northeast of the Leeward Islands . Ingrid briefly reorganized on September 16 , before weakening further and degenerating into an open wave early on September 17 . The remnants turned northwestward within the low @-@ level steering flow , and dissipated on September 18 without redevelopment . There were no reports of damage or casualties associated with Ingrid because the storm never threatened land .
= = = Hurricane Humberto = = =
On September 12 , an area of thunderstorm activity in the Gulf of Mexico organized into Tropical Depression Nine , about 60 mi ( 97 km ) southeast of Matagorda , Texas . Within three hours of forming , it was named Tropical Storm Humberto , and it turned to the north @-@ northeast before rapidly intensifying . In the early morning hours of September 13 , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft found that Humberto had strengthened into a hurricane while located about 15 miles ( 20 km ) off the coast of Texas . Humberto quickly weakened and entered Southwest Louisiana as a tropical storm during the afternoon of September 13 , dissipating the next day .
Hurricane Humberto caused some structural damage on High Island and widespread tree and power line damage in the Beaumont @-@ Port Arthur area . Power outages caused four oil refineries to halt production in Beaumont . One person was reported dead as a result of the storm , a Bridge City man killed when his carport crashed on him outside his house . Damage was estimated at $ 50 million .
= = = Tropical Depression Ten = = =
A subtropical depression formed on September 21 in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico from the interaction of a tropical wave , the tail end of a cold front , and an upper @-@ level low . Initially containing a poorly defined circulation and intermittent thunderstorm activity , the system transitioned into a tropical depression after convection increased over the center . Tracking northwestward , the depression moved ashore near Fort Walton Beach early on September 22 , and shortly thereafter it dissipated over southeastern Alabama .
It was the first tropical cyclone to threaten the New Orleans area after the destructive 2005 hurricane season and Hurricane Katrina . Overall impact from the cyclone was minor and largely limited to light rainfall . However , the precursor system spawned a damaging tornado in Eustis , Florida , where 20 houses were destroyed and 30 more were damaged . Damage was estimated at $ 6 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Tropical Storm Jerry = = =
The origins of Jerry were from a non @-@ tropical low pressure area over the central Atlantic on September 21 . The system meandered for two days , gradually developing deeper convection and gaining organization . On September 23 , the National Hurricane Center declared it a subtropical depression , as a warm core had developed but the system was still involved with an upper @-@ level low , and its strongest winds were well removed from the center . Early on September 23 , both satellite estimates and QuikScat data determined that the depression had strengthened into Subtropical Storm Jerry , despite the lack of a well @-@ defined inner core .
The storm slowly acquired tropical characteristics including a better @-@ defined warm core , and Jerry became fully tropical that evening as a weak and sheared tropical storm with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds over a small radius . It accelerated northeastward over cooler waters with sea surface temperatures below 75 Β° F ( 24 Β° C ) . On September 24 , it weakened to a tropical depression ahead of a powerful cold front with little deep convection remaining in the system . That evening , a QuikScat pass determined that Jerry opened up into a trough , which was being absorbed into the larger frontal system . It completely dissipated by early on September 25 . Jerry never approached land during its lifespan , and no damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Hurricane Karen = = =
A very large tropical wave accompanied by a large envelope of low pressure emerged from the coast of Africa on September 21 . As it moved westward , deep convection gradually increased over the disturbance as its broad low @-@ level circulation became better @-@ defined . By September 24 , as the system traveled northwestward it organized enough to become a tropical depression . Six hours later the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Karen .
Karen 's organization and intensity remained steady for the next day . Early on September 26 , however , the storm strengthened significantly . In post @-@ operational analysis the cyclone was determined to have reached hurricane @-@ strength for about twelve hours . The strengthening was short @-@ lived because a sharp upper @-@ level trough to the west of Karen increased the amount of vertical wind shear over the hurricane . By September 28 these unfavorable conditions had weakened Karen to a marginal tropical storm and left its low @-@ level circulation exposed . Meanwhile , the storm began heading northward and experiencing intermittent bursts of deep convection . However , the relentless wind shear exposed the system 's circulation until it dissipated in the mid @-@ Atlantic on September 29 . Karen 's remnants lingered near the Leeward Islands for the next few days , although the system never directly affected land . As a result , no reported damages or casualties were associated with Karen .
= = = Hurricane Lorenzo = = =
A tropical wave moved off the western coast of Africa on September 11 , traversed the Caribbean and crossed the YucatΓ‘n on September 21 . The disturbance developed a small surface low on September 24 while moving erratically over the southwestern Gulf of Mexico . Strong upper @-@ level winds initially prevented the system from developing convection ; however , the shear relaxed on the following day and convection increased . On the evening of September 25 , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft found evidence that the low qualified as a tropical depression . Under weak steering currents , the depression drifted south and southwest , executing a small cyclonic loop into the Bay of Campeche . Upper @-@ level winds gave way to an anticyclone above the depression , and the system became Tropical Storm Lorenzo on September 27 about 130 nautical miles ( 240 km ) east of Tuxpan . Rapid intensification brought Lorenzo to hurricane status early that evening , less than twelve hours after becoming a tropical storm . Lorenzo reached its peak intensity on September 28 , then weakened slightly before making landfall near Tecolutla , Mexico as a minimal hurricane . The small circulation weakened rapidly after landfall , and the system dissipated the next day .
Six deaths in Mexico were attributed to Lorenzo , mostly due to flash floods and mudslides . The states of Puebla and Veracruz reported damage from rain and high winds . Two hundred people were forced to evacuate in Hidalgo when the San Lorenzo River overflowed its banks . Lorenzo made landfall in virtually the same location that Hurricane Dean had struck a month earlier . Damage was estimated at $ 1 billion ( 2007 MXN ; $ 92 million 2007 USD , $ 105 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Tropical Storm Melissa = = =
On September 26 , a tropical wave exited Africa and quickly developed a low pressure area . Following a convective increase and better @-@ defined outflow , it developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen about 115 miles ( 185 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southernmost Cape Verde Islands early on September 28 . Because the depression was isolated from the subtropical ridge , the depression drifted west @-@ northwestward . Westerly wind shear prevented significant development , but following an increase in convection , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Melissa early on September 29 . Similar to previous storms Ingrid and Karen , high wind shear in the deep tropics hindered Melissa 's development , and its peak winds were only 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) ; operationally , satellite imagery suggested the storm reached 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . By September 30 , the shear and cooler waters weakened Melissa to a tropical depression with a poorly defined surface center . The system lost its deep convection and by that afternoon , Melissa degenerated into a remnant low . It continued west @-@ northwestward , producing intermittent convection , until being absorbed by a front northeast of the Lesser Antilles on October 5 . There were no reports of damage or casualties .
= = = Tropical Depression Fifteen = = =
An area of disturbed weather extended from the northwestern Caribbean Sea to the western Atlantic Ocean on October 4 , possibly related to the remnants of Hurricane Karen . The system slowly organized , developing a surface low pressure on October 8 to the northeast of the Turks and Caicos Islands . Convection associated with the storm steadily increased as the low moved towards the northeast . By October 11 , the low organized into Tropical Depression Fifteen about 740 mi ( 1 @,@ 190 km ) east @-@ southeast of Bermuda , after the convection had persisted for about 12 hours . An upper @-@ level low to the west caused strong southwesterly wind shear , which inhibited development .
On October 12 , a building ridge caused the depression to slow at the same time as the convection began decreasing . The storm 's center became exposed as the deep convection became limited to a few small cells north of the center . By that afternoon , the depression degenerated into a remnant low . The remnant low persisted for the next several days while picking up speed and taking a gradual turn towards the northeast . The low transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 14 and intensified , moving through the Azores with gale force winds . It reached winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before being absorbed by a larger extratropical storm on October 18 .
= = = Hurricane Noel = = =
During the evening of October 27 a low pressure system that had been slowly developing over the eastern Caribbean organization into Tropical Depression Sixteen . The next day , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Noel and made landfall on Haiti on October 29 . Noel meandered across the western Caribbean for the next three days ; the storm intensified into a hurricane on November 1 . Tracking northward , it began its transition into an extratropical cyclone on November 2 , becoming fully extratropical on November 4 while over Labrador . As a powerful extratropical cyclone , it crossed back into the Atlantic and began a track towards western Greenland .
Throughout the Caribbean , Hurricane Noel caused severe damage . Torrential rainfall and mudslides caused by the storm killed at least 87 people in the Dominican Republic and at least 73 in Haiti . Noel generated winds of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) in the Wreckhouse region of Newfoundland and Labrador .
= = = Tropical Storm Olga = = =
In the second week of December , after the official end of the hurricane season , a low developed east of the northernmost Lesser Antilles . It slowly acquired tropical characteristics , and late on December 10 , the National Hurricane Center declared it Subtropical Storm Olga while just north of Puerto Rico . It is the first post @-@ season storm since Tropical Storm Zeta in the 2005 season . Olga was only one of a few out of season tropical cyclones to make landfall . The storm made landfall on December 11 on the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic . Later that evening , Olga transitioned into a tropical storm just after making landfall . Olga tracked over Hispaniola and emerged in the Caribbean Sea . Strong wind shear and dry air caused Olga to weaken into a remnant low early on December 13 .
The storm impacted many areas affected by Tropical Storm Noel a month earlier . In Puerto Rico , moderate rainfall caused one death . According to the National Hurricane Center 's Tropical Cyclone Report on Olga , at least 22 occurred due to the release of floodgates at a dam in Santiago Province . Two deaths were also reported in Haiti , and one fatality was confirmed in Puerto Rico . Almost 12 @,@ 000 homes were damaged , of which 370 were completely destroyed .
= = Storm names = =
The names to the right were used for storms that formed in the Atlantic basin in 2007 . This is the same list used in the 2001 season except for Andrea , Ingrid , and Melissa , which replaced Allison , Iris , and Michelle , respectively and were first used in 2007 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
On May 13 , 2008 , at the 30th Session of the World Meteorological Organization 's Regional Association IV Hurricane Committee , the WMO retired the names Dean , Felix , and Noel from its rotating name lists . The names were replaced with Dorian , Fernand , and Nestor for the 2013 season .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . It mentions all of the season 's storms and their names , landfall ( s ) , peak intensities , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of such being a traffic accident or landslide ) , but are still related to that storm . The damage and death totals in this list include impacts when the storm was a precursor wave or post @-@ tropical low , and all of the damage figures are in 2007 USD .
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= HMS Resolution ( 1892 ) =
HMS Resolution was a Royal Sovereign @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy . The ship was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , starting with her keel laying in June 1890 . She was launched in May 1892 and , after completing trials , was commissioned into the Channel Squadron the following December . She was armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and a secondary battery of ten 6 @-@ inch guns . The ship had a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots .
Resolution served with the Channel Squadron up to 1901 ; she took part in the Diamond Jubilee Fleet Review and a number of manoeuvres in the Atlantic and the Southwest Approaches . She was recommissioned as a coast guard ship later in 1901 and underwent a refit in 1903 , after which she served at Sheerness as a port guard ship , before entering the Fleet Reserve at Chatham in June 1904 . She suffered damage while participating in combined manoeuvres in 1906 , and was recommissioned into the Special Service Division of the Home Fleet the following year . She was decommissioned in August 1911 and laid up at Motherbank for disposal , before being sold for scrap in April 1914 and towed to the Netherlands to be broken up the following month .
= = Design = =
The Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships were based on Admiral @-@ class barbette ships , but contained several alterations . The freeboard was raised , the barbettes ' armour was extended and an upper belt and secondary armour were added . They could also obtain a higher speed , but were 4 @,@ 000 tonnes larger . Resolution was 410 feet ( 120 m ) long overall and had a beam of 75ft and a draft of 27ft 6in . She displaced up to 15 @,@ 580 tonnes at her full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by eight coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers . With natural draught , her engines provided a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots at 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ; 16 @.@ 5 knots at 11 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower could be obtained with forced draught . She had a maximum complement of 712 officers and enlisted men , although her crew in 1903 amounted to 672 people . When built , ships of the Royal Sovereign class rolled too heavily under certain conditions . Bilge keels were added to compensate for the problem , and the ships " proved to be excellent seaboats quite capable ... of maintaining high speeds in a seaway " . The ships were well @-@ constructed and probably the most substantial built for the Royal Navy , even if they " suffered ... from excessive weight and fittings . " In the view of the maritime historian R. A. Burt , they were " highly successful ; at that time , they were probably unequalled in all @-@ round fighting efficiency . "
Resolution was armed with four breech @-@ loading 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns on two barbettes with armour ranging from 11 to 17 inches in thickness . Resolution also carried ten quick @-@ fire ( QF ) 6 @-@ inch guns , four of which were mounted in casemates on the main deck , plus sixteen QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and twelve QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . She was also equipped with seven 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two of which were submerged . Between 1899 and 1902 , the 3 @-@ pounder guns were removed from the upper tops ; the above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed in 1902 β 05 . The remaining 6 @-@ inch guns on the upper deck were mounted on 5 @-@ inch armoured casemates between 1902 and 1904 . All of the armour was supplied by the builders , Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company . The waterline belt was 252ft long by 8ft 8in deep , and its armour varied in thickness between 14 and 18 inches ; the bulkheads were protected by 14 to 16 inches of armour . The middle deck covering the belt was 3 inches thick and the lower deck forward and aft of the belt was 2 @.@ 5 inches thick , while the upper belt between the middle and main decks was coated in 3 to 4 inches of armour . The casemates for the 6 @-@ inch guns were protected by an equal thickness of armour and the conning tower was protected with 14 inch armour on the forward side , and 3 inches of armour on the aft . The ship 's armoured deck was 2 @.@ 5 to 3 inches thick .
= = Operational history = =
Resolution was built by Palmer Shipbuilding and Iron Company , at a cost of Β£ 875 @,@ 522 , plus Β£ 78 @,@ 295 for guns . She was laid down on 14 June 1890 , launched on 28 May 1892 and completed the following November . She underwent trials in December 1893 , and was commissioned at Portsmouth on 5 December of that year for service in the Channel Squadron . In early August 1894 , Resolution was a unit of " Fleet Red " in the annual manoeuvres held in the Southwest Approaches . She was recommissioned for further Channel Fleet service on 9 April 1895 . On 18 July 1896 , she collided with her sister ship HMS Repulse , suffering slight plating and keel damage . She nonetheless took part in annual manoeuvres from 24 July 1896 to 30 July 1896 , this time off the south @-@ west coasts of England and Ireland as part of " Fleet A " .
On 26 June 1897 , Resolution was part of the Fleet Review at Spithead for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria . From 29 July 1899 to 4 August 1899 , she participated in annual manoeuvres in the Atlantic as part of " Fleet A " . The next summer , she again took part in the annual manoeuvres in the Southwest Approaches in late @-@ July and early August , this time as a part of " Fleet A2 " . She paid off at Portsmouth 9 October 1901 and was placed in reserve , but she was recommissioned to serve as a coast guard ship at Holyhead with the officers and crew of the previous guardship , Colossus . On 8 April 1903 , she paid off into reserve again to undergo a refit .
Resolution was recommissioned on 5 January 1904 to relieve battleship HMS Sans Pareil as port guard ship at Sheerness . On 20 June 1904 , she was transferred to the Fleet Reserve at Chatham . In the summer of 1906 , she took part in manoeuvres during which she suffered slight damage when she collided with her sister ship HMS Ramillies near the Tongue Lightship on 15 July 1906 . Later that year , she underwent another refit at Chatham . On 12 February 1907 , Resolution transferred to the Special Service Division of the Home Fleet at Devonport . She remained in that service until 8 August 1911 . She was then laid up at the Motherbank , awaiting disposal . On 2 April 1914 , Resolution was sold as scrap for Β£ 35 @,@ 650 to F. Rijsdijk ; the following month , she was towed to the Netherlands to be broken up .
= = Gallery = =
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= 2000 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2000 Atlantic hurricane season was the first Atlantic hurricane season without a tropical cyclone in the month of July since 1993 . The hurricane season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . It was slightly above average due to a La NiΓ±a weather pattern . The first cyclone , Tropical Depression One , developed in the southern Gulf of Mexico on June 7 and dissipated after an uneventful duration . However , it would be almost two months before the first named storm , Alberto , formed near Cape Verde ; Alberto also dissipated with no effects on land . Several other tropical cyclones β Tropical Depression Two , Tropical Depression Four , Chris , Ernesto , Nadine , and an unnamed subtropical storm β did not impact land . Five additional storms β Tropical Depression Nine , Florence , Isaac , Joyce , and Leslie β minimally effected land areas .
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Keith , which caused extensive damage in Central America . After remaining nearly stationary offshore , Keith moved inland over the Yucatan Peninsula and later made a second landfall in Mexico at hurricane intensity . It caused $ 319 million ( 2000 USD ) in damage and 40 fatalities , mostly in Belize . The precursor to Tropical Storm Leslie brought severe flooding to South Florida , which losses reaching $ 950 million ( 2000 USD ) . Hurricane Gordon and Tropical Storm Helene both caused moderate damage in the Southeastern United States , mainly in Florida . Tropical Storm Beryl caused minor damage in Mexico and Hurricane Debby resulted in less than $ 1 million ( 2000 USD ) in damage in the Greater and Lesser Antilles . Hurricane Michael brought widespread effects to Atlantic Canada , though a specific damage toll is unknown .
= = Season summary = =
= = = Season outlooks = = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , and separately by forecasters with the U.S. Government 's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . According to CSU , the average season between 1950 and 2000 had 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , and 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes ( storms exceeding Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 9 to 12 named storms , of which five to seven reach hurricane strength and one to three become major hurricanes .
Noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray on April 7 predicted eleven named storms , with eight reaching hurricane strength and three of the eight reaching Category 3 strength . The prediction issued on June 7 was similar , increasing the named storms to twelve , eight hurricanes , and four major hurricanes . On May 10 , NOAA issued a season outlook , which gave the indication of an above @-@ average season . According to NOAA , the global scale atmospheric circulation pattern which was taking place was conducive to an above @-@ average hurricane season . However , La NiΓ±a was present it the Eastern Pacific , which was a factor in the activity in the season . NOAA issued a 75 % chance of above average activity .
After the season started on June 1 , CSU issued a mid @-@ season forecast on August 4 , which predicted 11 named storms , 7 hurricanes , and 3 major hurricanes . Six days after the CSU prediction , NOAA also released a mid @-@ season outlook , forecasting exactly the same amount of activity , 11 named storms , 7 hurricanes , and 3 major hurricanes . With a 75 % percent chance of above average activity , there was an elevated risk of landfalling hurricanes .
= = = Season activity = = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 2000 . It was an above average season in which 19 tropical cyclones formed . Fifteen depressions attained tropical storm status , and eight of these attained hurricane status . Three hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . The season was above average most likely because of an ongoing La NiΓ±a in the Pacific Ocean . Three hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 77 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in damage ( 2000 USD ) . Hurricane Florence and Isaac and Tropical Storm Leslie also caused damage and fatalities , though none of the three made landfall . The last storm of the season , an unnamed subtropical storm , dissipated on October 29 , over a month before the official end of hurricane season on November 30 .
Tropical cyclogenesis first occurred in the month of June , with two tropical depressions developing in the Atlantic . However , no tropical cyclones developed in the month of July , the first phenomenon since 1993 . In August , five tropical cyclones developed , most notably , Hurricane Alberto . September was more active , with seven named storms forming ; that month featured Hurricane Keith , the strongest system of the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season . In addition , a quick succession of eight storms occurred in September , and lasted into early October . Six tropical cyclones existed in October and one additional subtropical storm developed in the last week of the month . Following an active October , no tropical cyclogenesis occurred in November , which is the final month of the season .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 119 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones , including the unnamed storm as well as the initial stages of Florence , Leslie , and Michael , are excluded from the total .
= = = Season timeline = = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on May 23 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea . The system had entered into the Gulf of Mexico on June 6 . Another tropical wave merged with the system on June 7 and developed into a low pressure area in the Gulf of Mexico . Later that day , the National Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression One . Though the depression was predicted to intensify into a tropical storm , strong wind shear produced by an upper @-@ anticyclone prevented significant strengthening .
The depression tracked slowly and erratically through the Gulf of Mexico . By late on June 8 , a reconnaissance plane flight indicated that the depression had degenerated into a low pressure area . The remnants of the depression produced gusty winds and light to moderate rainfall along the Gulf Coast of Mexico ; some areas in the state of Tamaulipas reported precipitation amounts as high as 7 @.@ 18 inches ( 182 mm ) . In addition , heavy precipitation was reported in south @-@ central Texas .
= = = Tropical Depression Two = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Two on June 23 . Although it was well @-@ organized , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories on the depression until 1500 UTC on June 24 , since it operationally appeared that a surface circulation did not exist until then . However , the depression was less organized after the National Hurricane Center began advisories . Having formed at 19 @.@ 8 Β° W , it was one of the easternmost developing tropical cyclones in the month of June , even further east than Tropical Storm Ana in 1979 and Tropical Depression Two in 2003 . Though light wind shear and marginally warm sea surface temperatures were in the path of the depression , no significant intensification occurred as it tracked generally westward . The depression began encountering a stable air mass , and degenerated back into a tropical wave on June 25 .
= = = Hurricane Alberto = = =
A well @-@ developed tropical wave was observed in satellite imagery over central Africa on July 30 . The system tracked westward and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on August 3 . Thereafter , the system rapidly organized , and developed into Tropical Depression Three at 1800 UTC that day . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Alberto early on August 4 . While briefly turning westward on August 6 , Alberto reached hurricane status . It tracked west @-@ northwestward , and by early the following day , the storm reached an initial peak with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , Alberto re @-@ curved northwestward . Wind shear then increased , which caused Alberto to weaken to a tropical storm on August 9 . However , it quickly re @-@ strengthened , and early on August 10 , Alberto was upgraded to a hurricane again . Due to a break in a subtropical ridge , Alberto gradually curved northward and north @-@ northeastward between August 11 and August 12 . While turning northeastward , Alberto strengthened into a Category 3 hurricane , becoming the first major hurricane of the season . By 1200 UTC on August 12 , Alberto attained its peak intensity with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) .
Increasing upper @-@ level westerlies caused Alberto to weaken as it moved east @-@ northeastward , with the cyclone losing most of its convection . Early on August 14 , Alberto was downgraded to a tropical storm . A westerly trough that had been guiding Alberto outran the storm , and strong ridging developed to the north and west . As a result , Alberto turned southward on August 15 , southwestward on August 16 , and then to the west on August 17 . While curving northwestward and then northward , Alberto began to re @-@ strengthen , and was upgraded to a hurricane for the third occasion on August 18 . Alberto reached a third peak intensity as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 205 km / h ) on August 20 . After weakening back to a Category 1 hurricane , Alberto had completed a cyclonic loop , which it had started on August 13 . Due to decreasing ocean temperatures , Alberto was again downgraded to a tropical storm on August 23 as it accelerated northeastward . Six hours later , Alberto transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while centered about 780 miles ( 1 @,@ 260 km ) south @-@ southwest of ReykjavΓk , Iceland .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
An area of low pressure detached from a frontal zone on August 4 and moved southwestward . After developing a minimal amount of deep convection , an Air Force Reserve Command reconnaissance aircraft found a well @-@ defined low level circulation on August 8 . The depression then moved westward without intensifying for two days . On August 10 , the depression was about 80 miles ( 130 km ) east of Cape Canaveral , Florida when it abruptly turned northeastward in advance of a deep @-@ layer trough over the eastern United States . After minimal strengthening , the depression dissipated to the north of the Bahamas on August 11 . While a tropical cyclone , a reconnaissance flight reported winds of 56 mph ( 91 km / h ) at 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) . However , it was not upgraded to a tropical storm since the aforementioned wind speed did not represent the intensity of the depression .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
A tropical wave emerged from the coast of Africa with a closed circulation on August 3 . The system split , with the northern portion developing into Hurricane Alberto , while the southern portion of the wave continued westward . Minimal deep convection persisted until the wave reached the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula on August 12 . After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on the following day , satellite imagery and a reconnaissance aircraft flight indicated that the system developed into Tropical Depression Five at 1800 UTC . Early on August 13 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl . Despite predictions for Beryl to reach hurricane status , it remained disorganized and peaked as a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm .
By 0700 UTC on August 15 , Beryl made landfall about 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of La Pesca , Tamaulipas , Mexico with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Beryl quickly weakened inland , and was downgraded to a tropical depression five hours after moving inland . Shortly thereafter , Beryl dissipated while centered near Monterrey . In Mexico , Beryl dropped light to moderate rainfall , especially in the state of Tamaulipas , which peaked at 9 @.@ 76 inches ( 248 mm ) . One person drowned due to flood waters in northeastern Mexico . Damage was light , totaling to $ 27 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ) . In southern Texas , Beryl brought light precipitation to some locations . Cloud cover and rainfall in the Brownsville area resulted in the coldest maximum temperature recorded for the city on the date of August 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Chris = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on August 12 . Although large amounts of deep convection accompanied the system , it was displaced from the poorly defined center . Over the next few days , convection consolidated and by 1200 UTC on August 17 , the system began as Tropical Depression Six , while centered about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Outflow was initially limited due to light wind shear , though the depression was forecast to become a strong tropical storm by August 20 . It was " highly surprising " to the National Hurricane Center that the depression did not immediately begin to intensity , despite warm sea surface temperatures and light wind shear . Because of a burst in deep convection , as well as satellite imagery estimating winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Chris at 1200 UTC on August 18 .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Chris attained its peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 008 mbar ( 29 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Because wind shear was believed to be weak , further intensification seemed very likely . Unexpectedly , Chris weakened back to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC on August 18 , after having been a tropical storm for only six hours . However , the National Hurricane Center operationally held Chris at tropical storm intensity until early on the following day . Convection was nearly non @-@ existent early on August 19 , though there were a few small bursts in convection . Later that day , a reconnaissance aircraft flight into the storm found no circulation , while a QuikSCAT pass indicated an open wave . As a result , Chris dissipated while east of the northernmost Leeward Islands at 1200 UTC on August 19 .
= = = Hurricane Debby = = =
A strong tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on August 16 . No development occurred until August 19 , when convection began consolidating around a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation . As a result , the system became Tropical Depression Seven at 1800 UTC on that same day , while located about 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Windward Islands . Favorable conditions allowed the depression to become Tropical Storm Debby early on August 20 and further strengthening into a hurricane occurred 24 hours later . At 1200 UTC on August 21 , sustained winds peaked at 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Debby made three landfalls on August 22 , in Barbuda , Saint BarthΓ©lemy , and Virgin Gorda , before re @-@ entering the Atlantic north of Puerto Rico . As Debby paralleled the north coast of Hispaniola late on August 23 , it weakened to a tropical storm . Unexpectedly , the storm continued westward and weakened further , instead of approaching Florida and strengthening into a major hurricane . While south of eastern Cuba on August 24 , Debby was downgraded to a tropical depression , six hours becoming completely dissipating .
Light rainfall and gusty winds caused minor damage in Barbuda , Saint Martin , and Trinidad and Tobago . Brief blackouts and damage reaching $ 200 @,@ 000 was reported in the United States Virgin Islands . Effects were most severe in Puerto Rico , where some areas experienced more than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rainfall . Mudslides caused by flooding damaged roads , bridges , and houses . At 406 homes on the island were flooded , which five suffering at least moderate damage . In San Juan , slick roads caused several minor car accidents . One indirectly fatality was attributed to the storm after a man fell off his roof while attempting to remove a satellite dish . Damage on the island of Puerto Rico reached $ 501 @,@ 000 . According to the Civil Defense Force of Dominican Republic , severe flooding in the northern portions of that country caused the evacuation of more than 700 people . In Haiti , squalls tore tin roofs off of numerous shanty homes and subsequently flooded a few . Rainfall in Cuba brought relief to an 8 month long drought in eastern Cuba .
= = = Tropical Storm Ernesto = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 28 . While tracking west @-@ northwestward , satellite imagery indicated a developing low @-@ level circulation . After significant deep convection formed , the system was classified as Tropical Depression Eight at 1200 UTC on September 1 . Because of potentially unfavorable wind shear , only slight intensification was forecast . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward under the influence of a subtropical ridge to its north . Because of satellite intensity estimates of sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , increased deep convection , and improvements in outflow , the depression became Tropical Storm Ernesto at 0600 UTC on September 2 .
As it strengthened into a tropical storm , Ernesto attained its peak intensity with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 008 mbar ( 29 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Because of vertical shear , the low @-@ level circulation did not become well @-@ defined . Because convection was being sheared away from the center , the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility of Ernesto weakening back to a tropical depression , though forecasts indicated otherwise . Later that day , no significant change in intensity was predicted , as persistent wind shear seemed to be weakening Ernesto , though the SHIPS and GFDL computer models called for significant strengthening . Although deep convection re @-@ developed near the center early on September 3 , no intensification occurred . At 1800 UTC on September 3 , Ernesto weakened to a tropical depression . Six hours later , Ernesto dissipated to the east @-@ northeast of the Leeward Islands .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine = = =
A low @-@ level trough and a cluster of convection associated with a tropical wave interacted in the Gulf of Mexico in early September 2000 . A disorganized low @-@ level center developed and thus , the system was classified as Tropical Depression Nine while located 185 miles ( 295 km ) south of Lake Charles , Louisiana on September 7 . Due to close proximity to land , the depression was unable to intensify into a tropical storm and attained a maximum wind speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The depression weakened slightly before making landfall near Sabine Pass , Texas on September 9 . Eight hours later , the depression dissipated while barely inland .
The depression brought light to moderate rainfall to Louisiana , Mississippi , Arkansas , Alabama , and Texas , though it was generally less than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . A few areas in southern Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama reported precipitation in excess of 6 inches ( 150 mm ) ; rainfall associated with the depression peaked at 6 @.@ 70 inches ( 170 mm ) in Buras @-@ Triumph , Louisiana . However , the depression caused no damage or fatalities .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
A cold front moved off the continent of North America in early September . The system spawned a low pressure area that gradually developed into a subtropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 10 , while located about 325 miles ( 525 km ) west @-@ southwest of Bermuda . It rapidly acquired tropical characteristics and became Tropical Depression Ten at 0600 UTC on September 11 . Thereafter , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Florence at 1200 UTC on that day and reached hurricane status only six hours later . Drier mid @-@ tropospheric air weaken Florence to a tropical storm , but re @-@ strengthen into a hurricane later on September 12 .
Due to a combination of north @-@ northwesterly shear and lower sea surface temperatures , Florence again weakened on September 13 and was downgraded to a tropical storm . After moving erratically for almost five days , Florence accelerated east @-@ northeastward in response to a short @-@ wave trough on September 15 . The storm soon began to re @-@ intensify , becoming a hurricane early on September 16 . Shortly thereafter , Florence curved northeastward . However , colder sea surface temperatures weakened it to a tropical storm September 17 . Early on the following day , Florence was absorbed by an extratropical low near Newfoundland . Rip current along the East Coast of the United States drowned three people in North Carolina . Tropical storm force winds were reported in Bermuda , though no damage occurred .
= = = Hurricane Gordon = = =
A tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa on September 4 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean with minimal organization for four days . After slowly developing convection between September 8 and September 14 , an Air Force Reserve reconnaissance aircraft reported a closed circulation . As a result , the system was classified as Tropical Depression Eleven just offshore Quintana Roo . Shortly thereafter , the depression made landfall in Quintana Roo . On September 15 , the system emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . Due to warm sea surface temperatures , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Gordon on the following day and further to hurricane intensity on September 17 while tracking northeastward . However , vertical wind shear and dry air entrainment weakened Gordon to a tropical storm later that day . At 0300 UTC on September 18 , Gordon made landfall near Cedar Key , Florida with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Gordon rapidly weakened inland and was only a tropical depression when it was absorbed by a frontal system over Georgia about 15 hours later .
While passing through the Lesser Antilles , the precursor tropical wave caused locally heavy rainfall and wind gusts between 29 and 35 mph ( 47 and 56 km / h ) . Shortly before developing into a tropical cyclone , flooding in mountainous areas of Guatemala caused 23 fatalities . In its early stages , Gordon produced locally heavy rainfall in Cuba and the Yucatan Peninsula . The storm produced abnormally high tides along the west coast of Florida , which caused widespread , but minor coastal flooding . At least 65 homes and businesses were flooded , while numerous coastal roads , including Bayshore Boulevard and the Courtney Campbell Causeway , were closed due to water inundation . One fatality occurred near Pensacola , after a surfer drowned in rough seas . Strong winds in the state caused damage to houses , businesses , power lines , and trees . Two tornadoes in Southwest Florida extensively damaged 2 condominiums and at least 24 houses . A third tornado along the east coast of Central Florida caused minimal damage to trees and roofs . Minor flooding occurred in some areas due to rainfall reaching 9 @.@ 48 inches ( 241 mm ) in Mayo . In North Carolina , flooding caused two indirect fatalities when a car lost control and crashed into a tractor trailer . In other states , light rainfall caused mostly minor effects . Overall , Gordon was responsible for $ 10 @.@ 8 million in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Helene = = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 10 and gradually developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 15 , while located more than 600 miles ( 970 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . It did not intensify and degenerated to a tropical wave on the following day . The remnants continued westward and crossed the Leeward Islands on September 17 . Late on September 19 , the remnants redeveloped into Tropical Depression Twelve near Grand Cayman . Around 1200 UTC on September 20 , the depression crossed near the western tip of Cuba . Entering the Gulf of Mexico , the depression began strengthening , and became Tropical Storm Helene at early on September 21 , while tracking northward . Later that day , Helene peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , though due to increasing wind shear , the storm soon began to weaken . At 1200 UTC on September 22 , Helene made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Although the storm weakened slightly inland , it later began re @-@ strengthening and became a tropical storm over North Carolina late on September 23 . After re @-@ emerging into the Atlantic Ocean , Helene re @-@ intensified to near hurricane status , though the storm was absorbed by a cold front on September 26 , while east @-@ southeast of Newfoundland .
The remnant tropical wave produced strong winds and flooding in the Lesser Antilles . Effects were the worst in Puerto Rico , where flash flooding and mudslides destroyed one houses and damaged at least 100 others . In addition , a bridge was also destroyed and many other roads were impassable due to flooding . Impact in Cuba , Jamaica , and Hispaniola is unknown . A combination of gusty winds , locally heavy rainfall , and a few tornadoes in the Florida Panhandle caused about 5 @,@ 000 power outages , damaged more than 220 homes , and destroyed 2 houses and 4 mobile homes . Heavy rainfall caused the Sopchoppy River to exceed its banks , flooding nearby houses . Outside of Florida , effects were most severe in South Carolina , where rainfall in excess of 9 inches ( 230 mm ) fell , and a tornado caused one fatality , six injuries , and damaged 12 houses . The other death in the state occurred when a car hydroplaned and crashed into a tree , which killed the driver . Throughout its path , Helene caused slightly more than $ 16 million in damage .
= = = Hurricane Isaac = = =
A well @-@ defined tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 20 . The cloud pattern quickly became better @-@ defined , and developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen on September 21 while centered south of Cape Verde . The depression quickly intensified due to low wind shear and became Tropical Storm Isaac early on September 22 as it headed west @-@ northwestward . Isaac continued to strengthen and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 23 . After reaching a preliminary peak with winds of 120 mph ( 200 km / h ) , the structure of the storm became less organized , possibly due to slightly colder ocean temperatures and increased wind shear . By 1200 UTC on September 26 , Isaac ceased weakening after winds dropped to 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . The storm began to re @-@ strengthen on September 27 after wind shear decreased .
On September 28 , Isaac peaked as a low @-@ end Category 4 hurricane with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . Following its peak intensity , Isaac began to weaken immediately thereafter , while turning north @-@ northwestward . Eventually , the storm turned northward before re @-@ curving north @-@ northeastward . Further weakening occurred after Isaac moved over decreasing sea surface temperatures and dropped down to Category 1 intensity by September 30 , while accelerating northeastward . On October 1 , Isaac was downgraded to a tropical storm shortly before transitioning into extratropical later that same day . The extratropical remnants affected the British Isles between October 3 and October 4 . Minimal impact was reported from Isaac . One fatality occurred when a passenger drowned after his boat capsized due to large waves produced by Isaac offshore Long Island , New York .
= = = Hurricane Joyce = = =
A poorly organized tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 22 . Over the next three days , the system tracked westward and slowly began to develop a closed circulation . By September 25 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories . Convection became further organized , and the depression continued to intensity . Twelve hours after becoming a cyclone , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Joyce early on September 26 . Joyce continued to strengthen and became a hurricane by September 27 . On the following day , a pinhole eye appeared , and shortly thereafter , Joyce peaked as a strong Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) on September 28 .
After peak intensity on September 28 , wind shear and a possible intrusion of dry air caused Joyce to become disorganized and weaken . Late on September 29 , Joyce was downgraded to a tropical storm while centered well east of the Lesser Antilles . Though it was always predicted to re @-@ intensify , Joyce continued to weaken and became a tropical depression on October 1 while crossing through the southern Windward Islands . Early on the following day , Joyce unexpectedly degenerated back into an open tropical wave over the southeast Caribbean Sea . The remnants were monitored for regeneration , but never developed back into a tropical cyclone . Overall , impact from Joyce was minimal , limited to mainly rainfall and near @-@ tropical storm force winds in Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados . The remnants of Joyce also caused similar effects on the ABC islands and Dominican Republic , which resulted in minor damage .
= = = Hurricane Keith = = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 16 . The system uneventfully crossed the Atlantic and Caribbean , before developing into Tropical Depression Fifteen while near Honduras on September 28 . The depression gradually strengthened , and became Tropical Storm Keith on the following day . As the storm tracked westward , it continued to intensify and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 30 . Shortly thereafter , Keith began to rapidly deepen and peaked as a 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane less than 24 hours later . Keith then began to meander erratically offshore of Belize , which significantly weakened the storm due to land interaction . By late on October 2 , Keith made landfall in Ambergris Caye , Belize as a minimal hurricane . It quickly weakened to a tropical storm , before another landfall occurred near Belize City early on the following day . While moving inland over the YucatΓ‘n Peninsula , Keith weakened further , and was downgraded to a tropical depression before emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on October 4 . Once in the Gulf of Mexico , Keith began to re @-@ strengthen and was upgraded to a tropical storm later that day , and a hurricane on the following day . By late on October 5 , Keith made its third and final landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas , Mexico as a moderately strong Category 1 hurricane . The storm quickly weakened inland and dissipated as a tropical cyclone by 24 hours after landfall .
Keith brought heavy rainfall to several countries in Central America , which resulted in extensive flooding , especially in Belize and Mexico . In Guatemala , the storm flooded 10 towns , and caused one fatality . Similarly , one fatality also occurred in El Salvador , and at least 300 people were affected by flooding in that country . Thirteen communities in Nicaragua were completely isolated after Keith made roads impassable . Twelve deaths were reported in Nicaragua , all of which were flood @-@ related . Five people were presumed dead in Honduras after an aircraft disappeared near RoatΓ‘n ; one other fatality occurred due to flooding . The storm brought torrential rainfall to Belize , with many areas reporting at least 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain , while highest reported amount of precipitation was 32 @.@ 67 inches ( 830 mm ) in Belize City . In Belize , a village reported that only 12 houses remained , while elsewhere in the country , at least 60 homes were destroyed or damaged ; several houses in Belize City suffered minor roof damage . At least 19 people were killed in Belize and damages totaled to $ 280 million ( 2000 USD ) . Heavy rainfall also occurred in Mexico , especially in the states of Nuevo LeΓ³n and Tamaulipas . Flooding by Keith caused several mudslides and a few rivers reached historic levels . Throughout Mexico , at least 460 houses were damage or destroyed and other losses in infrastructure occurred . In addition , one person drowned due to heavy rainfall . Damages incurred in associated with Keith in Mexico totaled approximately $ 365 @.@ 9 million ( 2000 MXN , $ 38 @.@ 7 million 2000 USD ) . Overall , Keith was responsible for 40 deaths and $ 319 million ( 2000 USD ) in damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Leslie = = =
A tropical wave , which likely spawned Hurricane Isaac , entered the eastern Caribbean Sea on September 27 . The system slowly organized while tracking westward and later moved to the north @-@ northwest around Hurricane Keith . Eventually , the system moved northward into the Gulf of Mexico and the Straits of Florida . The system interacted with a frontal boundary while crossing Florida on October 3 and October 4 , which caused torrential rainfall . Satellite imagery indicated the development of a circulation near Orlando . Because of its structure , the system became a subtropical depression at 1200 UTC on October 4 . About six hours later , the subtropical depression emerged into the Atlantic and low @-@ level circulation gradually moved toward the deep convection while tracking eastward . By 1200 UTC on October 5 , the subtropical depression was reclassified as Tropical Storm Leslie . While fully tropical , Leslie strengthened slightly and peaked with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . However , it soon began interacting with a cold front and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 7 , while located northwest of Bermuda .
The system dropped heavy rainfall in Cuba , peaking at 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 210 mm ) in the Havana Province . While the precursor crossed Florida , it produced torrential rainfall across southern Florida , especially in the Miami metropolitan area . In Miami @-@ Dade County alone , 1 @,@ 005 houses were destroyed , 1 @,@ 358 were severely damaged , and 3 @,@ 443 had minor damage . Throughout the state , at least 93 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Electrical stations were also damaged by floods , leaving more than 27 @,@ 000 people without power . Extensive agricultural damage occurred , with 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km Β² ) of farmland inundated by water . Overall , the precursor system of Leslie resulted in about $ 950 million ( 2000 USD ) in damage , slightly more than half of that figure was agriculture related . Additionally , three fatalities occurred , two of which due to drowning , while the third was a man that fell while attempting to unclog a roof drain . The remnants of Leslie caused near tropical storm force winds and waves up to 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) in Newfoundland , though damage in the region was minimal .
= = = Hurricane Michael = = =
A low pressure system developed after detaching from a cold front while between Florida and Bermuda . The low pressure area slowly formed a circulation and began to deepen on October 14 as it drifted north @-@ northeastward . By October 15 , the system developed into a subtropical depression while centered about midway between Florida and Bermuda . Later that day , satellite classifications using the Hebert @-@ Poteat technique indicated that the subtropical depression had strengthened into a subtropical storm , and it was upgraded at 0000 UTC on October 16 . Due to SST 's in excess of 82 Β° F ( 28 Β° C ) , the subtropical storm developed persistent convection near the low @-@ level center and it slowly acquired tropical characteristics . By 0000 UTC on October 17 , the subtropical storm was re @-@ classified as Tropical Storm Michael . Three hours later , the National Hurricane Center began advisories on Michael , though initially it was erroneously classified as Tropical Depression Seventeen .
Although Michael was predicted intensify modestly , it rapidly strengthened , and became a hurricane later on October 17 . Michael fluctuated slightly in intensity while tracking over an area of decreasing SST 's . However , another brief period of rapid intensification occurred due to baroclinic effects , and Michael peaked as a minimal Category 2 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , Michael transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before making landfall near Harbour Breton , Newfoundland . Throughout Newfoundland , Michael and the remnant extratropical cyclone produced high winds , which tore off roofs , ripped off roof shingles , caused sporadic power outages , shattered windows , and uprooted trees in a few communities . Precipitation produced by the storm was light and peaked at 3 @.@ 77 inches ( 96 mm ) in North Mountain , Nova Scotia . Michael also produced rainfall in Maine and Bermuda . There were no damage figures available , though damage was considered to be relatively light .
= = = Tropical Storm Nadine = = =
In mid @-@ October , a strong upper @-@ level trough and a tropical wave interacted while located in the central Atlantic . The system moved slowly westward and convection began increasing . By October 19 , the system became stationary and developed a surface circulation . Later that day , Tropical Depression Eighteen developed about 690 miles ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) southeast of Bermuda . Initially , the depression lacked a well @-@ defined center , though a broad circulation was evident . The depression tracked slowly northward and then northeastward around a subtropical ridge and ahead of a cold front . As wind shear decreased , convective activity became better organized on October 20 . By 1200 UTC on that day , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Nadine . Although it was strengthening , QuikSCAT suggested that the low @-@ level circulation was falling apart , as it appeared to be merging with the cold front .
At 0000 UTC on October 21 , Nadine attained its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Around the time of peak intensity , a possible eye @-@ like feature and an impressive outflow were observed on satellite imagery . As a result , the National Hurricane Center noted the possibility , but did not exclusively forecast Nadine to strengthen into a hurricane . However , shortly thereafter , wind shear increased and the storm resembled a frontal wave and appeared to possibly be interacting with the cold front . The cloud pattern then became ragged , while the low @-@ level circulation moved toward the southern edge of the deep convection . By 0000 UTC on October 22 , Nadine transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and merged with a frontal low about 18 hours later .
= = = Unnamed Subtropical Storm = = =
On October 25 , an extratropical low pressure system formed to the east of the Turks and Caicos Islands . It moved northwestward and gradually intensified , and by 1800 UTC the system transitioned into a subtropical storm . It turned to the north and later to the northeast . A burst of convection near the center allowed the storm to attain peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) ; due to its forward motion , it is possible the surface winds reached as high as 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . An approaching cold front caused the storm to become extratropical on October 29 , and later that day a larger extratropical storm absorbed the previously subtropical storm near Nova Scotia .
The Marine Prediction Center issued some marine gale and storm warnings offshore , while the National Weather Service issued gale warnings for coastal North Carolina . It was not designated as a subtropical cyclone operationally . The storm produced tropical storm force winds in portions of Atlantic Canada , although it was associated with the larger extratropical storm at the time . Several ships also recorded tropical storm force winds , one of which recorded peak winds of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for system that attained at least tropical storm intensity within the Atlantic basin in the year 2000 . Although this was the same list used for the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season , storms were named Joyce , Leslie , Michael , and Nadine for the first time in 2000 due to inactivity in the former . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
= = = Retirement = = =
During the meeting in spring of 2001 , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Keith from the list above due to its high impact and replaced with the name Kirk for use in the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . Although the name Kirk was not used during 2006 , instead it was used during the 2012 season . The remaining storm names were re @-@ listed for the 2006 season .
= = Season impact = =
This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) β denoted by bold location names β damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 2000 USD .
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= Judah P. Benjamin =
Judah Philip Benjamin , QC ( August 11 , 1811 β May 6 , 1884 ) was a lawyer and politician who was a United States Senator from Louisiana , a Cabinet officer of the Confederate States and , after his escape to the United Kingdom at the end of the American Civil War , an English barrister . Benjamin was the first Jew to be elected to the United States Senate who had not renounced the religion , and the first of that faith to hold a Cabinet position in North America .
Benjamin was born to Sephardic Jewish parents from London , who had moved to St. Croix in the Danish West Indies when it was occupied by Britain during the Napoleonic Wars . Seeking greater opportunities , his family emigrated to the United States , eventually settling in Charleston , South Carolina . Benjamin attended Yale College but left without graduating and moved to New Orleans , where he read law and passed the bar .
Benjamin rose rapidly both at the bar and in politics . He became a wealthy slaveowner and served in both houses of the Louisiana legislature prior to his election to the Senate in 1852 There , he was an eloquent supporter of slavery , and resigned as senator after Louisiana left the Union in early 1861 . He returned to New Orleans , but soon left when Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed him Attorney General . Benjamin had little to do in that position , but Davis was impressed by his competence and appointed him Secretary of War . Benjamin firmly supported Davis , and the President reciprocated the loyalty by promoting him to Secretary of State in March 1862 while Benjamin was being criticized for the rebel defeat at the Battle of Roanoke Island .
As Secretary of State , Benjamin attempted to gain official recognition for the Confederacy by France and the United Kingdom , but his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful . To preserve the Confederacy as military defeat made its situation increasingly desperate , he advocated freeing and arming the slaves , but his proposals were not accepted until it was too late . When Davis fled the Confederate capital of Richmond in early 1865 , Benjamin went with him , but left the presidential party and was successful in escaping , whereas Davis was captured by Union troops . Benjamin made his way to Britain and became a barrister , again rising to the top of his profession before retiring in 1883 . He died in Paris the following year .
= = Early and personal life = =
Judah Philip Benjamin was born on August 11 , 1811 , in St. Croix of the Danish West Indies ( today the United States Virgin Islands ) , a colony then occupied by the British during the Napoleonic Wars . His parents were Sephardic Jews , Philip Benjamin and the former Rebecca de Mendes . Philip and Rebecca had been shopkeepers in London , and emigrated to the West Indies in search of better opportunities . Rebecca 's family had been prominent in Spain before being forced to leave under the Expulsion Edict of 1492 .
Judah , the third of seven children , was given the same name as an older brother who died in infancy . Following a tradition adhered to by some Sephardi , he was named for his paternal grandfather , who performed the brit milah , or circumcision ceremony . The Benjamins encountered hard times in the Danish West Indies , as normal trade was blocked by the British occupation . In 1813 the Benjamin family moved to Fayetteville , North Carolina , where they had relatives . Philip Benjamin was not financially successful there , and around 1821 moved with his family to Charleston , South Carolina . That city had the largest Jewish community in the United States and a reputation for religious tolerance . Philip was learned in his faith but was again unsuccessful in business ; Rebecca earned money for the family by operating a fruit stand near the harbor .
Judah and two siblings were boarded with relatives in Fayetteville for about 18 months after the rest of the family moved to Charleston . He attended the Fayetteville Academy , a well @-@ regarded school where his intelligence was recognized . In Charleston , his father was among the founders of the first Reform congregation in the United States , with shorter services conducted in English rather than Hebrew . Philip was ultimately expelled from that community , as he did not keep the Sabbath , and the extent of Judah 's religious education is uncertain . The boy 's intelligence was noted by others in Charleston , one of whom offered to finance his education .
At the age of 14 , in 1825 , Benjamin entered Yale College , an institution popular among white Southerners ; Vice President John C. Calhoun , a South Carolinian , was among its alumni . Although Benjamin was successful as a student at Yale , he left abruptly in 1827 without completing his course of study . The reasons for this are uncertain : in 1861 , when Louisiana left the Union and Benjamin resigned as a U.S. senator , an abolitionist newspaper alleged that he had been caught as a thief at Yale . He considered bringing suit for libel but litigation was impractical . In 1901 , his sole surviving classmate wrote that Benjamin had been expelled for gambling . One of his biographers , Robert Meade , considered the evidence of wrongdoing by Benjamin to be " too strong to be ignored " , but noted that at the time Benjamin left Yale , he was only 16 years old .
After a brief return to Charleston , Benjamin moved to New Orleans , Louisiana . According to Rabbi Bernard W. Korn 's volume on that city 's Jews , he " arrived in New Orleans in 1828 , with no visible assets other than the wit , charm , omnivorous mind and boundless energy with which he would find his place in the sun " . After working in a mercantile business , he became a clerk for a law firm , where he began to read law , studying as an apprentice . Knowledge of French was important in practicing law in Louisiana , as the state 's code is and was based on French and Spanish law . To earn money , he tutored French Creoles in English ; he taught the language to Natalie BauchΓ© de St. Martin on the condition that she teach him French . In late 1832 , at age 21 , he was admitted to the bar .
Early the following year , Benjamin married Natalie , who was Catholic and from a wealthy French Creole family . As part of her dowry , she brought with her $ 3 @,@ 000 and two female slaves , aged 11 and 16 ( together worth about $ 1 @,@ 000 ) . Even before the marriage , Natalie St. Martin had scandalized New Orleans society by her conduct , and William De Ville , in his journal article on the Benjamin marriage contract , suggests that the " St. Martin family was not terribly distraught to be rid of their young daughter " and that " Benjamin was virtually suborned to marry [ Natalie ] , and did so without hesitation in order to further his ambitions " .
The marriage was not a success . By the 1840s , Natalie Benjamin was living in Paris with the couple 's only child , Ninette , whom she raised as a Catholic . Benjamin would visit them annually . While a senator , in the late 1850s he persuaded Natalie to rejoin him and expensively furnished a home in Washington for all three to live in . Natalie and their daughter soon embarked again for France . Benjamin , publicly humiliated by his failure to keep Natalie , consigned the household goods to auction . There were rumors , never substantiated , both that Benjamin was impotent , and that Natalie was unfaithful .
Benjamin 's troubled married life has led to speculation that he was gay . Daniel Brook , in a 2012 article about Benjamin , suggests that early biographies read as though " historians are presenting him as an almost farcically stereotypical gay man and yet wear such impervious heteronormative blinders that they themselves know not what they write " . These conjectures were not given scholarly weight until 2001 , when in an introduction to a reprinting of Meade 's biography of Benjamin , Civil War historian William C. Davis acknowledged " cloaked suggestions that he [ Benjamin ] was a homosexual " .
= = Louisiana lawyer = =
Within months of his admission to the bar , Benjamin argued his first case before the Supreme Court of Louisiana and won . Still , clients were slow to come in his first years in practice , and he had enough free time to compile and publish , with Thomas Slidell , the Digest of the Reported Decisions of the Superior Court of the Late Territory of Orleans and the Supreme Court of the State of Louisiana in 1834 , which required the analysis of 6 @,@ 000 cases . The book was an immediate success and helped launch Benjamin 's career . When Slidell published a revised edition in 1840 , he did so alone , as Benjamin was too busy trying cases to allow him to participate .
Benjamin became a specialist in commercial law , of which there was a great deal in New Orleans ' busy river port β a center of international commerce and the domestic slave trade . By 1840 , the city had become the fourth largest in the United States and among the wealthiest . Many of the best lawyers in the country practiced commercial law there , and Benjamin successfully competed with them . In one case , he successfully represented the seller of a slave against allegations that the seller knew the slave had incurable tuberculosis . Although Benjamin tried some jury cases , he preferred bench trials in commercial cases and was an expert at appeals .
In 1842 , Benjamin had a group of cases with international implications . He represented insurance companies being sued for the value of slaves who had revolted aboard the ship Creole in 1841 , as they were being transported in the coastwise slave trade from Virginia to New Orleans . The rebels had sailed the ship to Nassau in the Bahamas , British territory , where most were freed , as Britain had abolished slavery . The owners of the slaves brought suit for $ 150 @,@ 000 against their insurers , who declined to pay . Benjamin made several arguments , the most prominent of which was that the slaveowners had brought the revolt on themselves by packing the slaves in overcrowded conditions .
Benjamin asked in his brief to the court :
What is a slave ? He is a human being . He has feelings and passion and intellect . His heart , like the heart of the white man , swells with love , burns with jealousy , aches with sorrow , pines under restraint and discomfort , boils with revenge , and ever cherishes the desire for liberty ... Considering the character of the slave , and the peculiar passions which , generated by nature , are strengthened and stimulated by his condition , he is prone to revolt in the near future of things , and ever ready to conquer his liberty where a probable chance persons itself .
The court ruled for Benjamin 's clients , although on other grounds . Benjamin 's brief was widely reprinted , including by abolitionist groups . Historian Eli Evans , Benjamin 's biographer , does not believe that the argument in the Creole case represented Benjamin 's personal view ; rather , he was an advocate for his clients in an era when it was usual to write dramatically to distract attention from the weaker points of a case . Evans finds it remarkable and a testament to Benjamin that he could be elected to office in antebellum Louisiana , a slave society , after writing such words ; however , this may reflect more our present understanding of an antebellum slave society than their reality .
= = Electoral career = =
= = = State politician = = =
Benjamin was a supporter of the Whig Party from the time of its formation in the early 1830s . He became increasingly involved in the party , and in 1841 ran unsuccessfully for the New Orleans Board of Aldermen . The following year , he was nominated for the Louisiana House of Representatives . He was elected , though the Democrats alleged fraud : Whig supporters , to obtain the vote at a time when the state had a restrictive property qualification for suffrage , acquired licenses for carriages . A voter did not have to demonstrate that the carriage existed , but his license had to be accepted as evidence of ownership by election officials . The Democratic press blamed Benjamin as the strategist behind this maneuver . In 1844 , the legislature voted to hold a constitutional convention , and Benjamin was chosen as a delegate from New Orleans . At the convention , Benjamin successfully opposed counting a slave as three @-@ fifths of a human being for purposes of representation in state elections , as was done in federal elections . His position prevailed , and slaves were not counted at all for electoral purposes in Louisiana state elections . According to Evans , his " tact , courtesy , and ability to find compromises impressed the political elders in all corners of the state " .
Rabbi Myron Berman , in his history of Jews in Richmond , describes the attitude of antebellum white Southerners toward Jews :
Hidden beneath the free and easy relationships between Jew and Gentile in the antebellum South was a layer of prejudice that derived from historic anti @-@ Semitism . The obverse of the picture of the Jew as the Biblical patriarch and apostle of freedom was the image of the Judas @-@ traitor and the Shylock @-@ materialist who preyed on the misfortunes of the country . But the high incidence of Jewish assimilation , the availability of the black as a scapegoat for social ills , and the relative absence of crises β economic and otherwise β were factors which repressed , at least temporarily , the latent anti @-@ Jewish feeling in the South .
By the early 1840s , Benjamin was wealthy from his law practice and , with a partner , bought a sugar cane plantation , Bellechasse . This purchase , and the subsequent construction of a grand house there , advanced Benjamin 's ambitions ; the planter class controlled Louisiana politics and would only trust a man who also owned substantial land and slaves . The Benjamin marriage was by then failing , and he hoped in vain that his wife would be content at the plantation . Benjamin threw his energy into improving Bellechasse , importing new varieties of sugar cane and adopting up @-@ to @-@ date methods and equipment to extract and process the sugar . He purchased 140 slaves to work the plantation , and had a reputation as a humane slaveowner .
Benjamin scaled back his involvement in politics in the late 1840s , distracted by his plantation and law practice . His mother Rebecca , whom he had brought to New Orleans , died in 1847 during a yellow fever epidemic . In 1848 , Benjamin was a Whig member of the Electoral College ; he voted for fellow Louisiana planter , General Zachary Taylor , who was elected U.S. President . He and other Louisianans accompanied President @-@ elect Taylor to Washington for his inauguration , and Benjamin attended a state dinner given by outgoing president James K. Polk . In 1850 , Millard Fillmore , who succeeded Taylor after his death earlier that year , appointed Benjamin as judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California . He was confirmed by the Senate , but he declined the appointment as the salary of $ 3 @,@ 500 was too small . The following year , Benjamin assisted the United States Attorney in New Orleans in prosecuting American adventurers who had tried to spark a rebellion against Spanish rule in Cuba , but two trials both ended in hung juries .
= = = Mexican railroad = = =
Benjamin became interested in strengthening trade connections between New Orleans and California , and promoted an infrastructure project to build a railroad across the Mexican isthmus near Oaxaca . This would speed passenger traffic and cargo shipments . According to The New York Times , in an 1852 speech to a railroad builders ' convention , Benjamin said this trade route " belongs to New Orleans . Its commerce makes empires of the countries to which it flows . " Benjamin lobbied fellow lawmakers about the project , gained funds from private New York bankers , and even helped organize construction crews . In private correspondence he warned backers of problems ; project workers suffered yellow fever , shipments of construction materials hit rough seas , and actions or inaction by both U.S. and Mexican officials caused delays and increases in construction costs . Backers had invested several hundred thousand dollars by the time the project died after the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 .
= = = Election to the Senate = = =
Benjamin spent the summer of 1851 abroad , including a visit to Paris to see Natalie and Ninette . He was still away in October 1851 , when the Whigs nominated him for the state Senate . Despite his absence , he was easily elected . When the new legislature met in January 1852 , Benjamin emerged as one of the leading Whig candidates for election to the U.S. Senate seat that would become vacant on March 4 , 1853 . As the Louisiana legislature , responsible for electing the state 's senators , met once in two years under the 1845 constitution , it was not scheduled to meet again before the seat became vacant . Some Whig newspapers thought Benjamin too young and inexperienced at forty , despite his undoubted talent , but the Whig legislative caucus selected him on the second ballot , and he was elected by the two houses over Democrat Solomon W. Downs .
The outgoing president , Fillmore , offered to nominate Benjamin , a fellow Whig , to fill a Supreme Court vacancy after the Senate Democrats had defeated Fillmore 's other nominees for the post . The New York Times reported on February 15 , 1853 that " if the President nominates Benjamin , the Democrats are determined to confirm him . " The new president , Franklin Pierce , a Democrat , also offered Benjamin a place on the Supreme Court . Pierce Butler , a future Supreme Court justice , suggested in his 1908 biography of Benjamin that the newly elected senator likely declined these offers not only because he preferred active politics , but because he could maintain his law practice and substantial income as a senator , but could not as a justice . As an advocate before the U.S. Supreme Court , Benjamin won 13 of his first 18 cases .
Judah Benjamin was sworn in as senator from Louisiana on March 4 , 1853 , at a brief meeting called just prior to President Pierce 's inauguration . These new colleagues included Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois , Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia , and Sam Houston of Texas . The slavery issue was in a brief remission as much of the country wished to accept the Compromise of 1850 as a final settlement . When the Senate was not in session , Benjamin remained in Washington , D.C. , conducting a lucrative practice including many cases before the Supreme Court , then conveniently located in a room of the Capitol . His law partners in New Orleans took care of his firm 's affairs there . About this time Benjamin sold his interest in Bellechasse , lacking the time to deal with plantation business .
= = = Spokesman for slavery = = =
Benjamin 's view that slavery should continue was based in his belief that citizens had a right to their property as guaranteed by the Constitution . As Butler put it , " he could no more see that it was right for Northern people to rob him of his slave than it would be for him to connive at horse stealing " . He avoided the arguments of some that the slaves were inferior beings , and that their position was ordained by God : Evans ascribes this to Benjamin not being raised as a slaveowner , but coming to it later in life . Benjamin joined in a widespread view of white Southerners that the African American would not be ready for emancipation for many years , if ever . They feared that freeing the slaves would ruin many and lead to murders and rapes by the newly liberated of their former masters and mistresses . Such a massacre had been feared by Southerners since the Haitian Revolution , the violent revolt known as " Santo Domingo " in the South , in which the slaves of what became Haiti killed many whites and mulattoes in 1804 while gaining independence from French control . When the anti @-@ slavery book Uncle Tom 's Cabin was published in 1852 , Benjamin spoke out against Harriet Beecher Stowe 's portrayal . He said that slaves were for the most part well treated , and plantation punishments , such as whipping or branding , were more merciful than sentences of imprisonment that a white man might receive in the North for similar conduct .
In early 1854 , Senator Douglas introduced his Kansas β Nebraska Bill , calling for popular sovereignty to determine whether the Kansas and Nebraska territories should enter the Union as slave or free states . Depending on the outcome of such elections , slavery might spread to territories closed to it under the Compromise of 1850 . In the debate over the bill , Benjamin defended this change as returning to " the traditions of the fathers " , that the federal government not legislate on the subject of slavery . He said that the South merely wished to be left alone . The bill passed , but its passage had drastic political effects , as the differences between North and South that had been settled by the Compromise were reopened . The Whig Party was torn apart North from South , with many Northern Whigs joining the new Republican Party , a group pledged to oppose the spread of slavery . Benjamin continued to caucus with the remains of the Whig Party through 1854 and 1855 , but as a member of a legislative minority , he had little influence on legislation , and received no important committee assignments .
In May 1856 , Benjamin joined the Democrats , stating they had the principles of the old @-@ time Whig Party . He indicated , in a letter to constituents , that as Northern Whigs had failed to vote to uphold the rights granted to Southern states in the Constitution , the Whigs , as a national party , were no more .
At a state dinner given by Pierce , Benjamin first met Secretary of War Jefferson Davis , whose wife Varina described the Louisiana senator as having " rather the air of a witty bon vivant than of a great senator " . The two men , both ambitious for leadership in the South and the nation , formed a relationship that Evans describes as " respectful but wary " . The two had occasional differences ; when in 1858 , Davis , by then a Mississippi senator , was irritated by Benjamin 's questioning him on a military bill and suggested that Benjamin was acting as a paid attorney , the Louisianan challenged him to a duel . Davis apologized .
Benjamin , in his speeches in the Senate , took the position that the Union was a compact by the states from which any of them could secede . Nevertheless , he understood that any dissolution would not be peaceful , stating in 1856 that " dreadful will be the internecine war that must ensue " . In 1859 , Benjamin was elected to a second term , but allegations of involvement in land scandals and the fact that upstate legislators objected to both of Louisiana 's senators being from New Orleans stretched the contest to 42 ballots before he prevailed .
= = = Secession crisis = = =
Benjamin worked to deny Douglas the 1860 Democratic presidential nomination , feeling he had turned against the South . Douglas contended that although the Supreme Court , in Dred Scott v. Sandford , had stated Congress could not restrict slavery in the territories , the people of each territory could pass legislation to bar it . This position was anathema to the South . Benjamin praised Douglas 's opponent in his re @-@ election bid , former congressman Abraham Lincoln , for at least being true to his principles as an opponent of the expansion of slavery , whereas the senator considered Douglas to be a hypocrite . Benjamin was joined in his opposition to Douglas by Senator Davis ; the two were so successful that the 1860 convention was not able to nominate anyone and split into Northern and Southern factions . The Northerners backed Douglas while Southern delegates chose Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky . Despite their agreement in opposing Douglas , Benjamin and Davis differed on some race issues : in May , Benjamin voted for a bill to aid Africans liberated by U.S. naval vessels from illegal slave ships , in order to return them to their native continent from Key West . Davis and many other Southerners opposed the bill .
Between June and December 1860 , Benjamin was almost entirely absorbed in the case of United States v. Castillero , that was tried in San Francisco during the latter part of that period . The case concerned a land grant by the former Mexican government of California . Castillero had leased part of his land to British mining companies , and when American authorities ruled the grant invalid , they hired Benjamin ; he spent four months in San Francisco working on the case . The trial began in October , and Benjamin gave an address lasting six days . The local correspondent for the New York Times wrote that Benjamin , " a distinguished stranger " , drew the largest crowds to the courtroom and " the Senator is making this terribly tedious case interesting " . Benjamin sailed for New York once the case was submitted for decision in early November . The court 's ruling , rendered in January 1861 , was substantially for the company but , not satisfied , it appealed . It lost the case entirely to an adverse decision by the U.S. Supreme Court , three justices dissenting , the following year . Benjamin was by then a Confederate Cabinet officer , and could not argue the case . His co @-@ counsel filed his brief with the court .
By the time Benjamin returned to the East Coast , the Republican candidate , Lincoln , had been elected president , and there was talk , in Louisiana and elsewhere , of secession from the Union . The New Orleans Picayune reported that Benjamin favored secession only in the last resort . On December 23 , 1860 , another Louisiana periodical , the Delta , printed a letter from Benjamin dated the eighth stating that , as the people of the North were of unalterable hostility to their Southern brethren , the latter should depart from the government common to them . He also signed a joint letter from Southern congressmen to their constituents , urging the formation of a confederation of the seceding states . According to a letter reportedly written by Benjamin during the crisis , he saw secession as a means of obtaining more favorable terms in a reformed Union .
With Southern opinion turning in favor of secession , Benjamin made a farewell speech in the Senate on December 31 , 1860 , to a packed gallery , desirous of hearing one of the South 's most eloquent voices . They were not disappointed ; Evans writes that " historians consider Benjamin 's farewell ... one of the great speeches in American history " . Benjamin foresaw that the South 's departure would lead to civil war :
What may be the fate of this horrible contest none can foretell ; but this much I will say : the fortunes of war may be adverse to our arms ; you may carry desolation into our peaceful land , and with torch and firebrand may set our cities in flames ... you may do all this , and more , but you never can subjugate us ; you never can convert the free sons of the soil into vassals , paying tribute to your power ; you never can degrade them to a servile and inferior race . Never ! Never !
According to Geoffrey D. Cunningham in his article on Benjamin 's role in secession , " Swept up in the popular cries for independence , Benjamin willingly went out with the Southern tide . " He and his Louisiana colleague , John Slidell , resigned from the U.S. Senate on February 4 , 1861 , nine days after their state voted to secede from the Union .
= = Confederate statesman = =
= = = Attorney General = = =
Fearful of arrest as a rebel once he left the Senate , Benjamin quickly departed Washington for New Orleans . On the day of Benjamin 's resignation , the Provisional Confederate States Congress gathered in Montgomery , Alabama , and soon chose Davis as president . Davis was sworn in as provisional Confederate States President on February 18 , 1861 . At home in New Orleans for , it would prove , the last time , Benjamin addressed a rally on Washington 's Birthday , February 22 , 1861 . On February 25 , Davis appointed Benjamin , still in New Orleans , as attorney general ; the Louisianan was approved immediately and unanimously by the provisional Congress . Davis thus became the first chief executive in North America to appoint a Jew to his Cabinet .
Davis , in his memoirs , remarked that he chose Benjamin because he " had a very high reputation as a lawyer , and my acquaintance with him in the Senate had impressed me with the lucidity of his intellect , his systematic habits , and capacity for labor " . Meade suggested that Davis likely wanted to have a Louisianan in his Cabinet , but that a smarter course of action would have been to send Benjamin abroad to win over the European governments . Butler called Benjamin 's appointment " a waste of good material " . Historian William C. Davis , in his volume on the formation of the Confederate government , notes , " For some there was next to nothing to do , none more so than Benjamin . " The role of the attorney general in a Confederacy that did not yet have federal courts or marshals was so minimal that initial layouts for the building housing the government in Montgomery allowed no space to the Justice Department .
Meade found the time that Benjamin spent as attorney general to be fruitful , as it allowed him the opportunity to judge Davis 's character and to ingratiate himself with the president . Benjamin served as a host , entertaining dignitaries and others Davis had no time to see . At the first Cabinet meeting , Benjamin counseled Davis to have the government buy 150 @,@ 000 bales of cotton for shipment to the United Kingdom , with the proceeds used to buy arms and for future needs . His advice was not taken , as the Cabinet believed the war would be short and successful . Benjamin was called upon from time to time to render legal opinions , writing on April 1 to assure Treasury Secretary Christopher Memminger that lemons and oranges could enter the Confederacy duty @-@ free , but walnuts could not .
Once Virginia joined the Confederacy , the capital was moved to Richmond , though against Benjamin 's advice β he believed that the city was too close to the North . Nevertheless , he traveled there with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Jules St. Martin ; the two lived in the same house throughout the war , and Benjamin probably procured the young man 's job at the War Department . Although Alabama 's Leroy Walker was Secretary of War , Davis β a war hero and former U.S. War Secretary β considered himself more qualified and gave many orders himself . When the Confederates were unable to follow up their victory at the First Battle of Manassas by threatening Washington , Walker was criticized in the press . In September , Walker resigned to join the army as a brigadier general , and Davis appointed Benjamin in his place . Butler wrote that Davis had found the cheerfully competent Benjamin " a most useful member of the official family , and thought him suited for almost any post in it . " In addition to his appointment as War Secretary , Benjamin continued to act as Attorney General until November 15 , 1861 .
= = = Secretary of War = = =
As War Secretary , Benjamin was responsible for a territory stretching from Virginia to Texas . It was his job , with Davis looking over his shoulder , to supervise the Confederate Army and to feed , supply , and arm it β in a nascent country with almost no arms manufacturers . Accordingly , Benjamin saw his job as closely tied to foreign affairs , as the Confederacy was dependent on imports to supply its troops . Davis had determined on a " defensive war " strategy β the Confederacy would await invasion by the North , then seek to defeat its armies until Lincoln tired of sending them . Davis and Benjamin worked together closely , and as Davis came to realize that his subordinate was loyal both to the Confederacy and to Davis personally , he returned complete trust in Benjamin . Varina Davis wrote , " It was to me a curious spectacle , the steady approximation to a thorough friendliness of the President and his War Minister . It was a very gradual rapprochement , but all the more solid for that reason . "
In his months as War Secretary , Benjamin sent thousands of communications . According to Evans , Benjamin initially " turn [ ed ] prejudice to his favor and play [ ed ] on the Southerner 's instinctive respect for the Jewish mind with a brilliant performance " . Nevertheless , Benjamin faced difficulties that he could do little about . The Confederacy lacked sufficient soldiers , trained officers to command them , naval and civilian ships , manufacturing capacity to make ships and many weapons , and powder for guns and cannon . The Union had these things , and moved to block the South 's access to European supplies , both by blockade and by buying up supplies the South might have secured . Other problems included drunkenness among the men β and their officers β and uncertainty as to when and where the expected Northern invasion would begin . Further , Benjamin had no experience of the military , or of the executive branch of the government , placing him in a poor position to contradict President Davis .
An insurgency against the Confederacy developed in eastern Tennessee in late 1861 , and at Davis 's order , Benjamin sent troops to crush it . Once it was put down , Benjamin and Davis were in a quandary about what to do about its leader , William " Parson " Brownlow , who had been captured , and eventually allowed him to cross to Union @-@ controlled territory in the hope that it would cause Lincoln to release Confederate prisoners . While Brownlow was in Southern custody , he stated that he expected , " no more mercy from Benjamin than was shown by his illustrious predecessors towards Jesus Christ " .
Benjamin had difficulty in managing the Confederacy 's generals . He quarreled with General P.G.T. Beauregard , a war hero since his victory at First Manassas . Beauregard sought to add a rocket battery to his command , an action Benjamin stated was not authorized by law . He was most likely relaying Davis 's views , and when challenged by Beauregard , the president backed Benjamin , advising the general to " dismiss this small matter from your mind . In the hostile masses before you , you have a subject more worthy of your contemplation " . In January 1862 , Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson 's forces had advanced in western Virginia , leaving troops under William W. Loring at the small town of Romney . Distant from Jackson 's other forces and ill @-@ supplied , Loring and other officers petitioned the War Department to be recalled , and Benjamin , after consulting Davis , so ordered , using the pretext of rumored Union troop movements in the area . Jackson complied , but in a letter to Benjamin asked to be removed from the front , or to resign . High @-@ ranking Confederates soothed Jackson into withdrawing his request .
The power of state governments were another flaw in the Confederacy and a problem for Benjamin . Georgia Governor Joseph E. Brown repeatedly demanded arms and the return of Georgian troops to defend their state . North Carolina 's governor , Henry T. Clark , also wanted troops returned to him to defend his coastline . After Cape Hatteras , on North Carolina 's coast , was captured , Confederate forces fell back to Roanoke Island . If that fell , a number of ports in that area of the coast would be at risk , and Norfolk , Virginia , might be threatened by land .
General Henry A. Wise , commanding Roanoke , also demanded troops and supplies . He received little from Benjamin 's War Department that had no arms to send , as the Union blockade was preventing supplies from being imported . That Confederate armories were empty was a fact not publicly known at the time . Benjamin and Davis hoped the island 's defenses could hold off the Union forces , but an overwhelming number of troops were landed in February 1862 at an undefended point , and the Confederates were quickly defeated . Combined with Union General Ulysses S. Grant 's capture of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee , this was the most severe military blow yet to the Confederacy , and there was a public outcry against Benjamin , led by General Wise .
It was revealed , a quarter century after the war , that Benjamin and Davis had agreed for the secretary to act as scapegoat rather than reveal the shortage of arms . Not knowing this , the Richmond Examiner accused Benjamin of " stupid complacency " . Diarist Mary Chestnut recorded , " the mob calls him Mr. Davis 's pet Jew " . The Wise family never forgave Benjamin , to the detriment of his memory in Southern eyes . The general 's son , Captain Jennings Wise , fell at Roanoke Island , and Henry 's grandson John Wise , interviewed in 1936 , told Meade that " the fat Jew sitting at his desk " was to blame . Another of the general 's sons , also named John Wise , wrote a highly popular book about the South in the Civil War , The End of an Era ( 1899 ) , in which he said that Benjamin " had more brains and less heart than any other civic leader in the South ... The Confederacy and its collapse were no more to Judah P. Benjamin than last year 's birds nest . "
The Confederate Congress established a special committee to investigate the military losses ; Benjamin testified before it . The Secretary of State , Virginia 's Robert M. T. Hunter , had quarreled with Davis and resigned and in March 1862 , Benjamin was appointed as his replacement . Varina Davis noted that some in Congress had sought Benjamin 's ouster " because of reverses which no one could have averted , [ so ] the President promoted him to the State Department with a personal and aggrieved sense of injustice done to the man who had now become his friend and right hand . " Richmond diarist Sallie Ann Brock Putnam wrote , " Mr. Benjamin was not forgiven ... this act on the part of the President [ in promoting Benjamin ] , in defiance of public opinion , was considered as unwise , arbitrary , and a reckless risking of his reputation and popularity ... [ Benjamin ] was ever afterwards unpopular in the Confederacy , and particularly in Virginia " . Despite the promotion , the committee reported that any blame for the defeat at Roanoke Island should attach to Wise 's superior , Major General Benjamin Huger , " and the late secretary of war , J.P. Benjamin " .
= = = Confederate Secretary of State = = =
Throughout his time as Secretary of State , Benjamin tried to induce Britain and France to recognize the Confederacy β no other nation was likely to do so unless these powerful states led the way . The protection this would bring to the Confederacy and its foreign trade was hoped to be enough to save it .
= = = = Basis of Confederate foreign policy = = = =
By the 1850s , cheap Southern cotton fueled the industries of Europe . The mills of Britain , developed during the first half of the 19th century , by 1860 used more cotton than the rest of the industrialized world combined . Cotton imports to Britain came almost entirely from the American South . According to an article in The Economist in 1853 , " let any great social or physical convulsion visit the United States , and England would feel the shock from Land 's End to John O 'Groat 's . The lives of nearly two million of our countrymen ... hang upon a thread . "
In 1855 , an Ohioan , David Christy , published Cotton Is King : or Slavery in the Light of Political Economy . Christy argued that the flow of cotton was so important to the industrialized world that cutting it off would be devastating β not least to the Northern United States , as cotton was by far the largest U.S. export . This became known as the " King Cotton " theory , to which Davis was an enthusiastic subscriber . Benjamin also spoke in favor of the theory , though Butler suspected he may have " known better " , based on his firsthand knowledge of Europe .
When war came , Davis , against Benjamin 's advice , imposed an embargo on exports of cotton to nations that had not recognized the Confederate government , hoping to force such relations , especially with Britain and France . As the Union was attempting to prevent cotton from being exported from Confederate ports by a blockade and other means , this played to a certain extent into the hands of Lincoln and his Secretary of State , William H. Seward . Additionally , when the war began , Britain had a large surplus of cotton in warehouses , enough to keep the mills running at least part @-@ time for a year or so . Although many prominent Britons believed the South would prevail , there was a reluctance to recognize Richmond until it had gained the military victories to put its foe at bay . Much of this was due to hatred of slavery , though part of it stemmed from a desire to remain on good terms with the U.S. government β due to a drought in 1862 , Britain was forced to import large quantities of wheat and flour from the United States . Also , Britain feared the expansionist Americans might invade the vulnerable Canadian colonies , as Seward hinted they might .
= = = = Appointment = = = =
Davis appointed Benjamin as Secretary of State on March 17 , 1862 . He was promptly confirmed by the Confederate Senate . A motion to reconsider the confirmation was lost , 13 β 8 . According to Butler , the appointment of Benjamin brought Davis little political support , as the average white Southerner did not understand Benjamin and somewhat disliked him . As there was not much open opposition to Davis in the South at the time , Benjamin 's appointment was not criticized , but was not given much praise either . Meade noted , " the silence of many influential newspapers was ominous . [ Benjamin 's ] promotion in the face of such bitter criticism of his conduct in the war office caused the first serious lack of confidence in the Davis government . "
Meade wrote that , since the Secretary of State would have to work closely with Jefferson Davis , Benjamin was likely the person best suited to the position . In addition to his relationship with the President , Benjamin was very close to the Confederate First Lady , Varina Davis , with whom he exchanged confidences regarding war events and the President 's health . " Together , and by turns , they could help him over the most difficult days . "
For recreation , Benjamin frequented Richmond 's gambling dens , playing poker and faro . He was incensed when British correspondent William Howard Russell publicized his gambling , feeling that it was an invasion of his private affairs . He was also displeased that Russell depicted him as a losing gambler , when his reputation was the opposite .
= = = = Early days ( 1862 β 1863 ) = = = =
The Trent Affair had taken place before Benjamin took office as Secretary of State : a U.S. warship had in October 1861 removed Confederate diplomats James Mason and James Slidell ( Benjamin 's former Louisiana colleague in the U.S. Senate ) and their private secretaries from a British @-@ flagged vessel . The crisis brought the U.S. and Britain near war , and was resolved by their release . By the time of Benjamin 's appointment , Mason and Slidell were at their posts in London and Paris as putative ministers from the Confederacy , seeking recognition by the governments of Britain and France . With difficult communications between the South and Europe ( dispatches were often lost or intercepted ) , Benjamin was initially reluctant to change the instructions given the agents by Secretary Hunter . Communications improved by 1863 , with Benjamin ordering that dispatches be sent to Bermuda or the Bahamas , from where they reached the Confederacy by blockade runner .
As a practical matter , Benjamin 's chances of gaining European recognition rose and fell with the military fortunes of the Confederacy . When , at the end of June 1862 , Confederate General Robert E. Lee turned back Union General George B. McClellan 's Peninsula Campaign in the Seven Days Battles , ending the immediate threat to Richmond , Emperor Napoleon III of France favorably received proposals from Benjamin , through Slidell , for the French to intervene on the Confederacy 's behalf in exchange for trade concessions . Nevertheless , the Emperor proved unwilling to act without Britain . In August 1862 , Mason , angered by the refusal of British government ministers to meet with him , threatened to resign his post . Benjamin soothed him , stating that while Mason should not submit to insulting treatment , resignation should not take place without discussion .
The bloody standoff at Antietam in September 1862 , that ended Lee 's first major incursion into the North , gave Lincoln the confidence in Union arms he needed to announce the Emancipation Proclamation . British newspapers mocked Lincoln for hypocrisy in freeing slaves only in Confederate @-@ held areas , where he could exercise no authority . British officials had been shocked by the outcome of Antietam β they had expected Lee to deliver another brilliant victory β and now considered an additional reason for intervening in the conflict . Antietam , the bloodiest day of the war , had been a stalemate ; they read this as presaging an overall deadlock in the war , with North and South at each other 's throats for years as Britain 's mills sat empty and its people starved . France agreed with this assessment .
The final few months of 1862 saw a high water mark for Benjamin 's diplomacy . In October , the British Chancellor of the Exchequer , William E. Gladstone , expressed confidence in Confederate victory , stating in Newcastle , " There is no doubt that Jefferson Davis and other leaders of the South have made an army . They are making , it appears , a navy , and they have made what is more than either β they have made a nation . " Later that month , Napoleon proposed to the British and Russians ( a U.S. ally ) that they combine to require a six months ' armistice for mediation , and an end to the blockade ; if they did so , it would likely lead to Southern independence . The proposal divided the British Cabinet . In mid @-@ November , at the urgings of Palmerston and War Secretary George Cornewall Lewis , members decided to continue to wait for the South to defeat Lincoln 's forces before recognizing it . Although proponents of intervention were prepared to await another opportunity , growing realization among the British public that the Emancipation Proclamation meant that Union victory would be slavery 's end made succoring the South politically infeasible .
Benjamin had not been allowed to offer the inducement for intervention that might have succeeded β abolition of slavery in the Confederacy , and because of that , Meade deemed his diplomacy " seriously , perhaps fatally handicapped " . The Secretary of State blamed Napoleon for the failure , believing the Emperor had betrayed the Confederacy to get the ruler the French had installed in Mexico , Maximilian , accepted by the United States .
In Paris , Slidell had been approached by the banking firm Erlanger et Cie . The company offered to float a loan to benefit the Confederacy . The proposed terms provided a large commission to Erlanger and would entitle the bondholder to cotton at a discounted price once the South won the war . Baron Frederic Emile d 'Erlanger , head of the firm , journeyed to Richmond in early 1863 , and negotiated with Benjamin , although the transaction properly fell within the jurisdiction of Treasury Secretary Memminger . The banker softened the terms somewhat , though they were still lucrative for his firm . Benjamin felt the deal was worth it , as it would provide the Confederacy with badly needed funds to pay its agents in Europe .
= = = = Increasing desperation ( 1863 β 1865 ) = = = =
The twin rebel defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg in early July 1863 made it unlikely that Britain , or any other nation , would recognize a slaveholding Confederacy staggering towards oblivion . Accordingly , in August , Benjamin wrote to Mason telling him that as Davis believed the British unwilling to recognize the South , he was free to leave the country . In October , with Davis absent on a trip to Tennessee , Benjamin heard that the British consul in Savannah had forbidden British subjects in the Confederate Army from being used against the United States . The Secretary of State convened a Cabinet meeting , that expelled the remaining British consuls in Confederate @-@ controlled territory , then notified Davis by letter . Evans suggests that Benjamin 's actions made him the Confederacy 's acting president β the first Jewish president .
Benjamin supervised the Confederate Secret Service , responsible for covert operations in the North , and financed former federal Interior Secretary Jacob Thompson to work behind the scenes financing operations that might undermine Lincoln politically . Although efforts were made to boost Peace Democrats , the most prominent actions proved to be the St. Albans Raid ( an attack on a Vermont town from Canada ) and an unsuccessful attempt to burn New York City . In the aftermath of the war , these activities led to accusations that Benjamin and Davis were involved in the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , as one Confederate courier , John H. Surratt , who had received money from Benjamin , was tried for involvement in the conspiracy , though Surratt was acquitted .
As the Confederacy 's military fortunes flagged , there was increasing consideration of what would have been unthinkable in 1861 β enlisting male slaves in the army and emancipating them for their service . In August 1863 , B. H. Micou , a relative of a former law partner , wrote to Benjamin proposing the use of black soldiers . Benjamin responded that this was not feasible , principally for legal and financial reasons , and that the slaves were performing valuable services for the Confederacy where they were . According to Meade , " Benjamin did not offer any objections to Micou 's plan except on practical grounds β he was not repelled by the radical nature of the proposal " . A British financial agent for the Confederacy , James Spence , also urged emancipation as a means of gaining British recognition . Benjamin allowed Spence to remain in his position for almost a year despite the differences with Confederate policy , before finally dismissing him in late 1863 . Despite official neutrality , tens of thousands from British @-@ ruled Ireland were enlisting in the Union cause ; Benjamin sent an agent to Ireland hoping to impede those efforts and Dudley Mann to Rome to urge Pope Pius IX to forbid Catholic Irish from enlisting . The Pope did not do so , though he responded sympathetically .
In January 1864 , Confederate General Patrick Cleburne , of the Army of the Tennessee , proposed emancipating and arming the slaves . Davis , when he heard of it , turned it down and ordered it kept secret . Evans notes that Benjamin " had been thinking in similar terms for much longer , and perhaps the recommendation of so respected an officer was just the impetus he needed . " The year 1864 was a disastrous one for the Confederacy , with Lee forced within siege lines at Petersburg and Union General William T. Sherman sacking Atlanta and devastating Georgia on his march to the sea . Benjamin urged Davis to send the secretary 's fellow Louisianan , Duncan Kenner , to Paris and London , with an offer of emancipation in exchange for recognition . Davis was only willing to offer gradual emancipation , and both Napoleon and Palmerston rejected the proposal . Benjamin continued to press the matter , addressing a mass meeting in Richmond in February 1865 in support of arming the slaves and emancipating them . A bill eventually emerged from the Confederate Congress in March , but it had many restrictions , and it was too late to affect the outcome of the war .
In January 1865 , Lincoln , who had been re @-@ elected the previous November , sent Francis Blair as an emissary to Richmond , hoping to secure reunion without further bloodshed . Both sides agreed to a meeting at Fort Monroe , Virginia . Benjamin drafted vague instructions for the Southern delegation , led by Vice President Alexander Stephens , but Davis insisted on modifying them to refer to North and South as " two nations " . This was the point that scuttled the Hampton Roads Conference ; Lincoln would not consider the South a separate entity , insisting on union and emancipation .
= = Escape = =
By March 1865 , the Confederate military situation was desperate . Most major population centers had fallen , and General Lee 's defense of Richmond was faltering against massive Union forces . Nevertheless , Benjamin retained his usual good humor ; on the evening of April 1 , with evacuation likely , he was at the State Department offices , singing a silly ballad of his own composition , " The Exit from Shocko Hill " , a graveyard district located in Richmond . On April 2 , Lee sent word that he could only keep Union troops away from the line of the Richmond and Danville Railroad for a short time . Those who did not leave Richmond would be trapped . At 11 : 00 pm that night , the Confederate President and Cabinet left aboard a Danville @-@ bound train . Navy Secretary Stephen R. Mallory recorded that Benjamin 's " hope and good humor [ was ] inexhaustible ... with a ' never @-@ give @-@ up @-@ the @-@ ship ' sort of air , referred to other great national causes which had been redeemed from far gloomier reverses than ours " .
In Danville , Benjamin shared a room with another refugee , in the home of a banker . For a week , Danville served as capital of the Confederacy , until word came of Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Court House . With no army to shield the Confederate government , it would be captured by Union forces within days , so Davis and his Cabinet , including Benjamin , fled south to Greensboro , North Carolina . Five minutes after the train passed over the Haw River , Union cavalry raiders burned the bridge , trapping the trains that followed Davis 's .
Greensboro , fearing wrathful reprisal from the Union , gave the fugitives little hospitality , forcing Benjamin and the other Cabinet members to bunk in a railroad boxcar . Davis hoped to reach Texas , where rumor had it large Confederate forces remained active . The Cabinet met in Greensboro , and Generals Beauregard and Joseph E. Johnston sketched the bleak military situation . Davis , backed as usual by Benjamin , was determined to continue to fight . The refugee government moved south on April 15 . With the train tracks cut , most Cabinet members rode on horseback , but the heavyset Benjamin declared he would not ride on one until he had to , and shared an ambulance with Jules St. Martin and others . For the entertainment of his companions , Benjamin recited Tennyson 's " Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington " .
In Charlotte , Benjamin stayed in the home of a Jewish merchant as surrender negotiations dragged . Here , Benjamin abandoned Davis 's plan to fight on , telling him and the Cabinet that the cause was hopeless . When negotiations failed , Benjamin was part of the shrunken remnant around Davis that moved on with him . The party reached Abbeville , South Carolina on May 2 , and Benjamin told Davis that he wanted to separate from the presidential party temporarily , and go to the Bahamas to be able to send instructions to foreign agents before rejoining Davis in Texas . According to historian William C. Davis , " the pragmatic Secretary of State almost certainly never had any intention of returning to the South once gone " . When he bade John Reagan goodbye , the postmaster general asked where Benjamin was going . " To the farthest place from the United States , if it takes me to the middle of China . "
With one companion , Benjamin travelled south in a poor carriage , pretending to be a Frenchman who spoke no English . He had some gold with him , and left much of it for the support of relatives . He was traveling in the same general direction as the Davis party , but evaded capture whereas Davis was taken by Union troops . Benjamin reached Monticello , Florida , on May 13 to learn Union troops were in nearby Madison . Benjamin decided to continue alone on horseback , east and south along Florida 's Gulf Coast , pretending to be a South Carolina farmer . He eventually reached Gamble Mansion in Ellenton , on the southwest coast of Florida . From there , assisted by the blockade runner Captain Archibald McNeill , he reached Bimini in the Bahamas . His escape from Florida to England was not without hardship : at one point he pretended to be a Jewish cook on McNeill 's vessel , to deceive American soldiers who inspected it β one of whom stated it was the first time he had seen a Jew do menial labor . The small sponge @-@ carrying vessel on which he left Bimini bound for Nassau exploded on the way , and he and the three black crewmen eventually managed to return to Bimini . McNeill 's ship was still there , and he chartered it to take him to Nassau . From there , he took a ship for Havana , and on August 6 , 1865 , left there for Britain . He was not yet done with disaster ; his ship caught fire after departing St. Thomas , and the crew put out the flames only with difficulty . On August 30 , 1865 , Judah Benjamin arrived at Southampton , in Britain .
= = Exile = =
In Britain , Benjamin spent a week in London assisting Mason in winding up Confederate affairs . He then went to Paris to visit his wife and daughter for the first time since before the war . Friends in Paris urged him to join a mercantile firm there , but Benjamin felt that such a career would be subject to interference by Seward and the United States . Accordingly , Benjamin sought to shape his old course in a new country , resuming his legal career as an English barrister . Most of Benjamin 's property had been destroyed or confiscated , and he needed to make a living for himself and his relatives . He had money in the United Kingdom as he had , during the war , purchased cotton for transport to Liverpool by blockade runner .
On January 13 , 1866 , Benjamin enrolled at Lincoln 's Inn , and soon thereafter was admitted to read law under Charles Pollock , son of Chief Baron Charles Edward Pollock , who took him as a pupil at his father 's direction . Benjamin , despite his age of 54 , was initially required , like his thirty @-@ years @-@ younger peers , to attend for twelve terms , that is , three years . According to Benjamin 's obituary in The Times , though , " the secretary of the Confederacy was dispensed from the regular three years of unprofitable dining , and called to the bar " on June 6 , 1866 .
Once qualified as a barrister , Benjamin chose to join the Northern Circuit , as it included Liverpool , where his connections in New Orleans and knowledge of mercantile affairs would do him the most good . In an early case , he defended two former Confederate agents against a suit by the United States to gain assets said to belong to that nation . Although he lost that case ( United States v Wagner ) on appeal , he was successful against his former enemies in United States v McRae ( 1869 ) . He had need of rapid success , as most of his remaining assets were lost in the collapse of the firm of Overend , Gurney and Company . He was reduced to penning columns on international affairs for The Daily Telegraph .
According to Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg , " repeating his Louisiana progress , Benjamin made his reputation among his new peers by publication " . In an early representation , he wrote a complex governing document for an insurance firm that other counsel had declined despite the substantial fee , due to the early deadline . After brief study , Benjamin wrote out the document , never making a correction or erasure . In 1868 , Benjamin published A Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property , With Reference to the American Decisions , to the French Code , and Civil Law . This work , known for short as Benjamin on Sales , became a classic in both Britain and America , and launched his career as a barrister . It went through three editions prior to Benjamin 's death in 1884 ; an eighth edition was published in 2010 . Today Benjamin 's Sale of Goods forms part of the " common law library " of key practitioner texts on English civil law .
In 1867 , Benjamin had been indicted in Richmond , along with Davis , Lee , and others , for waging war against the United States . The indictment was soon quashed . Davis visited London in 1868 , free on bail , and Benjamin advised him not to take legal action against the author of a book that had angered Davis , as it would only give the book publicity . Benjamin corresponded with Davis , and met with him on the former rebel president 's visits to Europe during Benjamin 's lifetime , though the two were never as close as they had been during the war .
Benjamin was created a " Palatine silk " , entitled to the precedence of a Queen 's Counsel within Lancashire , in July 1869 . There was a large creation of Queen 's Counsel in early 1872 , but Benjamin was not included ; it was stated in his Times obituary that he had put his name forward . Later that year , he argued the case of Potter v Rankin before the House of Lords and so impressed Lord Hatherley that a patent of precedence was soon made out , giving Benjamin the privileges of a Queen 's Counsel . As he became prominent as a barrister , he discontinued practice before juries ( at which he was less successful ) in favor of trials or appeals before judges . In his last years in practice , he demanded an additional fee of 100 guineas ( Β£ 105 ) to appear in any court besides the House of Lords and the Privy Council . In 1875 , he was made a bencher of Lincoln 's Inn .
In 1881 , Benjamin represented Arthur Orton , the Tichborne claimant , before the House of Lords . Orton , a butcher from Wagga Wagga , New South Wales , had claimed to be Sir Roger Tichborne , a baronet who had vanished some years previously , and Orton had perjured himself in the course of defending his claim . Benjamin sought to overturn the sentence of 14 years passed on Orton , but was not successful .
In his final years , Benjamin suffered from health issues . In 1880 , he was badly injured in a fall from a tram in Paris . He also developed diabetes . He suffered a heart attack in Paris at the end of 1882 , and his doctor ordered him to retire . His health improved enough to allow him to travel to London in June 1883 for a dinner in his honor attended by the English bench and bar . He returned to Paris and suffered a relapse of his heart trouble in early 1884 . Natalie Benjamin had the last rites of the Catholic Church administered to her Jewish husband before his death in Paris on May 6 , 1884 , and funeral services were held in a church prior to Judah Benjamin 's interment at Père Lachaise Cemetery in the St. Martin family crypt . His grave did not bear his name until 1938 , when a plaque was placed by the Paris chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy .
= = Appraisal = =
Benjamin was the first U.S. senator to profess the Jewish faith . In 1845 , David Yulee , born David Levy , had been sworn in for Florida , but he had renounced Judaism and eventually formally converted to Christianity . As an adult , Benjamin was a nonobservant Jew , who was not a member of a synagogue and took no part in communal affairs . He rarely spoke of his religion publicly , but was not ashamed of it . Some of the stories told of Benjamin that touch on his faith come from Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise , who related that Benjamin delivered an address in a San Francisco synagogue on Yom Kippur in 1860 , though whether this occurred is open to question as Wise was not there and it was not reported in the city 's Jewish newspaper . One quote from Senate debate that remains " part of the Benjamin legend " , according to Evans , followed an allusion to Moses as a freer of slaves by a Northern senator , hinting that Benjamin was an " Israelite in Egyptian clothing " . Benjamin is supposed to have replied , " It is true that I am a Jew , and when my ancestors were receiving their Ten Commandments from the immediate hand of deity , amidst the thunderings and lightnings of Mount Sinai , the ancestors of my opponent were herding swine in the forests of Great Britain . "
Edgar M. Kahn , in his journal article on the 1860 California sojourn , wrote , " Benjamin 's life is an example of a man 's determination to overcome almost insurmountable barriers by industry , perseverance , and intelligent use of a remarkable brain . " This brilliance was recognized by contemporaries ; Salomon de Rothschild , in 1861 , deemed Benjamin " the greatest mind " in North America . Nevertheless , according to Meade , " he was given to quixotic enthusiasms and was sometimes too cocksure of his knowledge . " Ginsburg said of Benjamin , " he rose to the top of the legal profession twice in one lifetime , on two continents , beginning his first ascent as a raw youth and his second as a fugitive minister of a vanquished power . " Davis , after Benjamin 's death , deemed him the most able member of his Cabinet , and said that the lawyer 's postwar career had fully vindicated his confidence in him .
According to Brook , " in every age , a heroic sage struggles to rescue Benjamin from obscurity β and invariably fails . " Benjamin left no memoir and destroyed his personal papers , by which " the task of future researchers and historians was made exceedingly difficult and laborious " . After his death , Benjamin was rarely written about , in contrast to Davis and other Confederate leaders . Part of this was due to Benjamin depriving his potential biographers of source material , but even Davis , in his two @-@ volume war memoir , mentions him only twice . Evans suggests that as Davis wrote the books in part to defend and memorialize his place in history , it would not have been characteristic of him to give much credit to Benjamin . Davis , in the midst of postwar business struggles , may have resented Benjamin 's success as a barrister , or may have feared that allegations of involvement in Lincoln 's assassination would again be made against the two men . Brook concurs that Benjamin 's postwar success , that began as Davis lay in prison and other Confederates struggled for survival , may have soured Southerners towards the former secretary , but that anti @-@ Semitism was also likely a factor . " For the guardians of Confederate memory after Reconstruction , Benjamin became a kind of pet Jew , generally ignored , but then trotted out at opportune moments to defend the segregated South against charges of bigotry . "
Those writing on Jewish history were reluctant to glorify a slaveowner , and reacted to Benjamin 's story with " embarrassed dismay " . This was especially so in the two generations following 1865 , when the question of the civil war remained an active issue in American politics . It was not until the 1930s that Benjamin began to be mentioned as a significant figure in the history of the United States , and in the chronicle of the Jews there . Nevertheless , Tom Mountain , in his 2009 article on Benjamin , points out that Benjamin was respected in the South as a leader of the rebel cause for a century after the Civil War , and that Southern schoolchildren who could not name the current Secretary of State in Washington knew about Benjamin . Reform Rabbi Daniel Polish noted in 1988 that Benjamin " represent [ ed ] a significant dilemma [ in ] my years growing up as a Jew both proud of his people and with an intense commitment to the ideals of liberalism and human solidarity that I found embodied in the civil rights movement . "
Berman recounts a story that during the Civil War , Benjamin was called to the Torah at Beth Ahabah synagogue in Richmond . However , there is no proof of this , nor does Benjamin 's name appear in any surviving record of the Jews of that city . " But whether or not Benjamin practiced Judaism overtly or contributed to Jewish causes , to the Jews of the South , he was a symbol of a coreligionist who was a man among men " . According to Evans , " Benjamin survives , as he willed it : a shadowy figure in Civil War history " . Kahn noted that Benjamin " is epitomized as a foremost orator , lawyer , and statesman , without a peer at the bars of two of the world 's greatest nations " . Meade questioned whether Benjamin 's character can ever be fully understood :
We can easily prove that Benjamin was the only genius in the Confederate cabinet . We can demonstrate that his career , with its American and English phases , was more glamorous than that of any other prominent Confederate . But we are still confronted by one perplexing problem : Judah P. Benjamin was an enigmatic figure β the most incomprehensible of all the Confederate leaders . Lee , Jackson , even Jefferson Davis , are crystal clear in comparison with the Jewish lawyer and statesman . The acrimonious debate about his character began before the Civil War and has not ceased to this day .
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= Gotta Be You ( One Direction song ) =
" Gotta Be You " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction from their debut studio album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) . Written by August Rigo and the song 's producer , Steve Mac , it was released in the United Kingdom by Syco Music in November 2011 , as the album 's second single . The track is a mid @-@ tempo pop rock ballad incorporating an orchestral arrangement . The lyrical content is characterised by love sentiments .
The single peaked at number three in the United Kingdom , marking the group 's second top ten appearance there . Upon the United States release of Up All Night , " Gotta Be You " peaked at number 24 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . Directed by John Urbano , the accompanying music video depicts the group spending time on the banks of Lake Placid , New York . One Direction performed the ballad on televised programmes and during their Up All Night Tour ( 2011 β 12 ) .
= = Background and release = =
After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , One Direction were signed to Syco Music . The number was written by August Rigo and Steve Mac , and was produced by Mac . One Direction premiered the single on BBC Radio 1 on 19 October 2011 , with confirmation that it would serve as the second cut from Up All Night , following their debut single , " What Makes You Beautiful " , which topped the UK Singles Chart in September of that year . Member Zayn Malik , in an October interview with Digital Spy , characterised " Gotta Be You " as " a bit more emotive " than their debut single . It was released by Syco Music via digital download in Ireland and United Kingdom on 11 November 2011 and 13 November , respectively . In both countries , the digital download contains the principal recording , its B @-@ side , " Another World " , and two remixes of the song itself .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Gotta Be You " is a mid @-@ tempo pop rock ballad . According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , One Direction 's vocal range in the song span from the note of Eb4 to Eb6 . Written in the key of Ab major , the song is set in common time at a moderate tempo of 85 beats per minute . Set in an orchestral arrangement , its instrumentation includes a guitar , piano lines , and abundant strings . The chorus of the song opens with falsettos that are followed by vocal harmonies . The lyrical content is characterised by love notions and prominently revolves around its main declaration , " It 's gotta be you , only you " .
= = Critical reception = =
Both USA Today writer Brian Mansfield , who appreciated the lyrical content , and PopMatters contributor Zachary Houle , who favoured the instrumentation , described " Gotta Be You " as one of Up All Night 's highlights . Billboard reviewer Jason Lipshutz commended the vocal elements at play in its refrain and the track 's " smooth " lyricism . Robert Copsey for Digital Spy opined that the single 's memorable refrain is its strongest attribute and rated it four out of five stars . Matthew Horton of Virgin Media classified the song as one of the record 's " superior tracks " , and credited the ballad with keeping the album 's " pecker up " . Cosmopolitan 's Sarah Kwong lauded the lyrics and instrumentation of " Gotta Be You " and noted its appeal to a more mature audience in comparison to their debut single " What Makes You Beautiful " . Writing for Allmusic , Matthew Chisling , however , described the ballad as " a bit tepid . "
= = Commercial performance = =
" Gotta Be You " debuted and peaked at number three on the Irish Singles Chart in the week ending 17 November 2011 , marking the group 's second top five appearance in Ireland . In the United Kingdom , the piece sold substantially less than their first single " What Makes You Beautiful " , selling 59 @,@ 461 copies in its first week . Despite the single reaching number one on the mid @-@ week chart update , it entered the UK Singles Chart dated 20 November 2011 at number three behind the seventh week sales of Rihanna 's " We Found Love " and the release of " Good Feeling " by Flo Rida . The song marks their second top ten hit and was One Direction 's third best @-@ selling track in the UK by August 2012 . Upon the release of Up All Night in the United States , " Gotta Be You " did not enter the US Billboard Hot 100 , but peaked at number 24 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart in the week of 28 April 2012 .
= = Music video = =
The single 's accompanying music video was directed by John Urbano , who had previously directed the band 's music video for " What Makes You Beautiful " . While predominantly filmed in Lake Placid , New York , in October 2011 , the clip 's opening sequences were shot at the State University of New York at Plattsburgh . In October , the group told Digital Spy that they feared a crocodile attack when shooting the video . They also told Capital FM correspondent Kevin Hughes that the clip would be a significant transition from their previous music video ; Malik described it as poignant and Louis Tomlinson reflected , " The first one was all about having a very fun song , but this song is a bit different . "
The music video premiered on 8 November 2011 on YouTube , and predominantly depicts the group spending time on the banks of Lake Placid . As of February 2016 , the music video has garnered more than 180 million Vevo views . In the music video , the five @-@ some end up meeting with girls in a camping spot in a forest . As the music ends , the group watch fireworks as Malik walks towards his significant other and kisses her . The clip attracted positive commentary from fans of the group .
= = Live performances = =
One Direction performed the single for the first time on The X Factor UK on 13 November 2012 , to open the BBC 's Children in Need 2011 telethon on 19 November 2012 , and at Capital FM 's Jingle Bell Ball on 4 December 2011 , at the The O2 Arena . One Direction also performed the track during their first headlining concert tour , the Up All Night Tour . " Gotta Be You " was performed as the sixth song on the set list , in the second segment of the show 's synopsis .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ian McKellen =
Sir Ian Murray McKellen , CH , CBE ( born 25 May 1939 ) is an English actor . He is the recipient of six Laurence Olivier Awards , a Tony Award , a Golden Globe Award , a Screen Actors Guild Award , a BIF Award , two Saturn Awards , four Drama Desk Awards and two Critics ' Choice Awards . He has also received two Academy Award nominations , four BAFTA nominations and five Emmy Award nominations .
McKellen 's work spans genres ranging from Shakespearean and modern theatre to popular fantasy and science fiction . The BBC states his " performances have guaranteed him a place in the canon of English stage and film actors " . His most well known film roles include Gandalf in The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies and Magneto in the X @-@ Men films .
McKellen was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1979 , was knighted by Elizabeth II in 1991 for services to the performing arts , and made a Companion of Honour for services to drama and to equality in the Queen 's 2008 New Year Honours . He has been openly gay since 1988 , and continues to be a champion for LGBT social movements worldwide . He was made a Freeman of the City of London in October 2014 .
= = Early life = =
McKellen was born on 25 May 1939 in Burnley , Lancashire , the son of Margery Lois ( nΓ©e Sutcliffe ) and Denis Murray McKellen , a civil engineer . He was their second child , with a sister , Jean , five years his senior . Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , his family moved to Wigan . They lived there through the war and his early childhood . They relocated to Bolton in 1951 , after his father had been promoted . The experience of living through the war as a young child had a lasting impact on him , and he later claimed that " only after peace resumed ... did I realise that war wasn 't normal . " When an interviewer remarked that he seemed quite calm in the aftermath of 11 September attacks , McKellen said : " Well , darling , you forget β I slept under a steel plate until I was four years old . "
McKellen 's father was a civil engineer and lay preacher , and was of Protestant Irish and Scottish descent . Both of McKellen 's grandfathers were preachers , and his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , James McKellen , was a " strict , evangelical Protestant minister " in Ballymena , County Antrim . His home environment was strongly Christian , but non @-@ orthodox . " My upbringing was of low nonconformist Christians who felt that you led the Christian life in part by behaving in a Christian manner to everybody you met . " When he was 12 , his mother died ; his father died when he was 24 . Of his coming out of the closet to his stepmother , Gladys McKellen , who was a member of the Religious Society of Friends , he said , " Not only was she not fazed , but as a member of a society which declared its indifference to people 's sexuality years back , I think she was just glad for my sake that I wasn 't lying anymore . "
McKellen attended Bolton School ( Boys ' Division ) , of which he is still a supporter , attending regularly to talk to pupils . McKellen 's acting career started at Bolton Little Theatre , of which he is now the patron . An early fascination with the theatre was encouraged by his parents , who took him on a family outing to Peter Pan at the Opera House in Manchester when he was three . When he was nine , his main Christmas present was a wood and bakelite , fold @-@ away Victorian theatre from Pollocks Toy Theatres , with cardboard scenery and wires to push on the cut @-@ outs of Cinderella and of Laurence Olivier 's Hamlet .
His sister took him to his first Shakespeare play , Twelfth Night , by the amateurs of Wigan 's Little Theatre , shortly followed by their Macbeth and Wigan High School for Girls ' production of A Midsummer Night 's Dream , with music by Mendelssohn , with the role of Bottom played by Jean McKellen , who continued to act , direct , and produce amateur theatre until her death .
When he was 18 years old , McKellen won a scholarship to St Catharine 's College , Cambridge , where he read English literature .
= = Career = =
= = = Theatre = = =
While at Cambridge McKellen was a member of the Marlowe Society , appearing in Henry IV ( as Shallow ) alongside Trevor Nunn and Derek Jacobi ( March 1959 ) , Cymbeline ( as Posthumus , opposite Margaret Drabble as Imogen ) and Doctor Faustus . His first professional appearance was in 1961 at the Belgrade Theatre , as Roper in A Man for All Seasons , although an audio recording of the Marlowe Society 's Cymbeline had gone on commercial sale as part of the Argo Shakespeare series .
After four years in regional repertory theatres he made his first West End appearance , in A Scent of Flowers , regarded as a " notable success " . In 1965 he was a member of Laurence Olivier 's National Theatre Company at the Old Vic , which led to roles at the Chichester Festival . With the Prospect Theatre Company , McKellen made his breakthrough performances of Richard II ( directed by Richard Cottrell ) and Marlowe 's Edward II ( directed by Toby Robertson ) at the Edinburgh festival in 1969 , the latter causing a storm of protest over the enactment of the homosexual Edward 's lurid death .
In the 1970s and 1980s McKellen became a well @-@ known figure in British theatre , performing frequently at the Royal Shakespeare Company and the Royal National Theatre , where he played several leading Shakespearean roles , including the title role in Macbeth ( which he had first played for Trevor Nunn in a " gripping ... out of the ordinary " production , with Judi Dench , at Stratford in 1976 ) , and Iago in Othello , in award @-@ winning productions directed by Nunn . Both of these productions were adapted into television films , also directed by Nunn .
In 2007 he returned to the Royal Shakespeare Company , in productions of King Lear and The Seagull , both directed by Trevor Nunn . In 2009 he appeared in a very popular revival of Waiting for Godot at London 's Haymarket Theatre , directed by Sean Mathias , and playing opposite Patrick Stewart . He is Patron of English Touring Theatre and also President and Patron of the Little Theatre Guild of Great Britain , an association of amateur theatre organisations throughout the UK . In late August 2012 , he took part in the opening ceremony of the London Paralympics , portraying Prospero from The Tempest .
= = = Popular success = = =
McKellen had taken film roles throughout his career β beginning in 1969 with his role of George Matthews in A Touch of Love , and his first leading role was in 1980 as D. H. Lawrence in Priest of Love , but it was not until the 1990s that he became more widely recognised in this medium after several roles in blockbuster Hollywood films . In 1993 he had a supporting role as a South African tycoon in the critically acclaimed Six Degrees of Separation , in which he starred with Stockard Channing , Donald Sutherland , and Will Smith . In the same year , he appeared in minor roles in the television miniseries Tales of the City , based on the novel by his friend Armistead Maupin , and the film Last Action Hero , in which he played Death .
Later in 1993 , McKellan appeared in the television film And the Band Played On , about the discovery of the AIDS virus , for which McKellen won a CableACE Award for Supporting Actor in a Movie or Miniseries and was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie . In 1995 , he played the title role in Richard III , which transported the setting into an alternative 1930s in which England is ruled by fascists . The film was a critical success . McKellen co @-@ produced and co @-@ wrote the film , adapting the play for the screen based on a stage production of Shakespeare 's play directed by Richard Eyre for the Royal National Theatre , in which McKellen had appeared . As executive producer he returned his Β£ 50 @,@ 000 fee to complete the filming of the final battle . In his review of the film , Washington Post film critic Hal Hinson , called McKellen 's performance a " lethally flamboyant incarnation " , and said his " florid mastery ... dominates everything " . His performance in the title role garnered BAFTA and Golden Globe nominations for Best Actor , and won the European Film Award for Best Actor . His screenplay was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay .
He appeared in the modestly acclaimed film Apt Pupil , which was directed by Bryan Singer and based on a story by Stephen King . McKellen portrayed a fugitive Nazi officer , living under a false name in the US , who is befriended by a curious teenager ( Brad Renfro ) who threatens to expose him unless he tells his story in detail . He was subsequently nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in the 1998 film Gods and Monsters , wherein he played James Whale , the director of Show Boat ( 1936 ) and Frankenstein .
In 1999 McKellen was cast , again under the direction of Bryan Singer , to play the comic book supervillain Magneto in the 2000 film X @-@ Men and its sequels X2 : X @-@ Men United and X @-@ Men : The Last Stand . While filming X @-@ Men McKellen was cast as the wizard Gandalf in Peter Jackson 's three @-@ film adaptation of The Lord of the Rings ( consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring , The Two Towers , and The Return of the King ) . He received honors from the Screen Actors Guild for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture for his work in The Fellowship of the Ring , and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the same role . He also provided the voice of Gandalf for several video game adaptations of the films . On 10 January 2011 it was officially confirmed that Mckellen would reprise the role of Gandalf in the three @-@ part film adaptation of The Hobbit .
On 16 March 2002 , he hosted Saturday Night Live . In 2003 , McKellen made a guest appearance as himself on the American cartoon show The Simpsons , in a special British @-@ themed episode entitled " The Regina Monologues " , along with the then UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and author J. K. Rowling . In April and May 2005 , he played the role of Mel Hutchwright in Granada Television 's long running soap opera , Coronation Street , fulfilling a lifelong ambition . He narrated Richard Bell 's film Eighteen , as a grandfather who leaves his World War II memoirs on audio @-@ cassette for his teenage grandson .
McKellen has appeared in limited release films , such as Emile ( which was shot in three weeks following the X2 shoot ) , Neverwas and Asylum . He appeared as Sir Leigh Teabing in The Da Vinci Code . During a 17 May 2006 interview on The Today Show with the Da Vinci Code cast and director , Matt Lauer posed a question to the group about how they would have felt if the film had borne a prominent disclaimer that it is a work of fiction , as some religious groups wanted . McKellen responded , " I 've often thought the Bible should have a disclaimer in the front saying ' This is fiction . ' I mean , walking on water ? It takes ... an act of faith . And I have faith in this movie β not that it 's true , not that it 's factual , but that it 's a jolly good story . " He continued , " And I think audiences are clever enough and bright enough to separate out fact and fiction , and discuss the thing when they 've seen it " . McKellen appeared in the 2006 series of Ricky Gervais ' comedy series Extras , where he played himself directing Gervais ' character Andy Millman in a play about gay lovers . McKellen received a 2007 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Comedy Series nomination for his performance . In 2009 he portrayed Number Two in The Prisoner , a remake of the 1967 cult series The Prisoner . In 2013 , McKellen co @-@ starred in the ITV sitcom Vicious as Freddie Thornhill , alongside Derek Jacobi . The series revolves around an elderly gay couple who have been together for 50 years . On 23 August 2013 the show was renewed for a six @-@ episode second series which began airing in June 2015 .
In November 2013 , McKellen appeared in the Doctor Who 50th anniversary comedy homage The Five ( ish ) Doctors Reboot . He reprised his role as Magneto in X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past , released in May 2014 ; he shared the role with Michael Fassbender , who played a younger version of the character in 2011 's X @-@ Men : First Class . In October 2015 , McKellen appeared as Norman to Anthony Hopkins ' Sir in a BBC Two production of Ronald Harwood 's The Dresser , alongside Edward Fox and Emily Watson . In 2017 , McKellen will voice Cogsworth , the Beast 's loyal butler , who was cursed into a pendulum clock , in a live @-@ action adaptation of Beauty and the Beast .
= = Personal life = =
McKellen and his first partner , Brian Taylor , a history teacher from Bolton , began their relationship in 1964 . Their relationship lasted for eight years , ending in 1972 . They lived in London , where McKellen continued to pursue his career as an actor . For over a decade , he has lived in a five @-@ story Victorian conversion in Narrow Street , Limehouse . In 1978 he met his second partner , Sean Mathias , at the Edinburgh Festival . This relationship lasted until 1988 . According to Mathias , the ten @-@ year love affair was tempestuous , with conflicts over McKellen 's success in acting versus Mathias 's somewhat less @-@ successful career . Mathias later directed McKellen in Waiting For Godot at the Theatre Royal Haymarket in 2009 . The pair entered into a business partnership with Evgeny Lebedev , purchasing the lease on The Grapes public house in Narrow Street .
McKellen is an atheist . In the late 1980s , McKellen lost his appetite for meat except for fish , and so mostly excludes it from his diet . In 2001 , Ian McKellen received the Artist Citizen of the World Award ( France ) .
He has a tattoo of the Elvish number nine , written using J. R. R Tolkien 's artificial script of Tengwar , on his shoulder in reference to his involvement in the Lord of the Rings and the fact that his character was one of the original nine companions of the Fellowship of the Ring . The other actors of " The Fellowship " ( Elijah Wood , Sean Astin , Orlando Bloom , Billy Boyd , Sean Bean , Dominic Monaghan and Viggo Mortensen ) have the same tattoo . John Rhys @-@ Davies , whose character was also one of the original nine companions , arranged for his stunt double to get the tattoo instead .
He was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2006 . In 2012 , McKellen stated on his blog that " There is no cause for alarm . I am examined regularly and the cancer is contained . I 've not needed any treatment . "
He became an ordained minister of the Universal Life Church in early 2013 in order to preside over the marriage of his X @-@ Men co @-@ star Patrick Stewart to his then fiancΓ©e Sunny Ozell .
McKellen was awarded an honorary Doctorate of Letters by Cambridge University on 18 June 2014 . He was made a Freeman of the city of London on Thursday 30 October 2014 . The ceremony took place at Guildhall in London . McKellen was nominated by London 's Lord Mayor Fiona Woolf , who said he was chosen as he was an " exceptional actor " and " tireless campaigner for equality " . He is also a Fellow of St Catherine 's College , Oxford .
= = Activism = =
= = = LGBT rights campaigning = = =
While McKellen had made his sexual orientation known to fellow actors early on in his stage career , it was not until 1988 that he came out to the general public , in a programme on BBC Radio . The context that prompted McKellen 's decision β overriding any concerns about a possible negative effect on his career β was that the controversial Section 28 of the Local Government Bill , known simply as Section 28 , was then under consideration in the British Parliament . Section 28 proposed prohibiting local authorities from promoting homosexuality " ... as a kind of pretended family relationship " . McKellen became active in fighting the proposed law , and , during a BBC Radio 3 programme where he debated Section 28 with the conservative journalist Peregrine Worsthorne , declared himself gay . McKellen has stated that he was influenced in his decision by the advice and support of his friends , among them noted gay author Armistead Maupin . In a 1998 interview that discusses the 29th anniversary of the Stonewall riots , McKellen commented ,
I have many regrets about not having come out earlier , but one of them might be that I didn 't engage myself in the politicking .
He has said of this period :
My own participating in that campaign was a focus for people [ to ] take comfort that if Ian McKellen was on board for this , perhaps it would be all right for other people to be as well , gay and straight .
Section 28 was , however , enacted and remained on the statute books until 2000 in Scotland and 2003 in England and Wales . Section 28 never applied in Northern Ireland .
In 2003 , during an appearance on Have I Got News For You , McKellen claimed when he visited Michael Howard , then Environment Secretary ( responsible for local government ) , in 1988 to lobby against Section 28 , Howard refused to change his position but did ask him to leave an autograph for his children . McKellen agreed , but wrote , " Fuck off , I 'm gay . " McKellen described Howard 's junior ministers , Conservatives David Wilshire and Dame Jill Knight , who were the architects of Section 28 , as the ' ugly sisters ' of a political pantomime .
McKellen has continued to be very active in LGBT rights efforts . In a statement on his website regarding his activism , the actor commented that :
I have been reluctant to lobby on other issues I most care about β nuclear weapons ( against ) , religion ( atheist ) , capital punishment ( anti ) , AIDS ( fund @-@ raiser ) because I never want to be forever spouting , diluting the impact of addressing my most urgent concern ; legal and social equality for gay people worldwide .
McKellen is a co @-@ founder of Stonewall , an LGBT rights lobby group in the United Kingdom , named after the Stonewall riots . McKellen is also patron of LGBT History Month , Pride London , Oxford Pride , GAY @-@ GLOS , The Lesbian & Gay Foundation , and FFLAG where he appears in their video " Parents Talking " .
In 1994 , at the closing ceremony of the Gay Games , he briefly took the stage to address the crowd , saying , " I 'm Sir Ian McKellen , but you can call me Serena " : This nickname , given to him by Stephen Fry , had been circulating within the gay community since McKellen 's knighthood was conferred . In 2002 , he was the Celebrity Grand Marshal of the San Francisco Pride Parade and he attended the Academy Awards with his then @-@ boyfriend , New Zealander Nick Cuthell . In 2006 , McKellen spoke at the pre @-@ launch of the 2007 LGBT History Month in the UK , lending his support to the organisation and its founder , Sue Sanders . In 2007 , he became a patron of The Albert Kennedy Trust , an organisation that provides support to young , homeless and troubled LGBT people .
In 2006 , he became a patron of Oxford Pride , stating :
I send my love to all members of Oxford Pride , their sponsors and supporters , of which I am proud to be one ... Onlookers can be impressed by our confidence and determination to be ourselves and gay people , of whatever age , can be comforted by the occasion to take the first steps towards coming out and leaving the closet forever behind .
McKellen has taken his activism internationally , and caused a major stir in Singapore , where he was invited to do an interview on a morning show and shocked the interviewer by asking if they could recommend him a gay bar ; the programme immediately ended . In December 2008 , he was named in Out 's annual Out 100 list .
In 2010 , McKellen extended his support for Liverpool 's Homotopia festival in which a group of gay and lesbian Merseyside teenagers helped to produce an anti @-@ homophobia campaign pack for schools and youth centres across the city . In May 2011 , he called Sergey Sobyanin , Moscow 's mayor , a " coward " for refusing to allow gay parades in the city .
In 2014 , he was named in the top 10 on the World Pride Power list .
= = = Charity work = = =
In April 2010 , along with actors Brian Cox and Eleanor Bron , McKellen appeared in a series of TV advertisements to support Age UK , the charity recently formed from the merger of Age Concern and Help the Aged . All three actors gave their time free of charge .
A cricket fan since childhood , McKellen umpired in March 2011 for a charity cricket match in New Zealand to support earthquake victims of the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake .
McKellen is an honorary board member for the New York and Washington , DC based organization Only Make Believe . Only Make Believe creates and performs interactive plays in children 's hospitals and care facilities . He was honoured by the organisation in 2012 and hosted their annual Make Believe on Broadway Gala in November 2013 . He garnered publicity for the organisation by stripping down to his Lord of the Rings underwear on stage .
= = = Isaac Theatre Royal , Christchurch = = =
While in New Zealand filming The Hobbit in 2012 , McKellen announced a special New Zealand tour " Shakespeare , Tolkien , and You ! " , with proceeds from the shows going to help save the Isaac Theatre Royal , which suffered extensive damage during the 2011 Christchurch earthquake . McKellen said he opted to help save the building as it was the last theatre he played in New Zealand ( Waiting for Godot in 2010 ) and the locals ' love for it made it a place worth supporting .
= = Selected credits = =
= = = Stage = = =
Much Ado About Nothing , Royal National Theatre , Old Vic , London , 1965
Trelawny of the ' Wells ' , National Theatre , London & Chichester Festival , 1965
The Promise , West End ; Broadway , 1967
Edward II ( in title role ) , Edinburgh Festival & West End , 1969
Hamlet ( title role ) , UK / European Tour , 1971
'Tis Pity She 's a Whore , UK Tour , 1972
Dr Faustus ( title role ) , Royal Shakespeare Company , Edinburgh Festival & Aldwych Theatre ( London ) , 1974
King John , RSC , 1975
Romeo and Juliet ( as Romeo ) , RSC , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon & London , 1976
The Winter 's Tale , RSC , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , 1976
Macbeth ( title role ) , RSC , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon & Young Vic ( London ) , 1976 β 1977
The Alchemist , RSC , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon & London , 1977
Every Good Boy Deserves Favour , RSC , Barbican Arts Centre ( London ) , 1977
Three Sisters , RSC , UK Tour , 1978
Bent , ( as Max ) Royal Court and Criterion , London , 1979
Acting Shakespeare ( as Himself ) , Copenhagen , 1980
Amadeus ( as Salieri ) , Broadway , 1980
Coriolanus ( title role ) , National Theatre , 1984
Wild Honey , National Theatre , 1984 ( & Broadway , 1986 )
The Cherry Orchard ( as Lopakhin ) , National Theatre , 1985
The Duchess of Malfi , National Theatre , 1985
The Real Inspector Hound , National Theatre , London & Paris , 1985
Othello ( as Iago ) , RSC , London & Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , 1989
Richard III ( title role ) , National Theatre , world tour , 1990 & US tour , 1992
Uncle Vanya ( title role ) , National Theatre , 1992
Peter Pan ( as Mr. Darling / Captain Hook ) , National Theatre , 1997
An Enemy of the People , National Theatre , 1997 & Ahmanson Theatre ( Los Angeles ) , 1998
Present Laughter , West Yorkshire Playhouse ( Leeds , England ) , 1998
Dance of Death , at the Broadhurst Theatre ( New York ) in 2001 . At the Lyric Theatre ( London , England ) in 2003
Aladdin , ( as Widow Twankie ) Old Vic , 2004 & 2005
The Cut , Donmar Warehouse , 2006
King Lear by William Shakespeare , ( as Lear ) , Courtyard Theatre , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , 2007 ; New Zealand , 2007 ; New York ( Brooklyn Academy of Music ) , 2007 , Minneapolis , 2007 , New London Theatre ( West End ) , 2007 β 8
The Seagull by Anton Chekhov , ( as Sorin ) , Courtyard Theatre , Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , 2007 ; New York ( Brooklyn Academy of Music ) , 2007 Minneapolis , 2007 , New London Theatre ( West End ) , 2007 β 8
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett , ( as Estragon ) , Theatre Royal Haymarket , London , 2009 and 2010 ; Comedy Theatre , Melbourne , Australia , 2010 and Fugard Theatre , Cape Town , South Africa , 2010
The Syndicate by Eduardo De Filippo , Chichester Festival , 2011
No Man 's Land and Waiting for Godot ( double bill ) , Broadway , 2013 β 2014
Letters Live , Freemasons Hall , 2015
No Man 's Land , Wyndham 's , London , 2016
= = = Filmography , awards and nominations = = =
= = = Music = = =
In 1987 , McKellen appeared reciting Shakespeare while the Super Rock group The Fleshtones improvised behind him on Andy Warhol 's Fifteen Minutes which ran on MTV .
Vampire in the music video " Heart " by Pet Shop Boys
The man who 's " falling out of reach " in the music video " Falling Out of Reach " by Guillemots
Appears on the Scissor Sisters track " Invisible Light " from their 2010 album " Night Work " , reciting a passage regarding the " Invisible Light " of the title .
Appeared as himself alongside George Ezra in the latter 's music video for " Listen to the Man " . Whilst Ezra is singing his song , McKellen joins in and lip @-@ syncs Ezra 's voice .
= = = Audiobooks = = =
Audiobook narrator of Michelle Paver 's series Wolf Brother , Spirit Walker , Soul Eater , Outcast , Oath Breaker , and Ghost Hunter , as well as a version of Homer 's The Odyssey .
= = = Other work = = =
A friend of Ian Charleson and an admirer of his work , McKellen contributed an entire chapter to For Ian Charleson : A Tribute . A recording of McKellen 's voice is heard before performances at the Royal Festival Hall , reminding patrons to ensure their mobile phones and watch alarms are switched off and to keep coughing to a minimum . He also took part in the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony as Prospero .
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= Denise Phua =
Denise Phua Lay Peng ( Chinese : ζ½δΈ½θ ; pinyin : PΔn LΓ¬pΓng , born 9 December 1959 ) is a Singaporean politician and disability rights activist . After a successful corporate career spanning two decades , she became the president of the Autism Resource Centre ( Singapore ) and co @-@ founded Pathlight School . She is currently a member of parliament ( MP ) representing the ruling People 's Action Party ( PAP ) in Moulmein @-@ Kallang GRC . She was previously a MP representing Jalan Besar GRC from 6 May 2006 to 18 April 2011 . As a MP , she has focused on developing programmes for the disabled and special needs communities in Singapore .
= = Early years and corporate career = =
Phua studied at Balestier Girls ' Primary School , Raffles Girls ' School and Hwa Chong Junior College . She graduated from the National University of Singapore with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English and earned a Master of Business Administration degree from Golden Gate University . In a career spanning two decades , she held management positions at Hewlett @-@ Packard and the Wuthelam Group . She then founded a regional leadership training firm , the Centre of Effective Leadership .
= = Volunteer work = =
Her son was diagnosed with autism at the age of three . As Phua consulted professionals and did research on how to help him , she thought about how she could help other autistic children . She subsequently founded WeCAN , a charity which helps caregivers of autistic people and offers early intervention programmes for autistic preschoolers .
In 2005 , Phua left the corporate world to be a full @-@ time special needs volunteer . She and her partners sold the Centre of Effective Leadership to Right Management , a Manpower Inc. subsidiary . Phua then became president of the Autism Resource Centre . She often wrote to newspapers and government agencies on issues affecting the special needs community .
Phua was co @-@ founder and former acting principal of Pathlight School , the first special school for autistic children in Singapore . The school offers mainstream curriculum and life skills education to its students . A believer in helping autistic people realise their potential and integrate into society , Phua helped develop many of the school 's programmes . These include employability skills training through a student @-@ run cafΓ© , specialised vocational training , and satellite classes where Pathlight students mix with mainstream students . In four years , enrolment increased tenfold and the school attracted media attention for its impact on students .
= = Political career = =
Phua joined the ruling PAP 's Jalan Besar branch in 2004 . The following year , she was appointed to the Feedback Supervisory Panel , which leads the government 's Feedback Unit . In the 2006 general election , she was fielded as a PAP candidate in Jalan Besar GRC , which was contested by the Singapore Democratic Alliance . During the election campaign , she promised to make Singapore a more inclusive society by representing the disabled and special needs communities . The PAP team won Jalan Besar GRC with 69 @.@ 26 % of the vote .
In July 2006 , the PAP formed a workgroup , headed by Phua , to explore initiatives to improve the financial security of disabled and special needs children . Phua also led a committee that drew up a five @-@ year plan to improve services for special needs children . The PAP studied their proposals and later implemented some , such as a National non @-@ profit Special Needs Trust Fund . Laws were also drafted to prohibit abuse of the mentally disabled and to allow parents to appoint someone to look after their special needs children after they die .
Phua criticised the PAP 's " many helping hands " approach , where social services are provided by charities and overseen by the PAP . She said that special education should be led by the Ministry of Education ( MOE ) , as it had more resources and expertise . Minister for Community Development , Youth and Sports Vivian Balakrishnan defended the policy , arguing that it reduced bureaucracy and left jobs to the right people . However , the MOE agreed to play a more active role in special education , with increased funding and teacher training . The MOE also introduced more satellite classes in mainstream schools and helped special schools set targets for learning outcomes , such as O @-@ Level passes . In 2014 Phua also spoke out during the second reading of the Remote Gambling Bill , calling for a complete ban on remote gambling .
In April 2016 , Phua caused widespread controversy when , during a debate on the Ministry of Home Affairs ' budget in Parliament , she suggested the installation of fences at communal areas in Little India , like playgrounds , to prevent the congregation of foreign workers there and to allow residents to use the facilities away from them . " Congregations of such high density are walking time @-@ bombs and public disorder incidents waiting to happen , " she remarked . She apologised two days later .
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= School District 53 Okanagan Similkameen =
School District 53 Okanagan Similkameen is a school district that serves fragments of the southern Okanagan and lower Similkameen regions , which include Cawston , Hedley , Keremeos , Okanagan Falls , Oliver , and Osoyoos , totaling to six communities in the district , all of which are in British Columbia , Canada . Its main " maintenance department " office is held in Oliver , consisting of ten schools , five of which are elementary , three are high or secondary schools , while two are alternative schools . This district 's superintendent is Beverly Young , while 2 @,@ 665 students attend schools in it ; there are 480 employees for the Okanagan Simlkammen school district . Their motto is " Learning Today for Living Tomorrow " , and all places within the district are towns or villages .
In addition to the conventional school programs , School District 53 offers three adult learning outlets , an outreach school , three early learning centres , as well as one elementary hockey academy ; the district supports Aboriginal people . It provides a school bus transportation service , in order for children to get to their school and home , being responsible to the Director of Facilities . This bus service has been considered for expansion . School District 53 maintains a policy on emergency , which was amended on April 30 , 2008 . There is also a " smoke @-@ free " policy that was amended on September 26 , 2007 .
= = Facilities = =
School District 53 Okanagan Similkameen consists of ten schools , five of which are elementary , three are high or secondary schools , while two are alternative schools , within a total of six communities in British Columbia , Canada , in fragments of the southern Okanagan and lower Similkameen regions . The schools of the latter region include Cawston Primary School β held in the town of Cawston β whose principal is Linda Thiel , who also served as a principal for the Hedley Elementary School β held in the Hedley town β before its closure in January 2008 , after the Okanagan Similkammeen district voted four to two to close the school .
Both schools held students from grades from Kindergarten to Grade 4 . The village of Keremeos is home to Similkameen Elementary Secondary School , which holds students from Grades 5 to 12 , with the principal being Marcus Toneatto . In addition to the schools of the lower Similkameen , the southern Okanagan holds seven of the ten schools part of the district , as well as its main " maintenance department " office , which is held in the town of Oliver . All schools in the district which are part of the Okanagan region maintain the same format : elementary schools have children from Kindergarten to Grade 8 , while secondary schools consist of pupils from Grade 8 to 12 . This includes Okanagan Falls Elementary School , which is held in the Okanagan Falls town , with Lisa McCall serving as the school 's principal .
The Osoyoos town is home to Osoyoos Elementary School β whose principal is David Foster β and Osoyoos Secondary School , which is principled by G. Heinrichs . Since 2001 , British Columbia has invested over 4 @.@ 8 Canadian million dollars on replacing Osoyoos Elementary School , as well as Okanagan Falls Elementary School . It offers the Okanagan Similkameen Learning Centre , which consists of students from Grades 8 to 12 ; the principal of the learning centre is B. Hansen . Its neighboring town , Oliver , is home to , as of September 2011 , Oliver Elementary School and Tuc @-@ el @-@ Nuit Elementary School β the former 's principal is Mike Safek , while the latter 's is D. Foster .
The community also had a secondary school , named Southern Okanagan Secondary School , until it was burnt by a fire in September 2011 , during the school 's multi @-@ million dollar renovation project . The Royal Canadian Mounted Police 's ( RCMP ) investigation found no conclusion . The Government of British Columbia are contributing to the school 's rebuilding ; its construction began in spring 2012 , being slated for completion in 2013 .
In addition to the conventional school programs , School District 53 offers three adult learning outlets , an outreach school , three early learning centres , as well as one elementary hockey academy . It also works with a number of Aboriginal people , having signed an enhancement agreement to improve academic achievement of them . 2 @,@ 665 students attend schools in this district , whose superintendent is Beverley Young .
= = Demographics = =
1 @,@ 303 of those 2 @,@ 665 students within the district attend elementary schools , while 1 @,@ 202 attend secondary schools ; 102 are adult education students . School District 53 contains 480 employees , and its motto is " Learning Today for Living Tomorrow " . While its board chair is Marieze Tarr , its secretary treasurer is Lynda Minnabarriet and its MLA is John Slater . The district has five trustees . It provides a school bus transportation service , in order to get children to their school and home , being responsible to the Director of Facilities . The bus service has been considered for expansion .
The British Columbia province gives funds to the school district , so that it can maintain their schools correctly . The amount given is based on the number of kids that are enrolled for the year . Further money is often left over by the end of the year . StrongStart BC , an " early learning initiatives " program , operates at three schools within the district , Okanagan Falls Elementary School , Oliver Elementary School , Cawston Primary School , and Osoyoos Elementary School . The district 's boundaries include three First Nations Bands : the Osoyoos Indian Band and the upper and lower Similkameen Bands , all of which are Indian governments .
An emergency β a " sudden " , " unexpected " occurrence that requires action for a situation β at schools within the district 53 scope can result in school or bus transportation facilities . This district 's policy on emergency was amended on April 30 , 2008 , which includes fire , threats or facilities , violence , school bus accident , serve weather , earthquake , hazardous spills , accidents , explosions , or floods . The policy was amended because the district recognizes the importance of emergencies , specifically during school 's session , that could be both natural and human , hence why it necessitates to develop plans for emergencies . It also maintains a " smoke @-@ free " policy , meaning that it is prohibited to smoke in a district 53 area . This rule was amended on September 26 , 2007 .
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= It 's Better If You Don 't Understand =
It 's Better If You Don 't Understand is the first extended play ( EP ) and debut release recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter and music producer Bruno Mars . Its title comes from the final lyrics of one of its songs , " The Other Side " . The EP consists of four tracks and incorporates pop , pop rock , and rap music genres . The record was made available for digital download on May 11 , 2010 through Elektra Records in the United States , and on August 11 , 2010 through Atlantic Records in France . The song " Count on Me " was not featured on the track list of the latter release . To promote the album , Mars released a home video for the recording " The Other Side " . All of the material on the EP was produced by The Smeezingtons members Mars , Philip Lawrence and Ari Levine , with the closing track being co @-@ produced by Jeff Bhasker .
It 's Better If You Don 't Understand received generally rave reviews from music critics β AllMusic 's David Jeffres praised the album as showcasing Mars ' songwriting abilities and a genre that " leans towards " pop , while About.com 's Bill Lamb viewed the EP positively as " music that should be on your radio " , calling it a " pop pleasure " . All of the songs from It 's Better If You Don 't Understand were later included on Mars ' debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) , and , with the exception of " Somewhere in Brooklyn " , were performed on the tour of the same name . The EP peaked at number 99 on the Billboard 200 in the United States , and at number 97 on the UK Albums Chart . As of 2011 , it has sold 27 @,@ 000 copies in the US . " The Other Side " peaked on the UK Singles Charts at number 117 . In an interview , with Los Angeles Times , Mars ' admitted he regrets to have " wasted " the title of this record .
= = Background = =
In an interview with Rap @-@ Up , Mars explained that the song " Somewhere in Brooklyn " is dedicated to his father who is from Brooklyn , adding that : " everyone can agree that New York is a special place " . Lyrically , a girl is the subject of Mars ' attention . After they met briefly , he tries to find her again somewhere in Brooklyn .
Ari Levine talked in an interview with Sound on Sound about producing some of Mars ' songs . " The Other Side " , whose production was re @-@ arranged , was intended for somebody else , and several people wrote parts of the track . Concerning the lyrics ' concept Mars said that they describe : " the lifestyle you end up living as an artist " . He also explained that the title of the record came from the final lyrics of one of its songs , " The Other Side " .
In the same interview , Levine explained that " Talking to the Moon " took a long time to record , while he , Mars , and Lawrence decided which drums to use . As a result , the song was arranged and produced " in four different ways " . When the team started composing the track , they " only had the first verse and the horns " . However their gut told them they were onto something . At one point the team : " had three different bridges and [ they ] spent a lot of time trying to find out which one was the best " . Jeff Bhasker also collaborated on the track 's composition . " Talking to the Moon " was the first song written for Mars ' debut release once the three of them finished working with other artists and focused on the EP .
= = Composition = =
It 's Better If You Don 't Understand is composed of four songs employing pop , pop rock , and rap genres . Mars explained that the EP is hard to classify since : " I just write songs that I strongly believe in and that are coming from inside . There 's no tricks . It 's honesty with big melodies . And I 'm singing the s * * * out of them " . A romantic soft and smooth recording , the opening track , " Somewhere in Brooklyn " , was composed by The Smeezingtons . It features " an emo @-@ pop backing " beat , " electronic pops and bleeps " , a piano and synthesizers . Lyrically , the tune is about Mars chasing the " perfect woman " who got away , and wishing to find her again . Mars ' vocals have been highly praised in this track . The second release , " The Other Side " , features a vocal collaboration with Cee Lo Green and B.o.B. , and is considered the best on the EP by several critics . The track has been described as incorporating 60 's and 70 's soulful feeling . Its instrumentation uses guitar , organ and a : " drum and bass pace that slowly builds through the verse and into the chorus " . It is reminiscent of compositions by Daniel Merriweather and Chris Isaak β s " Wicked Game " . " The Other Side " addresses the " excitement of courting " sung in a falsetto voice .
The two final tracks were described as " bittersweet ballads " , with the third being called a " slow burner " . " Count On Me " draws from the works of Jason Mraz and David Cook , featuring a laid back groove , tropical vibes , " Elvis @-@ esque adlibs at the beginning " and Mars " roots in Hawaii " . Pardalis of 411mania.com found its hook " simple but effective " . The vocals were described as powerful , " yet pleasant " . It conveys the message of comfort found in a friend and shows Mars ' " soft side " . The closing track , " Talking to the Moon " , was described as a pop song with power ballad influences . It was met with mixed reviews , with some reviewers calling it " the weakest because the heavy production threatens to overwhelm Mars ' singing " , and others feeling that " the song just gets better " . The recording features a " soft piano " , " layers of synthesizers " , " beautiful vocals " on a chorus with a " phenomenal hook " and " perfect balance " culminating in an " over the top production " . The track 's sentiment has been highly praised , with some saying that " anyone could feel it " . Its lyrics describe Mars trying to reach his " lost former lover " hoping that his words reach their destiny .
= = Release and promotion = =
It 's Better If You Don 't Understand was released exclusively for digital download on May 11 , 2010 by Elektra Records in the US , and in France , on August 11 , 2010 by Atlantic Records ; this edition did not feature " Count on Me " on the track list .
" The Other Side " was released as the first single from the EP in July 2010 . The song featured guest vocals by Atlanta @-@ based rappers Cee Lo Green and B.o.B. The home video for " The Other Side " was directed by Nick Bilardello and Cameron Duddy , and premiered on MTV 's website on August 23 , 2010 . " The Other Side " , " Count on Me " , and " Talking to the Moon " were later included on the standard edition of Mars ' debut studio album , Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans ( 2010 ) . " Somewhere in Brooklyn " was included as a bonus track on the deluxe version of the record . All of the songs were featured on the set list of Mars ' Doo @-@ Wops & Hooligans Tour , with the exception of " Somewhere in Brooklyn " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , It 's Better If You Don 't Understand received rave reviews from music critics . 411Mania 's Dan Pardalis complimented the EP by calling it " pop music at its finest " , noting the song " Somewhere in Brooklyn " was " good " , describing the other three as " great " . He added that the four tracks tell " one love story " . Pardalis complement not only Mars ' " extraordinary versatility , pop sensibility , and appeal " , but also his talent at creating " memorable vocal melodies and his naturally emotive writing " , easily making a connection with the audience . Bill Lamb of About.com labelled the EP a " pop pleasure " , further praising the record by saying " with justice in the pop music world , this is the music that should be on your radio " , rating It 's Better If You Don 't Understand four and a half out of five stars . Writing for Allmusic , David Jeffres called the EP 's four songs a " sparse effort that leans towards pop " and drew attention to " the man β s songwriting " . He also deemed the album a " short set of easy , breezy tunes " , which doesn 't necessarily leave people " begging for more , but it will make most pop fans open to the idea " . Harris Decker of the website The Truth About Music also gave the EP a positive review , calling the record " impressive " and Mars " talented " . Nevertheless , he felt the release was " rushed " since it was made : " in order to capitalize on the success of the mainstream singles " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
It 's Better If You Don 't Understand failed to achieve commercial success . It debuted at number 99 on the Billboard 200 , the week of May 29 , 2010 , where it remained for only one week ; it peaked at number thirteen on the Billboard Digital Albums chart . As of 2011 , it has sold 27 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It 's Better If You Don 't Understand reached number 97 on the UK Albums Chart on the week of August 28 , 2010 , while " The Other Side " charted on the UK Singles Charts at number 117 .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from It 's Better If You Don 't Understand liner notes .
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from It 's Better If You Don 't Understand liner notes and AllMusic .
= = Release history = =
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= Invasion of the Bane =
" Invasion of the Bane " is the first episode of the British science fiction television series The Sarah Jane Adventures . It was originally broadcast on 1 January 2007 . Since the series was commissioned before the script for the episode was written , it is not a pilot , but a bank holiday special , and serves the introductory functions of a pilot .
The episode focuses upon a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old girl , Maria Jackson , discovering the existence of aliens . After discovering that the Bane , creators of a soft drink called Bubble Shock ! , harbour a destructive secret , she teams up with investigative journalist Sarah Jane Smith to prevent their plans .
= = Plot = =
A thirteen @-@ year @-@ old girl , Maria Jackson ( Yasmin Paige ) , and her recently divorced father Alan ( Joseph Millson ) move into a house opposite journalist and former time @-@ traveller Sarah Jane Smith ( Elisabeth Sladen ) . The night after they have moved in , Maria is woken by an ethereal light emanating from Sarah Jane 's house , which she discovers , to her horrified fascination , to be Sarah Jane conversing with a star poet , or arcateenian .
The next morning , a neighbour Kelsey Hooper ( Porsha Lawrence Mavour ) visits and welcomes Maria before inviting her into town , using the free " Bubble Shock ! " bus to travel there and tour the factory . Once they arrive at the factory , they are led to a security scanner , which surreptitiously collects their DNA to transfer to an " Archetype " ( Thomas Knight ) under the supervision of the factory 's owner , Mrs Wormwood ( Samantha Bond ) .
Sarah Jane , having overheard the girls making plans , follows them to the factory and interviews Mrs Wormwood , and how she was able to get approval for the drink so fast , and why the Bane , an ingredient unique to the drink , was " resisting " analysis , to which she is told that all that Bubble Shock ! is doing is satisfying the needs of the Western world . On Sarah Jane 's way out , she is almost killed by Wormwood 's secretary .
Kelsey wanders from the tour and attempts to phone Maria , but disturbs an unknown beast , the Bane Mother , to the annoyance of the staff , to which Wormwood orders the alarms switched off and Sarah Jane killed . Maria attempts to phone Kelsey , but sets off the alarms again , causing the Archetype to escape , transferring the focus upon him . Maria , while escaping , encounters him , who just mimics her , and they escape into a women 's bathroom . Sarah Jane then enters , and although they are surprised to see each other , they manage to escape the factory , albeit without Kelsey . When they arrive back on Bannerman Road , Sarah warns Maria not to get involved as her life is too dangerous .
Meanwhile , Kelsey is accosted by the factory guards , which causes her to rant about the treatment she has received . Wormwood subdues her by revealing her true form , and having discovered Kelsey and Sarah Jane live on the same street , uses her PR representative Davey ( Jamie Davis ) to escort her home . Once there , Maria realises upon sight of Kelsey that Davey had discovered Sarah and tries to run into Sarah Jane 's house . Eventually realising their intent , Sarah Jane brings them inside , with Davey , now as a Bane , giving chase . Sarah Jane is able to repel Davey and then , upon discovery of the attic by Kelsey , tells the teenagers about aliens : years ago , she met the Doctor , a man like no other , who took her through time and space . The adventures suddenly ended , but when they met by chance ( in " School Reunion " ) not long ago , they realised they were still fond of each other . Sarah Jane has a brief reunion with K9 , who is in her safe , sealing off a black hole .
Once Sarah Jane has analysed that the Bane ingredient was sentient , she activates her computer , Mr Smith - after some shouting by Kelsey - and contacts Wormwood and politely requests that she leaves Earth . Wormwood refuses , and in retaliation takes control of the majority of the human race . Sarah Jane races to the factory , but cannot enter until she drives the bus into a wall . Wormwood reveals the Bane Mother , and explains the Archetype is a conglomerate of human DNA designed to be investigated so that Bubble Shock could be improved . The Archetype uses an alien communicator Sarah Jane had been given , realising that the signal would be strong enough to kill the Bane Mother , and Sarah Jane , Maria , and the Archetype escape as the factory explodes .
The following evening , Sarah Jane agrees to adopt the Archetype and agrees with Maria to call him " Luke " , since that was what she wanted to name her child if she ever had one . The episode closes with a monologue by Sarah Jane that while space may be strange , adventures may be had on Earth , if one knows where to look .
= = = Continuity = = =
Mrs Wormwood reappears in the series 2 serial Enemy of the Bane .
When trying to find a name for Luke , Sarah Jane mentions Harry , referring to Harry Sullivan and Alastair , which is the first name of Brigadier Lethbridge @-@ Stewart before deciding on Luke .
= = Outside Reference = =
The plot is similar to that of Futurama 's " Fry and the Slurm Factory " with an alien 's bodily fluid being used in a soft drink to take control of humans and the world .
= = Production = =
= = = Sladen and Doctor Who = = =
Elisabeth Sladen previously played Sarah Jane between 1973 and 1976 . In 1981 , she was offered the role again to ease the transition between the Fourth and Fifth Doctors , which she declined , but agreed to star in the pilot ( and only episode ) for the spin @-@ off series K @-@ 9 and Company , which brought her together with K @-@ 9 , another popular character . After her appearance in The Five Doctors in 1983 , she temporarily stopped acting in order to raise her family , but lent her voice to several Big Finish audio productions . She returned to Doctor Who in the aptly titled Tenth Doctor episode , " School Reunion " . Sladen and Tommy Knight have also appeared as Sarah Jane and Luke Smith in the series 4 finale , " The Stolen Earth " / " Journey 's End " , and in the second and final part of David Tennant 's swan song as the Tenth Doctor , The End of Time .
= = = Concept and writing = = =
In 2005 , Russell T Davies had envisioned using a previous companion to explore the role and eventual fate of the Doctor 's companions . Sladen was convinced to appear in the second series episode " School Reunion " . Meanwhile , CBBC proposed a spin @-@ off to Davies about a teenage Doctor , which he denied in favour of a spin @-@ off revolving around Sarah Jane . While surprised , Sladen agreed to sign on the project . However , the rights for K @-@ 9 to appear in the series were not secured . To explain the non @-@ appearance of K @-@ 9 , the production team gave him a cameo fixing a black hole inadvertently created in Switzerland .
The episode was written by Davies and Gareth Roberts . Roberts drew from several outside sources several parts of the plot , for example the allusion to the star of Wormwood from the Book of Revelation . Roberts also used the name of a beverage called " Bubbleshake " in his novel The Highest Science for inspiration for Bubble Shock ! .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The first scene of " Invasion of the Bane " to be shown was on 8 December 2006 , during a BBC Breakfast interview with Sladen , and was released a day later on the interactive advent calendar on the Doctor Who microsite . The clip , lasting one minute in length , was of Sarah Jane 's interview with Mrs Wormwood .
The episode 's airing on BBC1 gathered 2 @.@ 9 million viewers , 15 % of the audience share , of which 20 % were under 16 . While the film Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , which aired against " Invasion of the Bane " on ITV1 , had a higher overall reach , " Invasion of the Bane " had a slightly higher number of viewers head @-@ to @-@ head . The episode 's audience Appreciation Index was 77 , the average score for an episode of a drama programme .
= = Novelisation = =
This was the first of eleven Sarah Jane Adventures serials to be adapted as a novel . Written by Terrance Dicks , the book was first published in Paperback on 1 November 2007 .
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= William Morris =
William Morris ( 24 March 1834 β 3 October 1896 ) was an English textile designer , poet , novelist , translator , and socialist activist . Associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement , he was a major contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts and methods of production . His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre , while he played a significant role in propagating the early socialist movement in Britain .
Born in Walthamstow , Essex , to a wealthy middle @-@ class family , Morris came under the strong influence of medievalism while studying Classics at Oxford University , there joining the Birmingham Set . After university he trained as an architect , married Jane Burden , and developed close friendships with the Pre @-@ Raphaelite artists Edward Burne @-@ Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti and with the Neo @-@ Gothic architect Philip Webb . Webb and Morris designed a family home , Red House , then in Kent , where the latter lived from 1859 to 1865 , before moving to Bloomsbury , central London . In 1861 , Morris founded a decorative arts firm with Burne @-@ Jones , Rossetti , Webb , and others : the Morris , Marshall , Faulkner & Co . Becoming highly fashionable and much in demand , the firm profoundly influenced interior decoration throughout the Victorian period , with Morris designing tapestries , wallpaper , fabrics , furniture , and stained glass windows . In 1875 , Morris assumed total control of the company , which was renamed Morris & Co .
Although retaining a main home in London , from 1871 Morris rented the rural retreat of Kelmscott Manor , Oxfordshire . Greatly influenced by visits to Iceland , with EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson he produced a series of English @-@ language translations of Icelandic Sagas . He also achieved success with the publication of his epic poems and novels , namely The Earthly Paradise ( 1868 β 1870 ) , A Dream of John Ball ( 1888 ) , the utopian News from Nowhere ( 1890 ) , and the fantasy romance The Well at the World 's End ( 1896 ) . In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings to campaign against the damage caused by architectural restoration . Embracing Marxism and influenced by anarchism , in the 1880s Morris became a committed revolutionary socialist activist ; after an involvement in the Social Democratic Federation ( SDF ) , he founded the Socialist League in 1884 , but broke with that organization in 1890 . In 1891 he founded the Kelmscott Press to publish limited @-@ edition , illuminated @-@ style print books , a cause to which he devoted his final years .
Morris is recognised as one of the most significant cultural figures of Victorian Britain ; though best known in his lifetime as a poet , he posthumously became better known for his designs . Founded in 1955 , the William Morris Society is devoted to his legacy , while multiple biographies and studies of his work have seen publication . Many of the buildings associated with his life are open to visitors , much of his work can be found in art galleries and museums , and his designs are still in production .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth : 1834 β 52 = = =
Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow , Essex , on 24 March 1834 . Raised into a wealthy middle @-@ class family , he was named after his father , a financier who worked as a partner in the Sanderson & Co. firm , bill brokers in the City of London . His mother was Emma Morris ( nΓ©e Shelton ) , who descended from a wealthy bourgeois family from Worcester . Morris was the third of his parents ' surviving children ; their first child , Charles , had been born in 1827 but died four days later . Charles had been followed by the birth of two girls , Emma in 1829 and Henrietta in 1833 , before William 's birth . These children were followed by the birth of siblings Stanley in 1837 , Rendall in 1839 , Arthur in 1840 , Isabella in 1842 , Edgar in 1844 , and Alice in 1846 . The Morris family were followers of the evangelical Protestant form of Christianity , and William was baptised four months after his birth at St. Mary 's Church , Walthamstow .
As a child , Morris was kept largely housebound at Elm House by his mother ; there , he spent much time reading , favouring the novels of Walter Scott . Aged 6 , Morris moved with his family to the Georgian Italianate mansion at Woodford Hall , Woodford , Essex , which was surrounded by 50 acres of land adjacent to Epping Forest . He took an interest in fishing with his brothers as well as gardening in the Hall 's grounds , and spent much time exploring the Forest , where he was fascinated both by the Iron Age earthworks at Loughton Camp and Ambresbury Banks and by the Early Modern Hunting Lodge at Chingford . He also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony , and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country , marveling at their architecture . His father took him on visits outside of the county , for instance to Canterbury Cathedral , the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens , and to the Isle of Wight , where he adored Blackgang Chine . Aged 9 , he was then sent to Misses Arundale 's Academy for Young Gentlemen , a nearby preparatory school ; although initially riding there by pony each day , he later began boarding , intensely disliking the experience .
In 1847 , Morris 's father died unexpectedly . From this point , the family relied upon continued income from the copper mines at Devon Great Consols , and sold Woodford Hall to move into the smaller Water House . In February 1848 Morris began his studies at Marlborough College in Marlborough , Wiltshire , where he gained a reputation as an eccentric nicknamed " Crab " . He despised his time there , being bullied , bored , and homesick . He did use the opportunity to visit many of the prehistoric sites of Wiltshire , such as Avebury and Silbury Hill , which fascinated him . The school was Anglican in faith and in March 1849 Morris was confirmed by the Bishop of Salisbury in the college chapel , developing an enthusiastic attraction towards the Anglo @-@ Catholic movement and its Romanticist aesthetic . At Christmas 1851 , Morris was removed from the school and returned to Water House , where he was privately tutored by the Reverend Frederick B. Guy , Assistant Master at the nearby Forest School .
= = = Oxford and the Birmingham Set : 1852 β 56 = = =
In June 1852 Morris entered Oxford University 's Exeter College , although since the college was full , he only went into residence in January 1853 . He disliked the college and was bored by the manner in which they taught him Classics . Instead he developed a keen interest in Medieval history and Medieval architecture , inspired by the many Medieval buildings in Oxford . This interest was tied to Britain 's growing Medievalist movement , a form of Romanticism that rejected many of the values of Victorian industrial capitalism . For Morris , the Middle Ages represented an era with strong chivalric values and an organic , pre @-@ capitalist sense of community , both of which he deemed preferable to his own period . This attitude was compounded by his reading of Thomas Carlyle 's book Past and Present ( 1843 ) , in which Carlyle championed Medieval values as a corrective to the problems of Victorian society . Under this influence , Morris 's dislike of contemporary capitalism grew , and he came to be influenced by the work of Christian socialists Charles Kingsley and Frederick Denison Maurice .
At the college , Morris met fellow first @-@ year undergraduate Edward Burne @-@ Jones , who became his lifelong friend and collaborator . Although from very different backgrounds , they found that they had a shared attitude to life , both being keenly interested in Anglo @-@ Catholicism and Arthurianism . Through Burne @-@ Jones , Morris joined a group of undergraduates from Birmingham who were studying at Pembroke College : William Fulford , Richard Watson Dixon , Charles Faulkner , and Cormell Price . They were known among themselves as the " Brotherhood " and to historians as the Birmingham Set . Morris was the most affluent member of the Set , and was generous with his wealth toward the others . Like Morris , the Set were fans of the poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson , and would meet together to recite the plays of William Shakespeare .
Morris was heavily influenced by the writings of the art critic John Ruskin , being particularly inspired by his chapter " On the Nature of Gothic Architecture " in the second volume of The Stones of Venice ; he later described it as " one of the very few necessary and inevitable utterances of the century " . Morris adopted Ruskin 's philosophy of rejecting the tawdry industrial manufacture of decorative arts and architecture in favour of a return to hand @-@ craftsmanship , raising artisans to the status of artists , creating art that should be affordable and hand @-@ made , with no hierarchy of artistic mediums . Ruskin had achieved attention in Victorian society for championing the art of a group of painters who had emerged in London in 1848 calling themselves the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood . The Pre @-@ Raphaelite style was heavily Medievalist and Romanticist , emphasising abundant detail , intense colours and complex compositions ; it greatly impressed Morris and the Set . Influenced both by Ruskin and by John Keats , Morris began to spend more time writing poetry , in a style that was imitative of much of theirs .
Both he and Burne @-@ Jones were influenced by the Romanticist milieu and the Anglo @-@ Catholic movement , and decided to become clergymen in order to found a monastery where they could live a life of chastity and dedication to artistic pursuit , akin to that of the contemporary Nazarene movement . However , as time went on Morris became increasingly critical of Anglican doctrine and the idea faded . In summer 1854 , Morris travelled to Belgium to look at Medieval paintings , and in July 1855 went with Burne @-@ Jones and Fulford across northern France , visiting Medieval churches and cathedrals . It was on this trip that he and Burne @-@ Jones committed themselves to " a life of art " . For Morris , this decision resulted in a strained relationship with his family , who believed that he should have entered either commerce or the clergy . On a subsequent visit to Birmingham , Morris discovered Thomas Malory 's Le Morte d 'Arthur , which became a core Arthurian text for him and Burne @-@ Jones . In January 1856 , the Set began publication of The Oxford and Cambridge Magazine , designed to contain " mainly Tales , Poetry , friendly critiques and social articles " . Mainly funded by Morris , who briefly served as editor and heavily contributed to it with his own stories , poems , reviews and articles , the magazine lasted for twelve issues , and garnered praise from Tennyson and Ruskin .
= = = Apprenticeship , the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , and marriage : 1856 β 59 = = =
Having passed his finals and been awarded a BA , Morris began an apprenticeship with the Oxford @-@ based Neo @-@ Gothic architect George Edmund Street in January 1856 . His apprenticeship focused on architectural drawing , and there he was placed under the supervision of the young architect Philip Webb , who became a close friend . Morris soon relocated to Street 's London office , in August 1856 moving into a flat in Bloomsbury , Central London with Burne @-@ Jones , an area perhaps chosen for its avant @-@ garde associations . Morris was fascinated by London but dismayed at its pollution and rapid expansion into neighbouring countryside , describing it as " the spreading sore " .
Morris became increasingly fascinated with the idyllic Medievalist depictions of rural life which appeared in the paintings of the Pre @-@ Raphaelites , and spent large sums of money purchasing such artworks . Burne @-@ Jones shared this interest , but took it further by becoming an apprentice to one of the foremost Pre @-@ Raphaelite painters , Dante Gabriel Rossetti ; the three soon became close friends . Through Rossetti , Morris came to associate with poet Robert Browning , and the artists Arthur Hughes , Thomas Woolner , and Ford Madox Brown . Tired of architecture , Morris abandoned his apprenticeship , with Rossetti persuading him to take up painting instead , which he chose to do in the Pre @-@ Raphaelite style . Morris aided Rossetti and Burne @-@ Jones in painting the Arthurian murals at Oxford Union , although his contributions were widely deemed inferior and unskilled compared to those of the others . At Rossetti 's recommendation , Morris and Burne @-@ Jones moved in together to the flat at Bloomsbury 's No. 17 Red Lion Square by November 1856 . Morris designed and commissioned furniture for the flat in a Medieval style , much of which he painted with Arthurian scenes in a direct rejection of mainstream artistic tastes .
Morris also continued writing poetry and began designing illuminated manuscripts and embroidered hangings . In March 1857 , Bell and Dandy published a book of Morris 's poems , The Defence of Guenevere , which was largely self @-@ funded by the author himself . It did not sell well and garnered few reviews , most of which were unsympathetic . Disconcerted , Morris would not publish again for a further eight years . In October 1857 Morris met Jane Burden , a woman from a poor working @-@ class background , at a theatre performance and asked her to model for him . Smitten with her , they entered into a relationship and were engaged in spring 1858 ; Burden would later admit however that she never loved Morris . They were married in a low @-@ key ceremony held at St Michael at the North Gate church in Oxford on 26 April 1859 , before honeymooning in Bruges , Belgium , and settling temporarily at 41 Great Ormond Street , London .
= = Career and fame = =
= = = Red House and the Firm : 1859 β 65 = = =
Morris desired a new home for himself and his wife , resulting in the construction of the Red House in the Kentish hamlet of Upton near Bexleyheath , ten miles from central London . The building 's design was a co @-@ operative effort , with Morris focusing on the interiors and the exterior being designed by Webb , for whom the House represented his first commission as an independent architect . Named after the red bricks and red tiles from which it was constructed , Red House rejected architectural norms by being L @-@ shaped . Influenced by various forms of contemporary Neo @-@ Gothic architecture , the House was nevertheless unique , with Morris describing it as " very mediaeval in spirit " . Situated within an orchard , the house and garden were intricately linked in their design . It took a year to construct , and cost Morris Β£ 4000 at a time when his fortune was greatly reduced by a dramatic fall in the price of his shares . Burne @-@ Jones described it as " the beautifullest place on Earth . "
After construction , Morris invited friends to visit , most notably Burne @-@ Jones and his wife Georgiana , as well as Rossetti and his wife Lizzie Siddal . They aided him in painting murals on the furniture , walls , and ceilings , much of it based on Arthurian tales , the Trojan War , and Geoffrey Chaucer 's stories , while he also designed floral embroideries for the rooms . They also spent much time playing tricks on each other , enjoying games like hide and seek , and singing while accompanied by the piano . Siddall stayed at the House during summer and autumn 1861 as she recovered from a traumatic miscarriage and an addiction to laudanum ; she would die of an overdose in February 1862 .
In April 1861 , Morris founded a decorative arts company , Morris , Marshall , Faulkner & Co . , with six other partners : Burne @-@ Jones , Rossetti , Webb , Ford Madox Brown , Charles Faulkner , and Peter Paul Marshall . Operating from premises at No. 6 Red Lion Square , they referred to themselves as " the Firm " and were intent on adopting Ruskin 's ideas of reforming British attitudes to production . They hoped to reinstate decoration as one of the fine arts and adopted an ethos of affordability and anti @-@ elitism . For additional staff , they employed boys from the Industrial Home for Destitute Boys in Euston , central London , many of whom were trained as apprentices .
Although working within the Neo @-@ Gothic school of design , they differed from Neo @-@ Gothic architects like Gilbert Scott who simply included certain Gothic features on modern styles of building ; instead they sought to return completely to Medieval Gothic methods of craftmanship . The products created by the Firm included furniture , architectural carving , metalwork , stained glass windows , and murals . Their stained glass windows proved a particular success in the firm 's early years as they were in high demand for the surge in the Neo @-@ Gothic construction and refurbishment of churches , many of which were commissioned by the architect George Frederick Bodley . Despite Morris 's anti @-@ elitist ethos , the Firm soon became increasingly popular and fashionable with the bourgeoisie , particularly following their exhibit at the 1862 International Exhibition in South Kensington , where they received press attention and medals of commendation . However , they faced much opposition from established design companies , particularly those belonging to the Neo @-@ Classical school .
Morris was slowly abandoning painting , recognising that his work lacked a sense of movement ; none of his paintings are dated later than 1862 . Instead he focused his energies on designing wallpaper patterns , the first being " Trellis " , designed in 1862 . His designs would be produced from 1864 by Jeffrey and Co. of Islington , who created them for the Firm under Morris 's supervision . Morris also retained an active interest in various groups , joining the Hogarth Club , the Mediaeval Society , and the Corps of Artist Volunteers , the latter being in contrast to his later pacifism .
Meanwhile , Morris 's family continued to grow . In January 1861 , Morris and Janey 's first daughter was born : named Jane Alice Morris , she was commonly known as " Jenny " . Jenny was followed in March 1862 by the birth of their second daughter , Mary " May " Morris . Morris was a caring father to his daughters , and years later they both recounted having idyllic childhoods . However , there were problems in Morris 's marriage as Janey became increasingly close to Rossetti , who often painted her . It is unknown if their affair was ever sexual , although by this point other members of the group were noticing Rossetti and Janey 's closeness .
Imagining the creation of an artistic community at Upton , Morris helped develop plans for a second house to be constructed adjacent to Red House in which Burne @-@ Jones could live with his family ; the plans were abandoned when Burne @-@ Jones ' son Philip died from scarlet fever . By 1864 , Morris had become increasingly tired of life at Red House , being particularly unhappy with the 3 to 4 hours spent commuting to his London workplace on a daily basis . He sold Red House , and in autumn 1865 moved with his family to No. 26 Queen Square in Bloomsbury , the same building that the Firm moved its base of operations to earlier in the summer .
= = = Queen Square and The Earthly Paradise : 1865 β 70 = = =
At Queen Square , the Morris family lived in a flat directly above the Firm 's shop . They were joined by Janey 's sister Bessie Burton and a number of household servants . Meanwhile , changes were afoot at the Firm as Faulkner left , and to replace him they employed a business manager , Warrington Taylor , who would remain with them till 1866 . Taylor pulled the Firm 's finances into order and spent much time controlling Morris and ensuring that he worked to schedule . During these years the Firm carried out a number of high @-@ profile designs ; from September 1866 to January 1867 , they redecorated the Armoury and Tapestry Room in St. James ' Palace , in the latter year also designing the Green Dining Room at the South Kensington Museum ( it is now the Morris Room at the Victoria and Albert Museum ) . The Firm 's work received increasing interest from people in the United States , resulting in Morris 's acquaintance with Henry James and Charles Eliot Norton . However , despite its success , the Firm was not turning over a large net profit , and this , coupled with the decreasing value of Morris ' stocks , meant that he had to decrease his spending .
Janey 's relationship with Rossetti had continued , and by the late 1860s gossip regarding their affair had spread about London , where they were regularly seen spending time together . Morris biographer Fiona MacCarthy argued that it was likely that Morris had learned of and accepted the existence of their affair by 1870 . In this year he developed an affectionate friendship with Aglaia Coronie , the daughter of wealthy Greek refugees , although there is no evidence that they had an affair . Meanwhile , Morris 's relationship with his mother had improved , and he would regularly take his wife and children to visit her at her house in Leyton . He also went on various holidays ; in the summer of 1866 he , Webb , and Taylor toured the churches of northern France .
In August 1866 Morris joined the Burne @-@ Jones family on their holiday in Lymington , while in August 1867 both families holidayed together in Oxford . In August 1867 the Morrises holidayed in Southwold , Suffolk , while in the summer of 1869 Morris took his wife to Bad Ems in Rhineland @-@ Palatinate , central Germany , where it was hoped that the local health waters would aid her ailments . While there , he enjoyed walks in the countryside and focused on writing poetry .
Morris had continued to devote much time to writing poetry . In 1867 Bell and Dandy published Morris 's epic poem , The Life and Death of Jason , at his own expense . The book was a retelling of the ancient Greek myth of the hero Jason and his quest to find the Golden Fleece . In contrast to Morris 's former publication , The Life and Death of Jason was well received , resulting in the publishers paying Morris a fee for the second edition . From 1865 to 1870 , Morris worked on another epic poem , The Earthly Paradise . Designed as a homage to Chaucer , it consisted of 24 stories , adopted from an array of different cultures , and each by a different narrator ; set in the late 14th century , the synopsis revolved around a group of Norsemen who flee the Black Death by sailing away from Europe , on the way discovering an island where the inhabitants continue to venerate the ancient Greek gods . Published in four parts by F. S. Ellis , it soon gained a cult following and established Morris ' reputation as a major poet .
= = = Kelmscott Manor and Iceland : 1870 β 75 = = =
By 1870 , Morris had become a public figure in Britain , resulting in repeated press requests for photographs , which he despised . That year , he also reluctantly agreed to sit for a portrait by establishment painter George Frederic Watts . Morris was keenly interested in Icelandic literature , having befriended the Icelandic theologian EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson . Together they produced prose translations of the Eddas and Sagas for publication in English . Morris also developed a keen interest in creating hand @-@ written illuminated manuscripts , producing 18 such books between 1870 and 1875 , the first of which was A Book of Verse , completed as a birthday present for Georgina Burne @-@ Jones . 12 of these 18 were handwritten copies of Nordic tales such as Halfdan the Black , Frithiof the Bold , and The Dwellers of Eyr . Morris deemed calligraphy to be an art form , and taught himself both Roman and italic script , as well as learning how to produce gilded letters . In November 1872 he published Love is Enough , a poetic drama based on a story in the Medieval Welsh text , the Mabinogion . Illustrated with Burne @-@ Jones woodcuts , it was not a popular success . By 1871 , he had begun work on a novel set in the present , The Novel on Blue Paper , which was about a love triangle ; it would remain unfinished and Morris later asserted that it was not well written .
By early summer 1871 , Morris began to search for a house outside London where his children could spend time away from the city 's pollution . He settled on Kelmscott Manor in the village of Kelmscott , Oxfordshire , obtaining a joint tenancy on the building with Rossetti in June . Morris adored the building , which was constructed circa 1570 , and would spend much time in the local countryside . Conversely , Rossetti would be unhappy at Kelmscott , and eventually suffered a mental breakdown . Morris divided his time between London and Kelmscott , however when Rossetti was there he would not spend more than three days at a time at the latter . He was also fed up with his family home in Queen Square , deciding to obtain a new house in London . Although retaining a personal bedroom and study at Queen Square , he relocated his family to Horrington House in Turnham Green Road , West London , in January 1873 . This allowed him to be far closer to the home of Burne @-@ Jones , with the duo meeting on almost every Sunday morning for the rest of Morris ' life .
Leaving Jane and his children with Rossetti at Kelmscott , in July 1871 Morris left for Iceland with Faulkner , W.H. Evans , and MagnΓΊsson . Sailing from the Scottish port of Granton aboard a Danish mail boat , they proceeded to the island via TΓ³rshavn in the Faroe Islands before arriving at Reykjavik , where they disembarked . There they met the President of the Althing , JΓ³n SigurΓ°sson , with Morris being sympathetic to the Icelandic independence movement . From there , they proceeded by Icelandic horse along the south coast to BergΓΎΓ³rshvoll , ThΓ³rsmΓΆrk , Geysir , Γingvellir , and then back to Reyjkavik , where they departed back to Britain in September . In April 1873 , Morris and Burne @-@ Jones holidayed in Italy , visiting Florence and Siena . Although generally disliking the country , Morris was interested in the Florentine Gothic architecture . Soon after , in July , Morris returned to Iceland , revisiting many of the sites he had previously seen , but then proceeding north to Varna glacier and FljΓ³tsdalur . His two visits to the country profoundly influenced him , in particular in his growing leftist opinions ; he would comment that these trips made him realise that " the most grinding poverty is a trifling evil compared with the inequality of classes . "
Morris and Burne @-@ Jones then spent time with one of the Firm 's patrons , the wealthy George Howard , 9th Earl of Carlisle and his wife Rosalind , at their Medieval home in Naworth Castle , Cumberland . In July 1874 , the Morris family then took Burne @-@ Jones ' two children with them on their holiday to Bruges , Belgium . However , by this point Morris ' friendship with Rossetti had seriously eroded , and in July 1874 their acrimonious falling out led Rossetti to leave Kelmscott , with Morris ' publisher F.S. Ellis taking his place . With the company 's other partners drifting off to work on other projects , Morris decided to consolidate his own control of the Firm and become sole proprietor and manager . In March 1875 , he paid Β£ 1000 each in compensation to Rossetti , Brown , and Marshall , although the other partners waived their claims to financial compensation . That month , the Firm was officially disbanded and replaced by Morris & Co , although Burne @-@ Jones and Webb would continue to produce designs for it in future . This accomplished , he resigned his directorship of the Devon Great Consols , selling his remaining shares in the company .
= = = Textile experimentation and political embrace : 1875 β 80 = = =
Now in complete control of the Firm , Morris took an increased interest in the process of textile dyeing and entered into a co @-@ operative agreement with Thomas Wardle , a silk dyer who operated the Hencroft Works in Leek , Staffordshire . As a result , Morris would spend time with Wardle at his home on various occasions between summer 1875 and spring 1878 . Deeming the colours to be of inferior quality , Morris rejected the chemical aniline dyes which were then predominant , instead emphasising the revival of organic dyes , such as indigo for blue , walnut shells and roots for brown , and cochineal , kermes , and madder for red . Living and working in this industrial environment , he gained a personal understanding of production and the lives of the proletariat , and was disgusted by the poor living conditions of workers and the pollution caused by industry ; these factors greatly influenced his political views . After learning the skills of dyeing , in the late 1870s Morris turned his attention to weaving , experimenting with silk weaving at Queen 's Square .
In the Spring of 1877 , the Firm opened a store at No. 449 Oxford Street and obtained new staff who were able to improve its professionalism ; as a result , sales increased and its popularity grew . By 1880 , Morris & Co. had become a household name , having become very popular with Britain 's upper and middle classes . The Firm was obtaining increasing numbers of commissions from aristocrats , wealthy industralists , and provincial entrepreneurs , with Morris furnishing parts of St. James ' Palace and the chapel at Eaton Hall . As a result of his growing sympathy for the working @-@ classes and poor , Morris felt personally conflicted in serving the interests of these individuals , privately describing it as " ministering to the swinish luxury of the rich " .
Continuing with his literary output , Morris translated his own version of Virgil 's Aeneid , titling it The Aeneids of Vergil ( 1876 ) . Although many translations were already available , often produced by trained Classicists , Morris claimed that his unique perspective was as " a poet not a pedant " . He also continued producing translations of Icelandic tales with MagnΓΊsson , including Three Northern Love Stories ( 1875 ) and VΓΆluspa Saga ( 1876 ) . In 1877 Morris was approached by Oxford University and offered the largely honorary position of Professor of Poetry . He declined , asserting that he felt unqualified , knowing little about scholarship on the theory of poetry .
In summer 1876 Jenny Morris was diagnosed with epilepsy . Refusing to allow her to be societally marginalised or institutionalised , as was common in the period , Morris insisted that she be cared for by the family . When Janey took May and Jenny to Oneglia in Italy , the latter suffered a serious seizure , with Morris rushing to the country to see her . They then proceeded to visit a number of other cities , including Venice , Padua , and Verona , with Morris attaining a greater appreciation of the country than he had on his previous trip . In April 1879 Morris moved the family home again , this time renting an 18th @-@ century mansion on Hammersmith 's Upper Mall in West London . Owned by the novelist George MacDonald , Morris would name it Kelmscott House and re @-@ decorate it according to his own taste . In the House 's grounds he set up a workshop , focusing on the production of hand @-@ knotted carpets . Excited that both of his homes were along the course of the River Thames , in August 1880 he and his family took a boat trip along the river from Kelmscott House to Kelmscott Manor .
Morris became politically active in this period , coming to be associated with the radicalist current within British liberalism . He joined the Eastern Question Association ( EQA ) and was appointed the group 's treasurer in November 1876 . EQA had been founded by campaigners associated with the centre @-@ left Liberal Party who opposed Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli 's alliance with the Ottoman Empire ; the Association highlighted the Ottoman massacre of Bulgarians and feared that the alliance would lead Disraeli to join the Ottomans in going to war with the Russian Empire . Morris took an active role in the EQA campaign , authoring the lyrics for the song " Wake , London Lads ! " to be sung at a rally against military intervention . Morris eventually became disillusioned with the EQA , describing it as being " full of wretched little personalities " . He nevertheless joined a regrouping of predominantly working @-@ class EQA activists , the National Liberal League , becoming their treasurer in summer 1879 ; the group remained small and politically ineffective , with Morris resigning as treasurer in late 1881 , shortly before the group 's collapse .
However , his discontent with the British liberal movement grew following the election of the Liberal Party 's William Ewart Gladstone to the Premiership in 1880 . Morris was particularly angered that Gladstone 's government did not reverse the Disraeli regime 's occupation of the Transvaal , introduced the Coercion Bill , and oversaw the Bombardment of Alexandria . Morris later related that while he had once believed that " one might further real Socialistic progress by doing what one could on the lines of ordinary middle @-@ class Radicalism " , following Gladstone 's election he came to realise " that Radicalism is on the wrong line , so to say , and will never develope [ sic ] into anything more than Radicalism : in fact that it is made for and by the middle classes and will always be under the control of rich capitalists .
In 1876 , Morris visited Burford Church in Oxfordshire , where he was appalled at the restoration conducted by his old mentor , G.E. Street . He recognised that these programs of architectural restoration led to the destruction or major alteration of genuinely old features in order to replace them with " sham old " features , something which appalled him . To combat the increasing trend for restoration , in March 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings ( SPAB ) , which he personally referred to as " Anti @-@ Scrape " . Adopting the role of honorary secretary and treasurer , most of the other early members of SPAB were his friends , while the group 's program was rooted in Ruskin 's The Seven Lamps of Architecture ( 1849 ) . As part of SPAB 's campaign , Morris tried to build connections with art and antiquarian societies and the custodians of old buildings , and also contacted the press to highlight his cause . He was particularly strong in denouncing the ongoing restoration of Tewkesbury Abbey and was vociferous in denouncing the architects responsible , something that deeply upset Street . Turning SPAB 's attention abroad , in Autumn 1879 Morris launched a campaign to protect St Mark 's Basilica in Venice from restoration , garnering a petition with 2000 signatures , among whom were Disraeli , Gladstone , and Ruskin .
= = Later life = =
= = = Merton Abbey and the Democratic Federation : 1881 β 84 = = =
In summer 1881 , Morris took out a lease on the seven @-@ acre former silk weaving factory at Merton Abbey Mills , in Merton , Southwest London . Moving his workshops to the site , the premises were used for weaving , dyeing , and creating stained glass ; within three years , 100 craftsmen would be employed there . Working conditions at the Abbey were better than at most Victorian factories . However , despite Morris 's ideals , there was little opportunity for the workers to display their own individual creativity . Morris had initiated a system of profit sharing among the Firm 's upper clerks , however this did not include the majority of workers , who were instead employed on a piecework basis . Morris was aware that , in retaining the division between employer and employed , the company failed to live up to his own egalitarian ideals , but defended this , asserting that it was impossible to run a socialist company within a competitive capitalist economy . The Firm itself was expanding , opening up a store in Manchester in 1883 and holding a stand at that year 's Foreign Fair in Boston .
Janey 's relationship with Rossetti had continued through a correspondence and occasional visits , although she found him extremely paranoid and was upset by his addiction to chloral . She last saw him in 1881 , and he died in April the following year . Morris described his mixed feelings toward his deceased friend by stating that he had " some of the very greatest qualities of genius , most of them indeed ; what a great man he would have been but for the arrogant misanthropy which marred his work , and killed him before his time " . In August 1883 , Janey would be introduced to the poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt , with whom she embarked on a second affair , which Morris might have been aware of .
In January 1881 Morris was involved in the establishment of the Radical Union , an amalgam of radical working @-@ class groups which hoped to rival the Liberals , and became a member of its executive committee . However , he soon rejected liberal radicalism completely and moved toward socialism . In this period , British socialism was a small , fledgling and vaguely defined movement , with only a few hundred adherents . Britain 's first socialist party , the Democratic Federation ( DF ) , had been founded by Henry Hyndman , an adherent of the socio @-@ political ideology of Marxism , with Morris joining the DF in January 1883 . Morris began to read voraciously on the subject of socialism , including Henry George 's Progress and Poverty , Alfred Russel Wallace 's Land Nationalisation , and Karl Marx 's Das Kapital , although admitted that Marx 's economic analysis of capitalism gave him " agonies of confusion on the brain " . Instead he preferred the writings of William Cobbett and Sergius Stepniak , although he also read the critique of socialism produced by John Stuart Mill .
In May 1883 , Morris was appointed to the DF 's executive , and was soon elected to the position of treasurer . Devoting himself to the socialist cause , he regularly lectured at meetings across Britain , hoping to gain more converts , although was regularly criticised for doing so by the mainstream press . In November 1883 he was invited to speak at University College , Oxford , on the subject of " Democracy and Art " and there began espousing socialism ; this shocked and embarrassed many members of staff , earning national press coverage . With other DF members , he travelled to Blackburn , Lancashire in February 1884 amid the great cotton strike , where he lectured on socialism to the strikers . The following month he marched in a central London demonstration commemorating the first anniversary of Marx 's death and the thirteenth anniversary of the Paris Commune .
Morris aided the DF using his artistic and literary talents ; he designed the group 's membership card , and helped author their manifesto , Socialism Made Plain , in which they demanded improved housing for workers , free compulsory education for all children , free school meals , an eight @-@ hour working day , the abolition of national debt , nationalisation of land , banks , and railways , and the organisation of agriculture and industry under state control and co @-@ operative principles . Some of his DF comrades found it difficult to reconcile his socialist values with his position as proprietor of the Firm , although he was widely admired as a man of integrity . The DF began publishing a weekly newspaper , Justice , which soon faced financial losses that Morris covered . Morris also regularly contributed articles to the newspaper , in doing so befriending another contributor , George Bernard Shaw .
His socialist activism monopolised his time , forcing him to abandon a translation of the Persian Shahnameh . It also led to him seeing far less of Burne @-@ Jones , with whom he had strong political differences ; although once a republican , Burne @-@ Jones had become increasingly conservative , and felt that the DF were exploiting Morris for his talents and influence . While Morris devoted much time to trying to convert his friends to the cause , of Morris ' circle of artistic comrades , only Webb and Faulkner fully embraced socialism , while Swinburne expressed his sympathy with it .
In 1884 the DF renamed itself the Social Democratic Federation ( SDF ) and underwent an internal reorganisation . However , the group was facing an internal schism between those ( such as Hyndman ) , who argued for a parliamentary path toward socialism , and those ( like Morris ) who deemed the Houses of Parliament intrinsically corrupt and capitalist . Personal issues between Morris and Hyndman were exacerbated by their attitude to British foreign policy ; Morris was staunchly anti @-@ imperialist while Hyndman expressed patriotic sentiment encouraging some foreign intervention . The division between the two groups developed into open conflict , with the majority of activists sharing Morris ' position . In December 1884 Morris and his supporters β most notably Ernest Belfort Bax and Edward Aveling β left the SDF ; the first major schism of the British socialist movement .
= = = Socialist League : 1884 β 89 = = =
In December 1884 , Morris founded the Socialist League ( SL ) with other SDF defectors . He composed the SL 's manifesto with Bax , describing their position as that of " Revolutionary International Socialism " , advocating proletarian internationalism and world revolution while rejecting the concept of socialism in one country . In this , he committed himself to " making Socialists " by educating , organising , and agitating to establish a strong socialist movement ; calling on activists to boycott elections , he hoped that socialists would take part in a proletariat revolution and help to establish a socialist society . Bax taught Morris more about Marxism , and introduced him to Marx 's collaborator , Friedrich Engels ; Engels thought Morris honest but lacking in practical skills to aid the proletariat revolution . Morris remained in contact with other sectors of London 's far left community , being a regular at the socialist International Club in Shoreditch , East London , however he avoided the recently created Fabian Society , deeming it too middle @-@ class . Although a Marxist , he befriended prominent anarchist activists Stepniak and Peter Kropotkin , and came to be influenced by their anarchist views , to the extent that biographer Fiona MacCarthy described his approach as being " Marxism with visionary libertarianism " .
As the leading figure in the League Morris embarked on a series of speeches and talks on street corners , in working men 's clubs , and in lecture theatres across England and Scotland . He also visited Dublin , there offering his support for Irish nationalism , and formed a branch of the League at his Hammersmith house . By the time of their first conference in July 1885 , the League had eight branches across England and had affiliations with several socialist groups in Scotland . However , as the British socialist movement grew it faced increased opposition from the establishment , with police frequently arresting and intimidating activists . To combat this , the League joined a Defence Club with other socialist groups , including the SDF , for which Morris was appointed treasurer . Morris was passionate in denouncing the " bullying and hectoring " that he felt socialists faced from the police , and on one occasion was arrested after fighting back against a police officer ; a magistrate dismissed the charges . The Black Monday riots of February 1886 led to increased political repression against left @-@ wing agitators , and in July Morris was arrested and fined for public obstruction while preaching socialism on the streets .
Morris oversaw production of the League 's monthly β soon to become weekly β newspaper , Commonweal , serving as its editor for six years , during which time he kept it financially afloat . First published in February 1885 , it would contain contributions from such prominent socialists as Engels , Shaw , Paul Lafargue , Wilhelm Liebknecht , and Karl Kautsky , with Morris also regularly writing articles and poems for it . In Commonweal he serialised a 13 @-@ episode poem , The Pilgrims of Hope , which was set in the period of the Paris Commune . From November 1886 to January 1887 , Morris ' novel , A Dream of John Ball , was serialised in Commonweal . Set in Kent during the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , it contained strong socialist themes although proved popular among those of different ideological viewpoints , resulting in its publication in book form by Reeves and Turner in 1888 . Shortly after , a collection of Morris ' essays , Signs of Change , was published .
From January to October 1890 , Morris serialised his novel , News from Nowhere , in Commonweal , resulting in improved circulation for the paper . In March 1891 it was published in book form , before being translated into French , Italian , and German by 1898 and becoming a classic among Europe 's socialist community . Combining utopian socialism and soft science fiction , the book tells the tale of a contemporary socialist , William Guest , who falls asleep and awakes in the mid @-@ 20th century , discovering a future society based on common ownership and democratic control of the means of production . In this society there is no private property , no big cities , no authority , no monetary system , no divorce , no courts , no prisons , and no class systems ; it was a depiction of Morris ' ideal socialist society .
Morris had also continued with his translation work ; in April 1887 , Reeves and Turner published the first volume of Morris ' translation of Homer 's Odyssey , with the second following in November . Venturing into new territory , Morris also authored and starred in a play , The Tables Turned ; Or Nupkins Awakened , which was performed at a League meeting in November 1887 . It told the story of socialists who are put on trial in front of a corrupt judge ; the tale ends with the prisoners beind freed by a proletariat revolution . In June 1889 , Morris traveled to Paris as the League 's delegate to the International Socialist Working Men 's Congress , where his international standing was recognised by being chosen as English spokesman by the Congress committee . The Second International emerged from the Congress , although Morris was distraught at its chaotic and disorganised proceedings .
At the League 's Fourth Conference in May 1888 , factional divisions became increasingly apparent between Morris ' anti @-@ parliamentary socialists , the parliamentary socialists , and the anarchists ; the Bloomsbury Branch were expelled for supporting parliamentary action . Under the leadership of Charles Mowbray , the League 's anarchist wing were growing and called on the League to embrace violent action in trying to overthrow the capitalist system . By autumn 1889 the anarchists had taken over the League 's executive committee and Morris was stripped of the editorship of Commonweal in favour of the anarchist Frank Kitz . This alienated Morris from the League , which had also become a financial burden for him ; he had been subsidising its activities with Β£ 500 a year , a very large sum of money at the time . By the autumn of 1890 , Morris left the Socialist League , with his Hammersmith branch seceding to become the independent Hammersmith Socialist Society in November 1890 .
= = = The Kelmscott Press and Morris ' final years : 1889 β 96 = = =
The work of Morris & Co. continued during Morris 's final years , producing an array of stained glass windows designed by Burne @-@ Jones and the six narrative tapestry panels depicting the quest for the Holy Grail for Stanmore Hall , Shropshire . Morris 's influence on Britain 's artistic community became increasingly apparent as the Art Workers ' Guild was founded in 1884 , although , at the time , he was too preoccupied with his socialist activism to pay it any attention . Although the proposal faced some opposition , Morris would be elected to the Guild in 1888 , and was elected to the position of master in 1892 . Morris similarly did not offer initial support for the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society , but changed his opinion after the success of their first exhibit , held in Regents Street in October 1888 . Giving lectures on tapestries for the group , in 1892 he would be elected president . At this time , Morris also re @-@ focused his attentions on SPAB campaigning ; those causes he championed including the preservation of St. Mary 's Church in Oxford , Blythburgh Church in Suffolk , Peterborough Cathedral , and Rouen Cathedral .
Although his socialist activism had decreased , he remained involved with the Hammersmith Socialist Society , and in October 1891 oversaw the creation of a short @-@ lived newsletter , the Hammersmith Socialist Record . Coming to oppose factionalism within the socialist movement , he sought to rebuild his relationship with the SDF , appearing as a guest lecturer at some of their events , and supporting SDF candidate George Lansbury when he stood in the Wandsworth by @-@ election of February 1894 . In 1893 the Hammersmith Socialist Society co @-@ founded the Joint Committee of Socialist Bodies with representatives of the SDF and Fabian Society ; Morris helped draw up its " Manifesto of English Socialists " . He offered support for far left activists on trial , including a number of militant anarchists whose violent tactics he nevertheless denounced . He also began using the term " communism " for the first time , stating that " Communism is in fact the completion of Socialism : when that ceases to be militant and becomes triumphant , it will be communism . " In December 1895 he gave his final open @-@ air talk at Stepniak 's funeral , where he spoke alongside prominent far left activists Eleanor Marx , Kier Hardie , and Errico Malatesta . Liberated from internal factional struggles , he retracted his anti @-@ Parliamentary position and worked for socialist unity , giving his last public lecture in January 1896 on the subject of " One Socialist Party . "
In December 1888 , the Chiswick Press published Morris ' The House of the Wolfings , a fantasy story set in Iron Age Europe which provides a reconstructed portrait of the lives of Germanic @-@ speaking Gothic tribes . It contained both prose and aspects of poetic verse . A sequel , The Roots of the Mountains , followed in 1890 . Over the coming years he would publish a number of other fantasy novels : The Story of the Glittering Plain ( 1890 ) , The Wood Beyond the World ( 1894 ) , Child Christopher and Goldilind the Fair ( 1895 ) , The Well at the World 's End ( 1896 ) , The Water of the Wondrous Isles ( 1897 ) and The Sundering Flood ( 1898 ) . He also embarked on a translation of the Anglo @-@ Saxon tale , Beowulf ; because he could not fully understand Old English , his poetic translation was based largely on that already produced by Alfred John Wyatt . On publication , Morris ' Beowulf would be critically panned . Following the death of the sitting Poet Laureate of Great Britain and Ireland , Alfred , Lord Tennyson , in October 1892 , Morris was offered the position , but turned it down , disliking its associations with the monarchy and political establishment ; instead the position went to Alfred Austin .
In January 1891 , Morris began renting a cottage near to Kelmscott House , No. 16 Upper Mall in Hammersmith , which would serve as the first premises of the Kelmscott Press , before relocating to the neighbouring No. 14 in May , that same month in which the company was founded . Devoted to the production of books which he deemed beautiful , Morris was artistically influenced by the illustrated manuscripts and early printed books of Medieval and Early Modern Europe . Before publishing its first work , Morris ensured that he had mastered the techniques of printing and secured supplies of hand @-@ made paper and vellum which would be necessary for production . Over the next seven years , they would publish 66 volumes . The first of these would be one of Morris ' own novels , The Story of the Glittering Plain , which was published in May 1891 and soon sold out . The Kelmscott Press would go on to publish 23 of Morris ' books , more than those of any other author . The press also published editions of works by Keats , Shelley , Ruskin , and Swinburne , as well as copies of various Medieval texts . A number of the Press ' books contained illustrations provided by Burne @-@ Jones . The Press ' magnum opus would be the Kelmscott Chaucer , which had taken years to complete and included 87 illustrations from Burne @-@ Jones . Morris still remained firmly in an employer relation with those working at the Press , although organised outings for them and paid them above average wages .
By the early 1890s , Morris was increasingly ill and living largely as an invalid ; aside from his gout , he also exhibited signs of epilepsy . In August 1891 , he took his daughter Jenny on a tour of Northern France to visit the Medieval churches and cathedrals . Back in England , he spent an increasing amount of time at Kelmscott Manor . Seeking treatment from the prominent doctor William Broadbent , he was prescribed a holiday in the coastal town of Folkestone . In December 1894 he was devastated upon learning of his mother 's death ; she had been 90 years old . In July 1896 , he went on a cruise to Norway with construction engineer John Carruthers , during which he visited VadsΓΆ and Trondheim ; during the trip his physical condition deteriorated and he began experiencing hallucinations . Returning to Kelmscott House , he became a complete invalid , being visited by friends and family , before dying of tuberculosis on the morning of 4 October 1896 . Obituaries appearing throughout the national press reflected that , at the time , Morris was widely recognised primarily as a poet . Mainstream press obituaries trivialised or dismissed his involvement in socialism , although the socialist press focused largely on this aspect of his career . His funeral was held on 6 October , during which his corpse was carried from Hammersmith to Paddington rail station , where it was transported to Oxford , and from there to Kelmscott , where it was buried in the churchyard of St. George 's Church .
= = Personal life = =
Morris ' biographer E.P. Thompson described him as having a " robust bearing , and a slight roll in his walk " , alongside a " rough beard " and " disordered hair " . The author Henry James described Morris as " short , burly , corpulent , very careless and unfinished in his dress ... He has a loud voice and a nervous restless manner and a perfectly unaffected and businesslike address . His talk indeed is wonderfully to the point and remarkable for clear good sense . " Morris ' first biographer Mackail described him as being both " a typical Englishman " and " a typical Londoner of the middle class " albeit one who was transformed into " something quite individual " through the " force of his genius " . MacCarthy described Morris ' lifestyle as being " late Victorian , mildly bohemian , but bourgeois " , with Mackail commenting that he exhibited many of the traits of the bourgeois Victorian class : " industrious , honest , fair @-@ minded up their lights , but unexpansive and unsympathetic " . Although he generally disliked children , Morris also exhibited a strong sense of responsibility toward his family . Mackail nevertheless thought he " was interested in things much more than in people " and that while he did have " lasting friendships " and " deep affections " , he did not allow people to " penetrate to the central part of him . "
Politically , Morris was a staunch revolutionary socialist and anti @-@ imperialist , and although raised a Christian he came to identify as a non @-@ religious atheist . He came to reject state socialism and large centralized control , instead emphasising localised administration within a socialist society . Later political activist Derek Wall suggested that Morris could be classified as an ecosocialist . Morris was greatly influenced by Romanticism , with Thompson asserting that Romanticism was " bred into his bones , and formed his early consciousness . " Thompson argued that this " Romantic Revolt " was part of a " passionate protest against an intolerable social reality " , that of the industrial capitalism of Britain 's Victorian era . However , he believed that it led to little more than a " yearning nostalgia or a sweet complaint " and that Morris only became " a realist and a revolutionary " when he adopted socialism in 1882 . However , Mackail was of the opinion that Morris had an " innate Socialism " which had " penetrated and dominated all he did " throughout his life . Given the conflict between his personal and professional life and his socio @-@ political views , MacCarthy described Morris as " a conservative radical " .
Morris 's behaviour was often erratic . He was of a nervous disposition , and throughout his life relied on networks of male friends to aid him in dealing with this . Morris ' friends nicknamed him " Topsy " after a character in Uncle Tom 's Cabin . He had a wild temper , and when sufficiently enraged could suffer seizures and blackouts . Rossetti was known to taunt Morris with the intention of trying to enrage him for the amusement of himself and their other friends . Biographer Fiona MacCarthy suggests that Morris might have suffered from a form of Tourette 's syndrome as he exhibited some of the symptoms . In later life he suffered from gout , a common complaint among middle @-@ class males in the Victorian period . Morris 's ethos was that one should " have nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful , or believe to be beautiful . " He also held to the view that " No work which cannot be done with pleasure in the doing is worth doing " , and adopted as his personal motto " If I can " from the fifteenth @-@ century Flemish painter Jan van Eyck .
= = Work = =
= = = Literature = = =
William Morris was a prolific writer of poetry , fiction , essays , and translations of ancient and medieval texts . His first poems were published when he was 24 years old , and he was polishing his final novel , The Sundering Flood , at the time of his death . His daughter May 's edition of Morris 's Collected Works ( 1910 β 1915 ) runs to 24 volumes , and two more were published in 1936 .
Morris began publishing poetry and short stories in 1856 through the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine which he founded with his friends and financed while at university . His first volume , The Defence of Guenevere and Other Poems ( 1858 ) , was the first book of Pre @-@ Raphaelite poetry to be published . The dark poems , set in a sombre world of violence , were coolly received by the critics , and he was discouraged from publishing more for a number of years . " The Haystack in the Floods " , one of the poems in that collection , is probably now one of his better @-@ known poems . It is a grimly realistic piece set during the Hundred Years War in which the doomed lovers Jehane and Robert have a last parting in a convincingly portrayed rain @-@ swept countryside . One early minor poem was " Masters in this Hall " ( 1860 ) , a Christmas carol written to an old French tune . Another Christmas @-@ themed poem is " The Snow in the Street " , adapted from " The Land East of the Sun and West of the Moon " in The Earthly Paradise .
Morris met EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson in 1868 , and began to learn the Icelandic language from him . Morris published translations of The Saga of Gunnlaug Worm @-@ Tongue and Grettis Saga in 1869 , and the Story of the Volsungs and Niblungs in 1870 . An additional volume was published under the title of Three Northern Love Stories in 1873 .
In the last nine years of his life , Morris wrote a series of imaginative fictions usually referred to as the " prose romances " . These novels β including The Wood Beyond the World and The Well at the World 's End β have been credited as important milestones in the history of fantasy fiction , because , while other writers wrote of foreign lands , or of dream worlds , or the future ( as Morris did in News from Nowhere ) , Morris 's works were the first to be set in an entirely invented fantasy world . These were attempts to revive the genre of medieval romance , and written in imitation of medieval prose . Morris 's prose style in these novels has been praised by Edward James , who described them as " among the most lyrical and enchanting fantasies in the English language . "
On the other hand , L. Sprague de Camp considered Morris 's fantasies to be not wholly successful , partly because Morris eschewed many literary techniques from later eras . In particular , De Camp argued the plots of the novels are heavily driven by coincidence ; while many things just happened in the romances , the novels are still weakened by the dependence on it . Nevertheless , large subgenres of the field of fantasy have sprung from the romance genre , but indirectly , through their writers ' imitation of William Morris .
Early fantasy writers like Lord Dunsany , E. R. Eddison and James Branch Cabell were familiar with Morris 's romances . The Wood Beyond the World is considered to have heavily influenced C. S. Lewis ' Narnia series , while J. R. R. Tolkien was inspired by Morris 's reconstructions of early Germanic life in The House of the Wolfings and The Roots of the Mountains . The young Tolkien attempted a retelling of the story of Kullervo from the Kalevala in the style of The House of the Wolfings ; Tolkien considered much of his literary work to have been inspired by an early reading of Morris , even suggesting that he was unable to better Morris 's work ; the names of characters such as " Gandolf " and the horse Silverfax appear in The Well at the World 's End .
Sir Henry Newbolt 's medieval allegorical novel , Aladore , was influenced by Morris 's fantasies . James Joyce also drew inspiration from his work .
= = = Textile design = = =
During his lifetime , Morris produced items in a range of crafts , mainly those to do with furnishing , including over 600 designs for wall @-@ paper , textiles , and embroideries , over 150 for stained glass windows , three typefaces , and around 650 borders and ornamentations for the Kelmscott Press . He emphasised the idea that the design and production of an item should not be divorced from one another , and that where possible those creating items should be designer @-@ craftsmen , thereby both designing and manufacturing their goods . In the field of textile design , Morris revived a number of dead techniques , and insisted on the use of good quality raw materials , almost all natural dyes , and hand processing . He also observed the natural world first hand to gain a basis for his designs , and insisted on learning the techniques of production prior to producing a design .
Mackail asserted that Morris became " a manufacturer not because he wished to make money , but because he wished to make the things he manufactured . " Morris & Co . ' s designs were fashionable among Britain 's upper and middle @-@ classes , with biographer Fiona MacCarthy asserting that they had become " the safe choice of the intellectual classes , an exercise in political correctitude . " The company 's unique selling point was the range of different items that it produced , as well as the ethos of artistic control over production that it emphasised .
It is likely that much of Morris 's preference for medieval textiles was formed β or crystallised β during his brief apprenticeship with G. E. Street . Street had co @-@ written a book on Ecclesiastical Embroidery in 1848 , and was a staunch advocate of abandoning faddish woolen work on canvas in favour of more expressive embroidery techniques based on Opus Anglicanum , a surface embroidery technique popular in medieval England .
He was also fond of hand knotted Persian carpets and advised the South Kensington Museum in the acquisition of fine Kerman carpets .
Morris taught himself embroidery , working with wool on a frame custom @-@ built from an old example . Once he had mastered the technique he trained his wife Jane , her sister Bessie Burden and others to execute designs to his specifications . When " embroideries of all kinds " were offered through Morris , Marshall , Faulkner & Co. catalogues , church embroidery became and remained an important line of business for its successor companies into the twentieth century . By the 1870s , the firm was offering both embroidery patterns and finished works . Following in Street 's footsteps , Morris became active in the growing movement to return originality and mastery of technique to embroidery , and was one of the first designers associated with the Royal School of Art Needlework with its aim to " restore Ornamental Needlework for secular purposes to the high place it once held among decorative arts . "
Morris took up the practical art of dyeing as a necessary adjunct of his manufacturing business . He spent much of his time at Staffordshire dye works mastering the processes of that art and making experiments in the revival of old or discovery of new methods . One result of these experiments was to reinstate indigo dyeing as a practical industry and generally to renew the use of those vegetable dyes , such as the red derived from madder , which had been driven almost out of use by the anilines . Dyeing of wools , silks , and cottons was the necessary preliminary to what he had much at heart , the production of woven and printed fabrics of the highest excellence ; and the period of incessant work at the dye @-@ vat ( 1875 β 76 ) was followed by a period during which he was absorbed in the production of textiles ( 1877 β 78 ) , and more especially in the revival of carpet @-@ weaving as a fine art .
Morris 's patterns for woven textiles , some of which were also machine made under ordinary commercial conditions , included intricate double @-@ woven furnishing fabrics in which two sets of warps and wefts are interlinked to create complex gradations of colour and texture . Morris long dreamed of weaving tapestries in the medieval manner , which he called " the noblest of the weaving arts . " In September 1879 he finished his first solo effort , a small piece called " Cabbage and Vine " .
= = Legacy = =
President of the William Morris Society Hans Brill referred to Morris as " one of the outstanding figures of the nineteenth century " , while Linda Parry termed him the " single most important figure in British textile production " . At the time of Morris ' death , his poetry was known internationally and his company 's products were found all over the world . In his lifetime , he was best known as a poet , although by the late twentieth @-@ century he was primarily known as a designer of wallpapers and fabrics .
He was a major contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts and methods of production . Morris ' ethos of production was an influence on Bauhaus . Another aspect of Morris 's preservationism was his desire to protect the natural world from the ravages of pollution and industrialism , causing some historians of the green movement to regard Morris as an important forerunner of modern environmentalism .
Aymer Vallance was commissioned to produce the first biography of Morris , published in 1897 , after Morris ' death , as per the latter 's wishes . This presented the creation of SPAB as Morris ' greatest achievement . Morris 's next biographer was Burne @-@ Jones ' son @-@ in @-@ law John William Mackail , who authored the two @-@ volume Life of William Morris ( 1899 ) in which he provided a sympathetic portrayal of Morris that largely omitted his political activities , treating them as a passing phase that Morris overcame .
MacCarthy 's biography , William Morris : A Life for Our Time , was first published in 1994 and a paperback edition was published by Faber & Faber in 2010 . For the 2013 Venice Biennale , artist Jeremy Deller selected Morris as the subject of a large @-@ scale mural titled " We Sit Starving Amidst our Gold " , in which Morris returns from the dead to hurl the yacht of Russian billionaire Roman Abramovich into the waves of an ocean .
MacCarthy curated the " Anarchy & Beauty " exhibition β a commemoration of Morris ' legacy β for the National Portrait Gallery in 2014 , for which she recruited around 70 artists who were required to undertake a test regarding Morris ' News from Nowhere to be accepted . Writing for the Guardian prior to the opening of the exhibition on 16 October 2014 , MacCarthy asserted :
Morris has exerted a powerful influence on thinking about art and design over the past century . He has been the constant niggle in the conscience . How can we combat all this luxury and waste ? What drove him into revolutionary activism was his anger and shame at the injustices within society . He burned with guilt at the fact that his " good fortune only " allowed him to live in beautiful surroundings and to pursue the work he adored .
" Anarchy & Beauty " ' s arts and crafts section featured Morris ' own copy of the French edition of Karl Marx 's Das Kapital handbound in a gold @-@ tooled leather binding that MacCarthy describes as " the ultimate example of Morris 's conviction that perfectionism of design and craftsmanship should be available to everyone . "
= = = Notable collections and house museums = = =
A number of galleries and museums house important collections of Morris 's work and decorative items commissioned from Morris & Co . The William Morris Gallery in Walthamstow , England , is a public museum devoted to Morris 's life , work and influence . The William Morris Society is based at Morris 's final London home , Kelmscott House , Hammersmith , and is an international members society , museum and venue for lectures and other Morris @-@ related events . The Art Gallery of South Australia is " fortunate in holding the most comprehensive collection of Morris & Co. furnishings outside Britain " . The collection includes books , embroideries , tapestries , fabrics , wallpapers , drawings & sketches , furniture and stained glass , and forms the focus of two published works ( produced to accompany special exhibitions ) .
The former " green dining room " at the Victoria and Albert Museum is now its " Morris Room " . The V & A 's British Galleries house other decorative works by Morris and his associates .
One of the meeting rooms in the Oxford Union , decorated with the wallpaper in his style , is named the Morris Room .
Wightwick Manor in the West Midlands , England , is a notable example of the Morris & Co. style , with original Morris wallpapers and fabrics , De Morgan tiles , and Pre @-@ Raphaelite works of art , managed by the National Trust . Standen in West Sussex , England , was designed by Webb between 1892 and 1894 and decorated with Morris carpets , fabrics and wallpapers . The illustrator Edward Linley Sambourne chose to decorate his London family home 18 Stafford Terrace with many Morris & Co wallpapers , which have been preserved and can still be seen today . Morris 's homes Red House and Kelmscott Manor have been preserved . Red House was acquired by the National Trust in 2003 and is open to the public . Kelmscott Manor is owned by the Society of Antiquaries of London and is open to the public .
The Huntington Library , Art Collections and Botanical Gardens in San Marino , California acquired the collection of Morris materials amassed by Sanford and Helen Berger in 1999 . The collection includes stained glass , wallpaper , textiles , embroidery , drawings , ceramics , more than 2000 books , original woodblocks , and the complete archives of both Morris , Marshall , Faulkner & Co. and Morris & Co . These materials formed the foundation for the 2002 exhibition William Morris : Creating the Useful and the Beautiful and 2003 exhibition The Beauty of Life : William Morris and the Art of Design and accompanying publication .
A Greater London Council blue plaque at the Red House commemorates Morris and architect Philip Webb .
7 , Hammersmith Terrace is the former home of Sir Emery Walker , a close friend and colleague of Morris . The house is decorated in the Arts & Crafts style , including with extensive collections of Morris wallpaper , furniture , and textiles . 7 , Hammersmith Terrace is operated by the Emery Walker Trust , and is open to the public for tours .
In 2013 , the Cary Graphic Arts Collection at Rochester Institute of Technology bought William Morris 's London @-@ built Hopkinson & Cope Improved Albion press ( No. 6551 ) at auction for $ 233 @,@ 000 . This printing press was specially reinforced to produce Morris 's Chaucer in 1896 . Other owners of Morris 's Albion press include Frederic Goudy and J. Ben Lieberman .
= = Literary works = =
= = = Collected poetry , fiction , and essays = = =
The Hollow Land ( 1856 )
The Defence of Guenevere , and other Poems ( 1858 )
The Life and Death of Jason ( 1867 )
The Earthly Paradise ( 1868 β 1870 )
Love is Enough , or The Freeing of Pharamond : A Morality ( 1872 )
The Story of Sigurd the Volsung and the Fall of the Niblungs ( 1877 )
Hopes and Fears For Art ( 1882 )
The Pilgrims of Hope ( 1885 )
A Dream of John Ball ( 1888 )
Signs of Change ( 1888 )
A Tale of the House of the Wolfings , and All the Kindreds of the Mark Written in Prose and in Verse ( 1889 )
The Roots of the Mountains ( 1890 )
Poems By the Way ( 1891 )
News from Nowhere ( or , An Epoch of Rest ) ( 1890 )
The Story of the Glittering Plain ( 1891 )
The Wood Beyond the World ( 1894 )
Child Christopher and Goldilind the Fair ( 1895 )
The Well at the World 's End ( 1896 )
The Water of the Wondrous Isles ( 1897 )
The Sundering Flood ( 1897 ) ( published posthumously )
A King 's Lesson ( 1901 )
The World of Romance ( 1906 )
Chants for Socialists ( 1935 )
Golden Wings and Other Stories ( 1976 )
= = = Translations = = =
Grettis Saga : The Story of Grettir the Strong with EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson ( 1869 )
The Saga of Gunnlaug the Worm @-@ tongue and Rafn the Skald with EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson ( 1869 )
VΓΆlsung Saga : The Story of the Volsungs and Niblungs , with Certain Songs from the Elder Edda with EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson ( 1870 ) ( from the Volsunga saga )
Three Northern Love Stories , and Other Tales with EirΓkr MagnΓΊsson ( 1875 )
The Odyssey of Homer Done into English Verse ( 1887 )
The Aeneids of Virgil Done into English ( 1876 )
Of King Florus and the Fair Jehane ( 1893 )
The Tale of Beowulf Done out of the Old English Tongue ( 1895 )
Old French Romances Done into English ( 1896 )
= = = Published Lectures and Papers = = =
Lectures on Art delivered in support of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings ( Morris lecture on The Lesser Arts ) . London , Macmillan , 1882
Architecture and History & Westminster Abbey " . Papers read to SPAB in 1884 and 1893 . Printed at The Chiswick Press . London , Longmans , 1900
Communism : a lecture London , Fabian Society , 1903
= = Gallery = =
= = = Morris & Co. stained glass = = =
Stained glass
= = = Morris & Co. textiles = = =
Textiles
= = = Kelmscott Press = = =
Kelmscott Press
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= Grammy Award for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album =
The Grammy Award for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album was an honor presented to recording artists at the 50th , 51st , 52nd and 53rd Annual Grammy Awards ( 2008 β 2011 ) for quality zydeco or cajun music albums . The Grammy Awards , an annual ceremony that was established in 1958 and originally called the Gramophone Awards , are presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to " honor artistic achievement , technical proficiency and overall excellence in the recording industry , without regard to album sales or chart position " .
Beginning in 2001 , advocates began lobbying for a Grammy category specifically for cajun and zydeco music . Award recipients , in chronological order , included Terrance Simien and the Zydeco Experience , BeauSoleil avec Michael Doucet , Buckwheat Zydeco , and Chubby Carrier and the Bayou Swamp Band ; no artist received the award more than once . Awards were presented to the engineers , mixers , and / or producers in addition to the performing artists . The group Pine Leaf Boys holds the record for the most nominations , with four . Though nominated each year the honor was presented , the group failed to receive an award . Doucet and Cedric Watson each received three nominations . 2009 marked the only year in which a musician received more than one nomination as well as the only time two artists were nominated for works appearing on the same album β Doucet was nominated as a member of BeauSoleil for Live at the 2008 New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival as well as for his solo album From Now On , and Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys were also nominated for their contribution to the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival compilation album . Many nominated artists were from Louisiana , specifically Lafayette .
In 2011 , the Academy announced the retirement of the award category . Beginning in 2012 , zydeco or cajun recordings were eligible for the Best Regional Roots Music Album category .
= = Background = =
According to Cody Daigle of The Daily Advertiser , advocates lobbied for nearly seven years in an attempt to create a Grammy category specifically for zydeco and cajun music . The effort was led by musician Terrance Simien , along with his wife and manager Cynthia . Mitch Landrieu , Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana at the time , also supported the effort . Cynthia , a trustee of the Memphis chapter of the Recording Academy , claimed hundreds of dollars and hours were invested in the lobbying effort she described as an " uphill battle " . Prior to the Best Zydeco or Cajun Music category , works in the genre competed in the Best Contemporary Folk Album or Best Traditional Folk Album categories .
= = Recipients = =
For the 50th Annual Grammy Awards ( 2008 ) , Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album nominees included Geno Delafose & French Rockin ' Boogie for Le Cowboy Creole , Lisa Haley for King Cake , The Lost Bayou Ramblers for Live : Γ La Blue Moon , the French language cajun band Pine Leaf Boys for their second album Blues de Musicien , Racines for Racines , Roddie Romero and the Hub City All @-@ Stars for The La Louisianne Sessions , and Terrance Simien and the Zydeco Experience for Live ! Worldwide . Of the seven nominees , only one was based outside Lafayette , Louisiana . Le Cowboy Creole , Delafose 's fifth album , contained cover versions of Chuck Berry 's " Promised Land " , the Commodores ' " Easy " , The Everly Brothers ' " When Will I Be Loved " , Ronnie Milsap 's " ( There 's ) No Gettin ' Over Me " , and Van Morrison 's " Domino " . Blues de Musician included a French adaptation of the country music song " The Wild Side of Life " . Live ! Worldwide contained recordings of live performances from around the world during Simien 's 25 @-@ year career , including " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " and traditional songs such as " Zydeco Boogaloo " and Boozoo Chavis ' " Uncle Bud " . Simien and the Zydeco Experience performed as the opening act to the pre @-@ telecast for the 50th Grammy Awards ceremony . The award was presented to Terrance Simien and the Zydeco Experience , members of which included Jose Alvarez , Ralph Fontenot , Keith Sonnier , William Terry , and Danny Williams . Joshua Murrell was also recognized as the engineer and producer of the album . Simien was described as " exuberant " during his acceptance speech in which he acknowledged the five other nominees . Simien and his band were also honored by Billboard , which ranked their live performance in support of the album as one of the top ten acts of the year .
2009 nominees included BeauSoleil avec Michael Doucet for Live at the 2008 New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival , Michael Doucet for From Now On , Pine Leaf Boys for Homage Au PassΓ© , Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys for Live at the 2008 New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival , and Cedric Watson for Cedric Watson . Doucet , the founder , lead singer and fiddler of BeauSoleil , is the only artist to receive more than one nomination for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album within the same year . According to Doucet , From Now On was recorded " live in three sessions with no rehearsals , overdubs , or song lists . " The album contains original tracks , covers by Hoagy Carmichael and Allen Toussaint , and standards such as " St. Louis Blues " and " You Gotta Move " . The award was presented to BeauSoleil avec Michael Doucet . Recipients included Doucet , band members Tommy Alesi , Jimmy Breaux , David Doucet , Mitchell Reed , Billy Ware , and Ben Williams , along with Eli Kelly and Woods Drinkwater as engineers . BeauSoleil 's set was recorded in April 2008 and released with the group 's approval without further involvement . According to Michael Doucet , the album " was on iTunes , and then all of a sudden it was nominated for a Grammy . "
Nominees for the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards in 2010 included BeauSoleil avec Michael Doucet for Alligator Purse , Buckwheat Zydeco ( stage name for Stanley Dural , Jr . ) for Lay Your Burden Down , The Magnolia Sisters for Stripped Down , Pine Leaf Boys for Live at 2009 New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival , and Cedric Watson et Bijou CrΓ©ole for L 'Γsprit CrΓ©ole . Alligator Purse included guest appearances by Garth Hudson of The Band , Natalie Merchant of 10 @,@ 000 Maniacs , Roswell Rudd , and John Sebastian of The Lovin ' Spoonful . Lay Your Burden Down reunited Dural with producer Steve Berlin and contained versions of Captain Beefheart 's " Too Much Time " , Jimmy Cliff 's " Let Your Yeah Be Yeah " , Gov 't Mule 's " Lay Your Burden Down " , Memphis Minnie 's " When the Levee Breaks " , and Bruce Springsteen 's " Back in Your Arms " . Members of The Magnolia Sisters , an all @-@ female cajun group of multi @-@ instrumentalists , included Anya Burgess , Ann Savoy , Lisa Trahan and Jane Vidrine . The award was presented to Buckwheat Zydeco , members of which included Reginald Dural , Stanley " Buckwheat " Dural , Michael Melchione , Kevin Menard , Olivier Scoazec , Curtis Watson , and Lee Allen Zeno . David Farrell and Steven Maxwell Berlin were also honored as the engineer / mixer and producer of the album , respectively .
For the 53rd Annual Grammy Awards ( 2011 ) , the nominees were Chubby Carrier and the Bayou Swamp Band for Zydeco Junkie , Feufollet for En Couleurs , D. L. Menard for Happy Go Lucky , the Pine Leaf Boys for Back Home , and Cedric Watson et Bijou CrΓ©ole for Creole Moon : Live at the Blue Moon Saloon . 2011 marked the fourth consecutive nomination for the Pine Leaf Boys . Group member Wilson Savoy was unable to attend the award ceremony , but admitted the nominations have " acted as vindication " of their " new @-@ traditionalist sound " . Zydeco Junkie , released through Carrier 's own record label Swampadelic Records , featured his " trademark party songs " and an " accordion @-@ flavored " cover of " Movin ' On Up " , the theme song for the television series The Jeffersons . Geno Delafose and Jamie Bergeron made guest appearances on the album . The award was presented to Chubby Carrier and the Bayou Swamp Band .
= = Category retirement = =
In 2011 , the category Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album was eliminated along with thirty others due to a major overhaul by the Recording Academy . Four additional categories in the American Roots Music field were eliminated ( Best Contemporary Folk Album , Best Hawaiian Music Album , Best Native American Music Album , Best Traditional Folk Album ) . Zydeco and cajun works became eligible for the Best Regional Roots Music Album category . Chubby Carrier was reportedly " broken @-@ hearted " by the news , and concerned that the category 's elimination would not give the music genre the attention deserved . Carrier stated : " This category inspired musicians to fight for the music . It strengthened us . I 'd say to all the young zydeco musicians out there ; don 't give up this fight . " Simien also expressed sadness and called the elimination " a disappointment for local music " . Showing signs of optimism , Terrance Simien said : " The category might be gone today , but we 'll get it back . "
= = = General = = =
= = = Specific = = =
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= Goathouse Refuge =
The Goathouse Refuge in Pittsboro , North Carolina , is a nonprofit no @-@ kill animal sanctuary for cats that is run on a volunteer @-@ basis . The refuge is cage @-@ free so the cats can freely roam around within the boundaries of the property . Founded in 2007 by Italian @-@ born artist Siglinda Scarpa , the refuge can hold up to 300 cats on a 16 @-@ acre farm . There is an art gallery located on the first floor of the house where Scarpa sells her handmade art such as pottery , sculptures , and cookware to help support the refuge .
= = Founding = =
Siglinda Scarpa says she had issues with communication as a child , stating that β people were not seeing me , that they were talking , but never to me . β It was not until her father brought a stray kitten home and placed it under her sheets that Scarpa felt she could communicate with someone . The kitten was a year old when he became very ill and died . After his death , Scarpa decided to take in as many cats as possible , with the hopes of eventually creating a safe haven for cats . Scarpa created the Goathouse Refuge in 2007 , naming it after an old goat who came with the dilapidated plantation house and the 16 acre property . Originally , the land was just intended for her pottery studio . After the house and studio burned down Scarpa rebuilt it with plans that included a sanctuary for cats , using personal resources and proceeds from her pottery sales to make it possible .
= = Adoption = =
The Refuge has found homes for at least 900 cats since they opened in 2007 . They ensure that the cats have been tested , de @-@ wormed , and have had their first shots . The adoption fee covers spaying / neutering , micro @-@ chipping , and vaccinations although some cats may have sponsors who donate to cover for some or all of the adoption fee . There is also an application that must be filled out which asks very thorough in @-@ depth questions to ensure that the cat will go to a good home . The applications are reviewed first by staff to see if the applicants are a good fit for the cat . Afterwards , a home visit is required to see if the house is suitable for the cat .
The Goathouse Refuge differs from many other shelters in that all cats are welcome , and none are subject to euthanasia unless past all hope of recovery . Neither disposition , age , nor illness affect whether a cat will be accepted to stay at the Refuge . Adoption is the ultimate goal , but unadoptable cats may live out their lives on the property as well .
= = Operations = =
As a nonprofit shelter , the Refuge is run mainly by volunteers who clean litter boxes , change food and water , wash dishes and blankets , sanitize areas and perform other duties . There are two shifts of at least two volunteers each , early morning and late afternoon , which revolve around the feeding habits of the cats . The volunteers also need to socialize new kittens and cats with behavior issues to make them ready for adoption . New volunteers are introduced to the cats who need to receive special attention for conditions such as allergies to certain cleaning products and dietary restrictions , which are made clear by charts and signs on the cats ' cages .
Because the Goathouse Refuge offers their 300 cats ( number as of January 2013 ) medical treatment on @-@ site , quality food , toys and comfort items such as lots of blankets , the cost of maintaining is higher than the average shelter . Contributors help in many ways to the shelter , including providing items the cats need , donating money , or attending fundraisers . Scarpa 's fundraisers use themes such as Burrito Bash , Venetian Carnival , Garden Gourmands , and Mad Hatter 's Tea Party . These events are listed in such online and written publications as Raleigh 's Indy Week , Chatham County 's Chatham Chatlist , Chapel Hill 's The Daily Tar Heel as well as on the Refuge 's website and Facebook page .
The Goathouse Refuge also provides alternative solutions for those who wish to see a particular cat go to a good home , but cannot adopt the cat themselves . There is the option to sponsor a cat by donating to cover their adoption fees so that the cat may have a higher chance of being adopted . The refuge also provides " virtual cats " as gifts and will send the donor a photo of a cat of their choice as well as a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes story about him / her . For those who wish to donate regularly there is a program called " Coffee Cat " , sponsoring a particular cat at the cost of approximately a cup of coffee a day . The donations from Coffee Cat are spent on food , medical needs , and litter for that particular cat .
= = Controversy = =
In March 2013 , the Goathouse Refuge was a cover story in the Indy Week paper . The article claims that there are too many cats falling prey to illness , and that the sanctuary is out of control : " One local veterinarian has treated about 35 cats from owners who had recently adopted from the Goathouse . " The author , Lisa Sorg , says that according to former volunteers at the Goathouse Refuge , there are twice as many cats on the premises as recommended by a veterinarian , and that Scarpa makes volunteers sign an anti @-@ defamation agreement and instructs them to lie to state inspectors , among other allegations that Scarpa denied or justified . Just over a day after the article 's release the comments section on the Indy Week website became so heated that Denise Prickett , INDY Editorial Web Director , posted " We have closed comments on this story for the weekend . We will reopen comments Monday morning . All future comments must respond directly to the story and must be civil . Comments that do not follow these guidelines will be removed . "
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= Ryan Boyle =
Ryan J. Boyle ( born November 22 , 1981 in Hunt Valley , Maryland ) is a former lacrosse player who last played professional field lacrosse for the Boston Cannons of Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) . He most recently played professional box lacrosse for the Philadelphia Wings of the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) until his release in 2011 . Boyle starred in both lacrosse and American football for Gilman School from 1996 to 2000 . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 2001 through 2004 . Boyle was also a member of the Men 's Lacrosse Team USA for the 2002 , 2006 and 2010 World Lacrosse Championships .
At Gilman , he was an All @-@ American lacrosse player who was named All @-@ city four times and All @-@ metro three times ( Player of the Year once ) , leading his team to two championships . He was a two @-@ time All @-@ metro quarterback who led his school through two consecutive undefeated championship seasons and set a Maryland Interscholastic Athletic Association record for pass completion percentage .
During his time at Princeton University , the team qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship all four years , reached the championship game twice , won the championship game once and won four Ivy League championships . He was a four @-@ time All @-@ American ( twice first team ) and four @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League selection ( first team three times and second team once ) . He was Ivy League Player of the Year twice and Ivy League Rookie of the Year . He established numerous Ivy League records and won numerous NCAA statistical championships during his career . In addition to his All @-@ American recognitions from the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) , he was recognized by USILA as a Scholar All @-@ American .
As a professional , he has earned four MLL championships , and has been rookie of the year in both the MLL and NLL . He has participated in five MLL All @-@ Star games and two NLL All @-@ star games . He is also a three @-@ time Team USA representative and two @-@ time gold medalist at the World Lacrosse Championship .
= = High school career = =
Boyle is from Hunt Valley , Maryland . Some of his early lacrosse experiences were at the Cockeysville Rec program . He attended high school at the prestigious Gilman School in Baltimore , graduating in 2000 . Boyle was the number one boy 's lacrosse recruit in the nation as a senior . The Baltimore Sun selected him as their boy 's lacrosse player of the year on the 2000 All @-@ Metro boys lacrosse team as well as the 2000 All @-@ Baltimore City / County boys lacrosse team . Boyle was a three @-@ time All @-@ Metro ( 1998 , 1999 , and 2000 ) , four @-@ time All @-@ City ( first team : 1998 , 1999 , and 2000 ; second team : 1997 ) attackman in lacrosse and two @-@ time All @-@ Metro quarterback in football ( 1998 and 1999 ) . He led the lacrosse team to two Maryland Interscholastic Athletic Association A Conference championships in lacrosse ( 1998 and 2000 ) and two in football ( 1998 and 1999 ) including a 21 β 0 undefeated streak , while carrying a 4 @.@ 0 grade point average . As a starting quarterback , his record was 26 β 2 . Boyle , who started calling his own plays as a junior , amassed career totals of 3 @,@ 593 passing yards and 2 @,@ 051 rushing yards . In lacrosse he totaled 258 points . Boyle also played basketball in high school and was co @-@ winner of the Greater Baltimore Chapter National Football Foundation Hall of Fame scholar athlete award as a senior . Boyle intended to play both football and lacrosse at Princeton .
As a sophomore option offense quarterback , he totaled 812 yards and five touchdowns rushing as well as 465 yards and four touchdowns passing . As a junior , he set the Maryland state high school single @-@ season pass completion percentage record of 78 percent ( surpassing 69 @.@ 4 established by Ryan Fleetwood of Cambridge ) on 117 of 150 passing for 1 @,@ 908 yards and 20 touchdowns in addition to rushing for 535 yards and five touchdowns . As a senior , he went 76 @-@ for @-@ 107 passing ( 71 percent ) for 1 @,@ 220 yards and 14 touchdowns and 704 yards rushing with eight touchdowns as a senior . In the 1999 championship game 42 β 10 victory over McDonogh High School to cap a 10 β 0 season , Boyle rushed for 100 yards and completed 14 of 20 passes for 146 yards .
In lacrosse , as a freshman he made the second team of the 1997 All @-@ Baltimore City / County boys lacrosse team . As a sophomore , he was All @-@ Metro with 47 goals , 41 assists and 53 ground balls. in the 1998 championship game 16 β 12 victory over St. Paul 's High School , he scored four goals and had an assist . As a junior he totaled 23 goals and 28 assists to go with 60 ground balls , even though he missed three games for a surgical procedure . The surgical procedure removed a hernia . He was voted All @-@ American as a junior . He totaled 36 goals and 44 assists as a senior in 2000 . In the 2000 lacrosse championship game , he had four goals and assist in the 10 β 8 victory over Boys ' Latin School of Maryland .
= = College career = =
He attended college at Princeton University , graduating in 2004 where he was a four @-@ time All @-@ American , including being named First Team Attack twice . Ryan led the Tigers to three NCAA Final Four appearances , two National title games and a National Championship in 2001 . He finished his career with 70 goals and 162 assists good for 232 total points .
He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 2003 and 2004 , a second team selection in 2002 and a third team selection in 2001 . He was also first team All @-@ Ivy League in 2002 , 2003 and 2004 and a second team selection in 2001 . He was the Ivy League Rookie of the Year in 2001 and the Ivy League Player of the Year in 2002 and 2004 . He was the second player to be named Rookie of the Year as a freshman and Player of the Year as a sophomore . He was one of five finalists for the Tewaaraton Trophy in 2004 . He was a 2004 USILA Scholar All @-@ American .
Princeton earned NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship invitations each year of Boyle 's four @-@ year career and won the 2001 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament . They were Ivy League champion or co @-@ champion each year of his career : The 2001 team was 6 β 0 undefeated outright champions ; the 2002 team was 5 β 1 outright champions ; the 2003 and 2004 teams were 5 β 1 co @-@ champions .
The arrival of freshman Boyle necessitated that senior Matt Striebel move from attack to midfield and the demotion of head coach Bill Tierney 's son , Brendan , to the bench . Striebel had previously orchestrated the Princeton offense from behind the goal and both players had started in the 2000 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship game , but on March 25 , 2001 , which was the first practice after the team lost 14 β 8 to Syracuse , Tierney made the switch . Striebel and Boyle would later earn two golds medals and a silver medal together in World Lacrosse Championship play and three MLL Steinfeld Cups together with the Philadelphia Barrage .
In the 2001 game against Dartmouth to clinch the Ivy League championship , he scored three goals and had two assists as part of a 14 @-@ point 3 @-@ game stretch . In the 2001 NCAA championship tournament quarterfinal 8 β 7 victory over Loyola , he had three assists including two that broke a 4 β 4 tie in the second half . He added two assists in the semifinal 12 β 11 victory over Towson State . In the 2001 NCAA championship game , Boyle assisted on B. J. Prager 's overtime game @-@ winning goal against Syracuse from behind the net . It was one of a game @-@ high three assists for Boyle in the 10 β 9 victory .
In the 2002 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament , he scored the game @-@ winning goal in the quarterfinal game against Georgetown with four seconds left in regulation time . The goal came on a broken play after the designed play from the time @-@ out with 13 seconds left did not work . On the day Boyle had two goals and three assists in the 14 β 13 victory . He added three assists in the semifinal 11 β 9 victory over Johns Hopkins . In the championship game against Syracuse , he scored two goals in the first quarter but was held scoreless for the rest of the 13 β 12 loss .
Boyle 's 2003 tournament performances were not notable . In the 2004 victory over Brown to earn a share of the Ivy League championship , he had four assists . In the 2004 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament opening round , he scored a career @-@ high four goals as Princeton defeated Rutgers 12 β 4 . In the quarterfinals , he had two late goals and assisted on Peter Trombino 's overtime game @-@ winning goal against Maryland . He then had a goal ( to tie the score at 5 ) and three assists in the 8 β 7 semifinals loss to Navy . He made the All @-@ tournament team .
Boyle holds several Ivy League conference records : single @-@ season assists ( 32 , 2003 ) , career assists ( 86 , 2001 β 04 ) and career points ( 120 , 2001 β 04 ) . Note that the Ivy League records are for conference games only . Boyle ( 2003 ) tied Jon Hess ( 1997 ) for the Princeton single @-@ season assists record with 48 . He was also a NCAA national statisitcal champion in several statistics : points per game ( 2003 , 4 @.@ 54 ) , assists per game ( 2003 , 3 @.@ 77 ) , assists per game ( 2004 , 2 @.@ 93 ) , assists ( 2003 , 49 ) , assists ( 2004 , 44 ) .
= = Professional career = =
= = = NLL = = =
Boyle played box lacrosse in the NLL for the San Jose Stealth ( 2005 β 2006 ) , New York Titans ( 2007 β 2009 ) , and Orlando Titans ( 2010 ) . He has also played field lacrosse in the MLL for the Philadelphia Barrage ( 2004 β 2008 ) and Boston Cannons ( 2009 β present ) . Boyle was selected 3rd overall by the Stealth in the 2004 National Lacrosse League entry draft . In 2005 , he was named NLL Rookie of the Year . He won the rookie scoring title . He participated in the 2005 and 2007 National Lacrosse League All @-@ Star Games . In the January 20 , 2007 first box lacrosse game played at Madison Square Garden , he scored two goals and two assists , but made more news off the field when he was photographed signing autographs for Cody Lohan and his picture appeared on Perez Hilton 's blog . He was picked 8th in the 2010 Orlando Titans dispersal draft by the Philadelphia Wings . Boyle also played box lacrosse in the National Lacrosse League ( NLL ) for seven years before being released by the Philadelphia Wings in 2011 .
= = = MLL = = =
Boyle was named 2004 Major League Lacrosse Rookie of the Year , and he has helped lead the Philadelphia Barrage to win MLL Steinfeld Cup Championships in 2004 , 2006 , and 2007 . In the 2004 championship game against the Boston Cannons , he helped break a 6 β 6 tie with one of the goals giving Philadelphia an 8 β 6 halftime lead on the way to their 13 β 11 victory . In the 2006 MLL championship game , he assisted on an early goal by Justin Smith . He has made other MLL playoff appearances . In the 2008 MLL semifinals , Boyle scored two goals and had three assists in the Philadelphia Barrage 16 β 15 overtime loss to the Rochester Rattlers . In the 2010 MLL semifinals , Boyle scored two goals for the Boston Cannons in the 13 β 9 loss to the Chesapeake Bayhawks . The following season , he helped lead the Cannons to their first league championship , while earning his fourth .
Boyle has appeared in five MLL All @-@ Star games . During the 2006 Major League Lacrosse All @-@ Star Game weekend , Boyle won the skills competition for accuracy and then scored two goals and an assist for Team USA in the All @-@ Star game . He was joined by Striebel on the team in 2007 . In the 2010 All @-@ Star game , he had four goals for Team USA .
= = = International = = =
Boyle has been named to Team USA for the World Lacrosse Championship in 2002 , 2006 and 2010 . The team won gold medals in 2002 and 2010 and a silver in 2006 . In 2002 , Boyle scored 23 points ( 14 goals and 9 assists ) , including two goals against Team Canada in the championship game and a hat trick in a qualification game against them . He also had a hat trick against the Iroquois Nation in a qualification game . He then had a goal and three assists against them in the semifinals . In 2006 , he totaled five goals and eleven assists .
= = = Other = = =
Ryan 's passion for lacrosse and youth education is exemplified by his involvement with Trilogy Lacrosse a leader in lacrosse education . He runs lacrosse camps through Trilogy as do many other successful Lacrosse players and coaches through their own various companies .
= = Personal = =
Boyle is from a self @-@ described middle @-@ class family with six children . Boyle 's father , Darby , played attack for West Point men 's lacrosse in the late 1960s and his older brother Michael played lacrosse for Georgetown .
= = Statistics = =
= = = NLL = = =
= = = MLL = = =
= = = Princeton University = = =
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= You Belong with Me =
" You Belong with Me " is a song performed by American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was co @-@ written by Swift and Liz Rose and produced by Nathan Chapman with Swift 's aid . It was released on April 18 , 2009 , by Big Machine Records as the third single from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) . Swift was inspired to write " You Belong with Me " after overhearing a male friend of hers arguing with his girlfriend through a phone call ; she continued to develop a story line afterward . The song contains many pop music elements and its lyrics have Swift desiring an out @-@ of @-@ reach love interest .
The song won Favorite song at 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards , and received nominations for the Grammy Awards for Song of the Year , Record of the Year , and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . " You Belong with Me " enjoyed commercial success as well ; it became a top ten hit in Australia , Canada , New Zealand , and the United States . In the United States , the song became Swift 's highest @-@ charting single on the Billboard Hot 100 at the time and has become Swift 's third best @-@ selling single . It managed to gain the largest crossover radio audience since Faith Hill 's " Breathe " did in 2000 . The single was certified 6 Γ Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song is one of the best @-@ selling singles worldwide , with worldwide sales of more than 5 @.@ 1 million units ( according to the IFPI ) .
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Roman White . The video featured Swift portraying two characters , a nerd ( the protagonist and narrator ) and a popular girl ( the antagonist and girlfriend ) , while American actor Lucas Till portrayed the male lead . The video 's plot centers on the protagonist secretively loving the male lead , although he has a girlfriend . The video won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , but during Swift 's acceptance speech , rapper Kanye West interrupted , protesting in support of BeyoncΓ© . The incident caused a reaction in the media , with most people coming to Swift 's defense . The song was performed live at numerous venues , including the 2009 β 10 Fearless Tour , where it was the opening number . It was covered by various artists , including Butch Walker and Selena Gomez & the Scene , and parodied by " Weird Al " Yankovic .
= = Background = =
Swift became inspired to write " You Belong with Me " after she overheard a male friend of hers speaking to his girlfriend through a phone call . He acted defensive as his girlfriend yelled at him , and said to her , " No , baby ... I had to get off the phone really quickly ... I tried to call you right back ... Of course I love you . More than anything ! Baby , I β m so sorry . " Out of the sympathy she felt towards him in the situation , Swift developed a concept for a song . In a writing session with co @-@ writer Liz Rose , Swift explained the situation along with her idea and conceived the song 's opening line , " You β re on the phone with your girlfriend / she β s upset / she 's going off about something that you said . " Together , they developed a story line , which described Swift being in love with the male friend and her having the desire for him to break up with his current girlfriend for her . Swift described the song 's concept as " basically about wanting someone who is with this girl who doesn 't appreciate him at all . Basically like ' girl @-@ next @-@ door @-@ itis . ' You like this guy who you have for your whole life , and you know him better than she does but somehow the popular girl gets the guy every time . " Swift recalled , " It was really fun for us to write the line , ' She wears short skirts , I wear T @-@ shirts ' . " " You Belong with Me " was first released as a promotional single from Fearless on November 4 , 2008 , as part of Countdown to Fearless , an exclusive campaign by the iTunes Store ; the song was then released as the third single from Fearless on April 18 , 2009 .
= = Composition = =
" You Belong with Me " is a pop song with a length of three minutes and 52 seconds . According to Kate Kiefer of Paste magazine , it is " a straight @-@ up pop song . " The song is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 130 beats per minute . It is written in the key of F β― major and Swift 's vocals spans a little below two octaves , from F # 3 to C # 5 . Swift hints at her country music background in the banjo @-@ inflected introduction of the song . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly felt Swift 's vocals were light and twangy while the melody was " lilting " . It follows the chord progression F β― β C β― β G β― -B . The instrumentation consists of clucking banjos alongside new wave electric guitars .
The lyrics to " You Belong with Me " alternate between narrative modes , where she speaks of herself , a male friend whom she has an unrequited crush on , and his girlfriend . Greenblatt described Swift 's role as a storyteller , the song being a narrative set to music , which describes concerning about love and boys " just [ being ] very hard to catch " . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter believes " You Belong with Me " ' s plot is " confessional " and regards scenarios themed with high school , while Swift " is the girl next door who 's had her heart broken and takes refuge in music " . Lucy Davies of the BBC noted , " Swift deals in the prosaic imagery of high school boys " . In one verse , Swift contrasts herself with her friend 's girlfriend and states , " She wears high heels , I wear sneakers / She 's cheer captain , I 'm on the bleachers " , which Davies interpreted as the song 's protagonist feeling envy towards cheerleaders , in particular , the one dating her male friend . In the choruses , Swift attempts " to persuade some boy to come to his senses and submit to her everygirl charms " .
= = Critical reception = =
Sean Dooley of About.com labeled " You Belong with Me " as one of the " best songs on Fearless " , while Johnny Davis of The Observer believed some parts of the song " may needle British ears " , although he felt that it was better than single releases by pop singer Hilary Duff . Lucy Davies of the BBC was not impressed by the song 's theme being similar to those of other songs on Fearless or on her eponymous debut album , Taylor Swift . She opined that " You Belong with Me " ' s " lyrical palette has few colours [ ... ] and it 's repetitive " . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine said , " ' You Belong with Me ' isn 't her best @-@ written song by a long shot , but it 's hard to fault its construction . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone commented , " It 's hard not to be won over by the guilelessness " .
A Times Editor review from The St. Petersburg Times also described it as sounding similar to other hits : " She hankers for a boy who either doesn 't love her back or wants to ditch this small town . " Josh Love of The Village Voice thought " preternatural wisdom and inclusiveness " shined through the lyrics and theme of " You Belong with Me " ; Love also mentioned that it was one of Fearless ' " great songs " . The same magazine later ranked the song at number 10 on its annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly said Swift 's vocals fit the song 's melody and instrumentation , which , according to her , is " slick " and " radio @-@ friendly " . Rob Sheffield of Blender magazine recommended for readers to download " You Belong with Me " , and Jeniffer Webb , also from About.com , predicted that the song would reach different age groups . Webb said , " It continues the artist 's tradition of having a little something for everyone , so it 's no wonder she has such a large fanbase . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 52nd Grammy Awards , " You Belong with Me " received nominations for three awards . The song received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Song of the Year but lost to BeyoncΓ© Knowles ' " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) , for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year but lost to Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " ( 2008 ) , and for the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance but lost to Knowles ' " Halo " ( 2009 ) . " You Belong with Me " won Favorite Song at the 2010 Kids Choice Awards and was nominated for Song of the Year at the 45th Academy of Country Music Awards , but lost to Lady Antebellum 's " Need You Now " ( 2009 ) . Although " You Belong with Me " did not receive an award for any of the nominations it received at the 52nd Grammy Awards , Swift did win album of the year for Fearless , which the song was a part of .
= = Chart performance = =
= = = North America = = =
Upon its release as a promotional single , on the week ending November 22 , 2008 , " You Belong with Me " debuted at number twelve on the Billboard Hot 100 due to sales of 172 @,@ 000 digital downloads , tying her with the Jonas Brothers for most top twenty debuts in 2008 , a record which she later beat ; the song fell from the Billboard Hot 100 in the following week . Following its single release , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ seven on the week ending May 16 , 2009 . " You Belong with Me " moved to number three on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending August 15 , 2009 , thus making the song Swift 's second highest @-@ charting effort , surpassing her previous second best @-@ charting effort " Love Story " , which peaked at number four in January 2009 . Driven by non @-@ country radio airplay , the song established the largest crossover radio audience since Faith Hill 's " Breathe " ( 2000 ) . The following week , it peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 , being blocked at the top spot by The Black Eyed Peas 's " I Gotta Feeling " . The song is one of thirteen songs from Fearless charted within the top forty of the Billboard Hot 100 , breaking the record for the most top forty entries from a single album . The single was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments exceeding four million copies . As of November 2014 , " You Belong with Me " has sold 4 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States .
" You Belong With Me " became Swift 's first song to reach Billboard Radio Songs summit with 117 million all @-@ format audience impressions . It also became the first country crossover single to rule Radio Songs since Billboard began incorporating Nielsen BDS @-@ monitored data in 1990 . It stayed at number one for two consecutive weeks . On Billboard Hot Country Songs , the single debuted at number thirty @-@ two . On the week @-@ ending June 13 , 2009 , it jumped from number thirteen to ten in the chart , scoring Swift 's eight consecutive top ten hit . " You Belong With Me " became Swift 's fourth number one song on Billboard Hot Country Songs after it reached the summit on the week @-@ ending August 22 , 2009 . It stayed on the top for two weeks and fell at number six afterwards . The single charted in Billboard Hot Country Songs for a total of twenty weeks . On Billboard Pop Songs , it debuted at number forty . It jumped at number twenty six of the following week and on its fifth week , on the week @-@ ending July 25 , 2009 , it entered the top ten at number ten . It reached its peak at number two of the week @-@ ending September 5 , 2009 and held from the top spot by Black Eyed Peas 's I Gotta Feeling for five weeks . It also reach the top spot on Adult Contemporary for fourteen weeks while reaching number two in Billboard Adult Pop Songs .
In Canada , " You Belong with Me " entered at number eighty @-@ four . It jumped at the top ten at number nine and peaked at number three for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . It charted in Canada for forty @-@ five weeks . It also reached number one on Canadian Country Radio after only eleven weeks at radio . It was also certified double platinum by Music Canada for sales of 160 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = = Europe and Oceania = = =
" You Belong with Me " debuted at number ninety @-@ nine on the week ending July 18 , 2009 , in United Kingdom . It reached its peak in United Kingdom at number thirty on the week ending September 26 , 2009 . In Ireland , it peaked at number twelve and spent a total of six weeks on the chart . In mainland Europe , " You Belong with Me " peaked at number sixty @-@ one on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles Chart , number eleven in Belgium ( Flanders ) , and number thirty @-@ two in Denmark . " You Belong with Me " experienced similar commercial outcomes throughout the rest of Europe ; it became a top forty hit in Belgium ( Wallonia ) and a top fifty hit in Sweden .
" You Belong with Me " was a success in Australia and New Zealand . On the week ending May 24 , 2009 , the song entered in Australia at number fifty . On the week ending July 5 , 2009 , the song reached its peak at number five , a position it maintained on for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . " You Belong with Me " was placed at number eighty @-@ eight on the decade @-@ end Austrian Singles Chart . It was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments exceeding 140 @,@ 000 copies . On the week ending May 25 , 2009 , " You Belong with Me " debuted at number twenty @-@ eight in New Zealand and , after two weeks of ascended positions , it peaked at number five . The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for shipments exceeding 15 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Music video = =
" You Belong with Me " ' s accompanying music video was directed by Roman White . In the video , Swift portrays both the protagonist and antagonist , which she respectively described as " the nerd , who is pining away for this guy that she can 't have " and " the popular girl . " Swift described the popular girl 's persona as " horrible and scary and intimidating and perfect " . Her love interest is portrayed by American actor Lucas Till ; Swift met Till while acting on the set of Hannah Montana : The Movie in April 2008 . She later asked him to act in the video , as she was intrigued by his " cool look " , embodying a " dreamy guy " . In regards to his acting on the video , Swift said , " He 's absolutely perfect for the part and really fun to be around , too . " According to her , the video 's plot is " charming " ; she also said that , " the whole video , I 'm just sitting there pining away , wishing I could be in her position . " In regards to the video 's conclusion , White explained that Swift " becomes who she really is " , while Swift thought it was a happy ending . Swift commented , " One of my favorite things about this video is that there wasn 't a standard performance scene . This video was pretty much all story line and I 'm narrating it in the moment , basically narrating while all this is happening around me . "
The video was shot in two days in Gallatin and Hendersonville , Tennessee . On the first day of filming , Swift used a body double in order for both Swift , as the protagonist and antagonist , to appear in one shot . In a scene where she appeared dancing , White replaced Swift 's routine with a one having no rhythm ; she recalled , " It was some of the most fun I 'd had in a long time , just freaking out and doing the dumbest moves . " On the second day , they first filmed a prom scene and , lastly , the football game , both being filmed at Pope John Paul II High School . The school supplied many students as extras , including football players , band members , cheerleaders and students . The final prom scene used the school 's decorations for its real prom the next night . When filming for a touchdown , Till was unable to catch the ball , furthering the length of the shoot . " You put a lot of good solid effort in it and it looks good " , Swift stated about filming .
The video commences with Till arguing with his girlfriend through a phone call . As soon as Swift , as the protagonist , notices , they begin to communicate by holding up signs through their bedroom windows . Till closes his curtains , and Swift holds up a sign saying , " I love you " . As the song 's chorus approaches , Swift starts to sing and dance in front of a mirror , changing to different clothing multiple times . Afterward , Swift is sitting in a bench while reading a book . Till arrives and the two converse . Then , Swift , as the antagonist , arrives in a red convertible car and Till gets in it ; Swift , the antagonist , kisses him and gives a hostile look towards the protagonist . Suddenly , she is seen cheerleading at a football game while Swift 's other persona is in the bleachers , performing in the school band . After scoring the winning touchdown , Till moves toward his girlfriend and finds her flirting with a teammate , resulting in a heated argument which results in their breakup . Meanwhile , Swift , the protagonist stares in amazement . Back in their bedroom windows , they again communicate through signs , Till asked Swift , the protagonist , if she was attending prom and she responded , " no , studying " . Swift , however , notices Till has a dejected expression as he leaves and changes her mind . Shortly after , Swift is seen entering prom with a white dress , no longer looking like a nerd , while all her peers stare in amazement . When Till spots her , he walks towards her and Swift , the antagonist in a red dress , attempts to impede him , but he ignores her . Ending the video , Till and Swift reveal folded signs saying " I love you " and kiss . To date , the video has over 600 million views on YouTube .
= = = Video reception = = =
The video premiered on May 2 , 2009 , on CMT . Chris Ryan of MTV commented , " ' You Belong With Me ' was a teen rom @-@ com wrapped up in a music video , wherein Taylor plays two roles . See Dooley of About.com believed Swift worked " doubly hard " , playing two roles . A Times Editor review from The St. Petersburg Times compared the large glasses Swift wore to those of Clark Kent . Michael Deacon of The Daily Telegraph felt the video suited the song , " in that they β re equally sappy and dull " .
At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , the video won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video . During Swift 's acceptance speech , rapper Kanye West interrupted Swift , grabbing the microphone and stating , " Yo Taylor , I 'm really happy for you and I 'ma let you finish , but BeyoncΓ© [ Knowles ] had one of the best videos of all time " , regarding her video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . According to Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News , Knowles " looked on from the crowd , stunned " . Later in the evening , during her acceptance speech for winning the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year , Knowles told about her first experience winning her first Video Music Award with Destiny 's Child and how much it meant to her . She then called Swift from backstage to complete her acceptance speech . Numerous critics , celebrities , and fans criticized West 's actions , including the President of the United States , Barack Obama , who called West a " jackass " . At first , West made no effort in contacting Swift , but he later issued an apology , which Swift accepted . The video was nominated for Video of the Year at the 45th Academy of Country Music Awards . At the 2010 CMT Music Awards , the video received nominations for the CMT Music Award for " Video of the Year " and " Female Video of the Year " , but lost to Carrie Underwood 's " Cowboy Casanova " and Miranda Lambert 's " White Liar " , respectively . The video was nominated for the MuchMusic Video Award for Best International Artist Video and the MuchMusic Video Award for People 's Choice : Favourite International Video , but lost to Miley Cyrus ' video for " Party in the U.S.A. " and Adam Lambert 's video for " Whataya Want From Me " at the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards , respectively .
= = Live performances = =
Swift 's first televised performance of " You Belong with Me " was at a free outdoor concert on May 29 , 2009 , broadcast by The Today Show . Following promotion for the song , she performed it on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Studio 330 Sessions , at the 2009 CMA Music Festival , at the 2009 CMT Music Awards , and at the 2009 V Festival , in the summer of 2009 . Swift performed " You Belong with Me " at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards on September 13 , 2009 , the same day in which Kanye West interrupted her acceptance speech . She began the performance in a subway station , dressed in a brown trench coat and black beanie , and continued it in a subway , taking off the trench coat and revealing a red cocktail dress . Once the subway docked at a stop , Swift completed the performance atop a yellow taxi cab . Swift later performed the song on The View and Saturday Night Live . In the fall of 2009 and winter of 2009 through 2010 , Swift commenced promotion for " You Belong with Me " countries outside of the United States ; she performed the song on the United Kingdom channel GMTV , the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief , and the Japanese talk show The Sukkiri Morning Show .
Swift performed a medley , which included " You Belong with Me " at the 52nd Grammy Awards . Wearing casual white blouse and black skinny jeans , Swift performed " Today Was a Fairytale " and then announced , " Its a fairly tale and an honor to share the stage with Stevie Nicks " . Following , the two performed a cover of Fleetwood Mac 's " Rhiannon " ( 1976 ) . Swift then grabbed her acoustic guitar for the third and final part in her medley , jumping into a twangy version of " You Belong with Me " . Nicks stood back , tapping her tambourine and nodding , every so often stepping up to the microphone to sing with Swift . Eric Ditzian of MTV News was disappointed at Swift 's and Nicks ' harmonies , but said the two " made for a compelling twosome " . The performance followed much backlash in regards to Swift 's off key singing , which caused Scott Borchetta , CEO of Big Machine Records , to issue a statement defending the performance .
" You Belong with Me " is performed as the opening number on all 2009 and 2010 dates of Swift 's first headlining tour , the Fearless Tour . Before Swift or the dancers entered the stage , a video played on the overhead screens ; it showed various celebrities , including Miley Cyrus , Demi Lovato , Faith Hill , Lucas Till and Swift herself , sharing their definitions of the word " fearless " . Following the video 's completion , the band and backup dancers appeared , dressed in yellow cheerleading uniforms . Swift , dressed in a white marching band uniform , then emerges from the bottom of the stage and commences singing . Swift roams around the stage singing and backup dancers perform cheerleading routines while projections of cheerleaders are shown on the stage . Midway through the performance , the backup dancers removed Swift 's marching band uniform to reveal a sparkly cocktail dress ; she is then handed a rhinestoned acoustic guitar and finishes the performance . Craig Rosen of The Hollywood Reporter believed Swift 's performance of " You Belong with Me " , coupled with the performance of " Should 've Said No " , at the May 22 , 2009 , concert in Los Angeles at the Staples Center made the show a success . The song is also performed on the Speak Now World Tour and The Red Tour . " You Belong with Me " also was performed on The 1989 World Tour in several venues in place of " You Are in Love " .
= = Cover versions and media usage = =
In November 2009 , American rock singer Butch Walker covered " You Belong with Me " for a digital single release . James Christopher Monger of Allmusic said the cover was infused " with the same karaoke glee that fueled previous installments " . Bill Lamb of About.com described the composition as a " folksy almost honky @-@ tonk sound " and " a bit more country than Taylor Swift 's original " . According to Mikael Wood of Billboard , the cover 's instrumentation is fueled by banjo ; he claimed it was an " online success " . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine described the cover 's arrangement as " fantastic " and , to him , it " emphasized the terrific melody and structure that are the song 's real selling points " . After hearing Walker 's cover , Swift posted via her official Twitter account , " I 'm losing my MIND listening to it ! Blown away . " Band Hero for consoles features " You Belong with Me " as one of sixty @-@ five songs from " mainstream acts " .
A parody entitled " TMZ " was included on " Weird Al " Yankovic 's studio album Alpocalypse ( 2011 ) . A music video for the parody , directed by Bill Plympton , was filmed in October 2010 , and was included on the album 's DVD . The music video was released on " Weird Al " ' s Vevo on June 24 , 2011 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 2013 RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
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= 1986 β 87 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1986 β 87 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was below average due to an ongoing El NiΓ±o and a weak monsoon that suppressed convection and storms . There were only five named storms tracked by the MΓ©tΓ©o @-@ France office ( MFR ) on RΓ©union . The United States @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) followed four other storms in the basin , which is the waters of the Indian Ocean south of the equator and west of 90 Β° E to the coast of Africa . The JTWC tracked a storm on August 1 in the northeastern portion of the basin , unusual for the time of year . The first named storm was Severe Tropical Storm Alinina , which originated from the intertropical convergence zone east of Madagascar in the middle of January . However , there was an unnamed tropical depression that produced heavy rainfall in RΓ©union and Madagascar , causing two deaths in the latter country .
In February , two tropical storms were active near the Mascarene Islands . Tropical Storm Bemezava was a weak storm that took an erratic track around the island of Rodrigues . Tropical Storm Clotilda , the most damaging of the season , stalled near RΓ©union for three days , producing 2 @,@ 723 mm ( 107 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall at BΓ©bourg . The rainfall totals approached the world record precipitation totals set by Cyclone Hyacinthe in 1980 . The rains killed 10 people , destroyed 120 houses , and caused $ 2 million ( 1987 USD ) in damage . Later , Daodo in March was the strongest storm of the season and the only to attain tropical cyclone status , reaching of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Elizabeta was the final storm of the season tracked by the MFR , forming south of Madagascar in April and dissipating on April 29 .
= = Seasonal summary = =
During the season , the MΓ©tΓ©o @-@ France office ( MFR ) on RΓ©union island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin . Using satellite imagery from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , the agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 Β° E , south of the equator . The World Meteorological Organization would later label the MFR as a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center in 1993 . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy β United States Air Force task force , also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the southwestern Indian Ocean . The season 's five named storms and one tropical cyclone β a storm attaining maximum sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) - were both below the average of nine and five , respectively . The MFR considered the tropical cyclone year to begin on August 1 and continue to July 31 of the following year . There was an ongoing El NiΓ±o by December , and by January , the monsoon was weaker than normal across the region . This caused below normal thunderstorm activity in February .
In addition to the storms classified by the MFR , the JTWC tracked four additional storms . The first , classified as Tropical Cyclone 01S , formed on August 1 in the northeastern portion of the basin , an infrequent event for the time of year . The storm moved westward with peak 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . It gradually weakened , dissipating on August 3 near Diego Garcia . The JTWC also tracked a short @-@ lived storm in January that they classified as Tropical Cyclone 06S . The storm formed on January 7 in the eastern portion of the basin near Diego Garcia , and reached winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) while moving southeastward . After stalling on January 9 , the system dissipated three days later . Later , the agency monitored Tropical Cyclone 26S beginning on April 24 . The storm formed south of Diego Garcia and moved in a counterclockwise direction , first to the southeast and later to the north . After reaching peak 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , the storm dissipated on April 26 . The final storm tracked by the agency originated on June 25 in the far northeastern portion of the basin between Diego Garcia and the Cocos Islands . It moved slowly to the southwest , failing to intensify beyond winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Turning to the southeast , the system dissipated on June 27 .
The MFR did not track any tropical depressions before January , making Alinina in January the first official storm of the season . However , there was an earlier tropical depression that originated as a low pressure area on January 1 near Tromelin Island . It was a large system that spread rainfall between Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands for several days . By January 2 , the depression consisted of a circulation with spiral rainbands about 150 km ( 95 mi ) west of Tromelin . The system moved southward without intensifying much , and it passed about 130 km ( 80 mi ) west of RΓ©union on January 4 . While near the island , the depression dropped heavy rainfall that broke 24 β hour totals at 10 locations , peaking at 600 mm ( 24 in ) at Dos d 'Γne . The system intensified slightly afterward , although it turned to the east due to a ridge to the south and was no longer tracked after January 6 . In Madagascar , the heavy rainfall led to flooding around the capital Antananarivo , displacing 40 @,@ 220 people . The floodwaters covered rice fields and entered houses , killing two people . Local Red Cross offices provided shelter and food to victims .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Alinina = = =
Toward the middle of January , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) spawned an area of convection between Diego Garcia and St. Brandon . A tropical disturbance formed the next day , characterized by spiral rainbands around a circulation . The JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 09S on January 16 . The system moved to the southeast , intensifying into tropical storm status on January 17 , whereupon it was named Alinina by the Mauritius Meteorology Service . Later that day , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane due to the storm 's quick organization while passing east of Rodrigues . On January 18 , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , while the JTWC assessed peak 1 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Subsequently the storm weakened , and Alinina turned sharply westward on January 20 due to a building ridge to the south . On that day , the storm weakened to tropical depression status , and the JTWC discontinued advisories . However , Alinina quickly retained tropical storm status . Once the ridge turned to the east , the storm turned to the southeast , the same day that the JTWC reissued advisories . Shortly thereafter , the agency upgraded Alinina to the equivalent of a hurricane for a second time . This was short @-@ lived , as Alinina rapidly weakened while accelerating to the southeast , dissipating on January 23 as it was absorbed by the westerlies .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Bemazava = = =
The ITCZ produced an area of convection north of the Mascarene Islands on February 5 , organizing into a tropical disturbance that day about 590 km ( 365 mi ) northeast of Rodrigues . The system initially consisted spiral rainbands around an organizing center . Moving quickly to the southwest , the disturbance passed west of Rodrigues on February 6 , producing wind gusts of 117 km / h ( 72 mph ) likely due to a localized vortex . Despite only being a disturbance , the Mauritius Meteorology Service named the system Bemezava on February 6 . On the next day , the depression turned sharply to the east due to a nearby ridge , passing 350 km ( 215 mi ) southeast of Mauritius . Bemezava intensified into a moderate tropical storm on February 8 , attaining peak 10 minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . It turned back to the northeast and weakened , tracked only by satellite imagery as a weak circulation . Bemezava looped to the west beginning on February 10 , turning to the southeast and back to the west . It dissipated on February 17 about 200 km ( 125 mi ) southeast of Rodrigues , or about 680 km ( 425 mi ) south of where it first formed . Bemezava was not tracked by the JTWC .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Clotilda = = =
While Bemezava was still active , another circulation was present between RΓ©union and Madagascar on February 8 . On the next day , a tropical disturbance formed about 150 km ( 95 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Toamasina , Madagascar . A ridge to the south caused the nascent system to move erratic , although generally to the southeast and east . It intensified into Tropical Storm Clotilda on February 10 , and on the next day that the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 17S . The storm slowed and approached within 50 km ( 30 mi ) of RΓ©union before stalling . It moved slowly near the island for two days , during which it remained about 30 km ( 18 mi ) off the northern coast . On February 13 , Clotilda attained peak 10 minute winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . A weak ridge steered the storm back to the southwest , and on February 14 , Clotilda struck northern RΓ©union at Sainte @-@ Suzanne . The ridge moved to the east , causing the storm to accelerate and gradually weaken . On February 17 , Clotilda became extratropical while turning southeastward due to an approaching trough . The remnants persisted several days until dissipating on February 22 near Γle Amsterdam .
While stalling , Clotilda affected Mauritius with gusty winds and heavy rainfall , which flooded several homes . However , effects were worst on RΓ©union , where wind gusts reached 173 km / h ( 107 mph ) and rainfall totaled 2 @,@ 723 mm ( 107 @.@ 2 in ) at BΓ©bourg . The deluge approached the record @-@ setting rains from Cyclone Hyacinthe in 1980 over a 72 β hour period . Clotilda damaged 250 houses , of which 120 were destroyed . About 150 @,@ 000 people on the island lost access to water , and many roads were damaged . Clotilda killed 10 people on the island , and damage totaled around $ 2 million ( USD ) .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Daodo = = =
Several areas of convection persisted within the ITCZ in early March across the open Indian Ocean . One of these organized into a tropical storm on March 2 about 700 km ( 430 mi ) south of Diego Garcia and was given the name Daodo . On the following day , the JTWC began tracking it as Tropical Cyclone 21S . Daodo moved slowly initially while quickly strengthening into a severe tropical storm . On March 4 , a weak ridge steered the storm to the east , and the storm weakened slightly during this time . Three days later a stronger ridge to the east turned Daodo to the southwest , bringing it over its former path . On March 8 , the JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . On the following day , the MFR upgraded Daodo to tropical cyclone status , estimating peak 10 minute winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) , although it weakened back into a tropical storm on March 10 . The storm accelerated to the southeast on the next day and maintained much of its intensity due to baroclinic interactions with a nearby anticyclone . On March 13 , Daodo turned back to the southwest before moving more southward and later to the southeast . On March 18 , the storm dissipated within a polar trough northwest of Γle Amsterdam .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Elizabeta = = =
In the middle of April , a plume of moist air from the equator reached a circulation southeast of Madagascar , which was associated with a trough . On April 20 , a tropical disturbance formed about 350 km ( 215 mi ) southeast of the southernmost point of Madagascar . A strong ridge to the south steered the system westward , bringing it south of the island on April 22 . After several days without much strengthening , the system began intensifying steadily on April 23 , becoming a moderate tropical storm . That day , the Madagascar Meteorological Service named it Elizabeta , and the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 24S . Around that time , the storm turned sharply to the south due to a passing trough . Late on April 23 , the JTWC upgraded Elizabeta to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . On the next day , the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . A ridge turned the storm eastward , and Elizabeta gradually weakened , deteriorating to tropical depression status by April 25 . Two days later , the system turned to a westward drift due to small ridge , although it turned back to the south the next day due to another ridge . The weak circulation accelerated to the southeast into a polar trough , dissipating on April 29 .
Although Elizabeta passed just south of the Madagascar , effects were minimal there . However , the storm caused a large fall in barometric pressure at Fort Dauphin , with a drop of 8 @.@ 3 mbar ( 0 @.@ 25 inHg ) over 24 hours .
= = Season effects = =
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= E. Urner Goodman =
Edward Urner Goodman ( May 15 , 1891 β March 13 , 1980 ) was an influential leader in the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) movement for much of the twentieth century . Goodman was the national program director from 1931 until 1951 , during the organization 's formative years of significant growth when the Cub Scouting and Exploring programs were established . He developed the BSA 's national training center in the early 1930s and was responsible for publication of the widely read Boy Scout Handbook and other Scouting books , writing the Leaders Handbook used by Scout leaders in the United States during the 1930s and 1940s . In the 1950s , Goodman was Executive Director of Men 's Work for the National Council of Churches in New York City and active in church work .
Goodman is best remembered today for having created the Order of the Arrow ( OA ) , a popular and highly successful program of the BSA that continues to honor Scouts for their cheerful service . Since its founding in 1915 , the Order of the Arrow has grown to become a nationwide program having thousands of members , which recognizes those Scouts who best exemplify the virtues of cheerful service , camping , and leadership by membership in BSA 's honor society . As of 2007 , the Order of the Arrow has more than 183 @,@ 000 members .
= = Early years and marriage = =
Goodman was born and raised in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where his father , George , was a printer and real estate agent . His mother , Ella , died of typhoid fever in early 1895 when Goodman was just three years old . He attended Central High School , graduating in 1909 . He enjoyed writing and began keeping a detailed journal of daily activities during his senior year of high school , expressing his aspirations for the future along with occasional doubts . With several classmates , he began a literary club and published a newsletter , The Inkstand . He also showed interest in music , playing the piano and violin , and composed a song for his high school senior class . When it was not selected by the class officers , he wrote in his journal of his disappointment .
Goodman also took an early interest in church activities as a youth , participating in a boys ' brotherhood group and Sunday school and becoming a member of Tioga Presbyterian Church at age 14 , an event he described as " the most important step I ever took or ever will take in my life . " Just barely out of his teens , Goodman became a popular and highly respected Sunday school teacher and led the Philadelphia chapter of a young men 's group called the Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip .
Aspiring to a career in education , Goodman enrolled in the Philadelphia School of Pedagogy in 1911 . He was selected to be the commencement speaker at his graduation in 1913 and his address was entitled , " The Call to Teach " . Goodman then did graduate work in education at Temple University , while teaching at the Potter School in Philadelphia .
On June 18 , 1920 , Goodman married Louise Wynkoop Waygood , the daughter of a Presbyterian minister and a 1918 honors graduate of Swarthmore College . They had three children : Theodore ( born 1921 ) , George ( born 1923 ) , and Lydia Ann ( born 1927 ) . He was a member of Kiwanis , Rotary International , and a Freemason , joining Robert A. Lamberton Lodge No. 487 , Free and Accepted Masons of Philadelphia on March 5 , 1918 .
= = Scouting career = =
= = = As a volunteer and local council leader = = =
While studying for his degree in Education , Goodman first became involved in Boy Scouting in 1911 when only 20 years old , as a volunteer Scoutmaster of Troop 1 , the first Scout troop in Philadelphia . As far as can be established , this would make him the second @-@ youngest Scoutmaster in the history of the BSA . In his four years as Scoutmaster , the troop grew to more than 100 Scouts . A contemporary of Goodman described him in 1912 as " well beloved by the boys , enjoys their confidence and is heart and soul in this phase of the work . " In later years , he would recall with nostalgia his troop , noting that renowned composer Albert Hay Malotte was " one of his boys " in Troop 1 . In April 1915 , he entered full @-@ time professional service in Boy Scouting as a field executive , serving that summer as director of the Philadelphia Scout Council 's summer camp . He was promoted in December 1917 to Scout executive of the Philadelphia Council .
Goodman 's professional Scouting career was interrupted during World War I , when he was drafted into the U.S. Army shortly after his promotion to Scout executive . He served in the infantry as a first lieutenant , but his unit was never sent overseas . In December 1918 , he was discharged from the Army and resumed his professional career as Scout executive in Philadelphia . He served as Scout executive there until May 1927 , when he was promoted to the larger Chicago Area Council as Scout executive ( 1927 β 1931 ) . During his four @-@ year tenure in the " Windy City " , he reversed a decline in finances and increased Scout membership from 11 @,@ 806 to 16 @,@ 920 .
= = = As a national leader = = =
On April 1 , 1931 , Goodman was promoted by Chief Scout Executive James E. West to become national program director of the BSA , as part of an organizational restructuring . Goodman was one of four division directors reporting to West ( the other divisions were operations , personnel , and business ) . As national program director , he was responsible for professional and volunteer training , relations with sponsoring organizations , public relations , and program development . The Cub Scouting and Exploring programs were established under his leadership . He greatly expanded BSA training programs for adult leaders , establishing the BSA 's highly regarded national training center at Schiff Scout Reservation in New Jersey in 1932 and , later , the training program at Philmont Scout Ranch , beginning in 1938 . He also oversaw the publication of the Boy Scout Handbook , edited by his good friend and colleague William " Green Bar Bill " Hillcourt , as well as the Handbook for Scoutmasters and the first edition of the widely read Scout Field Book . Goodman also wrote the Leader 's Handbook , a key instructional guide for Scout leaders .
In early July 1937 , the BSA held its first national Scout jamboree in Washington , D. C. , attended by 25 @,@ 000 Scouts and Scouters . In addition to overseeing the innovative event itself , Goodman 's public relations service did yeoman work to ensure extensive news media coverage . A jamboree press tent accommodated 626 news media reporters , photographers , and broadcasters . Sixty @-@ four news releases were issued and the public relations service assisted in the making of 11 newsreels and 53 magazine articles . The three major U.S. radio networks of the time , NBC , CBS and Mutual , all set up complete broadcasting studios near the jamboree headquarters to produce almost 19 hours of live , on @-@ site jamboree coverage broadcast coast @-@ to @-@ coast . Celebrities also visited the jamboree , including well @-@ known broadcaster Lowell Thomas and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt . While at the jamboree , Scouts also attended a three @-@ game baseball series between the Washington Senators and the Boston Red Sox at Griffith Stadium , with Goodman arranging for Eagle Scouts to have a place of honor with President Roosevelt in the stands ( pictured ) .
In his comprehensive biography of E. Urner Goodman , Nelson Block writes that the mutual respect between Goodman and West grew over their 12 years of working together at the national BSA office : " West , the hardworking , detail @-@ oriented executive , came to rely on Goodman and his style of accomplishing big things through diligent organization and planning , executed by carefully recruited staff ... " .
When the venerable youth leader and longtime National Scout Commissioner Daniel Carter Beard died shortly before his 91st birthday in June 1941 , Goodman was selected to be in charge of the beloved pioneer 's funeral in Suffern , New York . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people lined the funeral route to the cemetery in Monsey , New York , where 127 Boy Scouts formed an honor guard and assisted with traffic control .
As war clouds cast an ominous shadow over Europe in the late 1930s amidst the rise of fascism , West , Goodman , and other BSA leaders considered how Scouting might better train youth in democratic principles of government . Referring to the Nazi Kristallnacht rampage against Jews in 1938 , Goodman wrote shortly afterwards : " ... the program of persecution has stirred up our hearts and minds as nothing else that has happened before has done . It has furnished the impetus of a wave of resentment against the evil ; but more than that , for a surge of satisfaction and thanksgiving concerning our own happier state under a democracy . " During World War II , various BSA programs were developed under his leadership in support of the nation 's war effort , such as the collection of scrap aluminum , tires , and waste paper for recycling into war material , distribution of war bond and air raid posters , assisting Civil Defense officials , and planting of fruit and vegetable " victory gardens " .
On September 16 , 1951 , Goodman retired as national program director , ending a professional Scouting career spanning 36 years . He was given the title of National Field Scout Commissioner , to continue his service to Scouting on the national level as a layman .
= = = Founding and development of the Order of the Arrow = = =
As the Philadelphia Council 's newly hired field executive in 1915 , one of Goodman 's assignments was to serve as director of the council 's summer camp at Treasure Island Scout Reservation on the Delaware River . He believed that the summer camp experience should do more than just teach proficiency in Scoutcraft skills ; rather , the principles embodied in the Scout Oath and Scout Law should become realities in the lives of Scouts . Along with his assistant camp director , Carroll A. Edson , he started an experimental program to recognize those Scouts best exemplifying those traits as an example to their peers .
Goodman and Edson were strongly influenced by the use of American Indian culture by Ernest Thompson Seton in his Woodcraft Indians program . They decided to create an honor society of their own at camp that summer , in a manner befitting a boy 's interest and understanding . Goodman utilized the appeal of Indian lore and recognition by a Scout 's peers as motivational tools . He devised a program where troops chose , at the camp 's conclusion , those boys from among their number who best exemplified the ideals of Scouting . Those elected were acknowledged as having displayed , in the eyes of their fellow Scouts , a spirit of unselfish service and brotherhood . Edson helped Goodman research the traditions and language of the Lenni Lenape β also known as the Delaware β who had once inhabited Treasure Island .
The brotherhood of Scout honor campers with its American Indian overtones was a success and was repeated again the following summer at Treasure Island . Those Scouts honored at Treasure Island in 1915 and 1916 would eventually become members of the Order of the Arrow 's Unami Lodge .
By 1921 , Goodman had spoken to Scout leaders in surrounding states about the OA , and lodges were established in a score of Scout councils in the northeast . In October 1921 , he convened the first national meeting of what was then called the National Lodge of the Order of the Arrow in Philadelphia , and Goodman was elected Grand Chieftain . Committees were organized to formulate a constitution , refine ceremonial rituals , devise insignia , and plan future development . Reflecting Goodman 's ongoing interest in music , he composed the words to the Order of the Arrow 's song , " Firm Bound in Brotherhood " , set to the stirring melody of a hymn found in the Presbyterian hymnal of the 1920s , " God the Omnipotent " in 11 @.@ 10 @.@ 11 @.@ 9 meter , which was adapted from the Russian national anthem , " God Save the Tsar ! " , composed by Alexei Lvov in 1833 .
In the early 1920s , many Scout executives were skeptical of what they called " secret camp fraternities " . By September 1922 , opposition to the Order of the Arrow was such that a formal resolution opposing " camp fraternities " was proposed at a national meeting of Scout executives . Goodman argued against the motion : " Using the Scout ideals as our great objective " , he said , a camp activity that will " further the advancement of those ideals " should not be suppressed . The motion was narrowly defeated , and the fledgling Order continued as an experimental program throughout the 1920s and 1930s .
Goodman maintained his active support of the OA 's National Lodge , as it was then called , during his years as Scout executive in Chicago and then BSA national program director . In observance of the 15th anniversary of the brotherhood 's founding , the National Lodge presented Goodman with a medal in 1930 formally recognizing him as founder . In 1940 , the National Lodge presented him with the first Distinguished Service Award on the OA 's 25th anniversary . The citation said , in part , " As the founder of the Order of the Arrow , through his ability , wisdom , and foresight , his vision of service to others was transformed into a national honor brotherhood which has been a positive influence in the lives of thousands of boys ... " . When he was first appointed as director in 1931 , there were OA lodges in seven percent of BSA councils nationwide . By 1948 , about two @-@ thirds of the BSA councils had established OA lodges . In that year , three years before Goodman 's retirement from the BSA , his " honor society of Scout camping " innovation was fully integrated as an official part of the Scouting program . Kenneth Davis , in his book The Brotherhood of Cheerful Service : A History of the Order of the Arrow , concludes that the National Council 's approval in 1948 " ... was due largely to his [ Goodman 's ] personal efforts and recommendation ... " .
Over the decades since the Order of the Arrow 's founding , more than one million Scouts and Scouters have worn the OA sash on their uniforms , denoting membership in the Brotherhood of Cheerful Service . There are presently 183 @,@ 000 members of the Order of the Arrow in all but two of BSA councils nationwide . Summarizing what he felt the order signified , E. Urner Goodman wrote in the foreword to the Order of the Arrow Handbook from the perspective of more than a half century after the brotherhood 's inception :
" The Order of the Arrow is a ' thing of the spirit ' rather than of mechanics . Organization , operational procedure , and paraphernalia are necessary in any large and growing movement , but they are not what count in the end . The things of the spirit count :
Brotherhood β in a day when there is too much hatred at home and abroad .
Cheerfulness β in a day when the pessimists have the floor .
Service β in a day when millions are interested only in getting or grasping rather than giving .
These are of the spirit , blessed of God , the great Divine Spirit . "
= = National Council of Churches leadership = =
Following his retirement from professional Scouting , Goodman served the National Council of Churches ( NCC ) during 1951 β 1954 as the NCC 's first general director of the United Church Men , a laymen 's program he formed to strengthen men 's ties to local churches and their communities . Goodman publicly inaugurated the laymen 's group on October 7 , 1951 in Cincinnati , Ohio . By the end of 1952 , United Church Men departments were formed in more than 24 states , providing financial support to NCC @-@ affiliated colleges and missionary work . His new post entailed working closely with Eugene Carson Blake , NCC president ( 1954 β 1957 ) , and meeting frequently with officials of the participating denominations in the NCC . Speaking with various men 's church groups in the U.S. and abroad was , he believed , a means of promoting brotherhood . Reflecting on his NCC service with these notable church leaders , Goodman said more than a decade later , " Great faith and devoted service , I am very sure , are for ordinary folk as well as for the clergy . ... I have been privileged to know some great clergymen in my day ... but I have also known and loved some truly great laymen , men whose lives and works matched their faith " . Goodman retired from his NCC post on September 1 , 1954 because of tuberculosis .
= = Later years = =
Maintaining his lifelong interest in music , Goodman was active in the Hymn Society of America ( now the Hymn Society in the United States and Canada ) in the 1960s and 1970s , and three hymns he composed were published : " Christ Calls Men " , " As Within the Pillared Temple " , and " O God of Love , Who Gavest Life " .
In 1965 , Goodman wrote The Building of a Life , a collection of reminiscences recounting some of his Scouting experiences and giving advice to young men . Summing up his years in Scouting and church work , he wrote , " In the last analysis , it is the things of the spirit rather than material possessions that count . " Later that year , the Goodmans moved to the Penney Retirement Community at Penney Farms , Florida . Goodman then served as Director of Christian Education at Flagler Presbyterian Church in St. Augustine , Florida .
In retirement , the Goodmans enjoyed a rich family life , visiting often with son Theodore ( " Ted " ) and his wife Carol , and daughter Lydia Ann ( " Ann " ) and son @-@ in @-@ law Bob . To his unabashed delight , Urner and Louise Goodman had nine grandchildren . Their son George was killed in action in France during World War II , however . Upon hearing the news in December 1944 , Goodman was deeply grieved , and Louise , his wife of 60 years , said it was the only time she ever saw him cry .
Although retired , Goodman remained active in Order of the Arrow affairs during the 1960s and 1970s . Acclaimed as an eloquent orator , his keynote addresses at the OA 's biennial National Order of the Arrow Conferences reportedly made an unforgettable impression upon his youthful audiences . Nelson Block writes in A Thing of the Spirit , that even in the 1970s the octogenarian founder " crisscrossed the country to attend lodge and section events ... surrounded by young Arrowmen ... witty and charming , keeping everyone enthralled with his stories . " Displaying his self @-@ deprecating humor , Goodman himself was more prosaic about all of the adulation he received at OA gatherings , writing that , " to many of the young men I was a museum piece . In fact I have been informed that there was considerable surprise because I didn 't hobble in on a cane and mumble in my dentures . " But , he added , " I looked upon them with deep emotion , for there was a spiritual bond " .
Reflecting on his career , Goodman said late in life :
" I had indeed found my life mission ... Those 36 years of professional service , 16 years as executive in Philadelphia and Chicago , and 20 years as national program director , brought rich rewards , far beyond any salary considerations . They represented the work , above all others , that I wanted to do . "
He continued speaking with OA members until shortly before his death at age 88 , when he succumbed to pneumonia on March 13 , 1980 , at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City . He was buried at Penney Farms , Florida , on March 29 , 1980 . At his funeral , held at the Penney Memorial Church in Penney Farms , Goodman was eulogized by Executive Secretary of the Order of the Arrow William F. Downs : " The shake of [ his ] hand , sincerity of greeting , twinkle in the eye , smile and dignity immediately relayed ... the feeling of confidence from the leader , so necessary to build teamwork . Urner made you feel important " .
= = Honors and awards = =
Upon his retirement from full @-@ time professional Scouting in 1951 , Goodman was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Humanics from Missouri Valley College , the first such degree awarded by the college . He was also honored in 1947 when he was made an honorary chief of the Blackfoot Tribe of American Indians and given the name " Chief Eagle " .
In his memory , the BSA confers the E. Urner Goodman Camping Award , recognizing lodges that have excelled in the promotion of camping within their host council . The Founder 's Award is given by Order of the Arrow lodges in honor of OA co @-@ founders Goodman and Edson . Up until 2004 , the BSA administered the E. Urner Goodman Scholarship Fund program , providing financial grants towards the college education of Arrowmen aspiring to professional Scouting careers .
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= Andrew Wodrow =
Andrew Wodrow ( 1752 β 1814 ) was a prominent Scottish American merchant , militia officer , clerk of court , lawyer , and landowner in the colony ( and later U.S. state ) of Virginia .
Wodrow was born in Scotland in 1752 and immigrated to Virginia in 1768 . In Fredericksburg , he engaged in a thriving import business . Following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Wodrow placed his entire inventory up for public auction and contributed the profits to the American Revolutionary patriot cause . During the war , Wodrow served as a lieutenant colonel in command of cavalry in the Continental Army .
Wodrow was the first resident clerk of court for Hampshire County , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , a position in which he served for a tenure lasting 32 years ( 1782 β 1814 ) . There , Wodrow served in the position of major in the Hampshire County militia . In addition , he represented Hampshire County at the Virginia Ratifying Convention , held to ratify the United States Constitution in 1788 . He was appointed by the Virginia General Assembly as a trustee of the towns of Romney and Watson Town ( present @-@ day Capon Springs ) . Wodrow amassed numerous properties which included landholdings along the Cacapon River and the Wilson @-@ Wodrow @-@ Mytinger House in Romney , and became a prosperous landholder in Hampshire County .
= = Early life and education = =
Andrew Wodrow was born in Scotland , possibly in Glasgow , in 1752 . He was descended from a family of scholars and professors . His father Robert Wodrow was a historian of the Church of Scotland with a " national reputation " and published his history in 1752 , the same year as Wodrow 's birth . Two other members of Wodrow 's family filled , in succession , the " chair of theology " at the University of Glasgow and another Wodrow family member served as the university 's librarian . Wodrow immigrated to the Colony of Virginia in 1768 .
= = Business career = =
During the 1770s , Wodrow established and expanded what became a thriving import business in Fredericksburg . Following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , he abandoned his business rather than import and sell goods from the Kingdom of Great Britain . He placed his entire inventory of British goods up for public auction in January 1775 and contributed the resulting profits totaling 19 pounds and 14 shillings to the American Revolutionary patriot cause in Boston . Wodrow became affiliated with the King George Association of 1770 , which called on " every freeholder " in King George County , Virginia to carry the revolution through to its fullest extent .
= = Political career = =
= = = American Revolutionary War posts = = =
Following the cessation of his import business , Wodrow was appointed to serve in the political post of clerk for the Revolutionary Committee for King George County on May 6 , 1775 . During the American Revolutionary War in 1779 , Wodrow joined the Virginia militia where he was commissioned an officer with the rank of major and served under the Continental Army . He then served as a lieutenant colonel in command of cavalry until 1781 after which he became a member of the Society of the Cincinnati of Virginia .
Wodrow relocated from King George County to Romney in Hampshire County during the latter years of the American Revolutionary War . In 1781 , Wodrow was promoted to the military rank of colonel in command of the Hampshire County militia .
= = = Hampshire County Clerk of Court tenure = = =
In 1782 , he was elected to serve as the clerk of court for Hampshire County following the retirement of Gabriel Jones , who had been appointed by Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron . Wodrow was the first clerk of court to reside in Hampshire County while serving in the post . Because of his key position as clerk , Wodrow performed a significant role in the conveying and settling of lands in Hampshire County .
On January 10 , 1788 , Wodrow was recommended to the position of major in the Hampshire County militia . Later , in March 1788 , Wodrow , along with Ralph Humphreys , was elected to represent Hampshire County at the Virginia Ratifying Convention held to ratify the United States Constitution . The Virginia Ratifying Convention convened in Richmond in June 1788 , with Wodrow and Humphreys both voting " aye " in favor of ratification .
During the lead up to the War of 1812 , Wodrow chaired an anti @-@ war meeting in Hampshire County at which those assembled objected to a heedless rush to war with the British , which was in line with contemporary Federalist principles . According to historian Stuart L. Butler , Wodrow and the meeting 's attendees felt that :
to involve [ the United States ] in an expensive and uncertain war , for purposes not absolutely necessary , and entail taxes and misery on ourselves and our posterity , when we might enjoy the blessings of peace and plenty and a good price for our produce on terms as honorable at least as those for the last fifteen years past , would appear to them the extreme of folly , little short of madness .
Wodrow and the committee believed that within two years of the war 's beginning , it would become unpopular because of the need for increased taxation and prolonged military service . Wodrow and the committee stated , " the nation would rise in its constitutional strength , and say to those who brought about such an unpropitious state of things , ' depart from ye wicked . ' "
Wodrow served as the clerk of court for Hampshire County for a tenure spanning 32 years until his death at his residence in Romney in 1814 . Following his death , Wodrow 's son @-@ in @-@ law Samuel McGuire served the remainder of his term for fifteen months until 1815 when he was succeeded by John Baker White . West Virginia historian Wilmer L. Kerns said of Wodrow in Hampshire County , West Virginia , 1754 β 2004 ( 2004 ) that he " was a prominent and scholarly man , successful in his business , and a good politician . "
= = Land affairs and holdings = =
In 1782 , Wodrow served as an executor of the last will and testament of his uncle Alexander Wodrow , a wealthy merchant , and sold his personal estate , a moiety of two land lots in Falmouth , and 212 acres ( 0 @.@ 86 km2 ) along the Rappahannock River in Stafford County to pay his uncle 's debts , with the remainder of the proceeds directed to his other family members . Wodrow sought permission from the Virginia General Assembly to sell the remainder of Alexander Wodrow 's landholdings in Frederick , Hampshire , and Stafford counties , which he was granted . In addition to his landholdings , Wodrow was also charged with the sale of his uncle 's slaves , furniture , watches , buckles , and several personal items . Wodrow personally inherited his uncle 's riding horse and " wearing apparel . "
After his move to Romney , Wodrow began to amass numerous properties and became a prosperous landholder in Hampshire County . In 1788 , Wodrow purchased a land tract consisting of 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) along the Cacapon River in Hampshire County . On December 4 , 1789 , Wodrow was appointed by an act of the Virginia General Assembly as a trustee of the town of Romney . He served as a trustee alongside Isaac Miller , Isaac Parsons , Stephen Colvin , Jonathan Purcell , Nicholas Casey , William McGuire , Perez Drew , and James Murphy . Wodrow and his fellow trustees were given authority by the Virginia General Assembly to settle disputes regarding the town 's land lots and to " open and clear " the town 's " streets and lanes " in accordance with the original survey and plan for Romney . Wodrow was again appointed by an act of the Virginia General Assembly on December 27 , 1800 to a second board of trustees governing Watson Town ( present @-@ day Capon Springs ) , and charged with laying off land lots , streets , and a half @-@ acre lot containing the mineral spring for public use along Capon Springs Run . On October 4 , 1808 , Wodrow and fellow trustee Henry Beattie conveyed Lot No. 2 in Watson Town to Lawrence Augustine Washington a nephew of then former President George Washington . The location of Watson Town is the present @-@ day site of Capon Springs Resort .
= = = Wilson @-@ Wodrow @-@ Mytinger House = = =
Wodrow and his wife Mary Ann inherited her father Colonel George Wilson 's residence on the eastern boundary of Lot 48 in Romney following his death in 1777 and made it their home . During the 1770s and 1780s , Wodrow 's residence was located on what was then the " main street " in Romney , presently known as Gravel Lane . During his tenure as clerk of court , Wodrow constructed a two @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half story office building adjacent to this residence and its kitchen , all three of which are extant and contribute to the structure presently known as the Wilson @-@ Wodrow @-@ Mytinger House at 51 West Gravel Lane . The adjoining edifice , built by Wodrow for the handling of his clerk of court affairs , is believed to be the oldest extant public office building within the present @-@ day state of West Virginia . Wodrow " went to great expense to add beauty and dignity " to his office building , incorporating architectural styles of panelling and woodworking prevalent in both Fredericksburg and Williamsburg . Following Wodrow 's death , his residence was owned by his son @-@ in @-@ law John McDowell .
= = = Old Presbyterian Churchyard = = =
Wodrow was a dynamic and influential member of the Presbyterian Church , and in his will , he granted two land lots ( Lots No. 59 and No. 60 ) south of West Gravel Lane from his residence for the construction of Romney 's first Presbyterian church building and the establishment of a cemetery . Wodrow 's executor , James Dailey , deeded the two land lots on April 1 , 1816 to Mount Bethel Congregation trustees James Beach , William Inskeep , Adam Hare , and John Lawson for these purposes . Wodrow was interred in this cemetery ( later known as " the Old Presbyterian Cemetery " ) which was located atop the hill of the two lots . The Presbyterian church was built near the corner of West Gravel Lane and South High Streets between 1812 and 1816 . The Old Presbyterian Cemetery fell into neglect by the late 19th century and was destroyed around 1940 when the hill on which it was located was cut away and leveled for the construction of a factory . Although some human remains and headstones were relocated to Indian Mound Cemetery , Wodrow 's remains were likely lost during the destruction of the cemetery .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and issue = = =
Wodrow married Mary Ann Wilson , the daughter of Colonel George Wilson . Wodrow and his wife Mary Ann had at least five children : Matilda Wodrow McDowell , married to John McDowell ; an unnamed daughter , married to Samuel McGuire ; Craig Wodrow ; Emily Jean Wodrow Kercheval , married to lawyer Samuel Kercheval , Jr . , son of Virginia historian Samuel Kercheval ; and Elizabeth Wodrow Dailey , married to James Dailey . Wodrow 's son , Craig Wodrow , was a scholar , but due to his chronic poor health , he was unable to pursue active roles in business or politics . Craig Wodrow was also interred in the Old Presbyterian Cemetery in Romney .
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= The Byrds =
The Byrds / ΛbΙΛrdz / were an American rock band , formed in Los Angeles , California in 1964 . The band underwent multiple line @-@ up changes throughout its existence , with frontman Roger McGuinn ( known as Jim McGuinn until mid @-@ 1967 ) remaining the sole consistent member , until the group disbanded in 1973 . Although they only managed to attain the huge commercial success of contemporaries like the Beatles , the Beach Boys , and the Rolling Stones for a short period ( 1965 β 66 ) , the Byrds are today considered by critics to be one of the most influential bands of the 1960s . Initially , they pioneered the musical genre of folk rock , melding the influence of the Beatles and other British Invasion bands with contemporary and traditional folk music . As the 1960s progressed , the band was also influential in originating psychedelic rock , raga rock , and country rock .
The band 's signature blend of clear harmony singing and McGuinn 's jangly twelve @-@ string Rickenbacker guitar has continued to be influential on popular music up to the present day . Among the band 's most enduring songs are their cover versions of Bob Dylan 's " Mr. Tambourine Man " and Pete Seeger 's " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! ( to Everything There Is a Season ) " , along with the self @-@ penned originals , " I 'll Feel a Whole Lot Better " , " Eight Miles High " , " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " , " Ballad of Easy Rider " and " Chestnut Mare " .
The original five @-@ piece line @-@ up of the Byrds consisted of Jim McGuinn ( lead guitar , vocals ) , Gene Clark ( tambourine , vocals ) , David Crosby ( rhythm guitar , vocals ) , Chris Hillman ( bass guitar , vocals ) , and Michael Clarke ( drums ) . However , this version of the band was relatively short @-@ lived and by early 1966 , Clark had left due to problems associated with anxiety and his increasing isolation within the group . The Byrds continued as a quartet until late 1967 , when Crosby and Clarke also departed the band . McGuinn and Hillman decided to recruit new members , including country rock pioneer Gram Parsons , but by late 1968 , Hillman and Parsons had also exited the band . McGuinn , who by this time had changed his name to Roger after a flirtation with the Subud religion , elected to rebuild the band 's membership and between 1968 and 1973 , he helmed a new incarnation of the Byrds , featuring guitarist Clarence White among others . McGuinn disbanded the then current line @-@ up in early 1973 , to make way for a reunion of the original quintet . The Byrds ' final album was released in March 1973 , with the reunited group disbanding soon afterwards .
Several former members of the band went on to successful careers of their own , either as solo artists or as members of such groups as Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young , the Flying Burrito Brothers and the Desert Rose Band . In the late 1980s , Gene Clark and Michael Clarke both began touring as the Byrds , prompting a legal challenge from McGuinn , Crosby , and Hillman over the rights to the band 's name . As a result of this , McGuinn , Crosby , and Hillman performed a series of reunion concerts as the Byrds in 1989 and 1990 , and also recorded four new Byrds ' songs .
In January 1991 , the Byrds were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , an occasion that saw the five original members performing together for the last time . McGuinn , Crosby , and Hillman still remain active but Gene Clark died of a heart attack in May 1991 , and Michael Clarke died of liver failure in December 1993 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 1964 ) = = =
The nucleus of the Byrds formed in early 1964 , when Jim McGuinn , Gene Clark , and David Crosby came together as a trio . All three musicians had a background rooted in folk music , with each one having worked as a folk singer on the acoustic coffeehouse circuit during the early 1960s . In addition , they had all served time , independently of each other , as sidemen in various " collegiate folk " groups : McGuinn with the Limeliters and the Chad Mitchell Trio , Clark with the New Christy Minstrels , and Crosby with Les Baxter 's Balladeers . McGuinn had also spent time as a professional songwriter at the Brill Building in New York City , under the tutelage of Bobby Darin . By early 1964 , McGuinn had become enamored with the music of the Beatles , and had begun to intersperse his solo folk repertoire with acoustic versions of Beatles ' songs . While performing at The Troubadour folk club in Los Angeles , McGuinn was approached by fellow Beatles fan Gene Clark , and the pair soon formed a Peter and Gordon @-@ style duo , playing Beatles ' covers , Beatlesque renditions of traditional folk songs , and some self @-@ penned material . Soon after , David Crosby introduced himself to the duo at The Troubadour and began harmonizing with them on some of their songs . Impressed by the blend of their voices , the three musicians formed a trio and named themselves the Jet Set , a moniker inspired by McGuinn 's love of aeronautics .
Crosby introduced McGuinn and Clark to his associate Jim Dickson , who had access to World Pacific Studios , where he had been recording demos of Crosby . Sensing the trio 's potential , Dickson quickly took on management duties for the group , while his business partner , Eddie Tickner , became the group 's accountant and financial manager . Dickson began utilizing World Pacific Studios to record the trio as they honed their craft and perfected their blend of Beatles pop and Bob Dylan @-@ style folk . It was during the rehearsals at World Pacific that the band 's folk rock sound β an amalgam of their own Beatles @-@ influenced material , their folk music roots and their Beatlesque covers of contemporary folk songs β began to coalesce . Initially , this blend arose organically , but as rehearsals continued , the band began to actively attempt to bridge the gap between folk music and rock . Demo recordings made by the Jet Set at World Pacific Studios would later be collected on the compilation albums Preflyte , In the Beginning , The Preflyte Sessions and Preflyte Plus .
Drummer Michael Clarke was added to the Jet Set in mid @-@ 1964 . Clarke was recruited largely due to his good looks and Brian Jones @-@ esque hairstyle , rather than for his musical experience , which was limited to having played congas in a semi @-@ professional capacity in and around San Francisco and L.A. Clarke did not even own his own drum kit and initially had to play on a makeshift setup consisting of cardboard boxes and a tambourine . As the band continued to rehearse , Dickson arranged a one @-@ off single deal for the group with Elektra Records ' founder Jac Holzman . The single , which coupled the band originals " Please Let Me Love You " and " Don 't Be Long " , featured McGuinn , Clark , and Crosby , augmented by session musicians Ray Pohlman on bass and Earl Palmer on drums . In an attempt to cash in on the British Invasion craze that was dominating the American charts at the time , the band 's name was changed for the single release to the suitably British @-@ sounding the Beefeaters . " Please Let Me Love You " was issued by Elektra Records on October 7 , 1964 , but it failed to chart .
In August 1964 , Dickson managed to acquire an acetate disc of the then @-@ unreleased Bob Dylan song " Mr. Tambourine Man " , which he felt would make an effective cover for the Jet Set . Although the band were initially unimpressed with the song , they began rehearsing it with a rock band arrangement , changing the time signature from 2 / 4 to a rockier 4 / 4 configuration in the process . In an attempt to bolster the group 's confidence in the song , Dickson invited Dylan himself to World Pacific to hear the band perform " Mr. Tambourine Man " . Impressed by the group 's rendition , Dylan enthusiastically commented " Wow , man ! You can dance to that ! " , and his ringing endorsement erased any lingering doubts that the band had over the song 's suitability .
Soon after , inspired by the Beatles ' film A Hard Day 's Night , the band decided to equip themselves with similar instruments to the Fab Four : a Rickenbacker twelve @-@ string guitar for McGuinn , a Ludwig drum kit for Clarke , and a Gretsch Tennessean guitar for Clark ( although Crosby commandeered it soon after , resulting in Clark switching to tambourine ) . In October 1964 , Dickson recruited mandolin player Chris Hillman as the Jet Set 's bassist . Hillman 's background was more oriented towards country music than folk or rock , having been a member of the bluegrass groups the Scottsville Squirrel Barkers , the Hillmen ( also known as the Golden State Boys ) , and , concurrently with his recruitment into the Jet Set , the Green Grass Group .
Through connections that Dickson had with impresario Benny Shapiro , and with a helpful recommendation from jazz trumpeter Miles Davis , the group signed a recording contract with Columbia Records on November 10 , 1964 . Two weeks later , during a Thanksgiving dinner at Eddie Tickner 's house , the Jet Set decided to rename themselves the Byrds , a moniker that retained the theme of flight and also echoed the deliberate misspelling of " The Beatles " .
= = = Folk rock ( 1965 β 66 ) = = =
On January 20 , 1965 , the Byrds entered Columbia Studios in Hollywood to record " Mr. Tambourine Man " for release as their debut single on Columbia . Since the band had not yet completely gelled musically , McGuinn was the only Byrd to play on " Mr. Tambourine Man " and its Gene Clark penned B @-@ side , " I Knew I 'd Want You " . Rather than using band members , producer Terry Melcher hired a collection of top session musicians , retroactively known as the Wrecking Crew , including Hal Blaine ( drums ) , Larry Knechtel ( bass ) , Jerry Cole ( guitar ) , and Leon Russell ( electric piano ) , who ( along with McGuinn on guitar ) provided the instrumental backing track over which McGuinn , Crosby and Clark sang . By the time the sessions for their debut album began in March 1965 , however , Melcher was satisfied that the band was competent enough to record its own musical backing . However , the use of outside musicians on the Byrds ' debut single has given rise to the persistent myth that all of the playing on their debut album was done by session musicians .
While the band waited for " Mr. Tambourine Man " to be released , they began a residency at Ciro 's Le Disc nightclub on the Sunset Strip in Hollywood . The band 's regular appearances at Ciro 's during March and April 1965 allowed them to hone their ensemble playing , perfect their aloof stage persona , and expand their repertoire . In addition , it was during their residency at the nightclub that the band first began to accrue a dedicated following among L.A. ' s youth culture and hip Hollywood fraternity , with scenesters like Kim Fowley , Peter Fonda , Jack Nicholson , Arthur Lee , and Sonny & Cher regularly attending the band 's performances . On March 26 , 1965 , the author of the band 's forthcoming debut single , Bob Dylan , made an impromptu visit to the club and joined the Byrds on stage for a rendition of Jimmy Reed 's " Baby What You Want Me to Do " . The excitement generated by the Byrds at Ciro 's quickly made them a must @-@ see fixture on L.A. ' s nightclub scene and resulted in hordes of teenagers filling the sidewalks outside the club , desperate to see the band perform . A number of noted music historians and authors , including Richie Unterberger , Ric Menck , and Peter Buckley , have suggested that the crowds of young Bohemians and hipsters that gathered at Ciro 's to see the Byrds perform represented the first stirrings of the West Coast hippie counterculture .
Columbia Records eventually released the " Mr. Tambourine Man " single on April 12 , 1965 . The full , electric rock band treatment that the Byrds and producer Terry Melcher had given the song effectively created the template for the musical subgenre of folk rock . McGuinn 's melodic , jangling twelve @-@ string Rickenbacker guitar playing β which was heavily compressed to produce an extremely bright and sustained tone β was immediately influential and has remained so to the present day . The single also featured another major characteristic of the band 's sound : their clear harmony singing , which usually featured McGuinn and Clark in unison , with Crosby providing the high harmony . Additionally , Richie Unterberger has noted that the song 's abstract lyrics took rock and pop songwriting to new heights ; never before had such intellectual and literary wordplay been combined with rock instrumentation by a popular music group .
Within three months " Mr. Tambourine Man " had become the first folk rock smash hit , reaching number 1 on both the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and the UK Singles Chart . The single 's success initiated the folk rock boom of 1965 and 1966 , during which a number of Byrds @-@ influenced acts had hits on the American and British charts . The term " folk rock " was itself coined by the American music press to describe the band 's sound in June 1965 , at roughly the same time as " Mr. Tambourine Man " peaked at number 1 in the U.S.
The Mr. Tambourine Man album followed on June 21 , 1965 , peaking at number 6 on the Billboard Top LPs chart and number 7 on the UK Albums Chart . The album mixed reworkings of folk songs , including Pete Seeger 's musical adaptation of the Idris Davies ' poem " The Bells of Rhymney " , with a number of other Dylan covers and the band 's own compositions , the majority of which were written by Gene Clark . In particular , Clark 's " I 'll Feel a Whole Lot Better " has gone on to become a rock music standard , with many critics considering it one of the band 's and Clark 's best songs . Upon release , the Mr. Tambourine Man album , like the single of the same name , was influential in popularizing folk rock and served to establish the band as an internationally successful rock act , representing the first effective American challenge to the dominance of the Beatles and the British Invasion .
The Byrds ' next single was " All I Really Want to Do " , another interpretation of a Dylan song . Despite the success of " Mr. Tambourine Man " , the Byrds were reluctant to release another Dylan @-@ penned single , feeling that it was too formulaic , but Columbia Records were insistent , believing that another Dylan cover would result in an instant hit for the group . The Byrds ' rendition of " All I Really Want to Do " is noticeably different in structure to Dylan 's original : it features an ascending melody progression in the chorus and utilizes a completely new melody for one of the song 's verses , in order to turn it into a Beatlesque , minor @-@ key bridge . Issued on June 14 , 1965 , while " Mr. Tambourine Man " was still climbing the U.S. charts , the single was rush @-@ released by Columbia in an attempt to bury a rival cover version that Cher had released simultaneously on Imperial Records . A chart battle ensued , but the Byrds ' rendition stalled at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while Cher 's version reached number 15 . The reverse was true in the UK , however , where the Byrds ' version reached number 4 , while Cher 's peaked at number 9 .
Author John Einarson has noted that during this period of their career , the Byrds enjoyed tremendous popularity among teenage pop fans , with their music receiving widespread airplay on Top 40 radio and their faces adorning countless teen magazines . Much was made at the time of the Byrds ' unconventional dress sense , with their casual attire strikingly at odds with the prevailing trend for uniformity among contemporary beat groups . With all five members sporting Beatlesque moptop haircuts , Crosby dressed in a striking green suede cape , and McGuinn wearing a pair of distinctive rectangular " granny glasses " , the band exuded California cool , while also looking suitably non @-@ conformist . In particular , McGuinn 's distinctive rectangular spectacles would go on to become popular among members of the burgeoning hippie counterculture in the United States .
Although McGuinn was widely regarded as the Byrds ' bandleader by this point , the band actually had multiple frontmen , with McGuinn , Clark , Crosby and later Hillman all taking turns to sing lead vocals in roughly equal measures across the group 's repertoire . Despite the dizzying array of personnel changes that the group underwent in later years , this lack of a dedicated lead singer would remain a stylistic trait of the Byrds ' music throughout the majority of the band 's existence . A further distinctive aspect of the Byrds ' image was their unsmiling air of detachment , both on stage and in front of the camera . This natural aloofness was compounded by the large amounts of marijuana that the band consumed and often resulted in moody and erratic live performances . Indeed , the contemporary music press was extremely critical of the Byrds ' abilities as a live act during the mid @-@ 1960s , with the reaction from the British media during the band 's August 1965 tour of England being particularly scathing .
This 1965 English tour was largely orchestrated by the group 's publicist Derek Taylor , in an attempt to capitalize on the number 1 chart success of the " Mr. Tambourine Man " single . Unfortunately , the tour was overhyped from the start , with the band being touted as " America 's answer to the Beatles " , a label that proved impossible for the Byrds to live up to . During concert performances , a combination of poor sound , group illness , ragged musicianship , and the band 's notoriously lackluster stage presence , all combined to alienate audiences and served to provoke a merciless castigating of the band in the British press .
However , the tour did enable the band to meet and socialize with a number of top English groups , including the Rolling Stones and the Beatles . In particular , the band 's relationship with the Beatles would prove important for both acts , with the two groups again meeting in Los Angeles some weeks later , upon the Byrds ' return to America . During this period of fraternization , the Beatles were vocal in their support of the Byrds , publicly acknowledging them as creative competitors and naming them as their favorite American group . A number of authors , including Ian MacDonald , Richie Unterberger , and Bud Scoppa , have noted the Byrds influence on the Beatles ' late 1965 album Rubber Soul , most notably on the songs " Nowhere Man " and " If I Needed Someone " , the latter of which utilizes a guitar riff similar to that in the Byrds ' cover of " The Bells of Rhymney " .
For their third Columbia single , the Byrds initially intended to release a cover of Dylan 's " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " ( it was even premiered on the California radio station KRLA ) , but instead they decided to record " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! ( to Everything There Is a Season ) " , a Pete Seeger composition with lyrics adapted almost entirely from the biblical Book of Ecclesiastes . The song was brought to the group by McGuinn , who had previously arranged it in a chamber @-@ folk style while working on folksinger Judy Collins ' 1963 album , Judy Collins 3 . The Byrds ' cover of " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! ( to Everything There Is a Season ) " was issued on October 1 , 1965 and became the band 's second U.S. number 1 single , as well as the title track for their second album . The single represented the high @-@ water mark of folk rock as a chart trend and has been described by music historian Richie Unterberger as " folk rock 's highest possible grace note . " In addition , music critic William Ruhlmann has noted that the song 's lyrical message of peace and tolerance struck a nerve with the American record buying public as the Vietnam War continued to escalate .
The Byrds ' second album , Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! , was released in December 1965 and while it received a mostly positive reception , critical consensus deemed it to be inferior to the band 's debut . Nonetheless , it was a commercial success , peaking at number 17 on the U.S. charts and number 11 in the UK . Author Scott Schinder has noted that , along with Mr. Tambourine Man , the Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! album served to establish the Byrds as one of rock music 's most important creative forces , on a par with the Beatles , the Beach Boys and the Rolling Stones . Like their debut , the album comprised a mixture of group originals , folk songs , and Bob Dylan covers , all characterized by the group 's clear harmonies and McGuinn 's distinctive guitar sound . However , the album featured more of the band 's own compositions than its predecessor , with Gene Clark in particular coming to the fore as a songwriter . His songs from this period , including " She Don 't Care About Time " , " The World Turns All Around Her " , and " Set You Free This Time " , are widely regarded by critics as among the best of the folk rock genre . The latter song was even chosen for release as a single in January 1966 , but its densely worded lyrics , melancholy melody , and ballad @-@ like tempo contributed to it stalling at number 63 on the Billboard chart and failing to reach the UK chart altogether .
While the Byrds outwardly seemed to be riding the crest of a wave during the latter @-@ half of 1965 , the recording sessions for their second album had not been without tension . One source of conflict was the power struggle that had begun to develop between producer Terry Melcher and the band 's manager Jim Dickson , with the latter harboring aspirations to produce the band himself , causing him to be overly critical of Melcher 's work . Within a month of Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! being released , Dickson and the Byrds approached Columbia Records and requested that Melcher be replaced , despite the fact that he had successfully steered the band through the recording of two number 1 singles and two hit albums . Any hopes that Dickson had of being allowed to produce the band himself , however , were dashed when Columbia assigned their West Coast head of A & R , Allen Stanton , to the band .
= = = Psychedelia ( 1965 β 67 ) = = =
On December 22 , 1965 , the Byrds recorded a new , self @-@ penned composition titled " Eight Miles High " at RCA Studios in Hollywood . The song represented a creative leap forward for the band and is often considered the first full @-@ blown psychedelic rock recording by critics , although other contemporaneous acts , such as Donovan and the Yardbirds , were also exploring similar musical territory . The song was also pivotal in transmuting folk rock into the new musical forms of psychedelia and raga rock . However , Columbia Records refused to release the band 's first version of the song because it had been recorded at another record company 's studios . As a result , the band were forced to re @-@ record " Eight Miles High " at Columbia Studios in Los Angeles on January 24 and 25 , 1966 , and it was this re @-@ recorded version that would be released as a single and included on the group 's third album .
The song is marked by McGuinn 's groundbreaking lead guitar playing , which saw the guitarist attempting to emulate the free form jazz saxophone playing of John Coltrane , and in particular , Coltrane 's playing on the song " India " from his Impressions album . " Eight Miles High " also exhibits the influence of the Indian classical music of Ravi Shankar in the droning quality of the song 's vocal melody and in McGuinn 's guitar playing . The song 's subtle use of Indian influences resulted in it being labeled as " raga rock " by the music press , but in fact , it was the single 's B @-@ side " Why " that drew more directly on Indian ragas .
Upon release , " Eight Miles High " was banned by many U.S. radio stations , following allegations made by the broadcasting trade journal the Gavin Report , that its lyrics advocated recreational drug use . The band and their management strenuously denied these allegations , stating that the song 's lyrics actually described an airplane flight to London and the band 's subsequent concert tour of England . The relatively modest chart success of " Eight Miles High " ( number 14 in the U.S. and number 24 in the UK ) has been largely attributed to the broadcasting ban , although the challenging and slightly uncommercial nature of the track is another possible reason for its failure to reach the Top 10 .
In February 1966 , just prior to the release of " Eight Miles High " , Gene Clark left the band . His departure was partly due to his fear of flying , which made it impossible for him to keep up with the Byrds ' itinerary , and partly due to his increasing isolation within the band . Clark , who had witnessed a fatal airplane crash as a youth , had a panic attack on a plane bound for New York and as a result , he disembarked and refused to take the flight . In effect , Clark 's exit from the plane represented his exit from the Byrds , with McGuinn telling him , " If you can 't fly , you can 't be a Byrd . " However , it has become known in the years since the incident that there were other stress @-@ related factors at work , as well as resentment within the band that Gene 's songwriting income had made him the wealthiest member of the group . Clark was subsequently signed by Columbia Records as a solo artist and went on to produce a critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful body of work . He died on May 24 , 1991 , at the age of 46 , from heart failure brought on by a bleeding stomach ulcer , although years of alcohol abuse and a heavy cigarette habit were also contributing factors .
The Byrds ' third album , Fifth Dimension , was released in July 1966 . Much of the album 's material continued to build on the band 's new psychedelic sound , with McGuinn extending his exploration of jazz and raga styles on tracks such as " I See You " and the Crosby @-@ penned " What 's Happening ? ! ? ! " . The album also saw Hillman coming forward as the band 's third vocalist , in order to fill the hole in the group 's harmonies that Clark 's departure had left . The title track , " 5D ( Fifth Dimension ) " , was released as a single ahead of the album and was , like " Eight Miles High " before it , banned by a number of U.S. radio stations for supposedly featuring lyrics that advocated drug use . In addition , the album 's front cover artwork featured the first appearance of the Byrds ' colorful , psychedelic mosaic logo , variations of which would subsequently appear on a number of the band 's compilation albums , as well as on their 1967 release , Younger Than Yesterday .
The Fifth Dimension album received a mixed critical reception upon release and was less commercially successful than its predecessors , peaking at number 24 in the U.S. and number 27 in the UK . Band biographer Bud Scoppa has noted that with the album 's lackluster chart performance , its lukewarm critical reception , and the high @-@ profile loss of Gene Clark from the group , the Byrds ' popularity began to wane at this point and by late 1966 , the group had been all but forgotten by the mainstream pop audience . Nonetheless , the band were considered forefathers of the emerging rock underground , with many of the new L.A. and San Francisco groups of the day , including Love , Jefferson Airplane , and the Buffalo Springfield , publicly naming the Byrds as a primary influence .
The band returned to the studio between November 28 and December 8 , 1966 to record their fourth album , Younger Than Yesterday . With Allen Stanton having recently departed Columbia Records to work for A & M , the band chose to bring in producer Gary Usher to help guide them through the album sessions . Usher , who had a wealth of production experience and a love of innovative studio experimentation , would prove invaluable to the Byrds as they entered their most creatively adventurous phase . The first song to be recorded for the album was the McGuinn and Hillman @-@ penned " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " , a satirical and heavily sarcastic jibe at the manufactured nature of groups like The Monkees . The song features the trumpet playing of South African musician Hugh Masekela and as such , marks the first appearance of brass on a Byrds ' recording . " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " was issued as a single in January 1967 and peaked at number 29 in America but failed to chart in the UK . Despite this relatively poor chart showing , " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " has become one of the Byrds ' best @-@ known songs in the years since its initial release , inspiring cover versions by the likes of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and the Patti Smith Group amongst others .
Released in February 1967 , the Byrds ' fourth album , Younger Than Yesterday , was more varied than its predecessor and saw the band successfully mixing psychedelia with folk rock and country and western influences . Although it received generally positive reviews upon its release , the album was , to a degree , overlooked by the record @-@ buying public and consequently peaked at number 24 on the Billboard chart and number 37 on the UK Albums Chart . However , music expert Peter Buckley has pointed out that although the album may 've passed the Byrds ' rapidly shrinking teen audience by , it found favor with " a new underground following who disdained hit singles , but were coming to regard albums as major artistic statements . "
In addition to " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " , Younger Than Yesterday also includes the evocative Crosby and McGuinn penned song " Renaissance Fair " , a cover of Dylan 's " My Back Pages " ( which was later released as a single ) , and a quartet of Chris Hillman songs , which found the bassist emerging fully formed as an accomplished songwriter . Two of Hillman 's country @-@ oriented compositions on the album , " Time Between " and " The Girl with No Name " , can be seen as early indicators of the country rock direction that the band would pursue on later albums . Younger Than Yesterday also features the jazz @-@ tinged Crosby ballad " Everybody 's Been Burned " , which critic Thomas Ward has described as " one of the most haunting songs in the Byrds ' catalogue , and one of David Crosby 's finest compositions . "
By mid @-@ 1967 , Jim McGuinn had changed his first name to Roger , as a result of his interest in the Indonesian religion Subud , into which he had been initiated in January 1965 . The adoption of a new name was common among followers of the religion and served to signify a spiritual rebirth for the participant . Shortly after McGuinn 's name change , the band entered the studio to record the Crosby @-@ penned , non @-@ album single " Lady Friend " , which was released on July 13 , 1967 . The Byrds ' biographer Johnny Rogan has described " Lady Friend " as " a work of great maturity " and " the loudest , fastest and rockiest Byrds ' single to date . " Regardless of its artistic merits , however , the single stalled at a disappointing number 82 on the Billboard chart , despite the band making a number of high @-@ profile television appearances to promote the record . Crosby , who had closely overseen the recording of the song , was bitterly disappointed by the single 's lack of success and blamed Gary Usher 's mixing of the song as a factor in its commercial failure .
The poor sales suffered by " Lady Friend " were in stark contrast to the chart success of the band 's first compilation album , The Byrds ' Greatest Hits , which was released on August 7 , 1967 . Sanctioned by Columbia Records in the wake of the Top 10 success of Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits , the album was a critical and commercial triumph , peaking at number 6 on the Billboard Top LPs chart and giving the band their highest @-@ charting album in America since their 1965 debut , Mr. Tambourine Man . Within a year , the compilation would be certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , eventually going platinum on November 21 , 1986 , and is today the biggest @-@ selling album in the Byrds ' discography .
Prior to the release of The Byrds ' Greatest Hits , the band decided to dispense with the services of their co @-@ managers Jim Dickson and Eddie Tickner . The relationship between Dickson and the band had soured over recent months , and he and Tickner 's business arrangement with the Byrds was officially dissolved on June 30 , 1967 . At Crosby 's recommendation , Larry Spector was brought in to handle the Byrds ' business affairs , with the group electing to manage themselves to a large extent .
Between June and December 1967 , the Byrds worked on completing their fifth album , The Notorious Byrd Brothers . The lead single from the album was a cover of the Gerry Goffin and Carole King song " Goin ' Back " , which was released in October 1967 and peaked at number 89 on the Billboard chart . Despite this lack of commercial success , the Byrds ' rendition of " Goin ' Back " featured a band performance that author Ric Menck has described as " a beautiful recording " , while music critic Richie Unterberger has called it " a magnificent and melodic cover ... that should have been a big hit . " The song found the Byrds successfully blending their signature harmonies and chiming 12 @-@ string guitar playing with the sound of the pedal steel guitar for the first time , foreshadowing their extensive use of the instrument on their next album , Sweetheart of the Rodeo .
Released in January 1968 , The Notorious Byrd Brothers album saw the band taking their psychedelic experimentation to its furthest extremes by mixing folk rock , country music , jazz , and psychedelia ( often within a single song ) , while utilizing innovative studio production techniques such as phasing and flanging . The album featured contributions from a number of noted session musicians , including bluegrass guitarist and future Byrd , Clarence White . White , who had also played on Younger Than Yesterday , contributed country @-@ influenced guitar to the tracks " Natural Harmony " , " Wasn 't Born to Follow " and " Change Is Now " . Upon release , the album was almost universally praised by music critics but it was only moderately successful commercially , particularly in the United States where it peaked at number 47 . However , the album 's reputation has grown over the years and today it is widely regarded by critics and fans as one of the Byrds ' best album releases .
= = = Line @-@ up changes ( 1967 β 68 ) = = =
While the band worked on The Notorious Byrd Brothers album throughout late 1967 , there was increasing tension and acrimony between the members of the group , which eventually resulted in the departures of both Crosby and Clarke . McGuinn and Hillman became increasingly irritated by what they saw as Crosby 's overbearing egotism and his attempts to dictate the band 's musical direction . In addition , during the Byrds ' performance at the Monterey Pop Festival on June 17 , 1967 , Crosby gave lengthy in @-@ between @-@ song speeches on controversial subjects , including the JFK assassination and the benefits of giving LSD to " all the statesmen and politicians in the world " , to the intense annoyance of the other band members . He further irritated his bandmates by performing with rival group Buffalo Springfield at Monterey , filling in for ex @-@ member Neil Young . His reputation within the band deteriorated even more following the commercial failure of " Lady Friend " , the first Byrds ' single to feature a song penned solely by Crosby on its A @-@ side .
Tensions within the band finally erupted in August 1967 , during recording sessions for The Notorious Byrd Brothers album , when Michael Clarke quit the group over disputes with his bandmates and his dissatisfaction with the material that the songwriting members of the band were providing . Session drummers Jim Gordon and Hal Blaine were brought in to temporarily replace Clarke in the studio , although he continued to honor his live concert commitments with the group . Then , in September , Crosby refused to participate in the recording of the Goffin β King song " Goin ' Back " , considering it to be inferior to his own " Triad " , a controversial song about a mΓ©nage Γ trois that was in direct competition with " Goin ' Back " for a place on the album . Crosby felt that the band should rely on self @-@ penned material for their albums , rather than cover songs by other artists and writers . He would eventually give " Triad " to the San Francisco band Jefferson Airplane , who included a recording of it on their 1968 album , Crown of Creation .
Tensions reached a breaking point during October 1967 , when McGuinn and Hillman drove to Crosby 's home and fired him , stating that they would be better off without him . Crosby subsequently received a cash settlement , with which he bought a sailboat and soon after , he began working with Stephen Stills and Graham Nash in the successful supergroup Crosby , Stills & Nash . In the years since his exit from the Byrds , Crosby has enjoyed an influential and commercially successful career as a part of Crosby , Stills & Nash ( sometimes augmented by Neil Young ) , Crosby & Nash , CPR , and as a solo artist . During the 1980s , he fought against crippling drug addiction and eventually served a year in prison on drug @-@ related charges . He emerged from jail free of his drug habit and remains musically active up to the present day .
Following Crosby 's departure , Gene Clark briefly rejoined the band , but left just three weeks later , after again refusing to board an aircraft while on tour . There is some disagreement among biographers and band historians as to whether Clark actually participated in the recording sessions for The Notorious Byrd Brothers , but there is evidence to suggest that he sang backing vocals on the songs " Goin ' Back " and " Space Odyssey " . Michael Clarke also returned to the band briefly , towards the end of the album sessions , before being informed by McGuinn and Hillman that he was once again an ex @-@ member .
Now reduced to a duo , McGuinn and Hillman elected to hire new band members . Hillman 's cousin Kevin Kelley was quickly recruited as the band 's new drummer and the trio embarked on an early 1968 college tour in support of The Notorious Byrd Brothers . It soon became apparent , however , that recreating the band 's studio recordings with a three @-@ piece line @-@ up wasn 't going to be possible and so , McGuinn and Hillman , in a fateful decision for their future career direction , hired Gram Parsons as a keyboard player , although he quickly moved to guitar . Although Parsons and Kelley were both considered full members of the Byrds , they actually received a salary from McGuinn and Hillman , and did not sign with Columbia Records when the Byrds ' recording contract was renewed on February 29 , 1968 .
= = = Country rock ( 1968 β 73 ) = = =
= = = = The Gram Parsons era = = = =
Following his induction into the band , Gram Parsons began to assert his own musical agenda in which he intended to marry his love of country and western music with youth culture 's passion for rock and in doing so , make country music fashionable for a young audience . He found a kindred spirit in Hillman , who had played mandolin in a number of notable bluegrass bands before joining the Byrds . In addition , Hillman had also persuaded the Byrds to incorporate subtle country influences into their music in the past , beginning with the song " Satisfied Mind " on the Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! album . Although McGuinn had some reservations about the band 's proposed new direction , Parsons convinced him that a move towards country music could theoretically expand the group 's declining audience . Thus , McGuinn was persuaded to change direction and abandon his original concept for the group 's next album , which had been to record a history of 20th century American popular music , and instead explore country rock .
On March 9 , 1968 , the band decamped to Columbia 's recording studios in Nashville , Tennessee , with Clarence White in tow , to begin the recording sessions for the Sweetheart of the Rodeo album . While in Nashville , the Byrds also appeared at the Grand Ole Opry on March 15 , 1968 , where they performed the Merle Haggard song " Sing Me Back Home " and Parsons ' own " Hickory Wind " ( although they were actually scheduled to play a second Haggard song , " Life in Prison " ) . Being the first group of hippie " longhairs " ever to play at the venerable country music institution , the band was met with heckling , booing , and mocking calls of " tweet , tweet " from the conservative Opry audience .
The band also incurred the wrath of renowned country music DJ Ralph Emery , when they appeared on his Nashville @-@ based WSM radio program . Emery mocked the band throughout their interview and made no secret of his dislike for their newly recorded country rock single , " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " . Parsons and McGuinn would later write the pointedly sarcastic song " Drug Store Truck Drivin ' Man " about Emery and their appearance on his show . Journalist David Fricke has noted that the reactions of Emery and the Grand Ole Opry audience were indicative of the resistance and hostility that the Byrds ' venture into country music provoked from the Nashville old guard .
Following their stay in Nashville , the band returned to Los Angeles and throughout April and May 1968 , they worked on completing their new country @-@ oriented album . During this period , Parsons attempted to exert a controlling influence over the group by pressuring McGuinn to recruit either JayDee Maness or Sneaky Pete Kleinow as the band 's permanent pedal steel guitar player . When McGuinn refused , Parsons next began to push for a higher salary , while also demanding that the group be billed as " Gram Parsons and the Byrds " on their forthcoming album . Even Hillman , who had previously been Parsons ' biggest supporter in the band , began to grow weary of his forceful demands . Ultimately , Parsons ' behavior led to a power struggle for control of the group , with McGuinn finding his position as band leader challenged . However , the April 1968 release of " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " served to strengthen McGuinn 's position as head Byrd , with the guitarist 's familiar drawl occupying the lead vocal spot and negligible input from Parsons , despite the single 's obvious country leanings .
Parsons ' dominance over the band waned still further during post @-@ production for Sweetheart of the Rodeo , when his appearance on the album was contested by music business impresario Lee Hazlewood , who alleged that the singer was still under contract to his LHI record label , creating legal complications for Columbia Records . As a result of this , McGuinn and Hillman replaced Parsons ' lead vocals on the songs " You Don 't Miss Your Water " , " The Christian Life " , and " One Hundred Years from Now " before the legal problems could be resolved . However , album producer Gary Usher would later put a different slant on the events surrounding the removal of Parsons ' vocals by telling his biographer Stephen J. McParland that the alterations to the album arose out of creative concerns , not legal ones ; Usher and the band were both worried that Parsons ' contributions were dominating the record and so , his vocals were excised in an attempt to increase McGuinn and Hillman 's presence on the album . In the album 's final running order , Parsons is still featured as lead vocalist on the songs " You 're Still on My Mind " , " Life in Prison " , and " Hickory Wind " .
With their new album now completed , the Byrds flew to England for an appearance at a charity concert at the Royal Albert Hall on July 7 , 1968 . Following the concert , just prior to a tour of South Africa , Parsons quit the Byrds on the grounds that he did not want to perform in a racially segregated country ( apartheid did not end in South Africa until 1994 ) . Hillman doubted the sincerity of Parsons ' gesture , believing that the singer had in fact left the band in order to remain in England with Mick Jagger and Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones , whom he had recently befriended . Parsons stayed at Richards ' house in West Sussex immediately after leaving the Byrds , and the pair developed a close friendship over the next few years . After leaving the Byrds , Parsons would go on to produce an influential but commercially unsuccessful body of work , both as a solo artist and with the band the Flying Burrito Brothers ( which also featured Chris Hillman ) . He died on September 19 , 1973 , at the age of 26 , following an accidental overdose of morphine and alcohol in his room at the Joshua Tree Inn .
With Parsons gone from the band and their tour of South Africa due to begin in two days time , the Byrds were forced to draft in their roadie Carlos Bernal as a substitute rhythm guitar player . The ensuing South African tour was a disaster , with the band finding themselves having to play to segregated audiences β something that they had been assured by promoters they would not have to do . The under @-@ rehearsed band gave ramshackle performances to audiences that were largely unimpressed with their lack of professionalism and their antagonistic , anti @-@ apartheid stance . The Byrds left South Africa amid a storm of bad publicity and death threats , while the liberal press in the U.S. and the UK attacked the band for undertaking the tour and questioned their political integrity . McGuinn attempted to counter this criticism by asserting that the tour of South Africa had , in some small way , been an attempt to challenge the country 's political status quo and protest against apartheid .
After returning to California , the Byrds ' released the Sweetheart of the Rodeo album on August 30 , 1968 , almost eight weeks after Parsons had left the band . It comprised a mixture of country music standards and contemporary country material , along with a country reworking of William Bell 's soul hit " You Don 't Miss Your Water " . The album also included the Parsons originals " Hickory Wind " and " One Hundred Years from Now " , along with the Bob Dylan @-@ penned songs " Nothing Was Delivered " and " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , the latter of which had been a moderately successful single . Although it was not the first country rock album , Sweetheart of the Rodeo was the first album widely labeled as country rock to be released by an internationally successful rock act , pre @-@ dating Dylan 's Nashville Skyline by over six months . The first bona fide country rock album overall is often cited as being Parsons ' earlier Safe at Home , which he recorded with his group the International Submarine Band .
Unfortunately , the stylistic shift away from psychedelia towards country rock that Sweetheart of the Rodeo represented served to alienate much of the Byrds ' counterculture following , while at the same time , eliciting hostility from the ultra @-@ conservative Nashville country music establishment . As a result , the album peaked at number 77 on the U.S. charts and was the least commercially successful Byrds ' album to date upon its initial release . Today , however , it is considered a seminal and highly influential album , serving as a blueprint for the entire 1970s country rock movement , the outlaw country scene , and the alternative country genre of the 1990s and early 21st century .
= = = = The Clarence White era = = = =
After Gram Parsons ' departure , McGuinn and Hillman decided to recruit noted session guitarist Clarence White as a full @-@ time member of the band in late July 1968 . White , who had contributed countrified guitar playing to every Byrds ' album since 1967 's Younger Than Yesterday , was brought in at Hillman 's suggestion as someone who could handle the band 's older rock repertoire and their newer country @-@ oriented material . Shortly after his induction into the band , White began to express dissatisfaction with drummer Kevin Kelley and soon persuaded McGuinn and Hillman to replace him with Gene Parsons ( no relation to Gram ) , who White had previously played with in the country rock band Nashville West .
The McGuinn β Hillman β White β Parsons line @-@ up was together for less than a month before Hillman quit to join Gram Parsons in forming the Flying Burrito Brothers . Hillman had become increasingly disenchanted with the Byrds since the South African dΓ©bΓ’cle and he was also frustrated by business manager Larry Spector 's mishandling of the group 's finances . Things came to a head on September 15 , 1968 , following a band performance at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena , when Hillman and Spector came to blows backstage . In a fit of rage , Hillman threw down his bass in disgust and walked out of the group . Following his exit , Hillman would have a successful career both as a solo artist and with bands such as the Flying Burrito Brothers , Manassas , the Souther β Hillman β Furay Band , and the Desert Rose Band . He remains active , releasing albums and touring , often with ex @-@ Desert Rose Band member Herb Pedersen .
As the only original band member left , McGuinn elected to hire bassist John York as Hillman 's replacement . York had previously been a member of the Sir Douglas Quintet and had also worked as a session musician with Johnny Rivers and the Mamas & the Papas . In October 1968 , the new line @-@ up entered Columbia Studios in Hollywood to begin recording the Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde album with producer Bob Johnston . The sessions saw the band juxtaposing their new country rock sound with more psychedelic @-@ oriented material , giving the resulting album a stylistic split personality that was alluded to in its title . In the wake of the recent changes in band personnel , McGuinn decided that it would be too confusing for fans of the group to hear the unfamiliar voices of White , Parsons and York coming forward at this stage , and so they were relegated to backing vocals on the album . As a result , Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde is unique in the Byrds ' back catalogue as McGuinn sings lead on every track .
The album was released on March 5 , 1969 to generally positive reviews but in America became the lowest @-@ charting album of the Byrds ' career , peaking at number 153 on the Billboard album charts . However the album fared much better in the UK , where it attracted glowing reviews and reached number 15 . A number of tracks on Dr Byrds & Mr. Hyde , including the instrumental " Nashville West " and the traditional song " Old Blue " , featured the sound of the Parsons and White designed StringBender ( also known as the B @-@ Bender ) , an invention that allowed White to duplicate the sound of a pedal steel guitar on his Fender Telecaster . The distinctive sound of the StringBender was characteristic of the Byrds ' music during White 's tenure .
Following the release of Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde the band issued a version of Dylan 's " Lay Lady Lay " as a single in May 1969 , which failed to reverse the group 's commercial fortunes in the U.S. , reaching number 132 . The Byrds ' producer Bob Johnston took it upon himself to overdub a female choir onto the record and the group became aware of this only after the single was issued leaving them incensed by what they saw as an embarrassing and incongruous addition . As a result , the band dispensed with Johnston and re @-@ enlisted Terry Melcher , who had produced the band 's first two albums , to produce their next LP . Although he was happy to accept the band 's invitation , Melcher insisted that he also manage the group to avoid a repeat of the conflict he had experienced in 1965 with Jim Dickson .
Prior to the release of the Byrds ' next studio album , however , the band 's former producer Gary Usher managed to acquire a number of demo recordings from Dickson , dating from the group 's 1964 rehearsal sessions at World Pacific Studios . These recordings were subsequently issued as the Preflyte album on Usher 's own Together Records imprint in July 1969 . Although the material on Preflyte was five years old at the time of its release , the album actually managed to outperform Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde in America , garnering moderately enthusiastic reviews and peaking at number 84 on the Billboard album chart .
Between June and August 1969 , the Byrds worked with Melcher to complete the Ballad of Easy Rider album . Musically the album consolidated and streamlined the band 's country rock sound , consisting mostly of cover versions and traditional material , with three self @-@ penned original songs . The first single to be released from the album was the title track , issued in October 1969 in America and reaching number 65 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Composed primarily by McGuinn , with some input from Bob Dylan ( although not credited ) , " Ballad of Easy Rider " was written as the theme tune for the 1969 countercultural film Easy Rider . However the Byrds ' recording of the song does not appear in the film , instead an acoustic version credited to McGuinn alone was used . However the Byrds ' song " Wasn 't Born to Follow " from The Notorious Byrd Brothers album was featured in Easy Rider and also included on the Easy Rider soundtrack album in August 1969 . The Byrds ' association with the film heightened their public profile and when the Ballad of Easy Rider album was released in November 1969 , it peaked at number 36 in the U.S. and number 41 in the UK , becoming the band 's highest charting album for two years in America . A second single taken from the album , " Jesus Is Just Alright " , was released in December 1969 but it only managed to reach number 97 . Despite this lack of commercial success , the Doobie Brothers ' later hit version of " Jesus Is Just Alright " features an arrangement that was heavily influenced by the Byrds ' recording .
Just prior to the release of Ballad of Easy Rider , the Byrds underwent yet another change in personnel when bassist John York was asked to leave the band in September 1969 . York had become disenchanted with his role in the Byrds and had voiced his reluctance to perform material that had been written and recorded by the group before he had joined . The rest of the band had begun to doubt his commitment and so , a consensus was reached among the other three members that York should be fired . He was replaced , at the suggestion of Parsons and White , by Skip Battin , a freelance session musician and one @-@ time member of the duo Skip & Flip . Battin 's recruitment marked the last personnel change to the group for almost three years and as a result , the McGuinn β White β Parsons β Battin line @-@ up became the most stable and longest @-@ lived of any configuration of the Byrds .
The latter @-@ day , post @-@ Sweetheart of the Rodeo version of the band , featuring McGuinn and White 's dual lead guitar work , toured relentlessly between 1969 and 1972 and was regarded by critics and audiences as much more accomplished in concert than any previous configuration of the Byrds had been . As a result of this , it was decided in early 1970 that the time was right for the group to issue a live album . However , it was also felt that the band had a sufficient backlog of new compositions to warrant the recording of a new studio album . It was therefore suggested by producer Terry Melcher that the band should release a double album , featuring one LP of concert recordings and another LP of new studio material . To help with the editing of the live recordings , the band 's ex @-@ manager Jim Dickson , who had been fired by the group in June 1967 , was invited back into the Byrds ' camp . At around this same time , former business manager Eddie Tickner also returned to the group 's employ as a replacement for Larry Spector , who had quit the management business and relocated to Big Sur .
The two @-@ record ( Untitled ) album was released by the Byrds on September 14 , 1970 to positive reviews and strong sales , with many critics and fans regarding the album as a return to form for the band . Peaking at number 40 on the Billboard Top LPs chart and number 11 in the UK , the album 's success continued the upward trend in the band 's commercial fortunes and popularity that had begun with the release of the Ballad of Easy Rider album . The live half of ( Untitled ) included both new material and new renditions of previous hit singles , including " Mr. Tambourine Man " , " So You Want to Be a Rock ' n ' Roll Star " and a 16 @-@ minute version of " Eight Miles High " , which comprised the whole of one side of the original LP release . Band biographer Johnny Rogan has noted that the inclusion of these newly recorded live versions of older songs served to forge a spiritual and musical link between the Byrds ' current line @-@ up and the original mid @-@ 1960s incarnation of the band .
The studio recordings featured on ( Untitled ) mostly consisted of newly written , self @-@ penned material , including a number of songs that had been composed by McGuinn and Broadway theatre impresario Jacques Levy for a planned country rock musical titled Gene Tryp that the pair were developing . Plans for the musical had fallen through and as a result , McGuinn decided to record some of the material originally intended for the production with the Byrds . Among the Gene Tryp songs included on ( Untitled ) was " Chestnut Mare " , which had originally been written for a scene in which the musical 's eponymous hero attempts to catch and tame a wild horse . The song was excerpted from the album and issued as a single in the U.S. on October 23 , 1970 , but it only managed to climb to number 121 on the Billboard chart . Nonetheless , the song went on to become a staple of FM radio programming in America during the 1970s . " Chestnut Mare " did much better in the UK , however , when it was released as a single on January 1 , 1971 , reaching number 19 on the UK Singles Chart and giving the Byrds their first UK Top 20 hit since their cover of Bob Dylan 's " All I Really Want to Do " had peaked at number 4 in September 1965 .
The Byrds returned to the recording studio with Melcher sporadically between October 1970 and early March 1971 , in order to complete the follow @-@ up to ( Untitled ) , which would be released in June 1971 as Byrdmaniax . Unfortunately , the grueling pace of the band 's touring schedule at the time meant that they were not fully prepared for the sessions and as a result , much of the material they recorded was under @-@ developed . Following completion of the album recording sessions , the Byrds once again headed out on tour , leaving Melcher and engineer Chris Hinshaw to finish mixing the album in their absence . Controversially , Melcher and Hinshaw elected to bring in arranger Paul Polena to assist in the overdubbing of strings , horns , and a gospel choir onto many of the songs , allegedly without the band 's consent . Drummer Gene Parsons recalled in a 1997 interview that when the band heard Melcher 's additions they campaigned to have the album remixed and the orchestration removed but Columbia Records refused , citing budget restrictions , and the record was duly pressed up and released .
In May 1971 , just prior to the release of the Byrdmaniax album , the Byrds undertook a sell @-@ out tour of England and Europe , which included a performance at the Royal Albert Hall in London that was released for the first time in 2008 as Live at Royal Albert Hall 1971 . The British and European press were unanimous in their praise of the Byrds ' live performances during the tour , reinforcing their reputation as a formidable live act during this period . Over the course of the tour , the band chose to expand their ranks , with roadie Jimmi Seiter joining the group on stage to provide additional percussion as an unofficial member . Seiter would continue to sit in with the Byrds during their live performances until August 1971 , when he decided to leave the group 's employ .
When the Byrdmaniax album was released on June 23 , 1971 it was received poorly by most critics and did much to undermine the new @-@ found popularity that the Byrds had enjoyed since the release of Ballad of Easy Rider . The response to the album from the American music press was particularly scathing , with a review in the August 1971 edition of Rolling Stone magazine describing the Byrds as " a boring dead group " and memorably dismissing the entire album as " increments of pus " . The consensus among most reviewers was that Byrdmaniax was hampered by Melcher 's inappropriate orchestration and by being an album almost totally bereft of the Byrds ' signature sound . The band themselves were publicly critical of the album upon its release , with Gene Parsons referring to it as " Melcher 's folly " . For his part , Melcher later stated that he felt that the band 's performances in the studio during the making of Byrdmaniax were lackluster and he therefore employed the orchestration in order to cover up the album 's musical shortcomings . Regardless , by the time of the album 's release , Melcher had resigned as the Byrds ' manager and producer . Despite the band 's dissatisfaction with the finished product and its poor critical reception , Byrdmaniax made a respectable showing on the U.S. charts , peaking at number 46 . However , the album failed to sell in sufficient quantities to reach the UK charts . Author Christopher Hjort has noted that in the years since its release , Byrdmaniax has become arguably " the least @-@ liked album in the Byrds catalogue " among the group 's fanbase .
The Byrds moved quickly to record a self @-@ produced follow @-@ up to Byrdmaniax , in an attempt to stem the criticism that the album was receiving in the music press and as a reaction to their own dislike of Melcher 's overproduction . Johnny Rogan has speculated that the Byrds ' decision to produce their next album themselves was an attempt on the band 's part to prove that they could do a better job than Melcher had done on their previous record . While in England for an appearance at the Lincoln Folk Festival , the Byrds decamped to CBS Studios in London with engineer Mike Ross and between July 22 and 28 , 1971 , they recorded an album 's worth of new material .
In October 1971 , CBS Records in the UK issued The Byrds ' Greatest Hits Volume II to capitalize on the group 's recent appearance at the Lincoln Folk Festival and perhaps as a reaction to the chart failure suffered by Byrdmaniax . Unfortunately , the compilation album also failed to reach the UK charts , while contemporary reviews made note of its misleading and inaccurate title , since among its twelve tracks , only " Chestnut Mare " had been a genuine hit in the United Kingdom . An equivalent compilation wasn 't released in the U.S. until November 1972 , when The Best of The Byrds : Greatest Hits , Volume II was issued .
On November 17 , 1971 , less than five months after the release of Byrdmaniax , the Byrds issued their eleventh studio album , Farther Along . The album was met with slightly more enthusiastic reviews than its predecessor but nevertheless , only managed to climb to number 152 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , while failing to reach the charts in the United Kingdom altogether . Musically , the album found the Byrds beginning to move away from their country rock sound β although at least half the album still bore a strong country influence β and instead , embrace a style indebted to 1950s rock ' n ' roll music . The Skip Battin and Kim Fowley penned song " America 's Great National Pastime " was taken from the album and released as a single in late November , but it failed to chart on either side of the Atlantic . Johnny Rogan has concluded that , ultimately , the rapidity with which the Byrds planned and recorded Farther Along resulted in an album that was just as flawed as Byrdmaniax and as a result , it failed to rehabilitate the band 's ailing commercial fortunes or increase their declining audience . The album 's title track , sung by White with the rest of the group harmonizing , would later become a poignant and prophetic epitaph for the guitarist when it was sung by ex @-@ Byrd Gram Parsons and the Eagles ' Bernie Leadon at White 's funeral in July 1973 .
Following the release of Farther Along , the Byrds continued to tour throughout 1972 , but no new album or single release was forthcoming . In July of that year , Gene Parsons was fired from the group for a number of reasons , including McGuinn 's growing dissatisfaction with his drumming , disagreements that he and McGuinn were having over band members ' pay , and his own discontent over the band 's lack of morale during this period . Parsons was quickly replaced with L.A. session drummer John Guerin , who remained with the Byrds until January 1973 , when he decided to return to studio work . Although Guerin participated in recording sessions with the band and appeared on stage with them from September 1972 , he was never an official member of the Byrds and instead received a standard session musician 's wage , while continuing to undertake work for other artists as an in @-@ demand studio player . Three officially released Byrds recordings exist of the McGuinn β White β Battin β Guerin line @-@ up : live versions of " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " Roll Over Beethoven " that were recorded for the soundtrack of the Earl Scruggs ' film Banjoman , and a studio recording of " Bag Full of Money " that was included as a bonus track on the remastered reissue of Farther Along in 2000 .
Following Guerin 's departure , he was temporarily replaced for live performances by session drummer Dennis Dragon . The band underwent a further personnel change following a February 10 , 1973 show in Ithaca , New York , when Skip Battin was dismissed by McGuinn , who had capriciously decided that the bassist 's playing abilities were no longer of a sufficient standard . McGuinn turned to ex @-@ Byrd Chris Hillman , who at that time was a member of the band Manassas , and asked him to step in as Battin 's replacement for two upcoming shows on February 23 and 24 . Hillman agreed to play both concerts for the sum of $ 2 @,@ 000 and also brought in Manassas ' drummer Joe Lala to fill the vacant spot behind the drum kit . Following a shambolic , under @-@ rehearsed performance at The Capitol Theatre , Passaic , New Jersey on February 24 , 1973 , McGuinn cancelled the band 's remaining concert commitments and disbanded the touring version of the Byrds , in order to make way for a reunion of the original five @-@ piece line @-@ up of the band . Five months later , guitarist Clarence White was killed by a drunk driver on July 14 , 1973 , while he loaded guitar equipment into the back of a van after a concert appearance in Palmdale , California .
= = = Reunions = = =
= = = = 1972 β 73 reunion = = = =
The five original members of the Byrds reunited briefly during late 1972 , while McGuinn was still undertaking selected concerts with the Columbia Records version of the group . Discussions regarding a reunion between Roger McGuinn , Gene Clark , David Crosby , Chris Hillman , and Michael Clarke had taken place as early as July 1971 , around the same time as the then current line @-@ up of the band were recording the Farther Along album . Plans for a reunion accelerated in mid @-@ 1972 , however , when the founder of Asylum Records , David Geffen , offered each of the original band members a sizable amount of money to reform and record an album for his label . The reunion actually took place in early October 1972 , beginning with a rehearsal at McGuinn 's house , where the group began selecting suitable material for a new album . The five original Byrds booked into Wally Heider Studios in Los Angeles from October 16 until November 15 , 1972 , recording their first album together in seven years .
Following completion of the album recording sessions , Crosby persuaded McGuinn to dissolve the Columbia version of the Byrds , who were still touring at that time . Crosby had long been vocal regarding his displeasure over McGuinn 's decision to recruit new band members following his dismissal from the group in 1967 , and had stated in a number of interviews that in his opinion " there were only ever five Byrds . " In keeping with the new spirit of reconciliation that the reunion fostered , McGuinn permanently disbanded the Columbia line @-@ up of the group in February 1973 .
The reunion album , titled simply Byrds , was released on March 7 , 1973 to mixed reviews . As a result , a planned tour in support of the album failed to materialize . Among the album 's shortcomings , critics made note of a lack of sonic unity and the absence of the Byrds ' signature jangly guitar sound . Nonetheless , the album managed to climb to number 20 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart and number 31 in the UK . In the United States , the album became the band 's highest charting LP of new material since 1965 's Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! , which had also been the last Byrds ' album to feature Gene Clark as a full member . Among the tracks included on the album were McGuinn 's folk @-@ flavored " Sweet Mary " , the Joni Mitchell cover " For Free " , a re @-@ recording of Crosby 's song " Laughing " ( which had originally appeared on his 1971 solo album , If I Could Only Remember My Name ) , and a pair of Neil Young songs . The album also featured the Gene Clark compositions " Changing Heart " and " Full Circle " , the latter of which had provided the reunion album with its working title and was subsequently released as a single , although it failed to chart .
The negative critical reception that Byrds received in the music press resulted in the band losing faith in the idea of an ongoing series of reunions . In the years following its release , all five band members were openly critical of the album , with the general consensus being that the material included on it was weak and that the recording sessions had been rushed and ill @-@ thought out . In addition , McGuinn and Hillman have both suggested that with the exception of Gene Clark , the songwriting members of the band were reluctant to bring their strongest compositions to the recording sessions , preferring instead to hold those songs back for their own solo projects . In the wake of the reunion , the five original Byrds quietly returned to their own careers , with the June 1973 release of McGuinn 's eponymously titled solo album serving to effectively mark the end of the Byrds .
Following the reunion of 1972 / 1973 , the Byrds remained disbanded throughout the rest of the decade . Roger McGuinn turned his attention to establishing his own career , releasing a series of solo albums between 1973 and 1977 , and making a high @-@ profile appearance with Bob Dylan 's Rolling Thunder Revue . Chris Hillman worked as part of the Souther β Hillman β Furay Band following the Byrds reunion and released a pair of solo albums entitled Slippin ' Away and Clear Sailin ' in 1976 and 1977 respectively . David Crosby returned to the supergroup Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young for their 1974 tour and subsequently continued to produce albums with Graham Nash . He also took part in a 1977 reunion of Crosby , Stills & Nash , which saw the group release their multi @-@ platinum selling CSN album . Michael Clarke also found success following the Byrds reunion as the drummer for soft rock group Firefall , while Gene Clark returned to his solo career , producing the critically acclaimed but commercially unsuccessful albums No Other ( 1974 ) and Two Sides to Every Story ( 1977 ) . In addition , between 1977 and 1980 , McGuinn , Clark and Hillman worked on and off together as a trio , modeled after Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young and , to a lesser extent , the Eagles . This supergroup made up of former Byrds was reasonably successful commercially and even managed to score a Top 40 hit with the single " Don 't You Write Her Off " in March 1979 . The trio toured internationally and recorded the albums McGuinn , Clark & Hillman and City . Clark departed the group in late 1979 , resulting in a third and final album being billed as McGuinn @-@ Hillman .
= = = = Ersatz Byrds and further reunions ( 1989 β 91 ; 2000 ) = = = =
In 1984 , Gene Clark approached McGuinn , Crosby , and Hillman in an attempt to reform the Byrds in time for the 20th anniversary of the release of the " Mr. Tambourine Man " single in 1985 . None of these three original members were interested in the venture and so Clark instead assembled a group of musicians and friends , including Rick Roberts , Blondie Chaplin , Rick Danko , Richard Manuel , and the ex @-@ Byrds Michael Clarke and John York , under the banner of " The 20th Anniversary Tribute to The Byrds " and began performing on the lucrative nostalgia circuit in early 1985 . A number of concert promoters began to shorten the band 's name to The Byrds in advertisements and promotional material . As the band continued to tour throughout 1985 , they eventually decided to shorten their name to the Byrds themselves , prompting McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman to berate the tribute group in interviews , with McGuinn deriding the act as " a cheap show . "
After the tour wound down in late 1985 , Clark returned to his solo career , leaving Michael Clarke to soldier on with a band that was now billed as " A Tribute to The Byrds " ( although again , it was often shortened to the Byrds by promoters ) . Gene Clark returned to the group following the release of his and Carla Olsen 's So Rebellious a Lover album , and the tribute band continued to work on and off from 1987 to 1988 . Author Johnny Rogan has noted that most die @-@ hard fans of the Byrds were mortified by the existence of this ersatz version of the group , while Byrds expert Tim Connors has commented that " no chapter in the history of the Byrds caused as much consternation and controversy among fans . "
In June 1988 , McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman appeared at a concert celebrating the reopening of the Ash Grove folk club in Los Angeles . Although they were billed as solo artists , the three musicians did come together for an on @-@ stage reunion during the show , performing a string of Byrds hits including " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " Eight Miles High " . Although Clark and Clarke 's Byrds tribute group was inactive at the time of this high @-@ profile get @-@ together of McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman , Michael Clarke did mount another tribute tour shortly afterwards , this time featuring former Byrd Skip Battin and newcomers Terry Jones Rogers and Jerry Sorn , under the banner of " The Byrds featuring Michael Clarke " . In addition , the drummer also sought to trademark the name " The Byrds " for his own use .
In retaliation against Clarke 's trademark application , McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman submitted their own counter @-@ claim to gain ownership of the band 's name . McGuinn had actually attempted to trademark the Byrds name himself during the 1970s , in order to prevent its misuse , but his application had been turned down . To strengthen their case , the three musicians announced in December 1988 that they would be performing a series of concerts in January 1989 as the Byrds . Although he was no longer connected with Clarke 's tribute act , Gene Clark was not invited to participate in these official Byrds reunion concerts due to residual ill @-@ feeling stemming from his earlier " 20th Anniversary Tribute to The Byrds " .
The reunion concerts were a resounding success but with Michael Clarke continuing to tour with his Byrds tribute , McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman filed a lawsuit against the drummer in the spring of 1989 , suing him for allegedly false advertising , unfair competition and deceptive trade practices , as well as seeking a preliminary injunction against Clarke 's use of the name . At the court hearing in May 1989 , the judge denied the injunction , ruling that McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman had failed to show that they would be irreparably damaged by Clarke 's actions . As a result , Clarke gained full legal ownership of the name the Byrds . In the wake of this ruling , McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman dropped their lawsuit , but to demonstrate that they had not wholly surrendered the Byrds name to Clarke , the three musicians appeared under the banner of " The Original Byrds " at a Roy Orbison tribute concert on February 24 , 1990 , where they were joined on @-@ stage by Bob Dylan for a rendition of " Mr. Tambourine Man " . Later that year , McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman entered Treasure Isle Recorders in Nashville to record four new Byrds tracks for inclusion on the forthcoming The Byrds box set .
On January 16 , 1991 , the five original members of the Byrds put aside their differences to appear together at the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York City for their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . The ceremony honored the original line @-@ up of Roger McGuinn , Gene Clark , David Crosby , Chris Hillman , and Michael Clarke , while later configurations of the group featuring such key personnel as Gram Parsons and Clarence White were quietly passed over . The occasion , which saw the band come together on stage to perform the songs " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! ( to Everything There Is a Season ) " , " Mr. Tambourine Man " , and " I 'll Feel a Whole Lot Better " , represented the first time that all five original Byrds had stood together since 1973 . Unfortunately , it would also represent the last time that the five original members were gathered together . Clark died later that year of heart failure , and on December 19 , 1993 , Clarke succumbed to liver disease brought on by alcoholism .
Following Clarke 's death , Terry Jones Rogers resurrected the Byrds tribute act , with guitarist Scott Nienhaus and former Byrds Skip Battin and Gene Parsons on bass and drums respectively . Performing under the banner of The Byrds Celebration , the tribute group toured extensively throughout the remainder of the 1990s , although Parsons was replaced by session drummer Vince Barranco in 1995 and Battin was forced to retire due to ill @-@ health in 1997 . Since 2002 , Rogers and Nienhaus have continued to tour as part of the band Younger Than Yesterday : A Tribute to the Byrds , along with bassist Michael Curtis and drummer Tim Politte .
McGuinn , Crosby and Hillman all returned to their individual solo careers following the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ceremony . However , the Byrds did reunite for a third time on August 8 , 2000 , to give an impromptu , one @-@ off performance at a tribute concert for Fred Walecki , the owner of a Los Angeles music equipment store who was suffering from throat cancer . Crosby and Hillman were booked to appear at the event separately , but McGuinn , who was not listed on the bill , made a surprise appearance and joined his two former partners on stage . McGuinn introduced the hastily reformed trio with the words , " And now , ladies and gentlemen , the Byrds " , as the group launched into renditions of " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! ( to Everything There Is a Season ) " . According to contemporary press reports , the reunion was an unmitigated success , with the audience giving the band multiple standing ovations and shouting for more as they left the stage .
During the 2000s , two more ex @-@ members of the Byrds died when drummer Kevin Kelley succumbed of natural causes in 2002 and bassist Skip Battin , who was suffering from Alzheimer 's disease , died at his home in 2003 . Former members Gene Parsons and John York both remain active and continue to perform and record various musical projects . Perhaps the most surprising development in the Byrds ' story during the 2000s , however , was the acquisition by David Crosby of the rights to the band 's name in 2002 . Ownership of the Byrds ' name had reverted to Clarke 's estate upon his death in 1993 and Crosby 's purchase served to effectively bring the convoluted battle for control of the group 's name to an end .
To date , the Fred Walecki tribute concert appearance in 2000 represents the last time that the Byrds have performed together . However , Hillman and Crosby have both expressed an interest in working with McGuinn again on future Byrds projects , but the lead guitarist and head Byrd remains adamant that he is not interested in another reunion . During an interview with music journalist John Nork , McGuinn replied " absolutely not , " when asked if he had any plans to revive the Byrds , explaining , " No , I don 't want to do that . I just want to be a solo artist . The Byrds are well documented . I don 't think we need anymore from the Byrds . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Since the band 's 1960s heyday , the influence of the Byrds on successive generations of rock and pop musicians has grown steadily , with acts such as the Eagles , Big Star , Tom Petty & the Heartbreakers , R.E.M. , the Bangles , the Smiths , and innumerable alternative rock bands of the post @-@ punk era all exhibiting signs of their influence . Musician and author Peter Lavezzoli described the Byrds in 2007 as " one of the few bands to exert a decisive influence on the Beatles " , while also noting that they helped to persuade Bob Dylan to begin recording with electric instrumentation . Lavezzoli concluded that " like it or not , terms like " folk rock , " " raga rock " and " country rock " were coined for a reason : the Byrds did it first , and then kept moving , never staying in the " raga " or " country " mode for very long . This is precisely what made the Byrds such a rewarding band to follow from one record to the next . "
In his book The Great Rock Discography , music researcher Martin C. Strong describes the Byrds ' cover of " Mr. Tambourine Man " as " a timeless slice of hypnotic , bittersweet pop " and a record that " did nothing less than change the course of pop / rock history . " Author and musician Bob Stanley , writing in his 2013 book Yeah Yeah Yeah : The Story of Modern Pop , has called the Byrds ' music " a phenomenon , a drone , genuinely hair @-@ raising and totally American . "
In his book Riot on Sunset Strip : Rock ' n ' Roll 's Last Stand in 60s Hollywood , music historian Domenic Priore attempts to sum up the band 's influence by noting , " Few of The Byrds ' contemporaries can claim to have made such a subversive impact on popular culture . The band had a much larger , more positive impact on the world at large than any Billboard chart position or album sales or concert attendance figure could possibly measure . "
In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked the Byrds at number 45 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time .
= = Members = =
Original members
Roger McGuinn β lead guitar , banjo , Moog synthesizer , vocals ( 1964 β 73 , 1989 β 91 , 2000 )
Gene Clark β tambourine , rhythm guitar , harmonica , vocals ( 1964 β 66 , 1967 , 1972 β 73 , 1991 )
David Crosby β rhythm guitar , vocals ( 1964 β 67 , 1972 β 73 , 1989 β 91 , 2000 )
Michael Clarke β drums ( 1964 β 67 , 1972 β 73 , 1991 )
Chris Hillman β bass guitar , rhythm guitar , mandolin , vocals ( 1964 β 68 , 1972 β 73 , 1989 β 91 , 2000 )
Subsequent members
Kevin Kelley β drums ( 1968 )
Gram Parsons β rhythm guitar , piano , organ , vocals ( 1968 )
Clarence White β lead guitar , mandolin , vocals ( 1968 β 73 )
Gene Parsons β drums , banjo , harmonica , pedal steel guitar , rhythm guitar , vocals ( 1968 β 72 )
John York β bass guitar , vocals ( 1968 β 69 )
Skip Battin β bass guitar , piano , vocals ( 1969 β 73 )
Membership timeline ( 1964 β 73 )
= = Discography = =
Mr. Tambourine Man ( 1965 )
Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! ( 1965 )
Fifth Dimension ( 1966 )
Younger Than Yesterday ( 1967 )
The Notorious Byrd Brothers ( 1968 )
Sweetheart of the Rodeo ( 1968 )
Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde ( 1969 )
Ballad of Easy Rider ( 1969 )
( Untitled ) ( 1970 )
Byrdmaniax ( 1971 )
Farther Along ( 1971 )
Byrds ( 1973 )
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= Otto Becher =
Rear Admiral Otto Humphrey Becher , CBE , DSO , DSC & Bar ( 13 September 1908 β 15 June 1977 ) was a senior officer in the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) . Born in Harvey , Western Australia , Becher entered the Royal Australian Naval College in 1922 . After graduating in 1926 , he was posted to a series of staff and training positions prior to specialising in gunnery .
A lieutenant commander at the outbreak of the Second World War , Becher assisted in the extraction of Allied troops from the Namsos region of Norway while aboard the heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire , and was decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross . Following service in the Mediterranean theatre , he returned to Australia in 1942 as officer @-@ in @-@ charge of the gunnery school at HMAS Cerberus . He spent two years at Cerberus before being given command of the Q class destroyer HMAS Quickmatch in March 1944 . While commanding Quickmatch in operations against Japanese forces in the Pacific , Becher earned a Bar to his Distinguished Service Cross .
At the war 's end Becher was posted to the Navy Office and later to the aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney ; in 1951 he was given command of the destroyer HMAS Warramunga . Warramunga formed part of Australia 's contribution to the United Nations forces engaged in the Korean War ; Becher was promoted to captain and awarded the Distinguished Service Order while carrying out operations in Korean waters . On returning to Australia , he filled several staff positions and commanded the aircraft carriers HMAS Melbourne and HMS Vengeance . Promoted to rear admiral in 1959 , he served as Flag Officer Commanding Australian Fleet from 1964 to 1965 , before taking up the post of Flag Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge East Australia Area . Becher retired from the RAN in 1966 , and died in 1977 at the age of 68 .
= = Early life and career = =
Otto Becher was born in Harvey , Western Australia , on 13 September 1908 , to Francis Joseph Becher , an orchardist , and Antonia Amalie ( nΓ©e Vetter ) . On 1 January 1922 , at the age of thirteen , he enrolled in the Royal Australian Naval College at Jervis Bay , where he performed well both academically and at sport , receiving colours for hockey and tennis . Graduating in 1926 , he served as a midshipman aboard HMAS Adelaide and later HMAS Brisbane , before being posted to the United Kingdom in September of that year for further sea @-@ training and professional development with the Royal Navy .
Becher was promoted to acting sub @-@ lieutenant in September 1928 ; the rank was made substantive the following March . He returned to Australia in January 1930 and was raised to lieutenant , gaining further seafaring experience over the next two years on HMAS Australia and HMAS Canberra . Deciding to specialise in gunnery , he attended an advanced course at the Royal Navy 's gunnery school at HMS Excellent in England from 1932 until 1934 . Returning to Australia after completing the course , on 7 January 1935 , Becher married Valerie Chisholm Baird at St Michael 's Anglican Church in Vaucluse , New South Wales ; the couple would have three sons .
From May 1934 to June 1935 , Becher was posted to the gunnery school at the shore establishment HMAS Cerberus in Victoria . He later completed two years aboard HMAS Canberra as intelligence officer , and in 1937 was transferred to HMAS Stuart for flotilla duties . Promoted to lieutenant commander on 16 June 1938 , Becher briefly returned to Cerberus before embarking for the United Kingdom on exchange with the Royal Navy in January 1939 .
= = Second World War = =
Becher was serving as squadron gunnery officer aboard the Royal Navy heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire ] when the Second World War broke out . In May 1940 , Devonshire was dispatched to the Namsos region of Norway to assist in the extraction of Allied troops . Commended for his " daring , resource and devotion " during the operation , Becher was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross . The notification for the decoration was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 19 July 1940 , and the investiture ceremony was held by King George VI at Buckingham Palace on 11 March 1941 .
In late November 1940 , Becher transferred to the recently launched destroyer HMAS Napier as part of the ship 's commissioning crew . While completing working @-@ up exercises , Napier was tasked with transferring British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and his wife from Thurso in Scotland to the battleship HMS King George V , and later returning them to the mainland . With her working @-@ up complete , Napier was initially posted to convoy duties in the North Atlantic , before setting sail in April 1941 with HMAS Nizam for the Mediterranean Sea . Arriving in May , she formed up as part of the Mediterranean Fleet .
Napier assisted in the evacuation of British and Commonwealth troops from the island of Crete in late May , following the successful Axis invasion . On one such occasion the vessel embarked 296 soldiers , three women , one Greek and one Chinese civilian , ten sailors , two children and a dog . Returning to Alexandria , the destroyer came under attack but arrived unscathed . Two days later Napier was less fortunate ; having taken 705 soldiers on board , she was targeted on her return journey by a formation of twelve German dive @-@ bombers . The ship was struck twice by bombs and suffered damage to the stern , the engine room and boiler room . One of the aircraft was shot down and a further three damaged . Although no allied casualties were sustained and the destroyer arrived safely in Alexandria , she spent the next two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months in Port Said under repair .
Becher returned to Australia in early 1942 , and from 17 May was appointed officer @-@ in @-@ charge of the gunnery school at HMAS Cerberus . He remained at this post for almost two years until , on 12 March 1944 , he was given command of the destroyer HMAS Quickmatch β formed up as part of the Eastern Fleet . On 22 July , Quickmatch was among a 23 @-@ vessel strong task force that set out from Trincomalee to assault the Japanese naval base off northern Sumatra at Sabang Island . The formation approached Sabang on the night of 24 / 25 July , launching fighter strikes on airfields in the area at first light . At 06 : 55 , the fleet bombarded the harbour installations , coastal defence batteries and the military barracks . As the formation 's two battleships maintained their fire , Quickmatch joined three other ships that entered the harbour to carry out close @-@ range bombardment . After completing their task , Quickmatch and her fellows withdrew under the cover of fire from two cruisers . Praised for his " outstanding courage and skill " in pressing home the assault , Becher was awarded a Bar to his Distinguished Service Cross , announced in a supplement to the London Gazette on 31 October 1944 .
In October 1944 , Quickmatch was transferred to Australian waters and underwent her annual refit at Sydney from November to December . Once the refit was completed she operated mainly off the Australian coast . During the early hours of 25 December 1944 , the Navy Office in Melbourne received an SOS from the SS Robert J. Walker , reporting that she had been torpedoed by a submarine while travelling from Fremantle , Western Australia , to Sydney . Aircraft were dispatched to provide aerial cover , and HMA Ships Quickmatch , Kiama and Yandra were directed to Robert J. Walker 's position . Quickmatch and Yandra were to operate against the submarine , while Kiama was to take the Robert J. Walker under tow . Arriving at the reported location at approximately 23 : 30 that evening , Quickmatch , under the command of Becher , and Kiama patrolled the vicinity in search of the submarine and Robert J. Walker 's crew . Sixty @-@ seven men were discovered in lifeboats at 05 : 45 the following morning and were taken aboard Quickmatch ; Robert J. Walker had sunk two hours earlier with the loss of two crew .
Becher was promoted to commander on 31 December 1944 , and the following month Quickmatch was transferred to the recently established British Pacific Fleet . On 28 February , the British Pacific Fleet , including Quickmatch , sailed from Sydney Harbour for Manus Island to prepare for its role in support of the planned United States invasion of Okinawa . The fleet engaged in eleven days of exercises at Manus before departing for Ulithi , and on 23 March was attached to the United States Fifth Fleet with the designation " Task Force 57 " . Setting sail for Okinawa two days later , the fleet launched air strikes against airfield targets in the Sakishima Islands on 26 and 27 March . During these operations Quickmatch formed part of the escort for the fleet 's aircraft carriers . Becher later stated : " These two days ' operations were successful , the enemy airstrips being neutralised and a number of aircraft being destroyed on the ground . " Task Force 57 continued operations around the Sakishima Islands for the following two months to cover the United States ' left flank , with Quickmatch forming part of the carrier force 's escort throughout this period .
On 25 June 1945 , Becher relinquished command of the Quickmatch and returned to Australia , where he was attached to the shore base HMAS Penguin . For his " distinguished service ... in the Pacific " he received a Mention in Despatches . In August , he transferred to HMAS Cerberus for duties with the Navy Office .
= = Interbellum and Korean War = =
Becher remained with the Navy Office until November 1947 , when he was posted to the United Kingdom to join the aircraft carrier HMAS Sydney 's commissioning crew . Embarking from Melbourne during February 1948 , he was temporarily attached to HMS Drake and later HMS Glory until Sydney 's commissioning on 16 December . His service aboard the aircraft carrier lasted for two years , and was followed on 23 January 1950 by an appointment as Commanding Officer to the shore establishment HMAS Watson . However , Becher 's time at Watson was cut short when , on 28 July , he relieved Captain Alan McNicoll as commander of the destroyer HMAS Warramunga , which had been selected for service in the Korean War . Warramunga was to be attached to a force of five Royal Navy destroyers led by a captain , making it expedient to have the Australian ship commanded by an officer of lower rank .
Warramunga arrived in Korean waters in late August 1950 . After some initial escort work , the destroyer joined HMAS Bataan as part of the carrier HMS Triumph 's protective screen while the latter contributed air cover to the Allied landing at Inchon on 15 September . For the next three months , Warramunga engaged in patrol and screening duties , in addition to transporting food for famine relief .
On 4 December , Warramunga and Bataan supported the emergency withdrawal of Allied troops from Chinnampo . Becher decided to sail up a channel of the Taedong River known as Short Cut , which according to his charts should have allowed him five to ten feet of clearance . The chart proved inaccurate , and Warramunga ran aground at 23 : 15 ; Becher 's only option was to wait for the rising tide to float the destroyer off . Warramunga came free at 23 : 50 without having sustained damage , and was able to resume her mission , escorting troop transports south . Later , Becher brought Warramunga alongside Bataan and entreated the latter 's commander , via megaphone , to keep quiet about the incident . With Becher 's promotion to captain due , he was concerned that if the Naval Board became aware of the grounding his promotion would be delayed until an investigation had taken place . His " well @-@ earned " rise in rank came through as scheduled on 31 December . On the journey south , Warramunga 's crew developed a new way of signalling between ships that was considerably quicker than using international code flags . Known to the crew as the " Murphy Method " , it involved wrapping messages around potatoes and throwing them from one ship to the other .
Warramunga participated in the Siege of Wonsan during late February 1951 , where she engaged and partially destroyed North Korean shore batteries , as well as shelling buildings and transport infrastructure . Despite coming under fire the destroyer sustained no damage . For the remainder of her tour in Korea , Warramunga took part in patrols and shore bombardments , earning special praise from Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy , Commander US Naval Forces Far East , for the accuracy of her gunnery .
On 17 July 1951 , it was announced that Becher had been appointed as an honorary aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Governor @-@ General of Australia for a period of three years . Following Warramunga 's departure from Korean waters on 1 August , Rear Admiral Alan Scott @-@ Moncrieff , Commander West Coast Blockade Force , commented : " She has been a tower of strength and done an incredible amount of steaming with no troubles at all . I cannot speak too highly of Captain O. H. Becher and his men ... " Together with Bataan , Warramunga had borne the brunt of Australia 's naval contribution to the Korean War . Noting his " courage , skill and determination " , a recommendation for Becher to be awarded the Distinguished Service Order was approved by the Australian Government on 17 August 1951 , and announced in the London Gazette the following month . For his " meritorious service ... as C.O. of HMAS Warramunga " , Becher was also decorated by the United States with the Legion of Merit .
= = Senior command = =
Becher retained command of Warramunga until October 1951 , when he was posted to the shore base HMAS Lonsdale for service with the Navy Office as Deputy Chief of Naval Personnel and Director of Personal Services . In September that year he was additionally appointed trustee of the Services Canteens Trust Fund ; a position he held until October 1952 and for which he received a letter of appreciation from the Minister for Defence . The same month he assumed the position of Deputy Chief of Naval Staff . On 25 August 1954 , Becher was given command of the aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance , and in October he returned with his new command to the Korean theatre to transport the aircraft , equipment and personnel of No. 77 Squadron RAAF back to Australia .
In 1956 , Becher embarked for the United Kingdom to attend the Imperial Defence College . A month after his December graduation , he travelled back to Australia and assumed command of HMAS Melbourne . Becher remained with Melbourne until December 1958 , at which time he returned to the Navy Office at HMAS Lonsdale to resume his role as Deputy Chief of Naval Staff . He was promoted to acting rear admiral on 3 January 1959 , the rank being made substantive twelve months later . In the Queen 's Birthday Honours of 1961 , Becher was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
Relinquishing his position with the Navy Office in 1962 , Becher was sent to the United Kingdom as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff in London . In January 1964 he returned to Australia , and was made Flag Officer Commanding HM Australian Fleet . During his time in this role Becher became embroiled in the controversy that followed the collision of HMA Ships Voyager and Melbourne , which took place in February that year . Prior to giving evidence before the Royal Commission that had been established to investigate the incident , Becher had discussed events with Melbourne 's Commanding Officer , Commander Ronald Robertson . The discussion became public knowledge , and led to suggestions of conspiracy . Becher stated to the commission that Melbourne should have questioned Voyager 's final movements ; his evidence is alleged to have influenced the Royal Commissioner , Sir John Spicer , to place a degree of blame on Robertson . In 1965 , Becher assumed his final command as Flag Officer @-@ in @-@ Charge East Australia Area , before retiring from the Royal Australian Navy on 6 March 1966 .
= = Retirement = =
Following his retirement , Becher accepted the position of Director @-@ General of Recruiting for the Australian armed forces from 1966 until 1969 , a period during which conscription was in effect . Minister of Defence Allen Fairhall asked Becher to find enough volunteers to fill the armed forces , and Becher believed that conscription eroded professional standards , but he found this task difficult given that the military was " competing with industry , and the country was short of labour . " He also held the post of chairman of the Council of the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of New South Wales . On 15 June 1977 , aged 68 , Becher died from a myocardial infarction at Sydney Hospital . Survived by his wife and their three sons , he was cremated .
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= 2006 Bank of America 500 =
The 2006 Bank of America 500 was the 31st stock car race of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the fifth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . It was held on October 14 , 2006 , before a crowd of 175 @,@ 000 in Concord , North Carolina , at Lowe 's Motor Speedway , one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races . The 334 @-@ lap race was won by Kasey Kahne of the Evernham Motorsports team , who started from second position . Jimmie Johnson finished second and Jeff Burton came in third .
Although Scott Riggs won the pole position , he was immediately passed by teammate Kahne at the start of the race . Riggs regained the lap twelve laps later , only to lose it to Tony Raines on the 19th lap . Riggs retook the lead on lap 31 and maintained it for the following sixteen laps , until he was passed by Dale Earnhardt , Jr. who led the next 31 laps . Kahne moved back into the first position on lap 96 , with Raines moving back into the lead on the 123rd lap . Kahne passed Raines to move back into the lead 15 laps later . Johnson moved into the lead on lap 168 and held the position for a total of 72 laps . At the race 's final restart on lap 307 Johnson led until he was passed two laps later by Kahne who maintained it to win the race . There was a total of ten cautions and 34 lead changes by thirteen different drivers .
The victory was Kahne 's sixth of the season , and the seventh of his career . After the race Burton maintained his lead in the Drivers ' Championship , which increased to 45 points over nearest rival Matt Kenseth . Kahne 's victory moved him from ninth to eighth , while Jeff Gordon dropped to tenth because his engine failed in the race 's closing laps . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , 48 points ahead of Dodge and 54 ahead of Ford with five races left in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Bank of America 500 was the 31st of 36 scheduled stock car races of the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series , and the fifth in the ten @-@ race season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . It was held on October 14 , 2006 , at Lowe 's Motor Speedway ( now called Charlotte Motor Speedway ) in Concord , North Carolina , one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Atlanta Motor Speedway , Kansas Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , Darlington Raceway , Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway , New Hampshire Motor Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Texas Motor Speedway . The standard track at Lowe 's Motor Speedway is a four @-@ turn , 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) -long , quad @-@ oval track . The track 's turns are banked at twenty @-@ four degrees ; both the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) and the back stretch ( opposite the front ) have a five @-@ degree banking .
Before the race Jeff Burton led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 598 points , with Matt Kenseth second , and Mark Martin third . Kevin Harvick and Denny Hamlin were fourth and fifth . Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , Jeff Gordon , Jimmie Johnson , Kasey Kahne , and Kyle Busch rounded out the top ten drivers competing in the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup . Chevrolet was leading the Manufacturers ' Championship with 231 points ; Dodge was second with 180 , and Ford was a close third on 179 . Johnson was the race 's defending champion . NASCAR mandated that teams use a 13 @.@ 8 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 52 l ; 11 @.@ 5 imp gal ) fuel cell which would allow fewer laps between pit stops and increase the occurrence of tire changes . Tire supplier Goodyear brought a new right @-@ hand tire compound in hopes that racing would be improved . Testing of the tires took place at the track on August 29 with drivers Joe Nemechek and Kurt Busch who believed Goodyear had rectified problems with harder @-@ compound tires that were raised at the previous round at Charlotte ( the Coca @-@ Cola 600 ) .
After he was rammed by his teammate Brian Vickers in the UAW @-@ Ford 500 , Johnson said the expectations for him to succeed at Lowe 's Motor Speedway were high and hoped the track 's surface would be more predictable . Martin said he was in the best position that he had been in for several years to win the championship , and stated he was less interested at looking at race results . Having secured one top @-@ ten finish in the season 's first four Chase for the Nextel Cup races , Earnhardt stated he need to secure a top @-@ five finishing position , and was determined to get his team more involved in the championship battle . Gordon had driven well at the circuit , but without finishing . His team brought the car he drove to victory in the season 's 18th race at Chicagoland Speedway . Gordon felt it would help him at intermediate tracks and get him back into championship contention . Following a poor start in the chase , which improved after he finished second at Talladega Superspeedway , Kahne believed the momentum would be carried into Charlotte and stated he would race hard to win races .
One team made its dΓ©but at the race . Red Bull Racing Team elected to start operations early as part of a warm @-@ up exercise to running a full @-@ time schedule in 2007 with 1988 NASCAR Winston Cup Series champion Bill Elliott driving the No. 83 car . Elliott would attempt to qualify the car at three races towards the end of the year . He said that his decision to join Red Bull was because of the organization , and its wiliness to become competitive , which had attracted him to the team . Elliott stated that he was required to qualify the car for the race and move up the field , and provide input that would allow the team to be prepared for the 2007 Daytona 500 .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race - one each on Thursday , Friday and , Saturday . The first practice session lasted 90 minutes , the second 60 minutes , and the third 50 minutes . Kahne set the fastest time in the first practice session with a lap of 28 @.@ 834 seconds ; Scott Riggs was second , and Kurt Busch third . Elliott Sadler took fourth position , and Martin placed fifth . Johnson , Nemechek , Martin Truex , Jr . , Jeff Green , and Hamlin rounded out the session 's top @-@ ten fastest drivers .
Although 52 cars were entered in the qualifier , according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only 43 could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Riggs clinched the third pole position of his career , and his third consecutive at Lowe 's Motor Speedway , with a time of 28 @.@ 203 seconds . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Kahne , his Evernham Motorsports teammate , and held the pole position until Riggs ' lap . Kurt Busch originally qualified in third , but his car 's right @-@ rear shock absorber was found to have violated NASCAR regulations during the post @-@ qualifying inspection because it did not work as required . Busch was required to start from 42nd position after using a provisional . As a result , Casey Mears inherited third , Sadler fourth , and Harvick fifth . Burton , Martin , Clint Bowyer , Reed Sorenson and Johnson rounded out the top ten qualifiers . Kenseth , a Chase for the Nextel Cup driver , qualified eleventh , while Earnhardt took 16th and Kyle Busch 18th . The nine drivers who failed to qualify were : Elliott , Kevin Lepage , Derrike Cope , Chad Chaffin , Hermie Sadler , Kirk Shelmerdine , Kenny Wallace ( who crashed on his first timed lap ) , Morgan Shepherd ( who elected not to set a lap time ) , and Carl Long ( who crashed while attempting to record a timed lap ) . After the qualifier Riggs said that his team knew his car was good , and achieved a good draw by recording his lap time in the latter period of the session . He stated when returning to the track , his team wanted to get back into a rhythm of starting and finishing in a top position .
On Friday afternoon Kyle Busch was fastest in the second practice session with a time of 29 @.@ 378 seconds , ahead of Kahne and Robby Gordon . Bowyer was fourth @-@ fastest ; Johnson was fifth and Truex sixth . Greg Biffle , Kurt Busch , Burton , and Martin followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Edwards was eleventh @-@ fastest , Hamlin set the twelfth @-@ fastest time , and Harvick was 15th . Ryan Newman crashed and switched to a back @-@ up car . Later , on Saturday afternoon , Earnhardt paced the final practice session with a time of 29 @.@ 357 ; Kyle Busch was second and Hamlin third . Kahne was fourth @-@ fastest , ahead of Johnson and Bowyer . Biffle was seventh @-@ fastest , Truex eighth , Riggs ninth , and Robby Gordon tenth . Other Chase drivers included Jeff Gordon in 13th and Burton in 15th ; all were within three @-@ tenths of a second of Earnhardt 's time .
= = = Race = = =
Live television coverage of the race on NBC began at 7 : 04 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time in the United States . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were sunny with an air temperature of 64 Β° F ( 18 Β° C ) which was forecast to drop as the race progressed . Dr. William K. Thierfelder , president of Belmont Abbey College in Belmont , North Carolina , began pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . American Idol contestant and country music singer Kellie Pickler performed the national anthem , and Mickey Jackson , the winner of a sponsored Grand Marshal contest , along with his five @-@ year @-@ old son Kalob , commanded the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Newman moved to the rear of the field because he switched to his back @-@ up car .
The race started at 7 : 21 p.m. Kahne accelerated faster than teammate Riggs off the line , and was ahead of him by the second turn . The first caution of the race was given one lap later when Todd Bodine contacted Robby Gordon in the tri @-@ oval . Gordon slid but regained control of his car with Bodine slowing . This triggered a multi @-@ car accident that involved Mike Bliss hitting the rear of Hamlin 's car sending him spinning down the front stretch which then involved Mike Skinner , Truex , Jeff Gordon , Jamie McMurray , Kyle Petty , J. J. Yeley , Travis Kvapil , David Gilliland , Tony Stewart , Kurt Busch , Newman , and Nemechek who blocked the track temporarily . Hamlin drove back to his garage where his team repaired his car . Kahne led the field at the lap @-@ nine restart , followed by Riggs and Mears . A caution was issued immediately at the start of lap nine , as the cars drove through the first turn , because three safety vehicles were on the track after crew members did not hear there would one further lap added before racing resumed , and the laps were counted towards the first caution . Several cars elected to make pit stops under caution . Stewart made repairs to his car 's body which was damaged in the lap two crash . Kahne maintained the top position at the lap twelve restart , with Riggs in second . Riggs reclaimed the first position from Kahne on the 13th lap ; after starting from 41st , Jeff Gordon moved up to 22nd position by lap 15 . Two laps later , Dave Blaney spun after leaving turn four and hit the outside barrier with his car 's left @-@ rear quarter , triggering the race 's second caution . Most of the field , including Riggs , chose to make pit stops for fuel and tires .
Tony Raines decided not to make a pit stop and led the field back up to speed at the lap @-@ 22 restart , ahead of Newman , McMurray , Terry Labonte , and Riggs . On the 23rd lap , Riggs and Kahne got ahead of Labonte for fourth and fifth positions . Riggs passed McMurray for third one lap later , and Kahne got ahead of McMurray for fourth on lap 25 . Newman fell to fourth place when he was passed by Riggs and Kahne two laps later . Riggs passed Raines for the lead on the 30th lap , while Kahne moved into second place . Truex hit the wall on the same lap but no caution was shown . Sorenson ran into the rear @-@ end of Dale Jarrett 's car , who spun backwards into the turn four wall , prompting the third caution . Jarrett retired from the race when he drove into his garage . All drivers elected to make pit stops for fuel under caution . Riggs maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 39 restart , followed by Kahne and Bowyer . Johnson got ahead of Sadler to move into eighth on lap 44 . On lap 46 , a fourth caution was given ; Todd Kluever was hit by Greg Biffle after leaving turn two and spun on the backstretch , causing Ken Schrader and Petty to hit Kluever . Michael Waltrip contacted the wall in avoidance . Most drivers ( including Riggs ) chose to make pit stops for fuel . Earnhardt led at the lap @-@ 53 restart ahead of Edwards , Newman , Biffle and , Sorenson who all chose not to pit . Riggs moved back into third place on lap 59 after passing Biffle and Newman . By lap 66 , Earnhardt held a 1 @.@ 78 @-@ second advantage over Edwards . Two laps later , Riggs passed Edwards to take over second place .
Riggs closed the gap to Earnhardt , and was 1 @.@ 5 seconds behind by lap 75 . Green @-@ flag pit stops began on lap 78 , with Earnhardt stopping on lap 79 , giving the lead back to Riggs . Kahne and Riggs made pit stops on the 85th lap for scuffed right @-@ hand tires . After the pit stops , which concluded on lap 91 , Riggs reclaimed the first position . Kahne closed the gap to teammate Riggs , who was holding a 0 @.@ 4 second lead , by lap 95 . One lap later , Kahne passed Riggs ( who complained his car was experiencing excessive understeer ) for first place . Earnhardt moved into second when he passed Riggs on the 100th lap . Lap 105 saw the fifth caution ; Waltrip lost control of his car and hit the turn four outside wall , which caused him to spin while attempting to make a pit stop for fuel . During the caution , all drivers again made pit stops . Kahne maintained the lead at the lap @-@ 110 restart , followed by Earnhardt and Bowyer . Gordon passed Bowyer to claim third position one lap later . Bowyer lost two further positions when he was passed on the 115th lap . A sixth caution was prompted on the following lap when Kurt Busch spun leaving turn two and hit the inside wall on the backstretch ; Sorenson lost control in turn two , while attempting to avoid Busch , and went towards the inside backstretch wall . Most of the leaders , including Kahne , made pit stops for fuel . Harvick and Kahne avoided a collision on pit road . Sadler led the field at the lap @-@ 121 restart , followed by Raines and Robby Gordon . Raines passed Sadler to reclaim the lead two laps later , while Sadler drove back to pit road with engine problems on lap 125 .
Kahne moved up into second place by lap 132 after passing Jeff Gordon , Earnhardt , and Robby Gordon . Johnson got ahead of Robby Gordon for fourth place one lap later . Kahne moved back into the lead after passing Raines on the backstretch on lap 138 , while Johnson moved into second one lap later . The second round of green @-@ flag pit stops commenced on lap 143 , when Robby Gordon made a pit stop for right @-@ side tires and car adjustments . Kahne stopped on lap 154 with Riggs . Jeff Gordon and Johnson made similar stops over the next three laps . After the pit stops , Kahne reclaimed the lead after battling with Raines . A seventh caution was given three laps later when Gilliland spun in turn two and contacted the inside wall heavily , and then drove to his garage to retire . Most of the leaders , including Kahne , made pit stops . Sterling Marlin stayed out and led at the lap @-@ 168 restart , ahead of Johnson . That same lap , Marlin lost the lead when Johnson passed him on the backstretch , and Marlin was passed by Kahne for second on lap 169 . Martin got ahead of Earnhardt for fifth position ten laps later . By lap 180 , Johnson held a 1 @.@ 4 @-@ second lead over Kahne . Gordon passed Martin for third on lap 182 , while Edwards got ahead of Kyle Busch for seventh two laps later . Upfront , Kahne closed the gap with Johnson to 0 @.@ 6 seconds by the 188th lap . The third round of green @-@ flag pit stops began on lap 199 ; Johnson stopped on lap 203 , while Earnhardt made a pit stop on the following lap . After the pit stops , Kahne retook the lead .
Johnson drove to the track 's inside at turn three and passed Kahne for the lead on lap 211 and started to pull away from the rest of the field . Bowyer drove to his garage on lap 216 for a transmission change because he lost the use of third gear . Jeff Gordon had closed the gap to Kahne by lap 229 . Green @-@ flag pit stops started six laps later when Kahne made a pit stop from second place . Johnson took on four tires at his stop on lap 239 , handing the lead to Jeff Gordon , who ceded it to Earnhardt two laps later . Martin 's pit crew dropped a lug nut which resulted him remaining stationary for 21 @.@ 7 seconds , while Burton stalled his car which required his crew to push him to the end of pit road . An eighth caution was triggered on lap 242 when Yeley attempted to drive down pit road , and made contact with Martin . He attempted to avoid Yeley by driving left below the driver to escape onto the turn four apron and went airborne . Martin spun and went into the tri @-@ oval wall , and Robby Gordon hit Yeley , causing Gordon to spin into the front stretch grass . Earnhardt made a pit stop on lap 244 , followed by Kahne on the following lap . Edwards gained the lead and maintained it at the lap @-@ 252 restart , followed by Earnhardt and Kahne . Five laps later , Kahne passed Edwards to reclaim the lead as they came across slower cars and began to pull away . Debris was located on the track on lap 276 , necessitating the race 's ninth caution . During the caution , the leaders elected to make pit stops .
Kahne maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 281 restart and pulled away from Earnhardt . Jeff Gordon passed Nemechek to move into fourth place on the following lap . Jeff Gordon 's engine failed after he crossed the start @-@ finish line on lap 302 , triggering the race 's final caution . The leaders , including Kahne , made pit stops for fuel under caution . Johnson led the field at the lap @-@ 307 restart , ahead of Kahne , Earnhardt and Burton . Kahne turned right to the track 's outside and passed Johnson around the inside in turn one for the lead on the 309th lap . Burton ( who felt a vibration from his car ) passed Earnhardt to take over third position seven laps later . Kahne increased his advantage over Johnson during the remaining seventeen laps to win the race and to become the eighth driver to win both points races at Lowe 's Motor Speedway in a calendar year . Johnson finished second , ahead of Burton in third , Earnhardt in fourth and Bobby Labonte in fifth . Kyle Busch , Raines , Edwards , Nemechek , and Vickers rounded out the top ten finishers . The race had a total of ten cautions and thirty @-@ four lead changes by thirteen different drivers . Kahne led eight times for a total of 134 laps , more than any other competitor . The win was the seventh of Kahne 's Cup Series career , as well as his final of a series @-@ high six victories he posted in the 2006 season .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Kahne appeared in victory lane in front of the crowd of 170 @,@ 000 to celebrate his sixth win of the season earning him $ 305 @,@ 889 . Kahne was delighted with his victory and thanked the people who worked on his car 's transmission and rear @-@ end : " We had a great car . It was unbelievable all night . I slammed it into second gear at the end of pit road one time and I thought I had to break something . This isn 't the special car . This car 's been good two other times this year , but it went to waste . It 's just an awesome team . " Second @-@ place finisher Johnson said he finished the event where he ran in its duration : β I only made up ten points . But ten points is ten points . β Third @-@ place finisher Burton was happy he was able to recover from a tire issue from the previous race at Talladega Superspeedway . However , he was upset that he stalled his engine as he felt it cost him the chance of victory . He also said the late @-@ race vibration was enough to scare him and he was glad the race ended because of the amount of shudder coming from his car : " I screamed , β We β ve got a wheel loose , we got a wheel loose β and they said , we do not have a wheel loose , we know we got them tight . "
Shortly after leaving his car , Martin felt the championship was an achievement that he was unable to secure : " They tell me a lot of people are having trouble anyway , but we didn 't need to throw that away , " He said he was unaware that Yeley intended to make a pit stop and , from his viewpoint , it allowed Kenseth to pass him while Yeley was coming from the centre of the track . Yeley said the pit stop was planned and signalled his intentions to Martin for over one mile . He felt Martin placed him in the position to hit the backstretch wall . Hamlin said the first @-@ lap crash that he was involved was part of auto racing , and stated it was problematic being involved in difficulties in the Chase for the Nextel Cup : " We checked up and somebody else ( Waltrip ) didn 't . I put myself back there in qualifying . We 'll take our lumps and go on . " Seventh @-@ place finisher Raines was happy to hold the first position for 28 laps saying it was " extra special " to lead a race at Charlotte . Tom Bowles of Frontstretch opined that had the caution flag not been displayed for the three safety vehicles on lap nine , it could have resulted in causing " one of the most disastrous accidents in NASCAR history . "
Johnson and Burton stated it was difficult to achieve a rhythm because of the small fuel cells mandated for the race and the hard @-@ compound tires . Temperatures had been warmer than the previous day 's Busch Series race and thus gave the drivers more grip though sliding was observed during both events . McMurray noted it was difficult to drive alongside other cars and that other competitors drove cautiously . Kenny Francis , Kahne 's crew chief , stated that he preferred to see longer runs but noted safety had to be taken into consideration . Four days after the race , Penske Racing South were given penalties for Kurt Busch 's car . The penalties , for " actions detrimental to stock car racing " ; " car , car parts , components and / or equipment that do not conform to NASCAR rules " ; and a right rear shock absorber that did not compress , included a $ 25 @,@ 000 fine and a two race suspension for crew chief Roy McCauley who was placed on probation until December 31 , 2006 . Team owner Roger Penske and Kurt Busch were penalized 50 points in the Owners ' and Drivers ' Championships . The following day , Penske Racing South announced it would not appeal the penalties .
The result kept Burton in the lead of the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 763 points , ahead of Kenseth on 5 @,@ 718 . Harvick moved into third with 5 @,@ 674 , thirteen points ahead of Martin who fell to fourth . Earnhardt moved in front of Hamlin for fifth , and Johnson , Kahne and Kyle Busch filled positions seven to nine . After the race , Jeff Gordon ( who fell to tenth ) said he would try and win races to return to contention for the championship . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 237 points . Dodge remained in second with 189 , six points ahead of Ford . The race took three hours , forty @-@ seven minutes and twenty @-@ nine seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 624 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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= Olive Trees ( Van Gogh series ) =
Vincent van Gogh painted at least 18 paintings of olive trees , mostly in Saint @-@ RΓ©my @-@ de @-@ Provence in 1889 . At his own request , he lived at an asylum there from May 1889 through May 1890 painting the gardens of the asylum and , when he had permission to venture outside its walls , nearby olive trees , cypresses and wheat fields .
One painting , Olive Trees in a Mountainous Landscape , was a complement to The Starry Night .
The olive tree paintings had special significance for Van Gogh . A group in May 1889 represented life , the divine and the cycle of life while those from November 1889 arose out of Van Gogh 's attempt to symbolize his feelings about Christ in Gethsemane . His paintings of olive pickers demonstrate the relationship between man and nature by depicting one of the cycles of life , harvesting or death . It is also an example of how individuals , through interaction with nature , can connect with the divine .
Van Gogh found respite and relief in interaction with nature . When the series of olive tree paintings was made in 1889 Van Gogh was subject to illness and emotional turmoil , yet the paintings are among his finest works .
= = Saint @-@ RΓ©my = =
In May 1889 , Van Gogh voluntarily entered the asylum of St. Paul near Saint @-@ RΓ©my in Provence . There he had access to an adjacent cell he used as his studio . He was initially confined to the immediate asylum grounds and painted ( without the window bars ) the world he saw from his room , such as ivy covered trees , lilacs , and irises in the garden . As he ventured outside of the asylum walls , he painted the wheat fields , olive groves , and cypress trees in the surrounding countryside , which he saw as " characteristic of Provence . " Over the course of the year , he painted about 150 canvases .
The imposed regimen of asylum life gave Van Gogh a hard @-@ won stability : " I feel happier here with my work than I could be outside . By staying here a good long time , I shall have learned regular habits and in the long run the result will be more order in my life . " While his time at Saint @-@ RΓ©my forced him to manage his vices , such as coffee , alcohol , poor eating habits and periodic attempts to consume turpentine and paint , his stay was not ideal . He needed to obtain permission to leave the asylum grounds . The food was poor ; he generally ate only bread and soup . His only apparent form of treatment were two @-@ hour baths twice a week . During his year there , Van Gogh had periodic attacks , possibly due to a form of epilepsy . By early 1890 , when the attacks worsened , he concluded that his stay at the asylum was not helping him to recover , which led him to move to Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise just north of Paris in May 1890 .
= = Olive trees as a subject = =
Painting the countryside , the surrounding fields , cypress trees and olive trees restored Van Gogh 's connection to nature through art . He completed at least 18 paintings in 1889 of " venerable , gnarled olive trees , " pervasive throughout southern France , of which he wrote :
" The effect of daylight and the sky means there are endless subjects to be found in olive trees . For myself I look for the contrasting effects in the foliage , which changes with the tones of the sky . At times , when the tree bares its pale blossoms and big blue flies , emerald fruit beetles and cicadas in great numbers fly about , everything is immersed in pure blue . Then , as the bronzer foliage takes on more mature tones , the sky is radiant and streaked with green and orange , and then again , further into autumn , the leaves take on violet tones something of the color of a ripe fig , and this violet effect manifests itself most fully with the contrast of the large , whitening sun within its pale halo of light lemon . Sometimes , too , after a shower I 've seen the whole sky pink and orange , which gave an exquisite value and coloring to the silvery gray @-@ greens . And among all this were women , also pink , who were gathering the fruit . "
He found olive trees , representative of Provence , both " demanding and compelling . " He wrote to his brother Theo that he was " struggling to catch ( the olive trees ) . They are old silver , sometimes with more blue in them , sometimes greenish , bronzed , fading white above a soil which is yellow , pink , violet tinted orange ... very difficult . " He found that the " rustle of the olive grove has something very secret in it , and immensely old . It is too beautiful for us to dare to paint it or to be able to imagine it . "
= = Spiritual significance = =
As a young man , Van Gogh was interested in pursuing ministry to serve working people . He studied for a time in the Netherlands but his zeal and self @-@ imposed asceticism cost him a short @-@ term position in lay ministry . He became somewhat embittered and rejected the church establishment , yet found a personal spirituality that was comforting and important to him . By 1879 , he made a shift in the direction of his life and found he could express his " love of God and man " through painting .
Van Gogh painted nature , the major subject for his works in the last 29 months of his life , to bring relief from his illnesses and emotional distress . Prior to this period he had rejected what he perceived as the narrow religion of his parents , and took an almost nihilistic stance , not unlike Nietzsche 's , toward religion and God . It was among the blossoming trees , the olive orchards and fields that Van Gogh most often found " profound meaning " , because he saw in their cycles an analogy to human life . He wrote to Theo that death , happiness and unhappiness are " necessary and useful " and relative , declaring " Even faced with an illness that breaks me up and frightens me , that belief is unshaken . "
The autumn work was somewhat in reaction to the recent compositions of Christ in the Garden of Olives by his friends Paul Gauguin and Γmile Bernard . Frustrated by their work which he qualified with the words " nothing was observed " , Van Gogh painted " in the groves , morning and evening during these clear , cold days , but in beautiful , bright sunshine " resulting in five canvases above the three he completed earlier in the year . He wrote to his brother , Theo , " What I have done is a rather hard and coarse reality beside their abstractions , but it will have a rustic quality and will smell of the earth . " Rather than attempting to recreate what the scene might have been like , he explained " one can express anguish without making reference to the actual Gethsemane , and ... there is no need to portray figures from the Sermon on the Mount in order to express a gentle and comforting feeling . " He also commented : " I shall not paint a Christ in the Garden of Olives , but shall paint the olive harvest as one might see it today , and by giving the human figure its proper place in it , one might perhaps be reminded of it . "
= = Analysis = =
= = = Artistic style = = =
Van Gogh 's early works were made with dull , gray colors . In Paris , he met leading French artists Edgar Degas , Georges Seurat and others who provided illuminating influences on the use of color and technique . His work , previously somber and dark , now " blazed with color . " Indeed , Van Gogh 's use of color became so dramatic that he was sometimes called an Expressionist . But it was southern France that provided an opportunity for him to express his " surging emotions . " Enlightened by the effects of its sun @-@ drenched countryside , Van Gogh reported that above all , his work " promises color " . This is where he began development of his masterpieces .
Van Gogh captured the colors and moods of the trees which varied dramatically by daylight and season . He began to use the color blue to represent the divine . In both The Starry Night and his olive tree paintings , Van Gogh used the intense blue of the sky to symbolize the " divine and infinite presence " of Jesus . Seeking a " modern artistic language " to represent the divine , he sought a numinous quality in many of his olive tree paintings , such as by bathing olive trees , an emblem for Jesus , in " radiant gold light " .
Van Gogh used the Impressionist concept of broken color to give light to a work , innovatively drawing in color , giving the painting light and form , as he also did in his paintings of plowed fields , mountains , rocks , and heads and figures . The series is unified by a more refined approach , without the thick application of paint to which he was more accustomed .
= = = Meaning = = =
The National Gallery of Art summarizes this series :
" In the olive trees β in the expressive power of their ancient and gnarled forms β Van Gogh found a manifestation of the spiritual force he believed resided in all of nature . His brushstrokes make the soil and even the sky seem alive with the same rustling motion as the leaves , stirred to a shimmer by the Mediterranean wind . These strong individual dashes do not seem painted so much as drawn onto the canvas with a heavily loaded brush . The energy in their continuous rhythm communicates to us , in an almost physical way , the living force that Van Gogh found within the trees themselves , the very spiritual force that he believed had shaped them . "
Skye Jethani , author of The Divine Commodity : Discovering a Faith Beyond Consumer Christianity , asserts that in many of his paintings , the olive tree series in particular , Van Gogh conveys the redemptive quality of sorrow and that even in sorrow , there can be rejoicing . To quote Van Gogh 's sermon of 1876 :
" Sorrow is better than joy ... for by the sadness of the countenance , the heart is made better . Our nature is sorrowful , but for those who have learnt and are learning to look at Jesus Christ , there will always be reason to rejoice . It is a good word , that of St. Paul : as being sorrowful yet also rejoicing . "
= = The paintings = =
In his letters , Van Gogh specified two groupings : three paintings made in June 1889 and five completed by late November 1889 . There was also a painting in September , three olive picker paintings in December and a few others . Van Gogh made several drawings of olive trees when , as a precautionary safety measure , he did not have access to his paints .
= = = Complement to The Starry Night = = =
Of Olive Trees in a Mountainous Landscape in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) , Van Gogh wrote his brother Theo : " I did a landscape with olive trees and also a new study of a starry sky , " calling this painting the daylight complement to the nocturnal , The Starry Night . His intention was to go beyond " the photographic and silly perfection of some painters " to an intensity born of color and linear rhythms .
Within the painting , twisted green olive trees stand before the foothills of the Alps and underneath the sky with an " ectoplasmic " cloud . Later , when the pictures had dried , he sent both of them to Theo in Paris , noting : " The olive trees with the white cloud and the mountains behind , as well as the rise of the moon and the night effect , are exaggerations from the point of view of the general arrangement ; the outlines are accentuated as in some old woodcuts . "
= = = Olive pickers = = =
Van Gogh painted three versions of women picking olives . The first ( F654 ) he described as an on @-@ the @-@ spot study " in deeper tones from nature " . The second painting ( F655 ) is " the most resolved and stylized of the three , " intended for his sister and mother , is located at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City .
The third , in the Chester Dale collection at the National Gallery of Art , Washington , DC . ( F656 ) he painted in his studio in December in a " very discreet color scheme " . Although the subject of the painting is immediately clear , the first tree , like a stepping stone , leads the spectator into the scene . Here Van Gogh was more concerned about emotional and spiritual reality than literal interpretation . The women harvest olives for sustenance . The way in which the trees seem to wrap around the women and the trees and the landscape are almost one , indicates an emotional bond and interdependence between nature and people .
Another painting was made of olive pickers , this time a couple . KrΓΆller @-@ MΓΌller Museum 's Olive Grove with Two Olive Pickers ( F587 ) was painted December , 1889 .
= = = Painted in May and June 1889 = = =
Van Gogh made four paintings in May and June 1889 . The first , Couple Walking among Olive Trees in a Mountainous Landscape with Crescent Moon ( F704 ) is located at the Museu de Arte de SΓ£o Paulo , SΓ£o Paulo , Brazil
Van Gogh identified three olive tree paintings made in June , the second month of his stay at the asylum .
The Nelson @-@ Atkins Museum of Art 's Olive Orchard ( F715 ) was expressed by Van Gogh in a letter of July 1889 as an orchard of olive trees with gray leaves , " their violet shadows lying on the sunny sand . " By contrast , the shadows accentuate the heat of the Provençal sun . The " repetitive , rectangular brush strokes " convey an energy that heightens the emotional impact of this work .
Van Gogh Museum 's Olive Trees : Bright Blue Sky ( F709 ) of cool , blue daylight tones is similar to GΓΆteborgs Museum of Art 's Olive Grove , a study in warm autumn colors . The autumn toned painting met Van Gogh 's goal of achieving a " harsh and coarse " realism to his work . He presented the painting to his friend and doctor , Dr. Gachet , with whom he would be under care and supervision in Auvers @-@ sur @-@ Oise the following year .
The KrΓΆller @-@ MΓΌller Museum Olive Orchard ( F585 ) was painted in June , 1889 .
= = = Painted in September , November and December 1889 = = =
The paintings made during this period were much the artistic result of Van Gogh 's reaction to the Gauguin and Bernard Gethsemane painting , as mentioned in the " Spiritual significance " section .
The intense nature of National Gallery of Scotland 's Olive Trees ( F714 ) likely expresses Van Gogh 's agitated state of mind when he completed this work , dramatic impact evidenced both through his brushstrokes and color use .
The vibrant oranges and yellows in Olive Trees with Yellow Sky and Sun ( F710 ) suggest the fall season . Novelist Warren Keith Wright visited this painting at the Minneapolis Institute of Art over a 15 @-@ year period , transfixed by the painting , but unsure why . He came to realize that the fascination was that the painting represented two periods of time . The late @-@ afternoon sun lies due west above the mountains . The shadows , though , slant from the left , or the southwest , where they would fall in autumn . Not only is the painting out of sync with time , it is also out of sync with the season . It " predicts its own future , reverts to its own past . " Olive Trees with Yellow Sky and Sun symbolizes the suffering of Jesus is symbolized by a " harsh sun , barren ground , shadows , and the menacing appearance of leaf clusters . "
In November or December 1889 Van Gogh worked on the Metropolitan Museum of Art 's Olive Orchard ( F708 ) . Another painting from this time is Olive Grove : Orange Sky ( F586 ) which resides at the GΓΆteborgs Museum of Art , Gothenburg , Sweden
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= Stone Temple Pilots ( album ) =
Stone Temple Pilots ( also known as The Red Album ) is the sixth studio album by American rock band Stone Temple Pilots . The album was released worldwide from May 21 through May 27 , 2010 , and is the band 's first album since 2001 's Shangri @-@ La Dee Da . The album is the result of the band 's reunion , which occurred in April 2008 with their North American tour . After Stone Temple Pilots had begun playing together , the band decided to record again , but a lawsuit filed by Atlantic Records on June 12 , 2008 , made the sixth album an uncertainty . Atlantic eventually withdrew the lawsuit , and the band 's attorney called the legal situation a " misunderstanding " . This is the last album to feature vocalist Scott Weiland before he was fired from the band in 2013 and died in 2015 .
Robert DeLeo , against Atlantic Records ' wishes , insisted that he and his brother Dean DeLeo produce the record themselves , which began production in early 2009 . Because recording took place during breaks in the band 's touring schedule , production took nearly ten months to complete . Three studios were used simultaneously , including Robert 's home studio and Eric Kretz 's Bomb Shelter Studios . Scott Weiland recorded vocals at his own Lavish Studios . Don Was was brought in as an additional producer to help keep the band 's separate recording sessions in sync , as well as to work closely with Weiland during the recording of his vocals . The album was completed in December 2009 , and mixing and mastering were finished by February 2010 .
The album received generally favorable reviews . Most critics agreed that Stone Temple Pilots was heavily inspired by country and rock music from the 1960s and 1970s . The band confirmed these assertions and that lyricists like Bob Dylan , and guitarists like Speedy West and Brad Whitford were influences . The album was promoted during the band 's performances at music festivals and headlining concerts , as well as in interviews with music websites and magazines , including Billboard and Spin , and radio and television talk shows . " Between the Lines " was the first single , released on March 22 . The second and third singles , " Take a Load Off " and " Cinnamon " , were released later in the year . Stone Temple Pilots sold 62 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 .
= = Background = =
After separating in 2003 , Stone Temple Pilots reunited in April 2008 for a 75 @-@ date North American tour . Scott Weiland would hear new material from Robert and Dean DeLeo while the band performed sound checks during the tour , but he would not collaborate in the songwriting process until he was through promoting his solo album , " Happy " in Galoshes .
Despite the band 's intent , a future album from the group was uncertain . On June 12 , 2008 , Atlantic Records filed a lawsuit against Weiland and Eric Kretz , claiming the two had threatened to terminate their contract unless changes were made . Stone Temple Pilots had delivered six albums ( five studio records and the compilation , Thank You ) and Atlantic wanted a seventh album with an option for two more . In a statement made by email , the band said they were surprised and disappointed by the lawsuit .
Stone Temple Pilots stressed that a new album would be recorded as long as both parties in the lawsuit acted in good faith , but in November 2008 , Weiland would comment , " I was told , and I was told for years , that we were free from Atlantic .... I have no interest in making a record for a major label . " Weiland expressed interest in exploring distribution options after the band 's reformation . Commenting on his idea , he said , " [ O ] ther bands , they make more money doing things in an unconventional fashion as opposed to doing it ... with the major labels . " Dean was curious about Weiland 's idea but was aware that the band was contractually obligated to release two more albums . Increasing the uncertainty in the future of a new album , Weiland added , " I 'm proud of everything we 've written . But to make another record would mean another couple of years of my life dedicated to that , and I just don 't know if that 's where I see myself going . "
The band 's attorney , Gary Stiffelman , clarified that the complaint was a result of a " misunderstanding " during contract negotiations , and a representative for Atlantic stated the lawsuit had been voluntarily dismissed . The final negotiation details between Atlantic and the band remain unknown . Weiland later clarified , " I didn 't want to record for Atlantic because I didn 't know anybody there anymore , except for Craig Kallman . Since then I 've gotten to know Craig much better , and I 've gotten to know the Atlantic staff pretty extensively . "
Recording a new album was , according to Robert , a " natural progression " after the band began playing together again . " The thing that kind of introduces us back together is all those memories of the songs , and once you start playing those songs ... it always takes us back to ... 18 years now . It can take us back to our past and think about where we were when we were writing these songs , and that 's a bond , I think , [ that ] will always keep us together as four people .... It just progressed into , ' Maybe it 's time to make a new record . ' "
= = Production = =
Stone Temple Pilots marks the first time Robert and Dean have written together since Army of Anyone 's only release in 2006 ; some of Dean 's contributions date from this period , but " Dare If You Dare " was written while Talk Show was touring . Robert and Dean began writing new material by November 2008 , but , except for clips played during the tour sound checks , Weiland would not hear anything new until after February 2009 . The recording process took place over a period of ten months , due largely to the band 's touring schedule , but the majority of actual studio time was spent experimenting with different instruments and miking techniques . Pre @-@ production for the album took place at Kretz 's Bomb Shelter Studios and consisted mainly of Dean , Robert , and Kretz sifting through musical ideas .
Robert insisted , against Atlantic Records ' initial wishes , that he and Dean produce the album together . This freed the band from the constraints of any outside producer 's schedule . The recording process could then be intertwined with tour dates , which , Dean said , resulted in improved performances on the record . Dean admitted they had been spoiled by working with producer Brendan O 'Brien on previous releases . " I 'm not so good at walking around the control room with a pen and clipboard in my hands , marking down what takes are the best . It 's a lot of work . But I like being the very best I can be , and when you 're producing , you are taking on everyone 's performances and wanting it to be the best it can be . "
The DeLeos often worked off each other when writing the songs . Robert 's primary instrument for composing was the bass , and Dean complimented his achievements : " It 's probably easier to tell a story through a piano or a guitar , but when [ someone ] can tell a story with a bass , that 's pretty remarkable . " Robert recognized the important roles each of the band members played in bringing his songs to life :
When I personally write a song , it 's such an honor and a pleasure to give that song to these guys , because I know that song is going to be interpreted the best way possible . Everyone 's going to put their imprint on that song and make that song the best STP song it can be , whether it be the playing or the arranging or the writing of everyone doing their part .... What has really been the body of our records has been that contribution of all of us as four people .
CDs were submitted to Weiland containing music in completed demo form , including scratch melodies , which Weiland had the option to use or discard . Dean did not mind when his melodies were not accepted by Weiland . " [ W ] hen I write a song , I know what I want it to be melodically . But Scott always ... knocks my melodies out of the water . " Weiland worked on the lyrics using these demo arrangements , often making suggestions for musical phrases to be doubled or moved . Weiland was credited for the lyrical melodies , but Robert pointed out , " This record was made in a way that Scott wasn 't really there for the creation of these songs , musically . " However , both Dean and Robert would be surprised at the direction Weiland would take the songs , which could have been composed with an entirely different vision . Robert found this to be a strength within the band . " People always have this misconception that a band all need to think alike ... [ There are ] so many different ways of looking at songs and [ how they 're ] put together , and that 's really the beauty of a great band " .
Working as an additional producer , Don Was helped keep Weiland 's and the rest of the band 's separate recording sessions in sync by bringing them together to perform live . When the band performed together , they would do so acoustically , so each member could hear the nuances of the songs . Weiland credited Was for helping Stone Temple Pilots re @-@ learn how to play together again . Was also worked closely with Weiland during the recording of the vocals .
By June 2009 , the band had written eighteen songs , twelve of which were planned to be released on the album , with B @-@ sides for Japan , the United Kingdom , and Europe selected from the remaining songs . Recording began in early 2009 , at times taking place in three studios simultaneously . Bass lines and overdubs were recorded at Homefry Studio , located in the basement of Robert 's house . The majority of " Cinnamon " and " First Kiss on Mars " , including drums , were recorded in Robert 's home studio . Dean 's guitars were recorded at Kretz 's Bomb Shelter Studios , and Weiland 's vocals were recorded at his Lavish Studios . By early December , nine songs had been finished , and the entire record was completed later that month . Mixing began in January 2010 with Chris Lord @-@ Alge , and mastering for the album was completed in February by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound . Robert described the overall feel of the album as having a " ' 60s vibe . " Though previous albums explored new sounds , Weiland acknowledged that the new album would be a " back @-@ to @-@ basics rock record . "
= = = Album title and artwork = = =
Several titles were considered before the band settled on the eponymous name . Kretz explained , " We 've always tried to come up with very witty and interesting names for our records and we just felt that it was time , 18 years into the Stone Temple Pilots career , to put out a self @-@ titled album . " Robert agreed that the new title was a testament to the " new chapter " in the band 's career . Weiland also felt the band was starting over and thought the music expressed this on its own . " We don 't need to come up with some major conceptual title . The image on the cover and the music speak for themselves . "
The album cover incorporates the artwork Peace Fingers Red , designed by Shepard Fairey . According to Kretz , " It was just something to kind of symbolize more of our attitude right now .... We definitely are in a really good place right now as a band and really want to spread some peace and love across the world as much we can . We 're going to do it through music and the celebration of rock and roll . " The artwork on the deluxe edition released in Target stores added gold foil to the patterns .
= = Composition = =
The music on Stone Temple Pilots was influenced by various styles , most notably country music and 1960s and 1970s rock . Various amps and vintage guitars from Dean 's and Robert 's personal collections were used to produce the desired sounds . Dean 's guitars included two 1970s Gibson Les Pauls , a 1956 Stratocaster , three Telecasters dating between 1965 and 1966 , and a 1960s double @-@ cut Danelectro . An assortment of amps were used , including 10- , 15- , and 20 @-@ watt Valco speakers and late 1960s 18- and 20 @-@ watt Marshall combos . Robert recorded the bass lines to " First Kiss on Mars " with a 1950s six @-@ string Danelectro Longhorn bass , and Weiland used Robert 's collection of vintage microphones for some of his vocals . Dean exclaimed , " Most bands do a retro thing and apologize for it . We 're unapologetically retro here . That was the whole idea ! "
Leading up to the recording process , Dean had been listening to country , drawing inspiration from 1960s guitarists like Jimmy Bryant , Speedy West , Hank Garland , Pete Drake , Hank Snow and Aerosmith 's Brad Whitford . Songs like " Hickory Dichotomy " gave Weiland and Kretz a " Down South " and " swampy kind of feeling " . Although it was recorded in standard tuning , " Hickory Dichotomy " features a slide guitar solo performed in open G. Both " Cinnamon " and " Maver " were recorded with a Telecaster set up for Nashville tuning , and Dean described " First Kiss on Mars " as having a " down @-@ home country kind of feel " , but noted Weiland 's influence on the song : " That title takes it to this whole other plateau . "
Several of the songs were inspired by 1960s and 1970s rock bands . " Between the Lines " was written with The Animals , The Zombies and Paul Revere & the Raiders in mind , and Weiland considered " Cinnamon " to be a combination of 1960s British pop and Ian Curtis ( of Joy Division ) . " Huckleberry Crumble " was inspired by Aerosmith , specifically " Same Old Song and Dance " . Dean admitted to the similarities : " The arrangement is almost the same : riff , solo , verse , chorus , solo , back to a second verse β it 's pretty much the same setup . " He also noted how the song sounded different depending on the type of instruments used to play it . " It 's amazing how , if you were to present that opening riff on a Tele really clean , it 's almost a country riff . But if you present it with a Les Paul through a Marshall , it takes on this whole different thing . "
Weiland 's lyrics were unique to previous albums , which had been solely focused on himself and his drug addictions . He studied lyricists to learn how to write differently . " [ In ] the ' 90s , I was so overwhelmed with my heroin addiction , and so a lot of the stuff was just from my point of view . Now , I tend to look at some of the greats like Leonard Cohen and Bob Dylan . I look at their storytelling [ and ] I try to tell stories . Every song doesn 't have to be narcissistically written about how I feel on that day . " Stone Temple Pilots became the third album Weiland had ever recorded sober , after Velvet Revolver 's Libertad and Stone Temple Pilot 's first album , Core . Weiland was also influenced by his ex @-@ wife , Mary Forsberg , about whom he specifically wrote on " Cinnamon " . Weiland 's inspiration for " First Kiss on Mars " came from the music itself . He explained his lyrics succinctly : " When I first heard [ the song ] , it sounded intergalactic . " Critics and interviewers of the band noticed that Weiland 's vocalizations were drawn from David Bowie .
= = Promotion and release = =
Stone Temple Pilots was promoted through various media outlets , including the Internet , radio , and on television , with live performances and interviews by the band . The earliest reported premiere of the album was on February 23 , 2010 , when the new album was played in its entirety at a private listening party held at Gramercy Park Hotel 's Rose Bar in New York City . Among those in attendance were Stone Temple Pilots , journalists from several venues , and Craig Kallman , Chairman and CEO of Atlantic Records . Stone Temple Pilots opened an early @-@ 2010 tour on March 18 at the South by Southwest music festival , where four new songs were premiered : " Between the Lines " , " Huckleberry Crumble " , " Bagman " , and " Hickory Dichotomy " . On March 27 , the band was filmed performing live at the Riviera Theatre in Chicago , Illinois . The footage appeared on VH1 's Friday Night Alright series two months later on May 21 , which included a performance of " Between the Lines " .
Beginning in late April , Amazon.com advertised that they would be streaming a new song in its entirety each week leading up to the release of the album . Four songs total were streamed , including " Between the Lines " , " Hickory Dichotomy " , " Bagman " , and " Huckleberry Crumble " . On May 21 , all twelve tracks of the album became available for streaming in their entirety on Billboard 's website . That same month , the band appeared on a radio talk show and two late night television talk shows . On May 18 , Stone Temple Pilots was the guest on the Howard Stern Show . The following night , May 19 , Stone Temple Pilots performed " Between the Lines " on the Late Show with David Letterman . The band performed two mini @-@ concerts for two episodes of Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . The first concert was recorded at the Gramercy Theater in Manhattan , New York , and aired on the evening of May 26 . The second concert was performed the following night and aired on May 27 . Stone Temple Pilots became Artist of the Month for American cable television network ESPN during June , though the network began featuring the band 's music during the month of May . Songs from previous releases , as well as " Fast As I Can " , " Cinnamon " , " Dare If You Dare " , and " Take a Load Off " , were played during the network 's television programming and were listed on the network 's website , which included links to purchase the songs .
Stone Temple Pilots was released worldwide over a period of a week . Several foreign markets released the album on May 21 , including Australia , Germany , and the Netherlands . The U.S. released the album on May 25 , and countries like Sweden , Finland , and Japan released the album on May 26 . Different versions of the album were released , including retailer @-@ specific versions . The standard 12 @-@ track album was released on CD and vinyl . Deluxe and Japanese versions of the album included a second disc with four bonus tracks . Target stores sold a deluxe edition version that included gold foil on the artwork and an 18 @-@ panel poster , and iTunes included a music video , an interview video , and a pre @-@ order bonus track .
On June 1 , " Between the Lines " was released , along with two other songs , as part of a Stone Temple Pilots pack for the rhythm video game Guitar Hero . On June 5 , the band performed at the KROQ Weenie Roast , hosted by the U.S. radio station . For the duration of June , the band played at various festivals in Europe , beginning with the Nova Rock Festival in Nickelsdorf , Austria , on June 11 and completing on June 28 in Sesto San Giovanni , Italy . The band returned to North America to perform at the rock festival Rock on the Range in Winnipeg , Canada , on August 7 . They launched their headline tour on August 10 at the Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison , Colorado .
= = = Singles = = =
" Between the Lines " became the album 's first single ; it was released digitally on the band 's Twitter page on March 22 , later peaking at number one on the Billboard Rock Songs chart.The music video for " Between the Lines " , directed by Christopher Sims , was shot on April 11 in Los Angeles , California , and premiered on Fuse TV 's Top 20 Countdown on May 7.The song was written by Robert , with a guitar solo written by Dean . Robert was inspired by the 1960s rock groups , The Zombies and The Animals , and who had been picturing " a ' 60s go @-@ go beat and a girl in a miniskirt " before Weiland changed the song 's meaning with his lyrics . Dean commented on how Weiland had turned " Between the Lines " into a love song : " Sometimes we don 't feel musically what Scott does lyrically . He took it to an exciting place . It 's pretty twisted . " Weiland 's lyrics reflected on his relationship with his ex @-@ wife , Mary Forsberg , and his history with drug abuse . Speaking of the at @-@ times strange lyrics , Weiland cited The Beatles ' " I Am the Walrus " as an inspiration . " Sometimes you throw together random words that phonetically sound good with the melody and then you get to the meat of the song in the chorus . " " Between the Lines " was originally the working title of the song , which Weiland incorporated into his lyrics .
" Take a Load Off " was the band 's second single , which was released on June 15 , and the accompanying music video was released in September . The video is a culmination of clips edited together , including moments with the band β both on and off stage β , samples of cartoons , and " all @-@ American imagery " . " Take a Load Off " topped the Alternative Chart at number 24 .
" Cinnamon " was released as the band 's third single , which debuted at number 49 on the Alternative Chart . The first music video for the song was filmed in mid @-@ 2010 , directed by Aggressive ( the combined efforts of directors Alex Topaller and Dan Shapiro ) , and produced by Anke Thommen , but the video was reshot . Kretz said simply that the first video had " the wrong director " . The second music video was filmed in December 2010 , directed by Dennis Roberts and photographed by Adam Bricker , however this video was also shelved in May 2011 without ever being released .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Stone Temple Pilots peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 61 @,@ 933 copies its first week . The album was prevented from reaching number one by the television soundtrack Glee : The Music , Volume 3 Showstoppers . The album dropped to number 16 in its second week and to number 45 in its third week . The album also peaked at number one on Billboard 's Hard Rock and Rock Albums charts , as well as number one on the Alternative Songs chart . The album reached the top 10 in two countries , Canada ( number two ) and New Zealand ( number 6 ) ; the top 40 in three countries , Australia ( number 21 ) , Finland ( number 35 ) and Switzerland ( number 36 ) ; and the top 100 for two countries , Austria ( number 54 ) and Germany ( number 52 ) . Sales for the album dropped 70 % in its second week , selling 18 @,@ 601 copies , and continued to drop another 44 % in its third week , selling 10 @,@ 473 copies . The fourth week saw sales drop 18 % , with 8 @,@ 538 copies sold .
= = Reception = =
= = = Previews and pre @-@ release = = =
On February 23 , 2010 , the album was previewed in its entirety during a private listening party at Gramercy Park Hotel 's Rose Bar in New York City . Craig Kallman , Chairman and CEO of Atlantic Records , delivered a speech praising the members of the band and their influence on the music industry , comparing them to Led Zeppelin . Several members of the audience described the songs as " Beatles @-@ esque " and the album " a natural , melodic progression for Stone Temple Pilots . " Robert DeLeo cautioned against the overuse of the " Beatles " label . " I think there 's always going to be a sense of Beatles on whatever anybody does . I mean , the Beatles have been such a huge influence and inspiration on music in general . The Beatles , they 're ingrained in everybody 's mind .... The Beatles are like our nursery rhymes for all of us ; it 's the planet 's nursery rhymes . "
William Goodman of Spin described the album as a " signature blend of tuneful melodies and rock guitar crunch , psychedelic solos and impressive crooning courtesy of Scott Weiland , " adding that two songs in the second half of the album were slower and performed with acoustic guitar . Rick Florino of ARTISTdirect.com extolled the album as " the rock record of the decade , " calling it " a masterpiece that will officially solidify STP alongside the Beatles , Led Zeppelin and the Rolling Stones as one of the greatest rock ' n ' roll bands of all time . "
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic suggested that Stone Temple Pilots proved the band members , after nearly a decade of side @-@ projects , needed each other . The album 's sound picked up where Shangri @-@ La Dee Da left off , but the lack of Brendan O 'Brien 's production , which Erlewine believed was a " key ingredient " to the previous albums , was evident . " [ W ] ith another set of ears in the studio ... perhaps the entire set would be sharpened . " Jon Dolan 's brief review in Entertainment Weekly called the music " cheap and easy pop @-@ rock mimicry " . He noted that Weiland sounded " effervescent " now that the singer was drug @-@ free , but Dolan still found his lyrics to " weigh him down " .
Brad Wheeler , writing for The Globe and Mail , wondered if the eponymous title was an allusion to the Atlantic Records contractual dispute . He went on to remark on the music 's combination of 90s era " guitar flash and crunch " and The Beatles . Wheeler did not think the album moved the band or its sound forward , calling it " a quasi @-@ comeback album that neither defiles nor builds upon the band 's legend . " Amirose Eisenbach of IGN wrote that the music was not " anything especially unique " . Eisenbach analyzed several tracks , observing that some songs " start off promising " only to result in " uninspired , generic hooks , " while other songs struggle with their musical direction . Despite this , Eisenbach felt the album had " enough going on inside the album 's 41 minutes that it 's worth a listen . "
Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa praised the band for " not reliving the past " , but he found enough similarities to the band 's previous releases to appeal to listeners . He considered the album successful because the band had been " reflecting their time apart and their work with Velvet Revolver and Army of Anyone . " Mike Schiller , writing for PopMatters , called the album 's title an appropriate fit with the band 's apparent ease of writing with " obvious " influences . He described the title as , " more homage than it is subconscious plagiarism , " before listing Nirvana , Aerosmith , Joy Division , John Lennon , David Bowie , and even the band 's Purple as having intentionally shaped the album . Schiller decided the album was a " bonus " because , in the near @-@ decade gap since the band 's last release , " people have moved on " . He concluded that Stone Temple Pilots is " a far more fitting epilogue " than the last album , before considering it , " perhaps , [ the ] next chapter " .
Ronnie Kerswell of Rock Sound said that the album " does not disappoint " , describing it as having " heady guitar trips and crunching grooves " . She found Weiland 's voice to be improved in part due to his sober lifestyle and wrote that the band was " back in action " . USA Today 's Jerry Schriver praised the band for releasing a " cohesive , self @-@ produced reunion album " , but admitted the tracks were not " timeless " . The songs were found to be " pleasant " but " disposable " and inoffensive . Schriver commended Dean DeLeo for keeping the " well @-@ constructed tunes " moving forward , despite Weiland 's lyrics . Allison Stewart , writing for The Washington Post , decided the album was a " small victory " and " respectable " but ultimately " a weirdly mild , tension @-@ free outing . " Like other critics , Stewart noticed the influences on the album , including country and " psych @-@ rock " , and thought the band was " better at mixing their influences in novel ways than at actually being novel themselves . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Scott Weiland .
= = Personnel = =
Band
Scott Weiland β lead vocals
Dean DeLeo β guitar , production
Robert DeLeo β bass , harmonizer , production
Eric Kretz β drums
Production
Chris Lord @-@ Alge β mixing
Don Was β additional producer
Ted Jensen β mastering
Russ Fowler β engineer
Bill Appleberry β engineer and all keyboards
Doug Grean β engineer
Mike Gerlach β assistant engineer
Jared Hirshland β assistant engineer
Arik Garcia β assistant engineer
Keith Armstrong β assistant mixer
Nik Karpen β assistant mixer
Brad Townsend β additional engineering
Andrew Schubert β additional engineering
Shepard Fairey β cover image
Mark Obriski β art direction & design
David J. Harrigan III β additional design
Chapman Baehler β photography
Dana DuFine β management
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Peasants ' Revolt =
The Peasants ' Revolt , also called Wat Tyler 's Rebellion or the Great Rising , was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381 . The revolt had various causes , including the socio @-@ economic and political tensions generated by the Black Death in the 1340s , the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the Hundred Years ' War , and instability within the local leadership of London . The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official , John Bampton , in Essex on 30 May 1381 . His attempts to collect unpaid poll taxes in Brentwood ended in a violent confrontation , which rapidly spread across the south @-@ east of the country . A wide spectrum of rural society , including many local artisans and village officials , rose up in protest , burning court records and opening the local gaols . The rebels sought a reduction in taxation , an end to the system of unfree labour known as serfdom and the removal of the King 's senior officials and law courts .
Inspired by the sermons of the radical cleric John Ball , and led by Wat Tyler , a contingent of Kentish rebels advanced on London . They were met at Blackheath by representatives of the royal government , who unsuccessfully attempted to persuade them to return home . King Richard II , then aged 14 , retreated to the safety of the Tower of London , but most of the royal forces were abroad or in northern England . On 13 June , the rebels entered London and , joined by many local townsfolk , attacked the gaols , destroyed the Savoy Palace , set fire to law books and buildings in the Temple , and killed anyone associated with the royal government . The following day , Richard met the rebels at Mile End and acceded to most of their demands , including the abolition of serfdom . Meanwhile , rebels entered the Tower of London , killing the Lord Chancellor and the Lord High Treasurer , whom they found inside .
On 15 June , Richard left the city to meet with Tyler and the rebels at Smithfield . Violence broke out , and Richard 's party killed Tyler . Richard defused the tense situation long enough for London 's mayor , William Walworth , to gather a militia from the city and disperse the rebel forces . Richard immediately began to re @-@ establish order in London and rescinded his previous grants to the rebels . The revolt had also spread into East Anglia , where the University of Cambridge was attacked and many royal officials were killed . Unrest continued until the intervention of Henry le Despenser , who defeated a rebel army at the Battle of North Walsham on 25 or 26 June . Troubles extended north to York , Beverley and Scarborough , and as far west as Bridgwater in Somerset . Richard mobilised 4 @,@ 000 soldiers to restore order . Most of the rebel leaders were tracked down and executed ; by November , at least 1 @,@ 500 rebels had been killed .
The Peasants ' Revolt has been widely studied by academics . Late 19th @-@ century historians used a range of sources from contemporary chroniclers to assemble an account of the uprising , and these were supplemented in the 20th century by research using court records and local archives . Interpretations of the revolt have shifted over the years . It was once seen as a defining moment in English history , but modern academics are less certain of its impact on subsequent social and economic history . The revolt heavily influenced the course of the Hundred Years ' War , by deterring later Parliaments from raising additional taxes to pay for military campaigns in France . The revolt has been widely used in socialist literature , including by the author William Morris , and remains a potent political symbol for the political left , informing the arguments surrounding the introduction of the Community Charge in the United Kingdom during the 1980s .
= = Background and causes = =
= = = Economics = = =
The Peasants ' Revolt was fed by the economic and social upheaval of the 14th century . At the start of the century , the majority of English people worked in the countryside , as part of a sophisticated economy that fed the country 's towns and cities and supported an extensive international trade . Across much of England , production was organised around manors , controlled by local lords β including the gentry and the Church β and governed through a system of manorial courts . Some of the population were unfree serfs , who had to work on their lords ' lands for a period each year , although the balance of free and unfree varied across England , and in the south @-@ east there were relatively few serfs . Some serfs were born unfree and could not leave their manors to work elsewhere without the consent of the local lord ; others accepted limitations on their freedom as part of the tenure agreement for their farmland . Population growth led to pressure on the available agricultural land , increasing the power of local landowners .
In 1348 a plague known as the Black Death crossed from mainland Europe into England , rapidly killing an estimated 50 per cent of the population . After an initial period of economic shock , England began to adapt to the changed economic situation . The death rate among the peasantry meant that suddenly land was relatively plentiful and manpower in much shorter supply . Labourers could charge more for their work and , in the consequent competition for labour , wages were driven sharply upwards . In turn , the profits of landowners were eroded . The trading , commercial and financial networks in the towns disintegrated .
The authorities responded to the chaos with emergency legislation ; the Ordinance of Labourers was passed in 1349 , and the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . These attempted to fix wages at pre @-@ plague levels , making it a crime to refuse work or to break an existing contract , imposing fines on those who transgressed . The system was initially enforced through special Justices of Labourers and then , from the 1360s onwards , through the normal Justices of the Peace , typically members of the local gentry . Although in theory these laws applied to both labourers seeking higher wages and to employers tempted to outbid their competitors for workers , they were in practice applied only to labourers , and then in a rather arbitrary fashion . The legislation was strengthened in 1361 , with the penalties increased to include branding and imprisonment . The royal government had not intervened in this way before , nor allied itself with the local landowners in quite such an obvious or unpopular way .
Over the next few decades , economic opportunities increased for the English peasantry . Some labourers took up specialist jobs that would have previously been barred to them , and others moved from employer to employer , or became servants in richer households . These changes were keenly felt across the south @-@ east of England , where the London market created a wide range of opportunities for farmers and artisans . Local lords had the right to prevent serfs from leaving their manors , but when serfs found themselves blocked in the manorial courts , many simply left to work illegally on manors elsewhere . Wages continued to rise , and between the 1340s and the 1380s the purchasing power of rural labourers increased by around 40 percent . As the wealth of the lower classes increased , Parliament brought in fresh laws in 1363 to prevent them from consuming expensive goods formerly only affordable by the elite . These sumptuary laws proved unenforceable , but the wider labour laws continued to be firmly applied .
= = = War and finance = = =
Another factor in the revolt of 1381 was the conduct of the war with France . In 1337 Edward III of England had pressed his claims to the French throne , beginning a long @-@ running conflict that became known as the Hundred Years ' War . Edward had initial successes , but his campaigns were not decisive . Charles V of France became more active in the conflict after 1369 , taking advantage of his country 's greater economic strength to commence cross @-@ Channel raids on England . By the 1370s , England 's armies on the continent were under huge military and financial pressure ; the garrisons in Calais and Brest alone , for example , were costing Β£ 36 @,@ 000 a year to maintain , while military expeditions could consume Β£ 50 @,@ 000 in only six months . Edward died in 1377 , leaving the throne to his grandson , Richard II , then only ten years old .
Richard 's government was formed around his uncles , most prominently the rich and powerful John of Gaunt , and many of his grandfather 's former senior officials . They faced the challenge of financially sustaining the war in France . Taxes in the 14th century were raised on an ad hoc basis through Parliament , then comprising the Lords , the titled aristocracy and clergy ; and the Commons , the representatives of the knights , merchants and senior gentry from across England . These taxes were typically imposed on a household 's movable possessions , such as their goods or stock . The raising of these taxes affected the members of the Commons much more than the Lords . To complicate matters , the official statistics used to administer the taxes pre @-@ dated the Black Death and , since the size and wealth of local communities had changed greatly since the plague , effective collection had become increasingly difficult .
Just before Edward 's death , Parliament introduced a new form of taxation called the poll tax , which was levied at the rate of four pence on every person over the age of 14 , with a deduction for married couples . Designed to spread the cost of the war over a broader economic base than previous tax levies , this round of taxation proved extremely unpopular but raised Β£ 22 @,@ 000 . The war continued to go badly and , despite raising some money through forced loans , the Crown returned to Parliament in 1379 to request further funds . The Commons were supportive of the young King , but had concerns about the amounts of money being sought and the way this was being spent by the King 's counsellors , whom they suspected of corruption . A second poll tax was approved , this time with a sliding scale of taxes against seven different classes of English society , with the upper classes paying more in absolute terms . Widespread evasion proved to be a problem , and the tax only raised Β£ 18 @,@ 600 β far short of the Β£ 50 @,@ 000 that had been hoped for .
In November 1380 , Parliament was called together again in Northampton . Archbishop Simon Sudbury , the new Lord Chancellor , updated the Commons on the worsening situation in France , a collapse in international trade , and the risk of the Crown having to default on its debts . The Commons were told that the colossal sum of Β£ 160 @,@ 000 was now required in new taxes , and arguments ensued between the royal council and Parliament about what to do next . Parliament passed a third poll tax ( this time on a flat @-@ rate basis of 12 pence on each person over 15 , with no allowance made for married couples ) which they estimated would raise Β£ 66 @,@ 666 . The third poll tax was highly unpopular and many in the south @-@ east evaded it by refusing to register . The royal council appointed new commissioners in March 1381 to interrogate local village and town officials in an attempt to find those who were refusing to comply . The extraordinary powers and interference of these teams of investigators in local communities , primarily in the south @-@ east and east of England , raised still further the tensions surrounding the taxes .
= = = Protest and authority = = =
The decades running up to 1381 were a rebellious , troubled period . London was a particular locus of unrest , and the activities of the city 's politically active guilds and fraternities often alarmed the authorities . Londoners resented the expansion of the royal legal system in the capital , in particular the increased role of the Marshalsea Court in Southwark , which had begun to compete with the city authorities for judicial power in London . The city 's population also resented the presence of foreigners , Flemish weavers in particular . Londoners detested John of Gaunt because he was a supporter of the religious reformer John Wycliffe , whom the London public regarded as a heretic . John of Gaunt was also engaged in a feud with the London elite and was rumoured to be planning to replace the elected mayor with a captain , appointed by the Crown . The London elite were themselves fighting out a vicious , internal battle for political power . As a result , in 1381 the ruling classes in London were unstable and divided .
Rural communities , particularly in the south @-@ east , were unhappy with the operation of serfdom and the use of the local manorial courts to exact traditional fines and levies , not least because the same landowners who ran these courts also often acted as enforcers of the unpopular labour laws or as royal judges . Many of the village elites refused to take up positions in local government and began to frustrate the operation of the courts . Animals seized by the courts began to be retaken by their owners , and legal officials were assaulted . Some started to advocate the creation of independent village communities , respecting traditional laws but separate from the hated legal system centred in London . As the historian Miri Rubin describes , for many , " the problem was not the country 's laws , but those charged with applying and safeguarding them " .
Concerns were raised about these changes in society . William Langland wrote the poem Piers Plowman in the years before 1380 , praising peasants who respected the law and worked hard for their lords , but complaining about greedy , travelling labourers demanding higher wages . The poet John Gower feared England might see an uprising similar to the French Jacquerie revolt of 1358 , in which the peasants had risen up against their masters . There was a moral panic about the threat posed by newly arrived workers in the towns and the possibility that servants might turn against their masters . New legislation was introduced in 1359 to deal with migrants , existing conspiracy laws were more widely applied and the treason laws were extended to include servants or wives who betrayed their masters and husbands . By the 1370s , there were fears that if the French invaded England , the rural classes might side with the invaders .
The discontent began to give way to open protest . In 1377 , the " Great Rumour " occurred in south @-@ east and south @-@ west England . Rural workers organised themselves and refused to work for their lords , arguing that , according to the Domesday Book , they were exempted from such requests . The workers made unsuccessful appeals to the law courts and the King . There were also widespread urban tensions , particularly in London , where John of Gaunt narrowly escaped being lynched . The troubles increased again in 1380 , with protests and disturbances across northern England and in the western towns of Shrewsbury and Bridgwater . An uprising occurred in York , during which John de Gisborne , the city 's mayor , was removed from office , and fresh tax riots followed in early 1381 . There was a great storm in England during May 1381 , which many felt to prophesy future change and upheaval , adding further to the disturbed mood .
= = Events = =
= = = Outbreak of revolt = = =
= = = = Essex and Kent = = = =
The revolt of 1381 broke out in Essex , following the arrival of John Bampton to investigate non @-@ payment of the poll tax on 30 May . Bampton was a member of Parliament , a Justice of the Peace and well @-@ connected with royal circles . He based himself in Brentwood and summoned representatives from the neighbouring villages of Corringham , Fobbing and Stanford @-@ le @-@ Hope to explain and make good the shortfalls on 1 June . The villagers appear to have arrived well @-@ organised , and armed with old bows and sticks . Bampton first interrogated the people of Fobbing , whose representative , Thomas Baker , declared that his village had already paid their taxes , and that no more money would be forthcoming . When Bampton and two sergeants attempted to arrest Baker , violence broke out . Bampton escaped and retreated to London , but three of his clerks and several of the Brentwood townsfolk who had agreed to act as jurors were killed . Robert Bealknap , the Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas , who was probably already holding court in the area , was empowered to arrest and deal with the perpetrators .
By the next day , the revolt was rapidly growing . The villagers spread the news across the region , and John Geoffrey , a local bailiff , rode between Brentwood and Chelmsford , rallying support . On 4 June , the rebels gathered at Bocking , where their future plans seem to have been discussed . The Essex rebels , possibly a few thousand strong , advanced towards London , some probably travelling directly and others via Kent . One group , under the leadership of John Wrawe , a former chaplain , marched north towards the neighbouring county of Suffolk , with the intention of raising a revolt there .
Revolt also flared in neighbouring Kent . Sir Simon de Burley , a close associate of both Edward III and the young Richard , had claimed that a man in Kent , called Robert Belling , was an escaped serf from one of his estates . Burley sent two sergeants to Gravesend , where Belling was living , to reclaim him . Gravesend 's local bailiffs and Belling tried to negotiate a solution under which Burley would accept a sum of money in return for dropping his case , but this failed and Belling was taken away to be imprisoned at Rochester Castle . A furious group of local people gathered at Dartford , possibly on 5 June , to discuss the matter . From there the rebels travelled to Maidstone , where they stormed the gaol , and then onto Rochester on 6 June . Faced by the angry crowds , the constable in charge of Rochester Castle surrendered it without a fight and Belling was freed .
Some of the Kentish crowds now dispersed , but others continued . From this point , they appear to have been led by Wat Tyler , whom the Anonimalle Chronicle suggests was elected their leader at a large gathering at Maidstone on 7 June . Relatively little is known about Tyler 's former life ; chroniclers suggest that he was from Essex , had served in France as an archer and was a charismatic and capable leader . Several chroniclers believe that he was responsible for shaping the political aims of the revolt . Some also mention a Jack Straw as a leader among the Kentish rebels during this phase in the revolt , but it is uncertain if this was a real person , or a pseudonym for Wat Tyler or John Wrawe .
Tyler and the Kentish men advanced to Canterbury , entering the walled city and castle without resistance on 10 June . The rebels deposed the absent Archbishop of Canterbury , Sudbury , and made the cathedral monks swear loyalty to their cause . They attacked properties in the city with links to the hated royal council , and searched the city for suspected enemies , dragging the suspects out of their houses and executing them . The city gaol was opened and the prisoners freed . Tyler then persuaded a few thousand of the rebels to leave Canterbury and advance with him on London the next morning .
= = = = March on the capital = = = =
The Kentish advance on London appears to have been coordinated with the movement of the rebels in Essex , Suffolk and Norfolk . Their forces were armed with weapons including sticks , battle axes , old swords and bows . Along their way , they encountered Lady Joan , the King 's mother , who was travelling back to the capital to avoid being caught up in the revolt ; she was mocked but otherwise left unharmed . The Kentish rebels reached Blackheath , just south @-@ east of the capital , on 12 June .
Word of the revolt reached the King at Windsor Castle on the night of 10 June . He travelled by boat down the River Thames to London the next day , taking up residence in the powerful fortress of the Tower of London for safety , where he was joined by his mother , Archbishop Sudbury , the Lord High Treasurer Sir Robert Hales , the Earls of Arundel , Salisbury and Warwick and several other senior nobles . A delegation , headed by Thomas Brinton , the Bishop of Rochester , was sent out from London to negotiate with the rebels and persuade them to return home .
At Blackheath , John Ball gave a famous sermon to the assembled Kentishmen . Ball was a well @-@ known priest and radical preacher from Kent , who was by now closely associated with Tyler . Chroniclers ' accounts vary as to how he came to be involved in the revolt ; he may have been released from Maidstone gaol by the crowds , or might have been already at liberty when the revolt broke out . Ball rhetorically asked the crowds " When Adam delved and Eve span , who was then a gentleman ? " and promoted the rebel slogan " With King Richard and the true commons of England " . The phrases emphasised the rebel opposition to the continuation of serfdom and to the hierarchies of the Church and State that separated the subject from the King , while stressing that they were loyal to the monarchy and , unlike the King 's advisers , were " true " to Richard . The rebels rejected proposals from the Bishop of Rochester that they should return home , and instead prepared to march on .
Discussions took place in the Tower of London about how to deal with the revolt . The King had only a few troops at hand , in the form of the castle 's garrison , his immediate bodyguard and , at most , several hundred soldiers . Many of the more experienced military commanders were in France , Ireland and Germany , and the nearest major military force was in the north of England , guarding against a potential Scottish invasion . Resistance in the provinces was also complicated by English law , which stated that only the King could summon local militias or lawfully execute rebels and criminals , leaving many local lords unwilling to attempt to suppress the uprisings on their own authority .
Since the Blackheath negotiations had failed , the decision was taken that the King himself should meet the rebels , at Greenwich , on the south side of the Thames . Guarded by four barges of soldiers , Richard sailed from the Tower on the morning of 13 June , where he was met on the other side by the rebel crowds . The negotiations failed , as Richard was unwilling to come ashore and the rebels refused to enter discussions until he did . Richard returned across the river to the Tower .
= = = Events in London = = =
= = = = Entry to the city = = = =
The rebels began to cross from Southwark onto London Bridge on the afternoon of 13 June . The defences on London Bridge were opened from the inside , either in sympathy for the rebel cause or out of fear , and the rebels advanced into the city . At the same time , the rebel force from Essex made its way towards Aldgate on the north side of the city . The rebels swept west through the centre of the city , and Aldgate was opened to let the rest of the rebels in .
The Kentish rebels had assembled a wide @-@ ranging list of people whom they wanted the King to hand over for execution . It included national figures , such as John of Gaunt , Archbishop Sudbury and Hales ; other key members of the royal council ; officials , such as Belknap and Bampton who had intervened in Kent ; and other hated members of the wider royal circle . When they reached the Marshalsea Prison in Southwark , they tore it apart . By now the Kent and Essex rebels had been joined by many rebellious Londoners . The Fleet and Newgate Prisons were attacked by the crowds , and the rebels also targeted houses belonging to Flemish immigrants .
On the north side of London , the rebels approached Smithfield and Clerkenwell Priory , the headquarters of the Knights Hospitaller which was headed by Hales . The priory was destroyed , along with the nearby manor . Heading west along Fleet Street , the rebels attacked the Temple , a complex of legal buildings and offices owned by the Hospitallers . The contents , books and paperwork were brought out and burned in the street , and the buildings systematically demolished . Meanwhile , John Fordham , the Keeper of the Privy Seal and one of the men on the rebels ' execution list , narrowly escaped when the crowds ransacked his accommodation but failed to notice he was still in the building .
Next to be attacked along Fleet Street was the Savoy Palace , a huge , luxurious building belonging to John of Gaunt . According to the chronicler Henry Knighton it contained " such quantities of vessels and silver plate , without counting the parcel @-@ gilt and solid gold , that five carts would hardly suffice to carry them " ; official estimates placed the value of the contents at around Β£ 10 @,@ 000 . The interior was systematically destroyed by the rebels , who burnt the soft furnishings , smashed the precious metal work , crushed the gems , set fire to the Duke 's records and threw the remains into the Thames and the city drains . Almost nothing was stolen by the rebels , who declared themselves to be " zealots for truth and justice , not thieves and robbers " . The remains of the building were then set alight . In the evening , rebel forces gathered outside the Tower of London , from where the King watched the fires burning across the city .
= = = = Taking the Tower of London = = = =
On the morning of 14 June , the crowd continued west along the Thames , burning the houses of officials around Westminster and opening the Westminster gaol . They then moved back into central London , setting fire to more buildings and storming Newgate Prison . The hunt for Flemings continued , and those with Flemish @-@ sounding accents were killed , including the royal adviser , Richard Lyons . In one city ward , the bodies of 40 executed Flemings were piled up in the street , and at the Church of St Martin Vintry , popular with the Flemish , 35 of the community were killed . Historian Rodney Hilton argues that these attacks may have been coordinated by the weavers ' guilds of London , who were commercial competitors of the Flemish weavers .
Isolated inside the Tower , the royal government was in a state of shock at the turn of events . The King left the castle that morning and made his way to negotiate with the rebels at Mile End in east London , taking only a very small bodyguard with him . The King left Sudbury and Hales behind in the Tower , either for their own safety or because Richard had decided it would be safer to distance himself from his unpopular ministers . Along the way , several Londoners accosted the King to complain about alleged injustices .
It is uncertain who spoke for the rebels at Mile End , and Wat Tyler may not have been present on this occasion , but they appear to have put forward their various demands to the King , including the surrender of the hated officials on their lists for execution ; the abolition of serfdom and unfree tenure ; " that there should be no law within the realm save the law of Winchester " , and a general amnesty for the rebels . It is unclear precisely what was meant by the law of Winchester , but it probably referred to the rebel ideal of self @-@ regulating village communities . Richard issued charters announcing the abolition of serfdom , which immediately began to be disseminated around the country . He declined to hand over any of his officials , apparently instead promising that he would personally implement any justice that was required .
While Richard was at Mile End , the Tower was taken by the rebels . A force of rebels , separate from those operating under Tyler at Mile End , approached the castle , possibly in the late morning . The gates were open to receive Richard on his return and a crowd of around 400 rebels entered the fortress , encountering no resistance , possibly because the guards were terrified by them .
Once inside , the rebels began to hunt down their key targets , and found Archbishop Sudbury and Robert Hales in the chapel of the White Tower . Along with William Appleton , John of Gaunt 's physician , and John Legge , a royal sergeant , they were taken out to Tower Hill and beheaded . Their heads were paraded around the city , before being affixed to London Bridge . The rebels found John of Gaunt 's son , the future Henry IV , and were about to execute him as well , when John Ferrour , one of the royal guards , successfully interceded on his behalf . The rebels also discovered Lady Joan and Joan Holland , Richard 's sister , in the castle but let them go unharmed after making fun of them . The castle was thoroughly looted of armour and royal paraphernalia .
In the aftermath of the attack , Richard did not return to the Tower but instead travelled from Mile End to the Great Wardrobe , one of his royal houses in Blackfriars , part of south @-@ west London . There he appointed the military commander Richard FitzAlan , the Earl of Arundel , to replace Sudbury as Chancellor , and began to make plans to regain an advantage over the rebels the following day . Many of the Essex rebels now began to disperse , content with the King 's promises , leaving Tyler and the Kentish forces the most significant faction in London . Tyler 's men moved around the city that evening , seeking out and killing John of Gaunt 's employees , foreigners and anyone associated with the legal system .
= = = = Smithfield = = = =
On 15 June the royal government and the remaining rebels , who were unsatisfied with the charters granted the previous day , agreed to meet at Smithfield , just outside the city walls . London remained in confusion , with various bands of rebels roaming the city independently . Richard prayed at Westminster Abbey , before setting out for the meeting in the late afternoon . The chronicler accounts of the encounter all vary on matters of detail , but agree on the broad sequence of events . The King and his party , at least 200 strong and including men @-@ at @-@ arms , positioned themselves outside St Bartholomew 's Priory to the east of Smithfield , and the thousands of rebels massed along the western end .
Richard probably called Tyler forwards from the crowd to meet him , and Tyler greeted the King with what the royal party considered excessive familiarity , terming Richard his " brother " and promising him his friendship . Richard queried why Tyler and the rebels had not yet left London following the signing of the charters the previous day , but this brought an angry rebuke from Tyler , who requested that a further charter be drawn up . The rebel leader rudely demanded refreshment and , once this had been provided , attempted to leave .
An argument then broke out between Tyler and some of the royal servants . The Mayor of London , William Walworth , stepped forward to intervene , Tyler made some motion towards the King , and the royal soldiers leapt in . Either Walworth or Richard ordered Tyler to be arrested , Tyler attempted to attack the Mayor , and Walworth responded by stabbing Tyler . Ralph Standish , a royal squire , then repeatedly stabbed Tyler with his sword , mortally injuring him .
The situation was now precarious and violence appeared likely as the rebels prepared to unleash a volley of arrows . Richard rode forwards towards the crowd and persuaded them to follow him away from Smithfields , to Clerkenwell Fields , defusing the situation . Walworth meanwhile began to regain control of the situation , backed by reinforcements from the city . Tyler 's head was cut off and displayed on a pole and , with their leader dead and the royal government now backed by the London militia , the rebel movement began to collapse . Richard promptly knighted Walworth and his leading supporters for their services .
= = = Wider revolt = = =
= = = = Eastern England = = = =
While the revolt was unfolding in London , John Wrawe led his force into Suffolk . Wrawe had considerable influence over the development of the revolt across eastern England , where there may have been almost as many rebels as in the London revolt . The authorities put up very little resistance to the revolt : the major nobles failed to organise defences , key fortifications fell easily to the rebels and the local militias were not mobilised . As in London and the south @-@ east , this was in part due to the absence of key military leaders and the nature of English law , but any locally recruited men might also have proved unreliable in the face of a popular uprising .
On 12 June , Wrawe attacked Sir Richard Lyons ' property at Overhall , advancing on to Cavendish and Bury St Edmunds in west Suffolk the next day , gathering further support as they went . John Cambridge , the Prior of the wealthy Bury St Edmunds Abbey , was disliked in the town , and Wrawe allied himself with the townspeople and stormed the abbey . The Prior escaped , but was found two days later and beheaded . A small band of rebels marched north to Thetford to extort protection money from the town , and another group tracked down Sir John Cavendish , the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench and Chancellor of the University of Cambridge . Cavendish was caught in Lakenheath and killed . John Battisford and Thomas Sampson independently led a revolt near Ipswich on 14 June . They took the town without opposition and looted the properties of the archdeacon and local tax officials . The violence spread out further , with attacks on many properties and the burning of the local court records . One official , Edmund Lakenheath , was forced to flee from the Suffolk coast by boat .
Revolt began to stir in St Albans in Hertfordshire late on 13 June , when news broke of the events in London . There had been long @-@ running disagreements in St Albans between the town and the local abbey , which had extensive privileges in the region . On 14 June , protesters met with the Abbot , Thomas de la Mare , and demanded their freedom from the abbey . A group of townsmen under the leadership of William Grindecobbe traveled to London , where they appealed to the King for the rights of the abbey to be abolished . Wat Tyler , then still in control of the city , granted them authority in the meantime to take direct action against the abbey . Grindecobbe and the rebels returned to St Albans , where they found the Prior had already fled . The rebels broke open the abbey gaol , destroyed the fences marking out the abbey lands and burnt the abbey records in the town square . They then forced Thomas de la Mare to surrender the abbey 's rights in a charter on 16 June . The revolt against the abbey spread out over the next few days , with abbey property and financial records being destroyed across the county .
On 15 June , revolt broke out in Cambridgeshire , led by elements of Wrawe 's Suffolk rebellion and some local men , such as John Greyston , who had been involved in the events in London and had returned to his home county to spread the revolt , and Geoffrey Cobbe and John Hanchach , members of the local gentry . The University of Cambridge , staffed by priests and enjoying special royal privileges , was widely hated by the other inhabitants of the town . A revolt backed by the Mayor of Cambridge broke out with the university as its main target . The rebels ransacked Corpus Christi College , which had connections to John of Gaunt , and the University 's church , and attempted to execute the University bedel , who escaped . The university 's library and archives were burnt in the centre of the town . The next day , the university was forced to negotiate a new charter , giving up its royal privileges . Revolt then spread north from Cambridge toward Ely , where the gaol was opened and the local Justice of the Peace executed .
In Norfolk , the revolt was led by Geoffrey Litster , a weaver , and Sir Roger Bacon , a local lord with ties to the Suffolk rebels . Litster began sending out messengers across the county in a call to arms on 14 June , and isolated outbreaks of violence occurred . The rebels assembled on 17 June outside Norwich and killed Sir Robert Salle , who was in charge of the city defences and had attempted to negotiate a settlement . The people of the town then opened the gates to let the rebels in . They began looting buildings and killed Reginald Eccles , a local official . William de Ufford , the Earl of Suffolk fled his estates and travelled in disguise to London . The other leading members of the local gentry were captured and forced to play out the roles of a royal household , working for Litster . Violence spread out across the county , as gaols were opened , Flemish immigrants killed , court records burned , and property looted and destroyed .
= = = = Northern and western England = = = =
Revolts also occurred across the rest of England , particularly in the cities of the north , traditionally centres of political unrest . In the town of Beverley , violence broke out between the richer mercantile elite and the poorer townspeople during May . By the end of the month the rebels had taken power and replaced the former town administration with their own . The rebels attempted to enlist the support of Alexander Neville , the Archbishop of York , and in June forced the former town government to agree to arbitration through Neville . Peace was restored in June 1382 but tensions continued to simmer for many years .
Word of the troubles in the south @-@ east spread north , slowed by the poor communication links of medieval England . In Leicester , where John of Gaunt had a substantial castle , warnings arrived of a force of rebels advancing on the city from Lincolnshire , who were intent on destroying the castle and its contents . The mayor and the town mobilised their defences , including a local militia , but the rebels never arrived . John of Gaunt was in Berwick when word reached him on 17 June of the revolt . Not knowing that Wat Tyler had by now been killed , John of Gaunt placed his castles in Yorkshire and Wales on alert . Fresh rumours , many of them incorrect , continued to arrive in Berwick , suggesting widespread rebellions across the west and east of England and the looting of the ducal household in Leicester ; rebel units were even said to be hunting for the Duke himself . Gaunt began to march to Bamburgh Castle , but then changed course and diverted north into Scotland , only returning south once the fighting was over .
News of the initial events in London also reached York around 17 June , and attacks at once broke out on the properties of the Dominican friars , the Franciscan friaries and other religious institutions . Violence continued over the coming weeks , and on 1 July a group of armed men , under the command of John de Gisbourne , forced their way into the city and attempted to seize control . The mayor , Simon de Quixlay , gradually began to reclaim authority , but order was not properly restored until 1382 . The news of the southern revolt reached Scarborough where riots broke out against the ruling elite on 23 June , with the rebels dressed in white hoods with a red tail at the back . Members of the local government were deposed from office , and one tax collector was nearly lynched . By 1382 the elite had re @-@ established power .
In the Somerset town of Bridgwater , revolt broke out on 19 June , led by Thomas Ingleby and Adam Brugge . The crowds attacked the local Augustine house and forced their master to give up his local privileges and pay a ransom . The rebels then turned on the properties of John Sydenham , a local merchant and official , looting his manor and burning paperwork , before executing Walter Baron , a local man . The Ilchester gaol was stormed , and one unpopular prisoner executed .
= = = Suppression = = =
The royal suppression of the revolt began shortly after the death of Wat Tyler on 15 June . Sir Robert Knolles , Sir Nicholas Brembre and Sir Robert Launde were appointed to restore control in the capital . A summons was put out for soldiers , probably around 4 @,@ 000 men were mustered in London , and expeditions to the other troubled parts of the country soon followed .
The revolt in East Anglia was independently suppressed by Henry le Despenser , the Bishop of Norwich . Henry was in Stamford in Lincolnshire when the revolt broke out , and when he found out about it he marched south with eight men @-@ at @-@ arms and a small force of archers , gathering more forces as he went . He marched first to Peterborough , where he routed the local rebels and executed any he could capture , including some who had taken shelter in the local abbey . He then headed south @-@ east via Huntingdon and Ely , reached Cambridge on 19 June , and then headed further into the rebel @-@ controlled areas of Norfolk . Henry reclaimed Norwich on 24 June , before heading out with a company of men to track down the rebel leader , Geoffrey Litster . The two forces met at the Battle of North Walsham on 25 or 26 June ; the Bishop 's forces triumphed and Litster was captured and executed . Henry 's quick action was essential to the suppression of the revolt in East Anglia , but he was very unusual in taking matters into his own hands in this way , and his execution of the rebels without royal sanction was illegal .
On 17 June , the King dispatched his half @-@ brother Thomas Holland and Sir Thomas Trivet to Kent with a small force to restore order . They held courts at Maidstone and Rochester . William de Ufford , the Earl of Suffolk , returned to his county on 23 June , accompanied by a force of 500 men . He quickly subdued the area and was soon holding court in Mildenhall , where many of the accused were sentenced to death . He moved on into Norfolk on 6 July , holding court in Norwich , Great Yarmouth and Hacking . Hugh , Lord la Zouche , led the legal proceedings against the rebels in Cambridgeshire . In St Albans , the Abbot arrested William Grindecobbe and his main supporters .
On 20 June , the King 's uncle , Thomas of Woodstock , and Robert Tresilian , the replacement Chief Justice , were given special commissions across the whole of England . Thomas oversaw court cases in Essex , backed up by a substantial military force as resistance was continuing and the county was still in a state of unrest . Richard himself visited Essex , where he met with a rebel delegation seeking confirmation of the grants the King had given at Mile End . Richard rejected them , allegedly telling them that " rustics you were and rustics you are still . You will remain in bondage , not as before , but incomparably harsher " . Tresilian soon joined Thomas , and carried out 31 executions in Chelmsford , then travelled to St Albans in July for further court trials , which appear to have utilised dubious techniques to ensure convictions . Thomas went on to Gloucester with 200 soldiers to suppress the unrest there . Henry Percy , the Earl of Northumberland , was tasked to restore order to Yorkshire .
A wide range of laws were invoked in the process of the suppression , from general treason to charges of book burning or demolishing houses , a process complicated by the relatively narrow definition of treason at the time . The use of informants and denunciations became common , causing fear to spread across the country ; by November at least 1 @,@ 500 people had been executed or killed in battle . Many of those who had lost property in the revolt attempted to seek legal compensation , and John of Gaunt made particular efforts to track down those responsible for destroying his Savoy Palace . Most had only limited success , as the defendants were rarely willing to attend court . The last of these cases was resolved in 1387 .
The rebel leaders were quickly rounded up . A rebel leader by the name of Jack Straw was captured in London and executed . John Ball was caught in Coventry , tried in St Albans , and executed on 15 July . Grindecobbe was also tried and executed in St Albans . John Wrawe was tried in London ; he probably gave evidence against 24 of his colleagues in the hope of a pardon , but was sentenced to be executed by being hanged , drawn and quartered on 6 May 1382 . Sir Roger Bacon was probably arrested before the final battle in Norfolk , and was tried and imprisoned in the Tower of London before finally being pardoned by the Crown . As of September 1381 , Thomas Ingleby of Bridgwater had successfully evaded the authorities .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The royal government and Parliament began to re @-@ establish the normal processes of government after the revolt ; as the historian Michael Postan describes , the uprising was in many ways a " passing episode " . On 30 June , the King ordered England 's serfs to return to their previous conditions of service , and on 2 July the royal charters signed under duress during the rising were formally revoked . Parliament met in November to discuss the events of the year and how best to respond to their challenges . The revolt was blamed on the misconduct of royal officials , who , it was argued , had been excessively greedy and overbearing . The Commons stood behind the existing labour laws , but requested changes in the royal council , which Richard granted . Richard also granted general pardons to those who had executed rebels without due process , to all men who had remained loyal , and to all those who had rebelled β with the exception of the men of Bury St Edmunds , any men who had been involved in the killing of the King 's advisers , and those who were still on the run from prison .
Despite the violence of the suppression , the government and local lords were relatively circumspect in restoring order after the revolt , and continued to be worried about fresh revolts for several decades . Few lords took revenge on their peasants except through the legal processes of the courts . Low @-@ level unrest continued for several more years . In September 1382 there was trouble in Norfolk , involving an apparent plot against the Bishop of Norwich , and in March the following year there was an investigation into a plot to kill the sheriff of Devon . When negotiating rents with their landlords , peasants alluded to the memory of the revolt and the threat of violence .
There were no further attempts by Parliament to impose a poll tax or to reform England 's fiscal system . The Commons instead concluded at the end of 1381 that the military effort on the Continent should be " carefully but substantially reduced " . Unable to raise fresh taxes , the government had to curtail its foreign policy and military expeditions and began to examine the options for peace . The institution of serfdom declined after 1381 , but primarily for economic rather than political reasons . Rural wages continued to increase , and lords increasingly sold their serfs ' freedom in exchange for cash , or converted traditional forms of tenure to new leasehold arrangements . During the 15th century the institution vanished in England .
= = Rebels = =
Chroniclers primarily described the rebels as rural serfs , using broad , derogatory Latin terms such as serviles rustici , servile genus and rusticitas . Some chroniclers , including Knighton , also noted the presence of runaway apprentices , artisans and others , sometimes terming them the " lesser commons " . The evidence from the court records following the revolt , albeit biased in various ways , similarly shows the involvement of a much broader community , and the earlier perception that the rebels were only constituted of unfree serfs is now rejected .
The rural rebels came from a wide range of backgrounds , but typically they were , as the historian Christopher Dyer describes , " people well below the ranks of the gentry , but who mainly held some land and goods " , and not the very poorest in society , who formed a minority of the rebel movement . Many had held positions of authority in local village governance , and these seem to have provided leadership to the revolt . Some were artisans , including , as the historian Rodney Hilton lists , " carpenters , sawyers , masons , cobblers , tailors , weavers , fullers , glovers , hosiers , skinners , bakers , butchers , innkeepers , cooks and a lime @-@ burner " . They were predominantly male , but with some women in their ranks . The rebels were typically illiterate ; only between 5 and 15 per cent of England could read during this period . They also came from a broad range of local communities , including at least 330 south @-@ eastern villages .
Many of the rebels had urban backgrounds , and the majority of those involved in the events of London were probably local townsfolk rather than peasants . In some cases , the townsfolk who joined the revolt were the urban poor , attempting to gain at the expense of the local elites . In London , for example , the urban rebels appear to have largely been the poor and unskilled . Other urban rebels were part of the elite , such as at York where the protesters were typically prosperous members of the local community , while in some instances , townsfolk allied themselves with the rural population , as at Bury St Edmunds . In other cases , such as Canterbury , the influx of population from the villages following the Black Death made any distinction between urban and rural less meaningful .
The vast majority of those involved in the revolt of 1381 were not represented in Parliament and were excluded from its decision @-@ making . In a few cases the rebels were led or joined by relatively prosperous members of the gentry , such as Sir Roger Bacon in Norfolk . Some of them later claimed to have been forced to join the revolt by the rebels . Clergy also formed part of the revolt ; as well as the more prominent leaders , such as John Ball or John Wrawe , nearly 20 are mentioned in the records of the revolt in the south @-@ east . Some were pursuing local grievances , some were disadvantaged and suffering relative poverty , and others appear to have been motivated by strong radical beliefs .
Many of those involved in the revolt used pseudonyms , particularly in the letters sent around the country to encourage support and fresh uprisings . They were used both to avoid incriminating particular individuals and to allude to popular values and stories . One popular assumed name was Piers Plowman , taken from the main character in William Langland 's poem . Jack was also a widely used rebel pseudonym , and historians Steven Justice and Carter Revard suggest that this may have been because it resonated with the Jacques of the French Jacquerie revolt several decades earlier .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Contemporary chroniclers of the events in the revolt have formed an important source for historians . The chroniclers were biased against the rebel cause and typically portrayed the rebels , in the words of the historian Susan Crane , as " beasts , monstrosities or misguided fools " . London chroniclers were also unwilling to admit the role of ordinary Londoners in the revolt , preferring to place the blame entirely on rural peasants from the south @-@ east . Among the key accounts was the anonymous Anonimalle Chronicle , whose author appears to have been part of the royal court and an eye @-@ witness to many of the events in London . The chronicler Thomas Walsingham was present for much of the revolt , but focused his account on the terror of the social unrest and was extremely biased against the rebels . The events were recorded in France by Jean Froissart , the author of the Chronicles . He had well @-@ placed sources close to the revolt , but was inclined to elaborate the known facts with colourful stories . No sympathetic accounts of the rebels survive .
At the end of the 19th century there was a surge in historical interest in the Peasants ' Revolt , spurred by the contemporary growth of the labour and socialist movements . Work by Charles Oman , Edgar Powell , AndrΓ© RΓ©ville and G. M. Trevelyan established the course of the revolt . By 1907 the accounts of the chroniclers were all widely available in print and the main public records concerning the events had been identified . RΓ©ville began to use the legal indictments that had been used against suspected rebels after the revolt as a fresh source of historical information , and over the next century extensive research was carried out into the local economic and social history of the revolt , using scattered local sources across south @-@ east England .
Interpretations of the revolt have changed over the years . 17th @-@ century historians , such John Smyth , established the idea that the revolt had marked the end of unfree labour and serfdom in England . 19th @-@ century historians such as William Stubbs and Thorold Rogers reinforced this conclusion , Stubbs describing it as " one of the most portentous events in the whole of our history " . In the 20th century , this interpretation was increasingly challenged by historians such as May McKisack , Michael Postan and Richard Dobson , who revised the impact of the revolt on further political and economic events in England . Mid @-@ 20th century Marxist historians were both interested in , and generally sympathetic to , the rebel cause , a trend culminating in Hilton 's 1973 account of the uprising , set against the context of wider peasant revolts across Europe during the period . The Peasants ' Revolt has received more academic attention than any other medieval revolt , and this research has been interdisciplinary , involving historians , literary scholars and international collaboration .
The name " the Peasants ' Revolt " emerged in the 18th and early 19th centuries , and its first recorded use by historians was in John Richard Green 's Short History of the English People in 1874 . Contemporary chronicles did not give the revolt a specific title , and the term " peasant " did not appear in the English language until the 15th century . The title has been critiqued by modern historians such as Miri Rubin and Paul Strohm , both on the grounds that many in the movements were not peasants , and that the events more closely resemble a prolonged protest or rising , rather than a revolt or rebellion .
= = = Popular culture = = =
The Peasants ' Revolt became a popular literary subject . The poet John Gower , who had close ties to officials involved in the suppression of the revolt , amended his famous poem Vox Clamantis after the revolt , inserting a section condemning the rebels and likening them to wild animals . Geoffrey Chaucer , who lived in Aldgate and may have been in London during the revolt , used the rebel killing of Flemings as a metaphor for wider disorder in The Nun 's Priest 's Tale part of The Canterbury Tales , parodying Gower 's poem . Chaucer otherwise made no reference to the revolt in his work , possibly because as he was a client of the King it would have been politically unwise to discuss it . William Langland , the author of the poem Piers Plowman , which had been widely used by the rebels , made various changes to its text after the revolt in order to distance himself from their cause .
The revolt formed the basis for the late 16th @-@ century play , The Life and Death of Jack Straw , possibly written by George Peele and probably originally designed for production in the city 's guild pageants . It portrays Jack Straw as a tragic figure , being led into wrongful rebellion by John Ball , making clear political links between the instability of late @-@ Elizabethan England and the 14th century . The story of the revolt was used in pamphlets during the English Civil War of the 17th century , and formed part of John Cleveland 's early history of the war . It was deployed as a cautionary account in political speeches during the 18th century , and a chapbook entitled The History of Wat Tyler and Jack Strawe proved popular during the Jacobite risings and American War of Independence . Thomas Paine and Edmund Burke argued over the lessons to be drawn from the revolt , Paine expressing sympathy for the rebels and Burke condemning the violence . The Romantic poet Robert Southey based his 1794 play Wat Tyler on the events , taking a radical and pro @-@ rebel perspective .
As the historian Michael Postan describes , the revolt became famous " as a landmark in social development and [ as ] a typical instance of working @-@ class revolt against oppression " , and was widely used in 19th and 20th century socialist literature . William Morris built on Chaucer in his novel A Dream of John Ball , published in 1888 , creating a narrator who was openly sympathetic to the peasant cause , albeit a 19th @-@ century persona taken back to the 14th century by a dream . The story ends with a prophecy that socialist ideals will one day be successful . In turn , this representation of the revolt influenced Morris 's utopian socialist News from Nowhere . Florence Converse used the revolt in her novel Long Will in 1903 . Later 20th century socialists continued to draw parallels between the revolt and contemporary political struggles , including during the arguments over the introduction of the Community Charge in the United Kingdom during the 1980s .
Conspiracy theorists , including writer John Robinson , have attempted to explain alleged flaws in mainstream historical accounts of the events of 1381 , such as the speed with which the rebellion was coordinated . Theories include that the revolt was led by a secret , occult organisation called " the Great Society " , said to be an offshoot of the order of the Knights Templar destroyed in 1312 , or that the fraternity of the Freemasons was covertly involved in organising the revolt .
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= M @-@ 188 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 188 is a 4 @.@ 559 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 337 km ) state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . It runs from Eaton Rapids to the VFW National Home for Children , southeast of town through a rural area . Approximately 1 @,@ 000 vehicles each day use a highway that was first designated in the 1930s and paved in the 1940s .
= = Route description = =
Starting in Eaton Rapids , M @-@ 188 heads eastward from the intersection with M @-@ 99 / M @-@ 50 ( Michigan highway ) toward the Grand River . The highway follows Water Street southeasterly along the river through residential neighborhoods and exits town . M @-@ 188 turns back due east on VFW Road to run through farm fields . Near the intersection with Tucker Road , the highway turns south and then southeasterly to avoid a bend in the river . After this bend , VFW Road once again runs due east to the intersection with Waverly Road . M @-@ 188 turns south on Waverly Road , which runs along the Eaton β Ingham county line . The M @-@ 188 designation ends at the VFW National Home for Children about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of VFW Road .
M @-@ 188 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that 986 vehicles in the city of Eaton Rapids , and 1 @,@ 103 used the trunkline outside of town , traveled along the highway on average . M @-@ 188 has not been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 188 was designated in late 1932 , providing highway access to the VFW National Home from Eaton Rapids in southeast Eaton County . In early 1941 , the trunkline was completely paved ; and the highway has been unchanged since .
= = Major intersections = =
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= No. 5 Operational Training Unit RAAF =
No. 5 Operational Training Unit was an operational training units ( OTU ) of the Royal Australian Air Force . It was formed at Wagga Wagga , New South Wales , in October 1942 to train bomber pilots and navigators for service in World War II . The unit was initially equipped with Bristol Beauforts and Beaufighters , and later received Douglas Bostons and de Havilland Mosquitos , among other types . It was transferred to Tocumwal in October 1943 , and then to Williamtown in mid @-@ 1944 . Disbanded in July 1947 , No. 5 OTU was re @-@ raised at Williamtown in April 1970 as a jet fighter conversion unit , operating CAC Sabres , de Havilland Vampires , and Macchi MB @-@ 326s . It ceased operations in July the following year .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
During World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established several operational training units ( OTUs ) to convert recently graduated pilots from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting ability to the flying skills they had already learned . No. 5 Operational Training Unit was formed at Forest Hill in Wagga Wagga , New South Wales , on 26 October 1942 . Initially equipped with five Bristol Beaufighters and two Bristol Beauforts , its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader B.F. Rose . The first training course ran from 2 November to 12 December 1942 . At the end of the month the unit 's strength was 170 personnel and sixteen aircraft . By mid @-@ 1943 this had increased to almost 400 personnel and twenty @-@ five aircraft , including four de Havilland DH @-@ 84s and one de Havilland Moth Minor , the remainder being Beauforts and Beaufighters . The unit 's aircraft complement was augmented by its first Airspeed Oxford in August 1943 .
By the time No. 5 OTU relocated to Tocumwal , New South Wales , on 20 October 1943 , it had begun running courses on Douglas Bostons . Its first de Havilland Mosquito arrived the following month . As of April 1944 , the unit had a complement of sixty @-@ three aircraft , including five Mosquitos . It ran conversion courses for experienced pilots and navigators , as well as training courses for newer aircrew . No. 4 Operational Training Unit disbanded at Williamtown , New South Wales , on 30 April 1944 ; a small detachment remained to hand the base over to an advance party from No. 5 OTU the following day . The rest of No. 5 OTU transferred to Williamtown during July . The unit commenced photo reconnaissance courses in August , and by October its strength was over 1 @,@ 000 personnel . Mosquito fighter ace Charles Scherf briefly served as chief flying instructor in late 1944 . November was marred by four fatal accidents in the space of three days .
No. 5 OTU had thirty crews under training in January 1945 , compared to a dozen in November 1942 . By this time its complement of aircraft had increased to seventy @-@ five , including twenty @-@ eight Mosquitos . Staffing reached its highest level of 1 @,@ 700 personnel in May . Ace Charles Crombie was the unit 's chief flying instructor when he was killed in a Beaufighter crash at Williamtown on 26 August 1945 . One of his fellow instructors at the time was Flight Lieutenant Charles " Bud " Tingwell . Leading Aircraftman Jack Brabham , then an engine mechanic at No. 5 OTU , witnessed the accident . The end of hostilities in the Pacific saw the dissolution of all the RAAF 's OTUs . On 1 February 1946 , No. 5 OTU was reorganised as a crew conversion unit , CCU ( Fighter ) , operating North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs and CAC Wirraways . By February 1947 the CCU had a complement of twenty @-@ eight aircraft and just under a hundred personnel . Activity began winding down in May , and the unit was disbanded on 7 July 1947 .
= = = Re @-@ establishment = = =
No. 5 OTU was re @-@ formed at Williamtown on 1 April 1970 to provide pilots with operational training prior to their conversion to the Dassault Mirage III fighter . The unit 's reactivation was celebrated with a dinner attended by its original commanding officer , B.F. Rose , and a flypast of forty @-@ nine aircraft from No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( OCU ) . No. 5 OTU was divided into instructional and operational flights , and conducted training in concert with Mirages from No. 2 OCU and No. 76 Squadron . Its aircraft also participated in joint exercises and display flights , including air shows celebrating the RAAF 's 1971 golden jubilee . The unit was equipped with forty CAC Sabre jet fighters , some de Havilland Vampire jet trainers , and eight Macchi MB @-@ 326s previously operated by No. 2 OCU for lead @-@ in fighter training . Vampire operations began winding down in September 1970 , and the type was withdrawn in April 1971 .
The last Sabre conversion course was completed in December 1970 . Early the following year , the Australian government announced that the Sabres were to be phased out and retired by July 1971 . At this time RAAF fighter pilots were trained progressively on the Winjeel , Macchi , Sabre and Mirage , but after considering the feasibility of direct Macchi @-@ to @-@ Mirage conversion , and the impracticability of maintaining the ageing Sabres , the government determined that it was possible to remove the Sabre from the process and retire the type , on the proviso that more Mirage trainers were made available ; it subsequently approved the purchase of six new Mirage IIID dual trainers to augment the ten already in service . No. 5 OTU was disbanded on 31 July 1971 , the date the Sabre was retired from RAAF service . The unit 's Macchis were transferred back to No. 2 OCU .
Following No. 5 OTU 's disbandment , one of its Sabres , A94 @-@ 983 , was among several donated by the Australian government to the Royal Malaysian Air Force . The aircraft was returned to the RAAF in 1978 , and subsequently put on display at RAAF Bases Richmond , New South Wales , and Point Cook , Victoria . In 2005 the RAAF loaned it to the Temora Aviation Museum , New South Wales , where it was restored to flying condition .
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= Darren Bent =
Darren Ashley Bent ( born 6 February 1984 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Championship club Derby County .
Bent started his career with Ipswich Town . After progressing through their youth system he made his first team debut in 2001 . He made 122 appearances and scored 48 goals in the league for Ipswich , before joining Charlton Athletic for a fee of Β£ 2 @.@ 5 million in 2005 . He was Charlton Athletic 's top goalscorer for two consecutive seasons and joined Tottenham Hotspur for a club record fee of Β£ 16 @.@ 5 million in 2007 . After two seasons at Tottenham he joined Sunderland . After a successful 18 months at Sunderland , he joined Aston Villa in 2011 . Bent had loans with Fulham , Brighton & Hove Albion and Derby County and after being released by Villa in 2015 joined Derby permanently .
He has represented England at under @-@ 15 , under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 17 , under @-@ 19 , under @-@ 21 and senior levels . He made 14 appearances and scored nine goals for the under @-@ 21 side , after making his debut against Italy in 2003 . He made his debut for the senior England side in 2006 against Uruguay , and has since made 13 appearances for England , scoring four goals . He scored his first goal on 7 September 2010 in a 3 β 1 UEFA Euro 2012 qualifying match victory against Switzerland .
= = Personal life = =
Bent was born in Tooting , London to a family of Jamaican descent . His father , Mervyn Bent , was a player in the youth systems of Wimbledon and Brentford . He moved to Huntingdon , Cambridgeshire at the age of 10 and attended Hinchingbrooke school and played for the Godmanchester Rovers youth system . As a youngster , Bent was a supporter of Arsenal , and used to have a season ticket at Highbury . He was handed a formal caution by police in June 2004 after he was alleged to have shot a 12 @-@ year @-@ old with a pellet gun . Bent refrains from drinking alcohol . Bent is a Christian .
= = Club career = =
= = = Ipswich Town = = =
Bent progressed through Ipswich Town 's youth system , having joined the club at the age of 14 in 1998 , after considering a possible career in athletics . He signed a professional contract with Ipswich on 2 July 2001 . He made his first team debut on 1 November 2001 in a 3 β 1 victory against Helsingborgs IF in the UEFA Cup , and scored his first senior goal in a 4 β 1 League Cup defeat to Newcastle United on 27 November 2001 .
He scored his first FA Premier League goal on 24 April 2002 in a 1 β 0 win over Middlesbrough . He finished the 2001 β 02 season with seven appearances and two goals in all competitions , and also saw his team Ipswich face relegation into the First Division . He scored the winning goal against Slovan Liberec in the UEFA Cup on 31 October 2002 and finished the 2002 β 03 season with 18 goals . The 2003 β 04 season finished with Bent scoring 16 goals , which was followed by 20 goals in the 2004 β 05 season , being the team 's joint highest goalscorer with Shefki Kuqi .
= = = Charlton Athletic = = =
He completed a transfer to Charlton Athletic on 1 June 2005 , which was worth an initial fee of Β£ 2 @.@ 5 million , but would have risen to Β£ 3 million if he made an agreed number of appearances for Charlton and for England . After the move , he said : " I am confident that Charlton will play an important role to play in the Premiership next season . This is a very strong team and I am glad that I will be a part of it . " On the opening day of the 2005 β 06 FA Premier League season , Bent scored two goals on his Charlton debut against Sunderland , and was named the Premier League player of the month for August . He scored in his first four games for the club , one of only six players to perform this feat in the Premier League . Bent was the highest scoring Englishman in the Premier League in the 2005 β 06 season , with 18 goals ( 22 overall ) , which made him third highest scorer and was given Charlton 's Player of the Year award . He signed an extension to his contract at Charlton in July , which contracted him until June 2010 . Bent finished the 2006 β 07 season with 13 goals in the Premier League , again finishing as Charlton 's top goalscorer , but was unable to prevent them from being relegated into the Championship after seven successive seasons of Premier League football . Charlton accepted a bid from West Ham United for him in June 2007 , but Bent was not interested in a move to Upton Park .
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
He completed a move to Tottenham Hotspur for a club record fee of Β£ 16 @.@ 5 million on 29 June 2007 , which was to be payable over three years and is inclusive of add @-@ on payments . Ipswich were entitled to 20 % of Charlton 's profit on Bent under a sell @-@ on clause , which gave the club an initial Β£ 2 @.@ 58 million . He scored his first goal for Tottenham in a friendly match against Stevenage Borough in their first pre @-@ season fixture of the 2007 β 08 season . Bent scored his first competitive goal for Tottenham in a 4 β 0 home victory over Derby County in August 2007 . This was followed up by scoring in the 6 β 1 win over Anorthosis Famagusta in the first round of the UEFA Cup on 20 September 2007 . Bent scored his 100th career goal on 9 March 2008 in the added time of a 4 β 0 league win over West Ham United . He also scored the 100th goal to be scored at White Hart Lane during the 2007 β 08 season on 22 March in a 2 β 0 win over Portsmouth . Bent went on to score one more goal that season , against Newcastle United , which he finished with 36 appearances and 8 goals .
He scored 12 goals for Tottenham during the 2008 β 09 pre @-@ season . His first league goal of the season came against Chelsea , which gave his side a 1 β 1 draw . He scored a header in the second half of Tottenham 's UEFA Cup first round game against WisΕa KrakΓ³w , giving the team a 2 β 1 victory . On 6 November , in a game against Dinamo Zagreb , Bent scored his first competitive hat @-@ trick for Tottenham . He followed this up with two goals in a 2 β 1 victory against Manchester City at the City of Manchester Stadium .
A miss in front of an open goal in the final minutes during a home game against Portsmouth in January 2009 , which cost Tottenham two points , prompted manager Harry Redknapp to claim " You will never get a better chance to win a match than that . My missus could have scored that one " . On 31 January he scored two goals in the period of two minutes against Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium after coming on as a second @-@ half substitute , in a match that eventually finished as a 3 β 2 defeat . Following the return of Robbie Keane at Tottenham , Redknapp assured Bent of his future at the club . He finished the season as Tottenham 's top goalscorer with 17 goals in 43 games .
= = = Sunderland = = =
Sunderland opened negotiations to sign Bent in July 2009 . The deal seemed delayed and through social networking website Twitter he accused chairman Daniel Levy of disrupting his move to Sunderland , although Bent later apologised , saying he acted out of frustration . He travelled to Sunderland to sign for the club after they agreed a fee with Tottenham , and after passing a medical , Bent signed for Sunderland on 5 August for an initial fee of Β£ 10 million plus potential additional payments , which later rose to Β£ 16 @.@ 5 million . He scored on his Sunderland debut , which was the only goal in a 1 β 0 victory against Bolton , and was followed with Sunderland 's opening goal against Chelsea in a 3 β 1 defeat . He scored a brace in the 4 β 1 win over Hull City to give himself his third and fourth goals in five games .
Bent scored Sunderland 's only goal against Burnley at Turf Moor , making the score 1 β 1 , before losing 3 β 1 . He scored again in a 5 β 2 win against Wolverhampton Wanderers , although after the game Sunderland manager Steve Bruce was left angry at Bent 's decision to give Sunderland 's second penalty kick to teammate Kenwyne Jones , after the latter " pleaded " with Bent to take the penalty so that he could get on the score sheet . Bent then scored the opening goal in a 2 β 2 draw with Manchester United at Old Trafford . He also scored in a 1 β 0 victory against Liverpool on 17 October 2009 when his shot hit a beach ball thrown onto the field by a Liverpool fan and past confused goalkeeper Pepe Reina into the net . Bent also scored in Sunderland 's victory 1 β 0 over Arsenal on 21 November 2009 when his initial header rebounded back to him off Fraizer Campbell . Bent scored his first hat @-@ trick for Sunderland in a 4 β 0 victory over Bolton on 9 March 2010 . He scored two goals , one a penalty , but missed two other penalties as they were saved by Heurelho Gomes in a 3 β 1 victory against former club Tottenham on 3 April . He finished the season with 25 goals in 40 appearances in all competitions , 24 of which came in the Premier League , amounting to 50 % of Sunderland 's 48 goals in the league that season .
Bent made his first appearance of the 2010 β 11 season in the opening game , a 2 β 2 draw with Birmingham City on 14 August and opened the scoring with a penalty in the 24th minute . He scored the winning goal with stoppage time penalty as Sunderland beat Manchester City 1 β 0 on 29 August . Bent scored the equaliser during stoppage time to earn Sunderland a 1 β 1 draw against Arsenal on 18 September . He then scored twice in Sunderland 's 2 β 2 draw at Liverpool .
= = = Aston Villa = = =
On 17 January 2011 , Bent submitted a transfer request , amid reports that Aston Villa had made a club record Β£ 18 million bid for him , which was rejected . Villa then submitted an improved offer of Β£ 18 million , potentially rising to Β£ 24 million , which was then accepted . The following day , Bent completed his move to Villa and signed a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal . He scored the winning goal on his debut against Manchester City in a 1 β 0 victory at Villa Park . Bent scored his second Villa goal in his third appearance for his side when he completed the full 90 minutes against Manchester United at Old Trafford in a 3 β 1 away defeat . Bent scored both of Villa 's goals in their 2 β 1 away victory over Arsenal in the penultimate game of the season on 15 May . The first was a nicely crafted volley after he chested down a Kyle Walker chipped pass , with the second coming a few minutes later after a slip from Arsenal 's Thomas Vermaelen allowed Ashley Young the time to thread a pass through the Gunners ' defence and Bent to sidefoot home for 2 β 0 . He finished the season with 9 goals in 16 Premier League appearances for Villa , becoming the club 's joint top @-@ scorer with Young , despite only joining in January . He was also the top English goalscorer in the Premier League and the fourth highest scorer overall that season with 17 goals in total , eight of which were scored for Sunderland .
= = = = 2011 β 12 season = = = =
In his first full season with Villa , Bent scored his first goal of the season against Blackburn Rovers in a 3 β 1 victory on 20 August 2011 . In his first match against former club Sunderland , a 2 β 2 draw at the Stadium of Light on 29 October 2011 , every time he received a touch on the ball he was booed by the home support . Bent then suffered an injury during the match against Bolton Wanderers and was out for the next few matches as a result . Bent caused controversy when a fan posted a picture and claimed the striker was out shopping while his teammates were losing 2 β 0 to Liverpool . It was later revealed Bent had been sent home to recover from his injury and afterwards he apologised to the Villa fans for his actions . After apologising , manager Alex McLeish reacted angrily to the " conspiracy theory " over Bent 's absence for Villa . This led to Bent having to deny a fall @-@ out with McLeish . Bent made his return as a 78th @-@ minute substitute in the match against Chelsea on 31 December 2011 , scoring the third goal to seal a 3 β 1 win at Stamford Bridge . After not scoring in the next two matches , Bent went on a run by scoring in the next four matches for Villa , including his first FA Cup goal in a Villa shirt on 29 January 2012 , against Arsenal in an eventual 3 β 2 defeat . Three days later , Bent scored his 100th Premier League goal as Villa came from behind to earn a 2 β 2 home draw against Queens Park Rangers . He was the 21st player to reach the milestone .
On 25 February 2012 , in a match against Wigan Athletic , Bent landed awkwardly on his ankle after tangling with AntolΓn Alcaraz . He was stretchered off the pitch with what was thought to be a serious injury . This was later confirmed two days later , after Bent had a scan on his ankle that revealed he had ruptured ligaments . He was out for three months which effectively ended his season with Villa and most likely his chance to play at UEFA Euro 2012 . Bent had recovered from his injury by mid @-@ May and was in contention for Villa 's final game of the 2011 β 12 season against Norwich City but was ultimately left out . This also gave him the possibility of making new England manager Roy Hodgson 's Euro 2012 squad . Bent vowed to prove his fitness to Hodgson , in the hope that he would be selected to play in the tournament . Bent once again finished as Villa 's top scorer with 10 goals in 25 appearances and vowed to stay on at the club .
= = = = 2012 β 13 season = = = =
In July 2012 , Bent was named interim captain of Aston Villa while Stiliyan Petrov continued to recover from leukaemia . On 28 August , he scored his first goal of the 2012 β 13 season in a 3 β 0 victory over League One Tranmere Rovers in the second round of the League Cup , his first goal for Villa since February 2012 . Bent lost the Villa captaincy to Ron Vlaar , after the Dutchman was appointed captain for the 2 β 0 victory against Swansea City on 15 September 2012 and thereafter . He scored his first league goal of the season on 22 September , in a 4 β 1 defeat away to Southampton . Bent then lost his starting place for the next league game against West Bromwich Albion , after the performances of Gabriel Agbonlahor and Christian Benteke during the midweek League Cup victory over Manchester City saw the pair start up front . However , after coming on for Benteke as a 68th @-@ minute substitute , Bent followed up his goal against Southampton by grabbing the equaliser in a 1 β 1 draw .
= = = = Season @-@ long loan at Fulham = = = =
Bent joined Villa 's Premier League rivals Fulham on a season @-@ long loan on 16 August 2013 . Bent scored his first goal for Fulham on 24 August 2013 on his debut , 18 minutes after replacing Damien Duff in a 3 β 1 defeat at home to London rivals Arsenal . On 24 September , only three minutes after coming on for Adel Taarabt , he scored the winner in a 2 β 1 home win over Everton in the third round of the League Cup . Again as a late substitute , this time for Dimitar Berbatov , he scored the only goal in Fulham 's home league win over Stoke City on 5 October , taking control of Pajtim Kasami 's shot and cutting past Robert Huth .
Despite scoring in the first game and replay against Norwich City in the third round of the FA Cup , Bent went 13 league games without scoring before an added @-@ time equaliser at Old Trafford to gain a 2 β 2 draw against Manchester United on 9 February after replacing Muamer TankoviΔ at half time . He finished his loan with six goals from 30 games , and Fulham were relegated into the Championship .
= = = = 2014 β 15 season = = = =
After returning from Fulham , Bent was reintegrated into the Villa first team for the 2014 β 15 season . In the first match since his return Bent scored two goals in a 3 β 1 pre @-@ season victory over Mansfield Town .
On 26 November 2014 , Bent joined Brighton & Hove Albion on a one @-@ month loan . Three days later he scored on his debut for the Championship club , opening a 1 β 2 defeat to his former employers Fulham at Falmer Stadium .
= = = Derby County = = =
After two goals in five games for Brighton , Bent was loaned to another Championship side , Derby County , on 2 January 2015 . He was signed by his former international manager Steve McClaren on a deal lasting until the end of the season . With his fourth goal in five games , he equalised in a 2 β 2 draw away to then league leaders Bournemouth on 10 February . Bent scored 12 goals from 17 appearances as Derby finished in eighth place in the Championship table , missing out on a play @-@ off place by one point . He was released by Villa on 8 June 2015 , ahead of a permanent transfer to Derby on a two @-@ year contract , with a one @-@ year option .
= = International career = =
Bent has represented England at under @-@ 15 , under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 17 , under @-@ 19 , under @-@ 21 and senior levels . He made his under @-@ 16 debut against Finland on 31 July 2000 , making 10 appearances and scoring three goals for the team , with his last appearance coming against Finland on 27 February 2001 . His debut for the under @-@ 19 team came against Germany on 14 February 2002 , scoring two goals in a 3 β 1 victory , and his third and final appearance was against Lithuania on 21 April . His first appearance for the under @-@ 21 team came against Italy on 11 February 2003 , which England lost 1 β 0 . He made 14 appearances and scored nine goals for the under @-@ 21 team , with his final appearance coming against France on 15 November 2005 . He received his first call up to the senior England team for the friendly against Denmark on 17 August , but did not play in the game . His England debut eventually came on 1 March 2006 , when he started against Uruguay at Anfield in a pre @-@ 2006 FIFA World Cup friendly match . He was not included in England 's World Cup squad when it was announced in May 2006 .
Despite having played for the senior side , Bent was recalled to the under @-@ 21 squad for their October 2006 qualification play @-@ offs against Germany . Later that month , he was recalled to the senior squad due to an injury to Andrew Johnson shortly after the squad 's announcement . He was called to the England squad for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier against Croatia in November 2007 . He came on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute as England lost 3 β 2 and failed to qualify for the tournament . He was called up to the team for a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Ukraine in March 2009 following an injury to striker Carlton Cole . He made his second start for England in a 1 β 0 friendly defeat to Brazil on 14 November 2009 . Bent was named in England 's preliminary 30 @-@ man squad for the 2010 World Cup on 11 May 2010 , although he was eventually omitted from the final 23 @-@ man squad on 1 June .
Bent scored his first international goal in England 's 3 β 1 away win over Switzerland after appearing as a substitute for Jermain Defoe in a Euro 2012 qualifier on 7 September 2010 . Capello stated he had been impressed with the improvement in Bent 's all @-@ round game since his World Cup omission and selected him in the starting XI for England 's friendly with Denmark , where he scored a tap @-@ in from a Theo Walcott cross . Bent retained his place for England 's Euro 2012 qualifier with Wales to make his first competitive international start on 26 March 2011 . In scoring England 's second goal he took his tally to three goals in his last three matches . Bent recovered from injury in time but was left out of the final 23 @-@ man squad for Euro 2012 as Hodgson felt Bent would not be fit enough to appear at the tournament .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 17 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 15 November 2011 .
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 15 November 2011 . England score listed first , score column indicates score after each Bent goal .
= = Honours = =
Individual
Charlton Athletic Player of the Year : 2005 β 06
Sunderland Player of the Year : 2009 β 10
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= Johor Bahru =
Johor Bahru ( Malaysian pronunciation : [ ΛjohorΛbahru ] , formerly known as Tanjung Puteri or Iskandar Puteri in the Malay language , is the capital of the state of Johor , Malaysia . As of the 2010 Malaysian census , Johor Bahru has a population of 497 @,@ 067 and it is the country 's second largest city and the southernmost city in the Malay Peninsula . Johor Bahru is connected to Singapore through Johor β Singapore Causeway .
Johor Bahru was founded in 1855 as Iskandar Puteri when the Sultanate of Johor came under the influence of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim . It was administered from Telok Blangah in Singapore . The area gradually developed into an agricultural centre when the Chinese and the Javanese migrated into the area . The area was renamed " Johor Bahru " in 1862 and became the capital of the Sultanate when the Sultanate administration centre was moved there from Telok Blangah in Singapore . During the reign of Sultan Abu Bakar , there was development and modernisation within the city ; with the construction of administrative buildings , schools , religious buildings , and railways connecting to Singapore . During World War II , the Japanese used the Istana Bukit Serene as their main base to launch a final attack on the last British stronghold in Singapore . Johor Bahru was occupied by the Japanese forces from 1942 to 1945 . After the war , Johor was administered as part of the Unfederated Malay States and Johor Bahru remained as its capital . Johor Bahru became the cradle of Malay nationalism after the war and gave birth to a political party named United Malays National Organisation ( UMNO ) in 1946 . After the formation of Malaysia in 1963 , Johor Bahru retained its status as state capital and was granted city status in 1994 . Central business district was developed in the city centre during the 1990s . More development funds were channelled to the city after the introduction of Iskandar Malaysia in 2006 .
Johor Bahru is the economic centre for the state of Johor . The economy of Johor Bahru is also influenced by Singapore because of large number of Singaporean people visiting here . There is also a large number of city 's residents working in Singapore . The Johor Port , which is located in the Johor Bahru metropolitan area , is one of the country 's major seaports . Sultanah Aminah Hospital is the largest hospital in the state . Among the tourist attractions around Johor Bahru are : Grand Palace , Chinese Heritage Museum , Johor Art Gallery , Sultan Ibrahim Building , Johor Bahru railway station , Danga Bay , Dataran Bandaraya Johor Bahru , Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque and Johor Bahru Old Chinese Temple .
= = Etymology = =
The present area of Johor Bahru was originally known as Tanjung Puteri , and was a fishing village of the Malays located near Singapore . Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim then renamed Tanjung Puteri to Iskandar Puteri once he arrived in the area in 1858 after acquiring the territory from Sultan Ali ; before it was renamed Johor Bahru by Sultan Abu Bakar following the Temenggong 's death . ( The suffix " Bahru " means " new " in Malay , normally written " baru " in standard spelling today but appearing with several variants in place names , such as Kota Bharu and Indonesian Pekanbaru . ) The British preferred to spell its name as Johore Bahru or Johore Bharu , but the current accepted western spelling is Johor Bahru , as Johore is only spelt Johor ( without the letter " e " at the end of the word ) in Malay language . The city is currently spelled as Johor Baru or Johor Baharu .
The city was also once known as " Little Swatow ( Shantou ) " by the Chinese community in Johor Bahru , as most of Johor Bahru 's Chinese residents are Teochew people whose ancestry can be traced back to Shantou , China . They arrived in the mid @-@ 1800s , during the reign of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim .
= = History = =
Due to a dispute between the Malays and the Bugis , the Johor @-@ Riau Empire was split on 1819 with the mainland Johor Sultanate came under the controls of Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim while the Riau @-@ Lingga Sultanate came under the control of the Bugis . The Temenggong intends to create a new administration centre for the Johor Sultanate to create a dynasty under the entity of Temenggong . As the Temenggong already has a close relationship with the British and the British intends to have control over trade activities in Singapore , a treaty was signed between Sultan Ali and Temenggong Ibrahim in Singapore on 10 March 1855 . According to the treaty , Ali will be crowned as the Sultan of Johor and receive $ 5 @,@ 000 ( in Spanish dollars ) with an allowance of $ 500 per month . In return , Ali was required to cede the sovereignty of the territory of Johor ( except Kesang of Muar which would be the only territory under his control ) to Temenggong Ibrahim . When both sides agreed on Temenggong acquiring the territory , he renamed it Iskandar Puteri and began to administer it from Telok Blangah in Singapore . As the area was still an undeveloped jungle , Temenggong encouraged the migration of Chinese and Javanese to clear the land and to develop an agricultural economy in Johor . The Chinese planted the area with black pepper and gambier , while the Javanese dug parit ( canals ) to drain water from the land , build roads and plant coconuts . During this time , a Chinese businessman , pepper and gambier cultivator , Wong Ah Fook arrived ; at the same time , Kangchu and Javanese labour contract systems was introduced by the Chinese and Javanese communities . After Temenggong 's death on 31 January 1862 , the town was renamed " Johor Bahru " and his position was succeeded by his son , Abu Bakar with the administration centre in Telok Blangah being moved to the area in 1889 .
= = = British administration = = =
In the first phase of Abu Bakar 's administration , the British only recognised him as a maharaja rather than a sultan . In 1855 , the British Colonial Office start to recognise his status as a Sultan after he met Queen Victoria . He managed to regain Kesang territory for Johor after a civil war with the aid of British forces and he boosted the town 's infrastructure and agricultural economy . Infrastructure such as the State Mosque and Royal Palace was built with the aid of Wong Ah Fook , who had become a close patron for the Sultan since his migration during the Temenggong reign . As the Johor @-@ British relationship improved , Abu Bakar also set up his administration under a British style and implemented a constitution known as Undang @-@ undang Tubuh Negeri Johor ( Johor State Constitution ) . Although the British have long became the adviser for the Sultanate of Johor , the Sultanate never came under direct colonial rule of the British . The direct colonial rule only came into effect when the status of the adviser was elevated to a status similar to that of a Resident in the Federated Malay States ( FMS ) during the reign of Sultan Ibrahim in 1904 . In Johor Bahru , the Malay Peninsula railway extension was completed in 1909 , and the completion of the Johor β Singapore Causeway , a causeway in 1923 that linked the railway and road systems between Singapore and the Malay Peninsula . Johor Bahru developed at a modest rate between the First and Second World Wars . The secretariat building β Sultan Ibrahim Building β was completed in 1940 as the British colonial government attempted to streamline the state 's administration .
= = = World War II = = =
The continuous development of Johor Bahru was , however , halted when the Japanese under General Tomoyuki Yamashita invaded the town on 31 January 1942 . As the Japanese had reached northwest Johor by 15 January , they easily captured major towns of Johor such of Batu Pahat , Yong Peng , Kluang and Ayer Hitam . The British and other Allied forces were forced to retreat towards Johor Bahru ; however , following a further series of bombings by the Japanese on 29 January , the British retreated to Singapore and blew up the causeway the following day as a final attempt to stop the Japanese advancement in British Malaya . The Japanese then used the Sultan 's residence of Istana Bukit Serene located in the town as their main temporary base for their future initial plans to conquest Singapore while waiting to reconnect the causeway . The Japanese chose the palace as their main base because they already knew the British would not dare to attack it as this would harm their close relationship with Johor .
In less than a month , the Japanese repaired the causeway and invaded the Singapore island easily . Soon after the war ended in 1946 , the town became the main hotspot for Malay nationalism in Malaya . Onn Jaafar , a local Malay politician who later became the Menteri Besar of Johor , formed the United Malay National Organisation party on 11 May 1946 when the Malays expressed their widespread disenchantment over the British government 's action for granting citizenship laws to non @-@ Malays in the proposed states of the Malayan Union . An agreement over the policy was then reached in the town with Malays agreeing with the dominance of economy by the non @-@ Malays and the Malays ' dominance in political matters being agreed upon by non @-@ Malays . Racial conflict between the Malay and non @-@ Malays , especially the Chinese , is being provoked continuously since the Malayan Emergency .
= = = Post @-@ independence = = =
When the Federation of Malaya , together with North Borneo , Sarawak and Singapore formed the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 , Johor Bahru continued as the state capital and more development was carried out , with the town 's expansion and the construction of more new townships and industrial estates . The Indonesian confrontation did not directly affect Johor Bahru as the main Indonesian landing point in Johor was in Labis . There is only one active Indonesian spy organisation in the town , known as Gerakan Ekonomi Melayu Indonesia ( GEMI ) . They frequently engaged with the Indonesian communities living there to contribute information for Indonesian commandos until the bombing of the MacDonald House in Singapore in 1965 . By the early 1990s , the town had considerably expanded in size , and was officially granted a city status on 1 January 1994 . Johor Bahru City Council was formed and the city 's current main square , Dataran Bandaraya Johor Bahru , was constructed to commemorate the event . A central business district was developed in the centre of the city from the mid @-@ 1990s in the area around Wong Ah Fook Street and the Johor β Singapore Causeway . The state and federal government channelled considerable funds for the development of the city β particularly more so after 2006 , when the Iskandar Malaysia was formed .
= = Capital city = =
As the capital city of Johor , the city plays an important role in the economic welfare of the population of the entire state . There is one member of parliament ( MP ) representing the single parliamentary constituency ( P.160 ) in the city . The city also elects two representatives to the state legislature from the state assembly districts of Tanjong Puteri and Stulang .
= = = Local authority and city definition = = =
The city is administered by the Johor Bahru City Council . The current mayor as of March 2016 is Haji A. Rahim Haji Nin , who took over from Dato ' Haji Abdul Rahman Mohamed Dewam on 16 August 2015 . Johor Bahru obtained city status on 1 January 1994 . The area under the jurisdiction of the Johor Bahru City Council includes Central District , Kangkar Tebrau , Kempas , Larkin , Majidee , Maju Jaya , Mount Austin , Pandan , Pasir Pelangi , Pelangi , Permas Jaya , Rinting , Tampoi , Tasek Utara and Tebrau . This covers an area of 220 square kilometres ( 85 sq mi ) .
= = Geography = =
Johor Bahru is located along the Straits of Johor at the southern end of Peninsular Malaysia . It is the southernmost city in the Malay Peninsula . Originally , the city area was only 12 @.@ 12 km2 ( 4 @.@ 68 sq mi ) in 1933 before been expanded to over 220 km2 ( 85 sq mi ) in 2000 . Mount Pulai , which stand at 654 metres ( 2 @,@ 146 ft ) above sea level , is located 19 km ( 12 mi ) from the city centre .
= = = Climate = = =
The city has an equatorial climate with consistent temperatures , a considerable amount of rain , and high humidity throughout the course of the year . Temperatures range from 25 @.@ 5 Β° C ( 77 @.@ 9 Β° F ) to 27 @.@ 8 Β° C ( 82 @.@ 0 Β° F ) with an annual rainfall of around 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 79 in ) , mostly from November until February . Although the climate is relatively uniform , it can change through the monsoon seasons with variation of wind speeds and direction , cloudiness , and wet and dry seasons throughout the year . There are two monsoon periods every year , the first one happens between December and February , and is known as north @-@ east Monsoon . It is characterised by heavy rains and winds from the north @-@ east . The second one is the south @-@ west Monsoon , characterised by relative dryness with winds driven from the south and south @-@ west . It occurs between June and August . There are two inter @-@ Monsoon periods from March to May and from September to November , which are relatively calm with less rain and weaker winds .
= = Demography = =
Johor Bahru has an official demonym where people are commonly referred to as " Johor Bahruans " . The terms " J.B @-@ ites " and " J.B @-@ ians " have also been used to a limited extent . People from Johor are called Johoreans .
= = = Ethnicity and religion = = =
The Malaysian Census in 2010 reported the population of Johor Bahru as 497 @,@ 067 . This makes it the country 's second largest city . The city 's population today is a mixture of three main races- Malays , Chinese and Indians- along with other bumiputras . Malays comprise the majority of the population at 240 @,@ 323 , followed by Chinese totalling 172 @,@ 609 , Indians totalling 33 @,@ 319 and others totalling 2 @,@ 957 . Non @-@ Malaysian citizens form a population of 42 @,@ 585 . Most of the Malays are chiefly descended from Riau Malay and Javanese people including significant minorities of ethnic Buginese and ethnic Banjarese among the majority ethnic Malay population . The Chinese mainly are from the majority Teochew , Hoklo , Hainanese and Hakka dialect groups , while the Indian community mainly consist of Tamils together with significant populations of Malayalees , Telugus and Sikh Punjabis .
= = = Languages = = =
The local ethnic Malays speak the Malay language , while the language primarily spoken by the local Chinese is Mandarin Chinese . The Chinese community is represented by several dialect groups : Teochew , Hainanese , Hakka and Hokkien . The Indian community mainly speaks Tamil , Malayalam , Telugu and Punjabi . The English language ( or Manglish ) is also used considerably , albeit more so among the older generation , who have attended school during the British rule .
= = Economy = =
Johor Bahru is one of the fastest @-@ growing cities in Malaysia after Kuala Lumpur . It is the main commercial centre for Johor and is located in the Indonesia β Malaysia β Singapore Growth Triangle . Tertiary @-@ based industry dominates the economy with thousands of Singaporeans and Indonesians and other international tourists visiting the city . It is the centre of financial services , commerce and retail , arts and culture , hospitality , urban tourism , plastic manufacturing , electrical and electronics and food processing . The city has a very close economic relationship with Singapore as many Singaporeans frequently visit for shopping , entertainment , and dining which increase the city income with the stronger Singapore dollar ; some Singaporeans have also chosen to live in the city . Due to this , Johor Bahru 's retail scene was continuously developed to meet the needs of its consumers . The main shopping districts are located within the city , with a number of large shopping malls located in the suburbs . A large numbers of the city 's residents work in Singapore , where the salaries are higher than in Malaysia . The presence of Singaporean and Chinese @-@ owned companies were also significant , with China being the fifth largest investor in Iskandar Malaysia after Singapore , the United States , Spain and Japan as of September 2014 . In 2014 , the sudden change of weekend rest days to Friday and Saturday from Saturday and Sunday by the Sultan of Johor had a relatively small impact to the city economy , with business especially affected . However , it boosted the tourism industry as the holidays would be able to start earlier on Sunday , attracting more tourists from Singapore . Johor Bahru is the location of numerous conferences , congress and trade fairs , such as the Eastern Regional Organisation for Planning and Housing and the World Islamic Economic Forum . The city is the first in Malaysia to practise a low @-@ carbon economy .
= = Transportation = =
= = = Land = = =
The internal roads linking different parts of the city are mostly federal roads constructed and maintained by Malaysian Public Works Department . There are five major highways linking the Johor Bahru Central Business District to outlying suburbs : Tebrau Highway and Johor Bahru Eastern Dispersal Link Expressway in the northeast , Skudai Highway in the northwest , Iskandar Coastal Highway in the west and Johor Bahru East Coast Highway in the east . Pasir Gudang Highway and the connecting Johor Bahru Parkway cross Tebrau Highway and Skudai Highway , which serve as the middle ring road of the metropolitan area . The Johor Bahru Inner Ring Road , which connects with the Sultan Iskandar customs complex , aids in controlling the traffic in and around the central business district . Access to the national expressway is provided through the North @-@ South Expressway and Senai @-@ Desaru Expressway . The Johor @-@ Singapore Causeway links the city to Woodlands , Singapore with a six @-@ lane road and a railway line terminating at the Southern Integrated Gateway . The Malaysia @-@ Singapore Second Link , located west of the metropolitan area , was constructed in 1997 to alleviate congestion on the Causeway . It is linked directly to the Second Link Expressway . Further expansion of other major highways in the city were currently in the process to improve the city road connection .
= = = = Public transportation = = = =
Larkin Sentral , located 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) northwest of the city centre , has direct bus services to and from many destinations in West Malaysia , southern Thailand and Singapore . Two types of taxis operate in the city ; the main taxi is either in red and yellow , blue , green or red while the larger , less common type is known as a limousine taxi , which is more comfortable but expensive . Most taxis in the city do not use their meter . The Johor Bahru Sentral railway station serves train services to Kuala Lumpur and Singapore . In 2015 , a new shuttle train service operated by Keretapi Tanah Melayu ( KTM ) was launched providing transport to Woodlands in Singapore .
= = = Air = = =
The city is served by Senai International Airport located at the neighbouring Senai town . Five airlines , AirAsia , Firefly , Malaysia Airlines , Malindo Air and Xpress Air , provide flights internationally and domestically . The city is also supposedly to become the main hub for a newly formed airline called Flymojo in October 2015 but were postponed due to certain issues surrounding the airline .
= = = Sea = = =
Johor Port is located on the eastern side of the metropolitan area in the industrial area of Pasir Gudang . It is one of the country 's most important seaports for commodities and mineral resources shipping , as Johor is home to a large number of major commercial plantations . The port is also the location of the majority of Malaysia 's resources refineries . The Port of Tanjung Pelepas , which ranks as Malaysia 's largest container port since 2004 lies in the western side of the metropolitan area . It is the 19th busiest container port in the world as of 2013 . Singapore 's seaports serve Johor Bahru 's transportation and logistics needs as they are less than an hour 's drive from the city . Boat services are also available to ports in Sumatra .
= = Other utilities = =
= = = Courts of law and legal enforcement = = =
The city high court complex is located along Dato ' Onn Road . The Sessions and Magistrate Courts is located on Ayer Molek Road , while another court for Sharia law is located on Abu Bakar Road . The Johor Police Contingent Headquarters is located on Tebrau Road . There are two district headquarters in the city , the Johor Bahru North District police headquarters in Skudai , and the Johor Bahru South District headquarters on Meldrum Road . Both also operate as police stations . There are around eleven police stations and seven police substations ( Pondok Polis ) in the south district while five police stations is located in the north district with six police substations . The city 's north district traffic police headquarters is located along Tebrau Road while the south district is in Skudai . There is one main prison called Johor Bahru Prison located in the city along the Ayer Molek road , but this has been closed down since 9 December 2005 . Other temporary lock @-@ ups or prison cells are available in most police stations in the city like other parts of Malaysia .
= = = Healthcare = = =
There are three public hospitals , four health clinics and thirteen 1Malaysia clinics in Johor Bahru . Sultanah Aminah Hospital , which is located along Persiaran Road , is the largest public hospital in the state with 989 beds . Another government funded hospital is the Sultan Ismail Specialist Hospital with 700 beds . Regency Specialist Hospital in Masai is the largest private hospital with 218 beds . Another large private health facility is the KPJ Puteri Specialist Hospital with 158 beds . Further healthcare facilities are currently being expanded to improve healthcare services in the city .
= = = Education = = =
Many government or state schools are available in the city . The secondary schools include English College Johore Bahru , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Engku Aminah , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Sultan Ismail , Sekolah Menengah Infant Jesus Convent , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan ( Perempuan ) Sultan Ibrahim and Sekolah Menengah Saint Joseph . In the district of Johor Bahru itself , there are a total of 41 secondary schools , one religious school , three vocational schools , one technical secondary school and one fully residential school . There are also a number of independent private schools in the city . These include Austin Heights , Excelsior International School , Foon Yew High School and the Sri Ara Schools . The Sri Ara Schools provide two curricula , the British @-@ based curriculum of International General Certificate of Secondary Education ( IGCSE ) under Cambridge International Examinations and the National Curriculum with emphasis on the English language that leads to the Malaysian Schools Certificate . Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has its main campus in the city and is the only public university there . The other private universities are University of Southampton Malaysian Campus , Raffles University Iskandar , Newcastle University Medicine Malaysia and Wawasan Open University . There are also a number of private college campuses and one polytechnic operating in the city ; these are Crescendo International College , KPJ College , Olympia College , Southern University College , Sunway College , Taylor 's College , College of Islamic Studies Johor and Politeknik Ibrahim Sultan .
= = = = Libraries = = = =
The Johor Public Library headquarters is the main library in the state , located off Yahya Awal Road . Another public library branch is the University Park in Kebudayaan Road , while there are other libraries or private libraries in schools , colleges , and universities . Two village libraries are available in the district of Johor Bahru .
= = Culture and leisure = =
= = = Attractions and recreation spots = = =
= = = = Cultural attractions = = = =
There are a number of cultural attractions in Johor Bahru . The Royal Abu Bakar Museum located within the Grand Palace building is the main museum in the city . The Johor Bahru Kwong Siew Heritage located in Wong Ah Fook Street housed the former Cantonese clan house that was donated by Wong Ah Fook . The Foon Yew High School houses many historical documents of the city history with a Chinese cultural heritage . A Chinese Heritage Museum on Ibrahim Road includes the history of Chinese migration to Johor along with a collection of documents , photos , and other artefacts . The Arts Plaza ( Plaza Seni ) on the Wong Ah Fook Street features the state heritage and cultures with exhibitions of art , cultural performances , clothes , fashion accessories , travel agencies , and batik fabrics .
The Johor Art Gallery in Petrie Road is a house gallery built in 1910 , known as the house for the former third Chief Minister of Johor , Abdullah Jaafar . The house features old architecture and became the centre for the collection of artefacts related to Johor 's cultural history since its renovation in 2000 .
= = = = Historical attractions = = = =
The Grand Palace is one of the historical attractions in the city , and is an example of Victorian @-@ style architecture with a garden . Tokoh Museum is another historical colonial building since 1886 which ever become the house for the Johor first Menteri Besar Jaafar Mohamed ; it is located on the top of Smile Hill ( Bukit Senyum ) overlooking the Johor Straits . The English College ( now Maktab Sultan Abu Bakar ) established in 1914 was located close to the Sungai Chat Palace before being moved to its present location at Sungai Chat Road ; some of the ruins are visible at the old site . The Sultan Ibrahim Building is another historical building in the city ; built in 1936 by British architect Palmer and Turner , it was the centre of the administration of Johor as since the relocation from Telok Blangah in Singapore , the Johor government never had its own building . Before the current railway station was built , there was Johor Bahru railway station ( formerly Wooden Railway ) which has now been turned into a museum after serving for 100 years since the British colonial era .
Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque , located along Skudai Road , is the main and the oldest mosque in the state . It was built with a combination of Victorian , Moorish and Malay architectures . The Johor Bahru Old Chinese temple , located on the Trus Road , hosts the Gods of five Chinese dialects spoken in the city . It was built in 1875 and renovated by the Persekutuan Tiong Hua Johor Bahru ( Johor Bahru Tiong Hua Association ) in 1994 β 95 with the addition of a small L @-@ shaped museum in one corner of the square premises . The Wong Ah Fook Mansion , the home of the late Wong Ah Fook , was a former historical attraction . It stood for more than 150 years but was demolished illegally by its owner in 2014 to make way for a commercial housing development without informing the state government . Other historical religious buildings include the Arulmigu Sri Rajakaliamman Hindu Temple , Sri Raja Mariamman Hindu Temple , Gurdwara Sahib and Church of the Immaculate Conception .
= = = = Leisure and conservation areas = = = =
The Danga Bay is a 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) area of recreational waterfront . There are around 15 established golf courses , of which two offer 36 @-@ hole facilities ; most of these are located within resorts . The city also features a number of paintball parks which are also used for off @-@ road motorsports activities .
The Johor Bahru Zoo is one of the oldest zoos in Malaysia ; built in 1928 covering 4 hectares ( 9 @.@ 9 acres ) of land , it was originally called " animal garden " before being handed to the state government for renovation in 1962 . The zoo has around 100 species of animals , including wild cats , camels , gorillas , orangutans , and tropical birds . Visitors can participate in activities such as horse riding or using pedalos .
= = = = Other attractions = = = =
Dataran Bandaraya was built after Johor Bahru was proclaimed as a city . The site features a clock tower , fountain and a large field . The Laman Tun Sri Lanang ( Tun Sri Lanang Park ) , named after Tun Sri Lanang ( Bendahara of the royal Court of the Johor Sultanate in the 16th and 17th centuries ) is located in the centre of the city . The Wong Ah Fook Street is named after Wong Ah Fook . The Tam Hiok Nee Street is named after Tan Hiok Nee , who was the leader of the former Ngee Heng Kongsi , a secret society in Johor Bahru . Together with the Dhoby Street , both are part of a trail known as Old Buildings Road ; they feature a mixture of Chinese and Indian heritages , reflected by their forms of ethnic business and architecture .
= = = = Shopping = = = =
Shopping malls in Johor Bahru include Johor Bahru City Square , Holiday Plaza , Komtar JBCC , KSL City , Plaza Pelangi , Sutera Mall , Plaza Kotaraya and Danga City Mall . New malls continue to be constructed in the city . The Mawar Handicrafts Centre , a government @-@ funded exhibition and sales centre , is located along the Sungai Chat road and sells various batik and songket clothes . Opposite this is the Johor Area Rehabilitation Organisation ( JARO ) Handicrafts Centre which sells items such as hand @-@ made cane furniture , soft toys and rattan baskets made by the physically disabled .
= = = = Entertainment = = = =
The oldest cinema in the city is the Broadway Theatre which mostly screens Tamil and Hindi movies . There are around five new cinemas available in the city with most of them located inside shopping malls .
= = = Sports = = =
The city 's main football stadium , Tan Sri Dato Haji Hassan Yunos Stadium has a capacity of around 30 @,@ 000 . The stadium is the home ground of Johor Darul Ta 'zim F.C. , also known as JDT . In Japan , this stadium is well known as the place of " the Joy of Johor Bahru " ; Japan National Football Team got the ticket to the FIFA World Cup at first in its history , by Masayuki Okano 's goal in 1997 .
There is also a futsal centre , known as Sports Prima , which has eight minimum @-@ sized FIFA approved futsal courts ; it is the largest indoor sports centre in the city .
= = = Radio stations = = =
Two radio stations have their offices in the city : Best FM ( 104 @.@ 1 ) and Johor FM ( 101 @.@ 9 ) .
= = International relations = =
Several countries have set up their consulates in Johor Bahru , including Indonesia and Singapore .
= = = Twin towns β Sister cities = = =
Johor Bahru currently has six sister cities :
= = Literature = =
Guinness , Patrick ( 1992 ) . On the Margin of Capitalism : People and development in Mukim Plentong , Johor , Malaysia . South @-@ East Asian social monographs . Singapore : Oxford University Press. p . 177 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 588556 @-@ 9 . OCLC 231412873 .
Lim , Patricia Pui Huen ( 2002 ) . Wong Ah Fook : Immigrant , Builder and Entrepreneur . Singapore : Times Editions . ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 232 @-@ 369 @-@ 9 . OCLC 52054305 .
Oakley , Mat ; Brown , Joshua Samuel ( 2009 ) . Singapore : city guide . Footscray , Victoria , Australia : Lonely Planet . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 74104 @-@ 664 @-@ 9 . OCLC 440970648 .
Winstedt , Richard Olof ; Kim , Khoo Kay ( 1992 ) . A History of Johore , 1365 β 1941 . M. B. R. A. S. Reprints ( 6 ) ( Reprint ed . ) . Kuala Lumpur : Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 983 @-@ 99614 @-@ 6 @-@ 1 . OCLC 255968795 .
John Drysdale ( 15 December 2008 ) . Singapore Struggle for Success . Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd. pp. 287 β . ISBN 978 @-@ 981 @-@ 4677 @-@ 67 @-@ 7 .
A Halim Hassan ( September 2013 ) . Meniti Impian ( in Malay ) . Trafford Publishing. pp. 84 β . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4907 @-@ 0086 @-@ 1 .
Jamie Han ( 2014 ) . " Communal riots of 1964 " . National Library Board . Archived from the original on 5 July 2015 . Retrieved 5 July 2015 .
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= Virginia =
Virginia ( / vΙrΛdΚΙͺnjΙ / vΙr @-@ JIN @-@ yΙ , UK / vΙrΛdΚΙͺniΙ / vΙr @-@ JIN @-@ ee @-@ Ι ) , officially the Commonwealth of Virginia , is a state located in the Mid @-@ Atlantic and / or Southern regions of the United States . Virginia is nicknamed the " Old Dominion " due to its status as the first colonial possession established in mainland British America , and " Mother of Presidents " because eight U.S. presidents were born there , more than any other state . The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay , which provide habitat for much of its flora and fauna . The capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond ; Virginia Beach is the most populous city , and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision . The Commonwealth 's estimated population as of 2014 is over 8 @.@ 3 million .
The area 's history begins with several indigenous groups , including the Powhatan . In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony . Slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colony 's early politics and plantation economy . Virginia was one of the 13 Colonies in the American Revolution and joined the Confederacy in the American Civil War , during which Richmond was made the Confederate capital and Virginia 's northwestern counties seceded to form the state of West Virginia . Although the Commonwealth was under one @-@ party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction , both major national parties are competitive in modern Virginia .
The Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law @-@ making body in the New World . The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 . It is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally , manages local roads , and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms . Virginia 's economy has many sectors : agriculture in the Shenandoah Valley ; federal agencies in Northern Virginia , including the headquarters of the Department of Defense and CIA ; and military facilities in Hampton Roads , the site of the region 's main seaport . Virginia 's economy changed from primarily agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s , and in 2002 computer chips became the state 's leading export .
= = Geography = =
Virginia has a total area of 42 @,@ 774 @.@ 2 square miles ( 110 @,@ 784 @.@ 7 km2 ) , including 3 @,@ 180 @.@ 13 square miles ( 8 @,@ 236 @.@ 5 km2 ) of water , making it the 35th @-@ largest state by area . Virginia is bordered by Maryland and Washington , D.C. to the north and east ; by the Atlantic Ocean to the east ; by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south ; by Kentucky to the west ; and by West Virginia to the north and west . Virginia 's boundary with Maryland and Washington , D.C. extends to the low @-@ water mark of the south shore of the Potomac River . The southern border is defined as the 36 Β° 30 β² parallel north , though surveyor error led to deviations of as much as three arcminutes . The border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893 , when their dispute was brought to the U.S. Supreme Court .
= = = Geology and terrain = = =
The Chesapeake Bay separates the contiguous portion of the Commonwealth from the two @-@ county peninsula of Virginia 's Eastern Shore . The bay was formed from the drowned river valleys of the Susquehanna River and the James River . Many of Virginia 's rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay , including the Potomac , Rappahannock , York , and James , which create three peninsulas in the bay .
The Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line . It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay . The Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock @-@ based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era . The region , known for its heavy clay soil , includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville . The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state , the tallest being Mount Rogers at 5 @,@ 729 feet ( 1 @,@ 746 m ) . The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley . The region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain . The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia , south of the Allegheny Plateau . In this region , rivers flow northwest , with a dendritic drainage system , into the Ohio River basin .
The Virginia Seismic Zone has not had a history of regular earthquake activity . Earthquakes are rarely above 4 @.@ 5 in magnitude , because Virginia is located away from the edges of the North American Plate . The largest earthquake , at an estimated 5 @.@ 9 magnitude , was in 1897 near Blacksburg . A 5 @.@ 8 magnitude earthquake struck central Virginia on August 23 , 2011 , near Mineral . The earthquake was reportedly felt as far away as Toronto , Atlanta and Florida .
Coal mining takes place in the three mountainous regions at 45 distinct coal beds near Mesozoic basins . Over 62 million tons of other non @-@ fuel resources , such as slate , kyanite , sand , or gravel , were also mined in Virginia in 2012 . The state 's carbonate rock is filled with more than 4 @,@ 000 caves , ten of which are open for tourism . 35 million years ago , a bolide impacted what is now eastern Virginia . The resulting crater may explain sinking and earthquakes in the region .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Virginia becomes increasingly warmer and more humid farther south and east . Seasonal extremes vary from average lows of 26 Β° F ( β 3 Β° C ) in January to average highs of 86 Β° F ( 30 Β° C ) in July . The Atlantic ocean has a strong effect on eastern and southeastern coastal areas of the state . Influenced by the Gulf Stream , coastal weather is subject to hurricanes , most pronouncedly near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay . In spite of its position adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean , even the coastal areas have a significant continental influence with quite large temperature differences between summer and winter , particularly given the state climate 's subtropical classification .
Virginia has an annual average of 35 β 45 days of thunderstorm activity , particularly in the western part of the state , and an average annual precipitation of 42 @.@ 7 inches ( 108 cm ) . Cold air masses arriving over the mountains in winter can lead to significant snowfalls , such as the Blizzard of 1996 and winter storms of 2009 β 2010 . The interaction of these elements with the state 's topography creates distinct microclimates in the Shenandoah Valley , the mountainous southwest , and the coastal plains . Virginia averages seven tornadoes annually , most F2 or lower on the Fujita scale .
In recent years , the expansion of the southern suburbs of Washington , D.C. into Northern Virginia has introduced an urban heat island primarily caused by increased absorption of solar radiation in more densely populated areas . In the American Lung Association 's 2011 report , 11 counties received failing grades for air quality , with Fairfax County having the worst in the state , due to automobile pollution . Haze in the mountains is caused in part by coal power plants .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Forests cover 65 % of the state , primarily with deciduous , broad leaf trees in the western part of the state and evergeens and conifers dominant the central and eastern part of Virginia . Lower altitudes are more likely to have small but dense stands of moisture @-@ loving hemlocks and mosses in abundance , with hickory and oak in the Blue Ridge . However , since the early 1990s , Gypsy moth infestations have eroded the dominance of oak forests . In the lowland tidewater and piedmont , yellow pines tend to dominate , with bald cypress wetland forests in the Great Dismal and Nottoway swamps . Other common trees and plants include red bay , wax myrtle , dwarf palmetto , tulip poplar , mountain laurel , milkweed , daisies , and many species of ferns . The largest areas of wilderness are along the Atlantic coast and in the western mountains , where the largest populations of trillium wildflowers in North America are found . The Atlantic coast regions are host to flora commonly associated with the South Atlantic pine forests and lower Southeast Coastal Plain maritime flora , the latter found primarily in eastern and central Virginia .
Mammals include white @-@ tailed deer , black bear , beaver , bobcat , coyote , raccoon , skunk , groundhog , Virginia opossum , gray fox , red fox , and eastern cottontail rabbit . Other mammals include : nutria , fox squirrel , gray squirrel , flying squirrel , chipmunk , brown bat , and weasel . Birds include cardinals ( the state bird ) , barred owls , Carolina chickadees , red @-@ tailed hawks , ospreys , brown pelicans , quail , seagulls , bald eagles , and wild turkeys . Virginia is also home to the pileated woodpecker as well as the red @-@ bellied woodpecker . The peregrine falcon was reintroduced into Shenandoah National Park in the mid @-@ 1990s . Walleye , brook trout , Roanoke bass , and blue catfish are among the 210 known species of freshwater fish . Running brooks with rocky bottoms are often inhabited by plentiful amounts of crayfish and salamanders . The Chesapeake Bay is host to many species , including blue crabs , clams , oysters , and rockfish ( also known as striped bass ) .
Virginia has 30 National Park Service units , such as Great Falls Park and the Appalachian Trail , and one national park , the Shenandoah National Park . Shenandoah was established in 1935 and encompasses the scenic Skyline Drive . Almost 40 % of the park 's area ( 79 @,@ 579 acres / 322 km2 ) has been designated as wilderness under the National Wilderness Preservation System . Additionally , there are 34 Virginia state parks and 17 state forests , run by the Department of Conservation and Recreation and the Department of Forestry . The Chesapeake Bay , while not a national park , is protected by both state and federal legislation , and the jointly run Chesapeake Bay Program which conducts restoration on the bay and its watershed . The Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge extends into North Carolina , as does the Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge , which marks the beginning of the Outer Banks .
= = History = =
" Jamestown 2007 " marked Virginia 's quadricentennial year , celebrating 400 years since the establishment of the Jamestown Colony . The celebrations highlighted contributions from Native Americans , Africans , and Europeans , each of which had a significant part in shaping Virginia 's history . Warfare , including among these groups , has also had an important role . Virginia was a focal point in conflicts from the French and Indian War , the American Revolution and the Civil War , to the Cold War and the War on Terrorism . Stories about historic figures , such as those surrounding Pocahontas and John Smith , George Washington 's childhood , or the plantation elite in the slave society of the antebellum period , have also created potent myths of state history , and have served as rationales for Virginia 's ideology .
= = = Colony = = =
The first people are estimated to have arrived in Virginia over 12 @,@ 000 years ago . By 5 @,@ 000 years ago more permanent settlements emerged , and farming began by 900 AD . By 1500 , the Algonquian peoples had founded towns such as Werowocomoco in the Tidewater region , which they referred to as Tsenacommacah . The other major language groups in the area were the Siouan to the west , and the Iroquoians , who included the Nottoway and Meherrin , to the north and south . After 1570 , the Algonquians consolidated under Chief Powhatan in response to threats from these other groups on their trade network . Powhatan controlled more than 30 smaller tribes and over 150 settlements , who shared a common Virginia Algonquian language . In 1607 , the native Tidewater population was between 13 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 .
Several European expeditions , including a group of Spanish Jesuits , explored the Chesapeake Bay during the 16th century . In 1583 , Queen Elizabeth I of England granted Walter Raleigh a charter to plant a colony north of Spanish Florida . In 1584 , Raleigh sent an expedition to the Atlantic coast of North America . The name " Virginia " may have been suggested then by Raleigh or Elizabeth , perhaps noting her status as the " Virgin Queen , " and may also be related to a native phrase , " Wingandacoa , " or name , " Wingina . " Initially the name applied to the entire coastal region from South Carolina to Maine , plus the island of Bermuda . Later , subsequent royal charters modified the Colony 's boundaries . The London Company was incorporated as a joint stock company by the proprietary Charter of 1606 , which granted land rights to this area . The Company financed the first permanent English settlement in the " New World " , Jamestown . Named for King James I , it was founded in May 1607 by Christopher Newport . In 1619 , colonists took greater control with an elected legislature called the House of Burgesses . With the bankruptcy of the London Company in 1624 , the settlement was taken into royal authority as an English crown colony .
Life in the colony was perilous , and many died during the Starving Time in 1609 and the Anglo @-@ Powhatan Wars , including the Indian massacre of 1622 , which fostered the colonists ' negative view of all tribes . By 1624 , only 3 @,@ 400 of the 6 @,@ 000 early settlers had survived . However , European demand for tobacco fueled the arrival of more settlers and servants . The headright system tried to solve the labor shortage by providing colonists with land for each indentured servant they transported to Virginia . African workers were first imported to Jamestown in 1619 initially under the rules of indentured servitude . The shift to a system of African slavery in Virginia was propelled by the legal cases of John Punch , who was sentenced to lifetime slavery in 1640 for attempting to run away , and of John Casor , who was claimed by Anthony Johnson as his servant for life in 1655 . Slavery first appears in Virginia statutes in 1661 and 1662 , when a law made it hereditary based on the mother 's status .
Tensions and the geographic differences between the working and ruling classes led to Bacon 's Rebellion in 1676 , by which time current and former indentured servants made up as much as 80 % of the population . Rebels , largely from the colony 's frontier , were also opposed to the conciliatory policy towards native tribes , and one result of the rebellion was the signing at Middle Plantation of the Treaty of 1677 , which made the signatory tribes tributary states and was part of a pattern of appropriating tribal land by force and treaty . Middle Plantation saw the founding of The College of William & Mary in 1693 and was renamed Williamsburg as it became the colonial capital in 1699 . In 1747 , a group of Virginian speculators formed the Ohio Company , with the backing of the British crown , to start English settlement and trade in the Ohio Country west of the Appalachian Mountains . France , which claimed this area as part of their colony of New France , viewed this as a threat , and the ensuing French and Indian War became part of the Seven Years ' War ( 1756 β 1763 ) . A militia from several British colonies , called the Virginia Regiment , was led by then @-@ Lieutenant Colonel George Washington .
= = = Statehood = = =
The British Parliament 's efforts to levy new taxes following the French and Indian War were deeply unpopular in the colonies . In the House of Burgesses , opposition to taxation without representation was led by Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee , among others . Virginians began to coordinate their actions with other colonies in 1773 , and sent delegates to the Continental Congress the following year . After the House of Burgesses was dissolved by the royal governor in 1774 , Virginia 's revolutionary leaders continued to govern via the Virginia Conventions . On May 15 , 1776 , the Convention declared Virginia 's independence from the British Empire and adopted George Mason 's Virginia Declaration of Rights , which was then included in a new constitution . Another Virginian , Thomas Jefferson , drew upon Mason 's work in drafting the national Declaration of Independence .
When the American Revolutionary War began , George Washington was selected to head the colonial army . During the war , the capital was moved to Richmond at the urging of Governor Thomas Jefferson , who feared that Williamsburg 's coastal location would make it vulnerable to British attack . In 1781 , the combined action of Continental and French land and naval forces trapped the British army on the Virginia Peninsula , where troops under George Washington and Comte de Rochambeau defeated British General Cornwallis in the Siege of Yorktown . His surrender on October 19 , 1781 led to peace negotiations in Paris and secured the independence of the colonies .
Virginians were instrumental in writing the United States Constitution . James Madison drafted the Virginia Plan in 1787 and the Bill of Rights in 1789 . Virginia ratified the Constitution on June 25 , 1788 . The three @-@ fifths compromise ensured that Virginia , with its large number of slaves , initially had the largest bloc in the House of Representatives . Together with the Virginia dynasty of presidents , this gave the Commonwealth national importance . In 1790 , both Virginia and Maryland ceded territory to form the new District of Columbia , though the Virginian area was retroceded in 1846 . Virginia is called " Mother of States " because of its role in being carved into states like Kentucky , which became the 15th state in 1792 , and for the numbers of American pioneers born in Virginia .
= = = Civil War and aftermath = = =
In addition to agriculture , slave labor was increasingly used in mining , shipbuilding and other industries . The execution of Gabriel Prosser in 1800 , Nat Turner 's slave rebellion in 1831 and John Brown 's Raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 marked the growing social discontent over slavery and its role in the plantation economy . By 1860 , almost half a million people , roughly 31 % of the total population of Virginia , were enslaved . This division contributed to the start of the American Civil War .
Virginia voted to secede from the United States on April 17 , 1861 , after the Battle of Fort Sumter and Abraham Lincoln 's call for volunteers . On April 24 , Virginia joined the Confederate States of America , which chose Richmond as its capital . After the 1861 Wheeling Convention , 48 counties in the northwest separated to form a new state of West Virginia , which chose to remain loyal to the Union . Virginian general Robert E. Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in 1862 , and led invasions into Union territory , ultimately becoming commander of all Confederate forces . During the war , more battles were fought in Virginia than anywhere else , including Bull Run , the Seven Days Battles , Chancellorsville , and the concluding Battle of Appomattox Court House . After the capture of Richmond in April 1865 , the state capital was briefly moved to Lynchburg , while the Confederate leadership fled to Danville . Virginia was formally restored to the United States in 1870 , due to the work of the Committee of Nine .
During the post @-@ war Reconstruction era , Virginia adopted a constitution which provided for free public schools , and guaranteed political , civil , and voting rights . The populist Readjuster Party ran an inclusive coalition until the conservative white Democratic Party gained power after 1883 . It passed segregationist Jim Crow laws and in 1902 rewrote the Constitution of Virginia to include a poll tax and other voter registration measures that effectively disfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites . Though their schools and public services were segregated and underfunded due to a lack of political representation , African Americans were able to unite in communities and take a greater role in Virginia society .
= = = Modern era = = =
New economic forces also changed the Commonwealth . Virginian James Albert Bonsack invented the tobacco cigarette rolling machine in 1880 leading to new industrial scale production centered on Richmond . In 1886 , railroad magnate Collis Potter Huntington founded Newport News Shipbuilding , which was responsible for building six major World War I @-@ era battleships for the U.S. Navy from 1907 β 1923 . During the war , German submarines like U @-@ 151 attacked ships outside the port . In 1926 , Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin , rector of Williamsburg 's Bruton Parish Church , began restoration of colonial @-@ era buildings in the historic district with financial backing of John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Though their project , like others in the state , had to contend with the Great Depression and World War II , work continued as Colonial Williamsburg became a major tourist attraction .
Protests started by Barbara Rose Johns in 1951 in Farmville against segregated schools led to the lawsuit Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County . This case , filed by Richmond natives Spottswood Robinson and Oliver Hill , was decided in 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education , which rejected the segregationist doctrine of " separate but equal " . But , in 1958 , under the policy of " massive resistance " led by the influential segregationist Senator Harry F. Byrd and his Byrd Organization , the Commonwealth prohibited desegregated local schools from receiving state funding .
The Civil Rights Movement gained many participants in the 1960s . It achieved the moral force and support to gain passage of national legislation with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . In 1964 the United States Supreme Court ordered Prince Edward County and others to integrate schools . In 1967 , the Court also struck down the state 's ban on interracial marriage with Loving v. Virginia . From 1969 to 1971 , state legislators under Governor Mills Godwin rewrote the constitution , after goals such as the repeal of Jim Crow laws had been achieved . In 1989 , Douglas Wilder became the first African American elected as governor in the United States .
The Cold War led to the expansion of national defense government programs housed in offices in Northern Virginia near Washington , D.C. , and correlative population growth . The Central Intelligence Agency in Langley was involved in various Cold War events , including as the target of Soviet espionage activities . Also among the federal developments was the Pentagon , built during World War II as the headquarters for the Department of Defense . It was one of the targets of the September 11 attacks ; 189 people died at the site when a jet passenger plane was crashed into the building .
= = Cities and towns = =
Virginia is divided into 95 counties and 38 independent cities , the latter acting in many ways as county @-@ equivalents . This general method of treating cities and counties on par with each other is unique to Virginia , with only three other independent cities in the United States outside Virginia , in three different states . Virginia limits the authority of cities and counties to countermand laws expressly allowed by the Virginia General Assembly under what is known as Dillon 's Rule . In addition to independent cities , there are also incorporated towns which operate under their own governments , but are part of a county . Finally there are hundreds of unincorporated communities within the counties . Virginia does not have any further political subdivisions , such as villages or townships .
Virginia has 11 Metropolitan Statistical Areas ; Northern Virginia , Hampton Roads , and Richmond @-@ Petersburg are the three most populous . Richmond is the capital of Virginia , and its metropolitan area has a population of over 1 @.@ 2 million . As of 2010 , Virginia Beach is the most populous city in the Commonwealth , with Norfolk and Chesapeake second and third , respectively . Norfolk forms the urban core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area , which has a population over 1 @.@ 6 million people and is the site of the world 's largest naval base , Naval Station Norfolk . Suffolk , which includes a portion of the Great Dismal Swamp , is the largest city by area at 429 @.@ 1 square miles ( 1 @,@ 111 km2 ) .
Fairfax County is the most populous locality in Virginia , with over one million residents , although that does not include its county seat Fairfax , which is one of the independent cities . Fairfax County has a major urban business and shopping center in Tysons Corner , Virginia 's largest office market . Neighboring Loudoun County , with the county seat at Leesburg , is both the fastest @-@ growing county in Virginia and has the highest median household income ( $ 114 @,@ 204 ) in the country as of 2010 . Arlington County , the smallest self @-@ governing county in the United States by land area , is an urban community organized as a county . The Roanoke area , with an estimated population of 300 @,@ 399 , is the largest Metropolitan Statistical Area in western Virginia .
= = Demographics = =
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the state population was 8 @,@ 382 @,@ 993 on July 1 , 2015 , a 4 @.@ 77 % increase since the 2010 United States Census . This includes an increase from net migration of 381 @,@ 969 people into the Commonwealth since the 2010 census . Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 159 @,@ 627 people , and migration within the country produced a net increase of 155 @,@ 205 people . Outside of Virginia , the top birth state for Virginians was New York , with the Northeast accounting for the largest number of migrants into the state by region . The center of population is located in Louisa County outside of Richmond .
= = = Ethnicity = = =
The state 's most populous ethnic group , Non @-@ Hispanic White , has declined from 76 % in 1990 to 62 @.@ 7 % in 2015 . In 2011 , non @-@ Hispanic Whites were involved in 50 @.@ 9 % of all the births . People of English heritage settled throughout the Commonwealth during the colonial period , and others of British and Irish heritage have since immigrated . Those who self @-@ identify as having " American ethnicity " are predominantly of English descent , but have ancestry that has been in North America for so long that they choose to identify simply as American . Of the English immigrants to Virginia in the 17th century , 75 % came as indentured servants . The western mountains have many settlements that were founded by Scots @-@ Irish immigrants before the American Revolution . There are also sizable numbers of people of German descent in the northwestern mountains and Shenandoah Valley , and German ancestry was the most popular response on the 2010 American Community Survey , with 11 @.@ 7 % . 2 @.@ 9 % of Virginians also describe themselves as biracial .
The largest minority group in Virginia is African American , at 19 @.@ 7 % as of 2015 . Most African American Virginians have been descendants of enslaved Africans who worked on tobacco , cotton , and hemp plantations . These men , women and children were brought from West and West @-@ Central Africa , primarily from Angola and the Bight of Biafra . The Igbo ethnic group of what is now southern Nigeria were the single largest African group among slaves in Virginia . Though the black population was reduced by the Great Migration , since 1965 there has been a reverse migration of blacks returning south . According to the Pew Research Center , the state has the highest concentration of black and white interracial marriages .
More recent immigration in the late 20th century and early 21st century has fueled new communities of Hispanics and Asians . As of 2015 , 9 @.@ 0 % of Virginians are Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) , and 6 @.@ 5 % are Asian . The state 's Hispanic population rose by 92 % from 2000 to 2010 , with two @-@ thirds of Hispanics living in Northern Virginia . Hispanic citizens in Virginia have higher median household incomes and educational attainment than the general Virginia population . As far as Hispanic groups , there is a large Salvadoran population in the DC suburbs of Northern Virginia , and a large Puerto Rican population in the Hampton Roads region of Southeast Virginia . Northern Virginia also has a significant population of Vietnamese Americans , whose major wave of immigration followed the Vietnam War , and Korean Americans , whose migration has been more recent and was induced in part by the quality school system . The Filipino American community has about 45 @,@ 000 in the Hampton Roads area , many of whom have ties to the U.S. Navy and armed forces .
Additionally , 0 @.@ 5 % of Virginians are American Indian or Alaska Native , and 0 @.@ 1 % are Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander . Virginia has extended state recognition to eight Native American tribes resident in the state , though some lack federal recognition status . Most Native American groups are located in the Tidewater region .
As of 2011 , 49 @.@ 1 % of Virginia 's population younger than age 1 were minorities ( meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non @-@ Hispanic white ) .
= = = Languages = = =
The Piedmont region is known for its dialect 's strong influence on Southern American English . While a more homogenized American English is found in urban areas , various accents are also used , including the Tidewater accent , the Old Virginia accent , and the anachronistic Elizabethan of Tangier Island .
As of 2010 , 85 @.@ 87 % ( 6 @,@ 299 @,@ 127 ) of Virginia residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language , while 6 @.@ 41 % ( 470 @,@ 058 ) spoke Spanish , 0 @.@ 77 % ( 56 @,@ 518 ) Korean , 0 @.@ 63 % ( 45 @,@ 881 ) Vietnamese , 0 @.@ 57 % ( 42 @,@ 418 ) Chinese ( which includes Mandarin ) , and Tagalog was spoken as a main language by 0 @.@ 56 % ( 40 @,@ 724 ) of the population over the age of five . In total , 14 @.@ 13 % ( 1 @,@ 036 @,@ 442 ) of Virginia 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English . English was passed as the Commonwealth 's official language by statutes in 1981 and again in 1996 , though the status is not mandated by the Constitution of Virginia .
= = = Religion = = =
Virginia is predominantly Christian and Protestant ; Baptists are the largest single group with 27 % of the population as of 2008 . Baptist congregations in Virginia have 763 @,@ 655 members . Baptist denominational groups in Virginia include the Baptist General Association of Virginia , with about 1 @,@ 400 member churches , which supports both the Southern Baptist Convention and the moderate Cooperative Baptist Fellowship ; and the Southern Baptist Conservatives of Virginia with more than 500 affiliated churches , which supports the Southern Baptist Convention . Roman Catholics are the second @-@ largest religious group with 673 @,@ 853 members . The Roman Catholic Diocese of Arlington includes most of Northern Virginia 's Catholic churches , while the Diocese of Richmond covers the rest .
The Virginia Conference is the regional body of the United Methodist Church in most of the Commonwealth , while the Holston Conference represents much of extreme Southwest Virginia . The Virginia Synod is responsible for the congregations of the Lutheran Church . Presbyterian , Pentecostal , Congregationalist , and Episcopalian adherents each composed less than 2 % of the population as of 2010 . The Episcopal Diocese of Virginia , Southern Virginia , and Southwestern Virginia support the various Episcopal churches .
In November 2006 , 15 conservative Episcopal churches voted to split from the Diocese of Virginia over the ordination of openly gay bishops and clergy in other dioceses of the Episcopal Church ; these churches continue to claim affiliation with the larger Anglican Communion through other bodies outside the United States . Though Virginia law allows parishioners to determine their church 's affiliation , the diocese claimed the secessionist churches ' buildings and properties . The resulting property law case , ultimately decided in favor of the mainline diocese , was a test for Episcopal churches nationwide .
Among other religions , adherents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints constitute 1 % of the population , with 197 congregations in Virginia as of March 2014 . Fairfax Station is the site of the Ekoji Buddhist Temple , of the Jodo Shinshu school , and the Hindu Durga Temple . While the state 's Jewish population is small , organized Jewish sites date to 1789 with Congregation Beth Ahabah . Muslims are a growing religious group throughout the Commonwealth through immigration . Megachurches in the Commonwealth include Thomas Road Baptist Church , Immanuel Bible Church , and McLean Bible Church . Several Christian universities are also based in the state , including Regent University , Liberty University , and Lynchburg College .
= = Economy = =
Virginia is an employment @-@ at @-@ will state ; its economy has diverse sources of income , including local and federal government , military , farming and business . Virginia has 4 @.@ 1 million civilian workers , and one @-@ third of the jobs are in the service sector . The unemployment rate in Virginia is among the lowest in the nation , at 4 @.@ 8 % , as of December 2014 . The second fastest job growth town in the nation is Leesburg , as of 2011 . The Gross Domestic Product of Virginia was $ 452 billion in 2013 . According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis , Virginia had the most counties in the top 100 wealthiest in the United States based upon median income in 2007 . Northern Virginia is the highest @-@ income region in Virginia , having six of the twenty highest @-@ income counties in the United States , including the three highest as of 2011 . According to CNN Money Magazine the highest @-@ income town in the nation is Great Falls , as of 2011 . According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International , Virginia had the seventh @-@ largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States , with a ratio of 6 @.@ 64 % .
= = = Government = = =
Virginia has the highest defense spending of any state per capita , providing the Commonwealth with around 900 @,@ 000 jobs . 12 % of all U.S. federal procurement money is spent in Virginia , the second @-@ highest amount after California . Many Virginians work for federal agencies in Northern Virginia , which include the Central Intelligence Agency and the Department of Defense , as well as the National Science Foundation , the United States Geological Survey and the United States Patent and Trademark Office . Many others work for government contractors , including defense and security firms , which hold more than 15 @,@ 000 federal contracts .
Virginia has one of the highest concentrations of veterans of any state , and is second to California in total Department of Defense employees . The Hampton Roads area has the largest concentration of military personnel and assets of any metropolitan area in the world , including the largest naval base in the world , Naval Station Norfolk . In its state government , Virginia employs 106 @,@ 143 public employees , who combined have a median income of $ 44 @,@ 656 as of 2013 .
= = = Business = = =
Virginia has the highest concentration of technology workers of any state , and the fourth @-@ highest number of technology workers after California , Texas , and New York . Computer chips became the state 's highest @-@ grossing export in 2006 , surpassing its traditional top exports of coal and tobacco combined , reaching a total export value of $ 717 million in 2015 . Northern Virginia , once considered the state 's dairy capital , now hosts software , communication technology , defense contracting companies , particularly in the Dulles Technology Corridor .
The state has the highest average and peak Internet speeds in the United States , with the third @-@ highest worldwide . Northern Virginia 's data centers can carry up to 70 % of the nation 's internet traffic , with Loudoun County alone home to as much data center space as northern California .
Virginia companies received the fourth @-@ highest amount of venture capital funding in the first half of 2011 after California , Massachusetts , and New York . In 2009 , Forbes magazine named Virginia the best state in the nation for business for the fourth year in a row , while CNBC named it the top state for business in 2007 , 2009 , and 2011 . Additionally , in 2014 a survey of 12 @,@ 000 small business owners found Virginia to be one of the most friendly states for small businesses . Virginia has 20 Fortune 500 companies , ranking the state eighth nationwide . Tysons Corner is one of the largest business districts in the nation .
Tourism in Virginia supported an estimated 210 @,@ 000 jobs and generated $ 21 @.@ 2 billion in 2012 . Arlington County is the top tourist destination in the state by domestic spending , followed by Fairfax County , Loudoun County , and Virginia Beach .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Agriculture occupies 32 % of the land in Virginia . As of 2012 , about 357 @,@ 000 Virginian jobs were in agriculture , with over 47 @,@ 000 farms , averaging 171 acres ( 0 @.@ 27 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 69 km2 ) , in a total farmland area of 8 @.@ 1 million acres ( 12 @,@ 656 sq mi ; 32 @,@ 780 km2 ) . Though agriculture has declined significantly since 1960 when there were twice as many farms , it remains the largest single industry in Virginia . Tomatoes surpassed soy as the most profitable crop in Virginia in 2006 , with peanuts and hay as other agricultural products . Although it is no longer the primary crop , Virginia is still the fifth @-@ largest producer of tobacco nationwide . Virginia is the largest producer of seafood on the East Coast , with scallops , oysters , blue crabs , and clams as the largest seafood harvests by value , and France , Canada , and Hong Kong as the top export destinations . Eastern oyster harvests have increased from 23 @,@ 000 bushels in 2001 to over 500 @,@ 000 in 2013 . Wineries and vineyards in the Northern Neck and along the Blue Ridge Mountains also have begun to generate income and attract tourists . Virginia has the fifth @-@ highest number of wineries in the nation .
= = = Taxes = = =
Virginia collects personal income tax in five income brackets , ranging from 3 @.@ 0 % to 5 @.@ 75 % . The state sales and use tax rate is 4 @.@ 3 % , while the tax rate on food is 1 @.@ 5 % . There is an additional 1 % local tax , for a total of a 5 @.@ 3 % combined sales tax on most Virginia purchases and 2 @.@ 5 % on most food . Virginia 's property tax is set and collected at the local government level and varies throughout the Commonwealth . Real estate is also taxed at the local level based on 100 % of fair market value . Tangible personal property also is taxed at the local level and is based on a percentage or percentages of original cost .
= = Culture = =
Virginia 's culture was popularized and spread across America and the South by figures such as George Washington , Thomas Jefferson , and Robert E. Lee . Their homes in Virginia represent the birthplace of America and the South . Modern Virginia culture has many sources , and is part of the culture of the Southern United States . The Smithsonian Institution divides Virginia into nine cultural regions .
Besides the general cuisine of the Southern United States , Virginia maintains its own particular traditions . Virginia wine is made in many parts of the state . Smithfield ham , sometimes called " Virginia ham " , is a type of country ham which is protected by state law , and can only be produced in the town of Smithfield . Virginia furniture and architecture are typical of American colonial architecture . Thomas Jefferson and many of the state 's early leaders favored the Neoclassical architecture style , leading to its use for important state buildings . The Pennsylvania Dutch and their style can also be found in parts of the state .
Literature in Virginia often deals with the state 's extensive and sometimes troubled past . The works of Pulitzer Prize winner Ellen Glasgow often dealt with social inequalities and the role of women in her culture . Glasgow 's peer and close friend James Branch Cabell wrote extensively about the changing position of gentry in the Reconstruction era , and challenged its moral code with Jurgen , A Comedy of Justice . William Styron approached history in works such as The Confessions of Nat Turner and Sophie 's Choice . Tom Wolfe has occasionally dealt with his southern heritage in bestsellers like I Am Charlotte Simmons . Mount Vernon native Matt Bondurant received critical acclaim for his historic novel The Wettest County in the World about moonshiners in Franklin County during prohibition . Virginia also names a state Poet Laureate , currently Ron Smith of Richmond , who will serve until mid @-@ 2016 .
= = = Fine and performing arts = = =
Rich in cultural heritage , Virginia however ranks near the bottom of U.S. states in terms of public spending on the arts , at nearly half of the national average . The state government does fund some institutions , including the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts and the Science Museum of Virginia . Other museums include the popular Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum and the Chrysler Museum of Art . Besides these sites , many open @-@ air museums are located in the Commonwealth , such as Colonial Williamsburg , the Frontier Culture Museum , and various historic battlefields . The Virginia Foundation for the Humanities works to improve the Commonwealth 's civic , cultural , and intellectual life .
Theaters and venues in the Commonwealth are found both in the cities and suburbs . The Harrison Opera House , in Norfolk , is home of the Virginia Opera . The Virginia Symphony Orchestra operates in and around Hampton Roads . Resident and touring theater troupes operate from the American Shakespeare Center in Staunton . The Barter Theatre , designated the State Theatre of Virginia , in Abingdon won the first ever Regional Theatre Tony Award in 1948 , while the Signature Theatre in Arlington won it in 2009 . There 's also a Children 's Theater of Virginia , Theatre IV , which is the second largest touring troupe nationwide .
Virginia has launched many award @-@ winning traditional musical artists and internationally successful popular music acts , as well as Hollywood actors . Virginia is known for its tradition in the music genres of old @-@ time string and bluegrass , with groups such as the Carter Family and Stanley Brothers , as well as gospel , blues , and shout bands . Contemporary Virginia is also known for folk rock artists like Dave Matthews and Jason Mraz , hip hop stars like Pharrell Williams and Missy Elliott , as well as thrash metal groups like GWAR and Lamb of God . Notable performance venues include The Birchmere , the Landmark Theater , and Jiffy Lube Live . Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts is located in Vienna and is the only national park intended for use as a performing arts center .
= = = Festivals = = =
Many counties and localities host county fairs and festivals . The Virginia State Fair is held at the Meadow Event Park every September . Also in September is the Neptune Festival in Virginia Beach , which celebrates the city , the waterfront , and regional artists . Norfolk 's Harborfest , in June , features boat racing and air shows . Fairfax County also sponsors Celebrate Fairfax ! with popular and traditional music performances . The Virginia Lake Festival is held during the third weekend in July in Clarksville . Wolf Trap hosts the Wolf Trap Opera Company , which produces an opera festival every summer . Each September , Bay Days celebrates the Chesapeake Bay as well as Hampton 's 400 @-@ year history since 1610 , and Isle of Wight County holds a County Fair on the second week of September as well . Both feature live music performances , and other unique events .
On the Eastern Shore island of Chincoteague the annual Pony Swim & Auction of feral Chincoteague ponies at the end of July is a unique local tradition expanded into a week @-@ long carnival . The Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival is a six @-@ day festival held annually in Winchester that includes parades and bluegrass concerts . The Old Time Fiddlers ' Convention in Galax , begun in 1935 , is one of the oldest and largest such events worldwide . Two important film festivals , the Virginia Film Festival and the VCU French Film Festival , are held annually in Charlottesville and Richmond , respectively .
= = Media = =
The Hampton Roads area is the 45th @-@ largest media market in the United States as ranked by Nielsen Media Research , while the Richmond @-@ Petersburg area is 57th and Roanoke @-@ Lynchburg is 66th as of 2013 . Northern Virginia is part of the much larger Washington , D.C. media market .
There are 36 television stations in Virginia , representing each major U.S. network , part of 42 stations which serve Virginia viewers . More than 720 FCC @-@ licensed FM radio stations broadcast in Virginia , with about 300 such AM stations . The nationally available Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) is headquartered in Arlington . Independent PBS affiliates exist throughout Virginia , and the Arlington PBS member station WETA @-@ TV produces programs such as the PBS NewsHour and Washington Week .
The most circulated native newspapers in the Commonwealth are Norfolk 's The Virginian @-@ Pilot ( 142 @,@ 476 daily subscribers ) , the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch ( 108 @,@ 559 ) , and The Roanoke Times ( 78 @,@ 663 ) , as of 2014 . Several Washington , D.C. papers are based in Northern Virginia , such as The Washington Examiner and Politico . The paper with the nation 's widest circulation , USA Today , with 1 @.@ 83 million daily subscriptions , is headquartered in McLean . Besides traditional forms of media , Virginia is the home base for telecommunication companies such as Voxant and XO Communications . In Northern Virginia , The Washington Post is the dominant newspaper , since Northern VA is located in the Washington , DC metropolitan area .
= = Education = =
Virginia 's educational system consistently ranks in the top ten states on the U.S. Department of Education 's National Assessment of Educational Progress , with Virginia students outperforming the average in all subject areas and grade levels tested . The 2011 Quality Counts report ranked Virginia 's K β 12 education fourth best in the country . All school divisions must adhere to educational standards set forth by the Virginia Department of Education , which maintains an assessment and accreditation regime known as the Standards of Learning to ensure accountability . In 2010 , 85 % of high school students graduated on @-@ time after four years . Between 2000 and 2008 , school enrollment increased 5 % , the number of teachers 21 % .
Public K β 12 schools in Virginia are generally operated by the counties and cities , and not by the state . As of 2011 , a total of 1 @,@ 267 @,@ 063 students were enrolled in 1 @,@ 873 local and regional schools in the Commonwealth , including three charter schools , and an additional 109 alternative and special education centers across 132 school divisions . Besides the general public schools in Virginia , there are Governor 's Schools and selective magnet schools . The Governor 's Schools are a collection of more than 40 regional high schools and summer programs intended for gifted students . The Virginia Council for Private Education oversees the regulation of 320 state accredited and 130 non @-@ accredited private schools . An additional 24 @,@ 682 students receive homeschooling .
As of 2011 , there are 176 colleges and universities in Virginia . In the U.S. News & World Report ranking of public colleges , the University of Virginia is second , The College of William & Mary is sixth , and Virginia Tech is 25th . Virginia Commonwealth University is ranked the top public graduate school in fine arts , while James Madison University has been recognized as the top regional public master 's program in The South since 1993 . The Virginia Military Institute is the oldest state military college and a top ranked public liberal arts college . George Mason University is the largest university in Virginia with over 32 @,@ 000 students . Virginia Tech and Virginia State University are the state 's land @-@ grant universities . Virginia also operates 23 community colleges on 40 campuses serving over 260 @,@ 000 students . There are 129 private institutions , including Hampton University , Washington and Lee University , Randolph College , Hampden β Sydney College , Emory & Henry College , Roanoke College , the University of Richmond , and Randolph @-@ Macon College .
= = Health = =
Virginia has a mixed health record , and is ranked as the 26th overall healthiest state according to the 2013 United Health Foundation 's Health Rankings . Virginia also ranks 21st among the states in the rate of premature deaths , 6 @,@ 816 per 100 @,@ 000 . In 2008 , Virginia reached its lowest ever rate of infant mortality , at 6 @.@ 7 deaths per 1 @,@ 000 . There are however racial and social health disparities , in 2010 African Americans experienced 28 % more premature deaths than whites , while 13 % of Virginians lack any health insurance . According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 's 2009 survey , 26 % of Virginians are obese and another 35 % are overweight . 78 % of residents claim to have exercised at least once in the past three months . About 30 % of Virginia 's 10- to 17 @-@ year @-@ olds are overweight or obese . Virginia banned smoking in bars and restaurants in January 2010 . 19 % of Virginians smoke tobacco . Residents of Virginia 's 8th congressional district share the longest average life expectancy rate in the nation , over 83 years .
There are 89 hospitals in Virginia listed with the United States Department of Health and Human Services . Notable examples include Inova Fairfax Hospital , the largest hospital in the Washington Metropolitan Area , and the VCU Medical Center , located on the medical campus of Virginia Commonwealth University . The University of Virginia Medical Center , part of the University of Virginia Health System , is highly ranked in endocrinology according to U.S.News & World Report . Sentara Norfolk General Hospital , part of the Hampton Roads based Sentara Health System and a teaching institution of Eastern Virginia Medical School , was the site of the first successful in @-@ vitro fertilization birth . Virginia has a ratio of 127 primary care physicians per 10 @,@ 000 residents , which is the 16th highest nationally . Virginia was one of five states to receive a perfect score in disaster preparedness according to a 2008 report by the Trust for America 's Health , based on criteria such as detecting pathogens and distributing vaccines and medical supplies .
= = Transportation = =
Because of the 1932 Byrd Road Act , the state government controls most of Virginia 's roads , instead of a local county authority as is usual in other states . As of 2011 , the Virginia Department of Transportation owns and operates 57 @,@ 867 miles ( 93 @,@ 128 km ) of the total 70 @,@ 105 miles ( 112 @,@ 823 km ) of roads in the state , making it the third largest state highway system in the United States . Although the Washington Metropolitan Area , which includes Northern Virginia , has the second worst traffic in the nation , Virginia as a whole has the 21st @-@ lowest congestion and the average commute time is 26 @.@ 9 minutes . Virginia hit peak car usage before the year 2000 , making it one of the first such states .
Virginia has Amtrak passenger rail service along several corridors , and Virginia Railway Express ( VRE ) maintains two commuter lines into Washington , D.C. from Fredericksburg and Manassas . VRE is one of the nation 's fastest growing commuter rail services , handling nearly 20 @,@ 000 passengers a day . The Washington Metro rapid transit system serves Northern Virginia as far west as communities along I @-@ 66 in Fairfax County , with expansion plans to reach Loudoun County by 2017 . Major freight railroads in Virginia include Norfolk Southern and CSX Transportation . Commuter buses include the Fairfax Connector and the Shenandoah Valley Commuter Bus . The Virginia Department of Transportation operates several free ferries throughout Virginia , the most notable being the Jamestown @-@ Scotland ferry which crosses the James River in Surry County .
Virginia has five major airports : Washington Dulles International and Reagan Washington National in Northern Virginia , both of which handle over 20 million passengers a year ; Richmond International ; and Newport News / Williamsburg International Airport and Norfolk International serving the Hampton Roads area . Several other airports offer limited commercial passenger service , and sixty @-@ six public airports serve the state 's aviation needs . The Virginia Port Authority 's main seaports are those in Hampton Roads , which carried 17 @,@ 726 @,@ 251 short tons ( 16 @,@ 080 @,@ 984 t ) of bulk cargo in 2007 , the sixth most of United States ports . The Eastern Shore of Virginia is the site of Wallops Flight Facility , a rocket testing center owned by NASA , and the Mid @-@ Atlantic Regional Spaceport , a commercial spaceport . Space tourism is also offered through Vienna @-@ based Space Adventures .
= = Law and government = =
In colonial Virginia , free men elected the lower house of the legislature , called the House of Burgesses , which together with the Governor 's Council , made the " General Assembly " . Founded in 1619 , the Virginia General Assembly is still in existence as the oldest legislature in the Western Hemisphere . In 2008 , the government was ranked by the Pew Center on the States with an A β in terms of its efficiency , effectiveness , and infrastructure , tied with Utah and Washington . This was the second consecutive time that Virginia received the highest grade in the nation .
Since 1971 , the government has functioned under the seventh Constitution of Virginia , which provides for a strong legislature and a unified judicial system . Similar to the federal structure , the government is divided in three branches : legislative , executive , and judicial . The legislature is the General Assembly , a bicameral body whose 100 @-@ member House of Delegates and 40 @-@ member Senate write the laws for the Commonwealth . The Assembly is stronger than the executive , as it selects judges and justices . The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected every four years in separate elections . Incumbent governors cannot run for re @-@ election , however the Lieutenant Governor and Attorney General can , and governors may serve non @-@ consecutive terms . The judicial system , the oldest in America , consists of a hierarchy from the Supreme Court of Virginia and the Court of Appeals of Virginia to the Circuit Courts , the trial courts of general jurisdiction , and the lower General District Courts and Juvenile and Domestic Relations District Courts .
The Code of Virginia is the statutory law , and consists of the codified legislation of the General Assembly . The Virginia State Police is the largest law enforcement agency in Virginia . The Virginia Capitol Police is the oldest police department in the United States . The Virginia National Guard consists of 7 @,@ 500 soldiers in the Virginia Army National Guard and 1 @,@ 200 airmen in the Virginia Air National Guard . Since the resumption of capital punishment in Virginia in 1982 , 107 people have been executed , the second highest number in the nation . The " total crime risk " is 28 % lower than the national average . Since Virginia ended prisoner parole in 1995 , the rate of recidivism has fallen to 28 @.@ 3 % , among the lowest nationwide . Virginia is an open @-@ carry state .
= = Politics = =
Over the 20th century , Virginia shifted from a largely rural , politically Southern and conservative state to a more urbanized , pluralistic , and politically moderate environment . Up until the 1970s , Virginia was a racially divided one @-@ party state dominated by the Byrd Organization . The legacy of slavery in the state effectively disfranchised African Americans until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid @-@ 1960s . Enfranchisement and immigration of other groups , especially Hispanics , have placed growing importance on minority voting , while voters that identify as " white working @-@ class " declined by three percent between 2008 and 2012 . Regional differences play a large part in Virginia politics . Rural southern and western areas moved to support the Republican Party in response to its " southern strategy " , while urban and growing suburban areas , including much of Northern Virginia , form the Democratic Party base . Democratic support also persists in union @-@ influenced Roanoke in Southwest Virginia , college towns such as Charlottesville and Blacksburg , and the southeastern Black Belt Region .
Political party strength in Virginia has likewise been in flux . In the 2007 state elections , Democrats regained control of the State Senate , and narrowed the Republican majority in the House of Delegates to eight seats . Yet elections in 2009 resulted in the election of Republican Bob McDonnell as Governor by a seventeen @-@ point margin , the election of a Republican Lieutenant Governor and Attorney General , as well as Republican gains of six seats in the House of Delegates . In 2011 , the Republican caucus took over two @-@ thirds ( 68 β 32 ) of the seats in the House of Delegates , and a majority of the Senate based on the Lieutenant Governor Bill Bolling as the tie @-@ breaker . Following the 2013 elections , Democrat Terry McAuliffe was elected Governor by two percentage points , and Democrat Ralph Northam was elected Lieutenant Governor by double digits . Republicans , however , maintained their super @-@ majority ( 68 β 32 ) in the House of Delegates . State election seasons traditionally start with the annual Shad Planking event in Wakefield .
In federal elections since 2006 , both parties have seen successes . Republican Senator George Allen lost close races in 2006 , to Democratic newcomer Jim Webb , and again in 2012 , to Webb 's replacement , former Governor Tim Kaine . In 2008 , Democrats won both United States Senate seats ; former Governor Mark Warner was elected to replace retiring Republican John Warner . The state went Republican in 11 out of 12 presidential elections from 1948 to 2004 , including 10 in a row from 1968 to 2004 . However , Democrat Barack Obama carried Virginia 's 13 electoral votes in both the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections . In the 2010 elections , Republicans won three United States House of Representatives seats from the Democrats . Of the state 's eleven seats in the House of Representatives , Republicans hold eight and Democrats hold three . Virginia is considered a " swing state " in future presidential elections .
= = Sports = =
Virginia is the most populous U.S. state without a major professional sports league franchise . The reasons for this include the lack of any dominant city or market within the state , the proximity of teams in Washington , D.C. and North Carolina , and a reluctance to publicly finance stadiums . However , in recent years , the city of Virginia Beach has proposed a new arena designed to lure a major league franchise . Norfolk is host to two minor league teams : The AAA Norfolk Tides and the ECHL 's Norfolk Admirals . The San Francisco Giants ' AA team , the Richmond Flying Squirrels , began play at The Diamond in 2010 , replacing the AAA Richmond Braves , who relocated after 2008 . Additionally , the Washington Nationals , Boston Red Sox , Seattle Mariners , Chicago White Sox , and Atlanta Braves also have Single @-@ A and Rookie @-@ level farm teams in Virginia .
The Washington Redskins have Redskins Park , their headquarters , in Ashburn and their training facility is in Richmond , and the Washington Capitals train at Kettler Capitals Iceplex in Ballston . Virginia has many professional caliber golf courses including the Greg Norman course at Lansdowne Resort and Kingsmill Resort , home of the Kingsmill Championship , an LPGA Tour tournament . NASCAR currently schedules Sprint Cup races on two tracks in Virginia : Martinsville Speedway and Richmond International Raceway . Virginia natives currently competing in the series include Denny Hamlin and Elliott Sadler .
Virginia does not allow state appropriated funds to be used for either operational or capital expenses for intercollegiate athletics . Despite this , both the Virginia Cavaliers and Virginia Tech Hokies have been able to field competitive teams in the Atlantic Coast Conference and maintain modern facilities . Their rivalry is followed statewide . Twelve other universities compete in NCAA Division I , particularly in the Atlantic 10 Conference , Big South Conference , and Colonial Athletic Association . Three historically black schools compete in the Division II Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association , and two others compete in the Division I Mid @-@ Eastern Athletic Conference . Several smaller schools compete in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference and the USA South Athletic Conference of NCAA Division III . The NCAA currently holds its Division III championships in football , men 's basketball , volleyball and softball in Salem .
= = State symbols = =
The state nickname is its oldest symbol , though it has never been made official by law . Virginia was given the title " Dominion " by King Charles II of England at the time of The Restoration , because it had remained loyal to the crown during the English Civil War , and the present moniker , " Old Dominion " is a reference to that title . Charles ' supporters were called Cavaliers , and " The Cavalier State " nickname was popularized after the American Civil War to romanticize the antebellum period . Sports teams from the University of Virginia are called the Cavaliers . The other nickname , " Mother of Presidents " , is also historic , as eight Virginians have served as President of the United States , including four of the first five .
The state 's motto , Sic Semper Tyrannis , translates from Latin as " Thus Always to Tyrants " , and is used on the state seal , which is then used on the flag . While the seal was designed in 1776 , and the flag was first used in the 1830s , both were made official in 1930 . The majority of the other symbols were made official in the late 20th century . The Virginia reel is among the square dances classified as the state dance . In March 2015 , after 20 years without a state song , Virginia received two : " Our Great Virginia " ( official traditional state song ) and " Sweet Virginia Breeze " ( official popular state song ) . In 1940 , Virginia made " Carry Me Back to Old Virginny " the state song , but it was retired in 1997 and reclassified as the state song emeritus .
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= Bound for Glory IV =
Bound for Glory IV was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on October 12 , 2008 at the Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates , Illinois . It was the fourth event under the Bound for Glory name and the tenth event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . The show was promoted as TNA 's premier PPV event and their equivalent to the rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) WrestleMania . Eight professional wrestling matches and one untelevised match were featured on the event 's card , four of which were for championships .
The main event of Bound for Glory IV was a standard wrestling match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , pitting the champion Samoa Joe against the challenger Sting . Sting won the match to become the new champion . Another highly promoted contest on the card was between Kurt Angle and Jeff Jarrett , with Mick Foley serving as the Special Ringside Enforcer . Jarrett was the victor of the encounter . TNA held a Three Way War between A.J. Styles , Booker T , and Christian Cage at the event , which Booker T won . The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a Four Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match with Steve McMichael as the Special Guest Referee , in which the champions Beer Money , Inc . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) fought the team of Abyss and Matt Morgan , The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Beer Money , Inc. pinned Hernandez to retain the championship in the contest .
Bound for Glory IV is remembered for Sting winning the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and Team 3D forcing Abyss through a flaming table . There were 35 @,@ 000 who purchased the event , as reported by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Bound for Glory IV had an attendance of between 5 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 500 people . Chris and Bryan Sokol of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show a 7 out of 10 , the same as the 2009 edition but lower than the 2007 edition 's rating of 7 @.@ 5 . It also received a lower rating by the Canadian Online Explorer than WWE 's WrestleMania XXIV PPV event held on March 30 , 2008 , which had been given a 9 out of 10 by Dale Plummer .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The fourth installment under the Bound for Glory name was announced in January 2008 with an October 12 date attached . TNA issued a mobile alert in March 2008 that the top three candidate cities to host the event were New York City , Toronto , and Chicago . TNA President Dixie Carter was quoted as saying that Chicago had been chosen as the location . The main event was planned to be Samoa Joe versus Kevin Nash before TNA management chose to go in a different direction . TNA issued a press release on June 9 regarding Bound for Glory , announcing it would be held at the Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates , Illinois , a suburb of Chicago . It was also revealed that the event was officially stylized as " Bound for Glory IV , " tickets went on sale August 1 , and TNA had scheduled a " Total Nonstop InterAction " event on October 11 . Early returns for ticket sales revealed that the first two tiers had been sold out . In previous installments , the purchasing price of the event was $ 29 @.@ 99 , but with Bound for Glory IV TNA increased the price to $ 34 @.@ 99 . TNA advertised recently signed wrestler Mick Foley for their Total Nonstop InterAction event held at the Hyatt Regency in Rosemont , Illinois , with it selling out shortly afterwards . The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that TNA had received the largest crowd for a Total Nonstop InterAction event up to that point . TNA originally planned to use former professional football player and professional wrestler Steve McMichael as a Special Ringside Enforcer before management changed their minds and decided to use Mick Foley in the role instead . TNA later issued a press release announcing that McMichael would take part in the Bound for Glory IV festivities as a Special Guest Referee due to his fame and connection to the Chicago Bears and Chicago in general .
Bound for Glory is considered by TNA to be their equivalent to the National Football League 's Super Bowl or rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's WrestleMania event . As such , TNA used an extensive marketing campaign that involved several wrestlers dressing up as gangsters from the 1920s and 1930s era of Chicago to promote the show since it is the biggest event the company holds annually . Samoa Joe and The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) participated in some of these promotional video shoots . This was the first Bound for Glory event to use roman numerals in the title . TNA created a section on their company website to promote Bound for Glory IV . TNA released a poster to promote the show featuring Karen Angle , Joe , Booker T , Kurt Angle , Christian Cage , and Gail Kim . The official theme for the show was Tarantula by The Smashing Pumpkins . A contest was held to win upgraded ringside seats , free merchandise , and meet several TNA performers at Bound for Glory IV by wearing a Halloween costume to the event , with a drawing being held prior to the start of the telecast .
= = = Storylines = = =
Bound for Glory IV featured eight professional wrestling matches and one untelevised match that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
Heading into Bound for Glory IV , TNA created a company @-@ wide narrative that led to an on @-@ screen rivalry between professional wrestling veterans , who played the villains , and the younger talent of the company , who played the heroic characters . Several matches and storylines that led to the event were connected to this narrative , such as the storyline surrounding the TNA World Heavyweight Championship and the bout pitting Kurt Angle against Jeff Jarrett . This narrative started at TNA 's Victory Road PPV event on July 13 , where Samoa Joe defended the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against Booker T. During the match , Joe relentlessly assaulted Booker T to the point that referees nor security could stop him . This led to Sting interfering in the contest trying to calm Joe down . Joe refused to listen and continued his assault , causing Sting to hit Joe in the stomach with a baseball in order for Joe to stop , resulting in a no contest . Sting did not state a reason as to why he hit Joe in the weeks after the event . At TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event on August 10 , A.J. Styles fought Angle in a Last Man Standing match , which he won after injuring Angle 's neck in the contest . After the bout , Styles attacked Angle 's injured neck , making the injury more severe in the storyline until Sting attacked Styles to prevent the assault from continuing . On the August 14 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Sting explained that both Joe and Styles had been disrespectful and violent in their current rivalries and matches . He stated that his actions were to end that type of behavior between the younger wrestlers and the veteran wrestlers .
At TNA 's previous No Surrender PPV event on September 14 , Sting announced that TNA management had decided that he would challenge the TNA World Heavyweight Champion for the title at Bound for Glory . Later in the show , Joe defeated Christian Cage and Angle in a Three Ways to Glory match to retain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship after Jarrett interfered in the bout by bashing a guitar over Angle 's head . Following No Surrender on the September 18 episode of Impact ! , Sting discussed his actions further , stating that when he was younger he learned from the veterans in the industry and that Joe and Styles had been disrespectful in their rivalries with Booker T and Angle . Jarrett responded to Sting 's comments later in the show , stating that the issue was not about disrespect , it was about the veterans in the company not wanting to retire and let the younger wrestlers be stars . Angle argued that he made TNA a success , not the efforts of Jarrett , Sting , Joe , or Styles . Angle then challenged Jarrett to a match at Bound for Glory IV , which Jarrett declined . On the September 25 episode of Impact ! , Angle challenged Jarrett to a match again , this time threatening and mocking him along with his daughters . Jarrett accepted Angle 's challenge afterwards . Sting also expressed his reasons for having a desire to face Joe for the title on the same telecast , stating that he was taught respect by veterans in his youth so he was going to defeat Joe for the championship at Bound for Glory to teach Joe respect . Mick Foley was announced as the Special Ringside Enforcer for the Jarrett versus Angle bout on the October 2 Impact ! episode . Sting and Joe signed the contract for their encounter on the October 9 episode of Impact ! , with the stipulation added that there would be no rematch between the two after the event regardless of the outcome .
TNA held a Three Way War between A.J. Styles , Booker T , and Christian Cage at the show . Leading into the event , Styles represented the younger wrestlers in the company , while Booker T represented the veterans . Cage was neutral in the storyline , due to not having revealed which side he had aligned with . This upset Styles in the storyline , who wanted Cage to join the younger wrestlers . On the September 25 episode of Impact ! , Styles fought Booker T in a standard match . Booker T won the bout after bashing Styles in the head with a steel briefcase . Styles blamed the loss on Cage , who had interfered in the bout and accidentally cost Styles the win due to a miscommunication . On the October 2 episode of Impact ! , the team of Cage , Styles , and Jay Lethal teamed to face the team of Booker T and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) in a Six Man Tag Team match . Another miscommunication between Styles and Cage occurred in the contest , allowing Booker T to pin Cage to win the bout . This led to the October 9 episode of Impact ! , when Management Director Jim Cornette announced that Booker T versus Styles with Cage as Special Guest Referee would be the main event of that telecast to settle the issue . Styles defeated Booker T during the show , with Cage assaulting both wrestlers after the contest . Cornette then promoted a Three Way War at Bound for Glory in order to end the overall conflict .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a Four Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match by Beer Money , Inc . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) against the team of Abyss and Matt Morgan , The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ; LAX ) , and Team 3D . On the September 18 episode of Impact ! , Matt Morgan announced that TNA were holding a Tag Team Invitational Tournament at Bound for Glory and that he had signed up himself and his partner Abyss for the contest . Team 3D interrupted Morgan and revealed that they were also involved in the tournament . Meanwhile , on the same telecast , Beer Money , Inc. and their manager Jacqueline assaulted LAX 's manager HΓ©ctor Guerrero . On the September 25 episode of Impact ! , Team 3D announced that the match between them and the team of Morgan and Abyss was made a Monster 's Ball match . On the same telecast , Beer Money , Inc. defeated LAX in a bout with the stipulation that the losing team lost their manager . This meant that Guerrero could no longer manage LAX in the storyline . On the October 2 episode of Impact ! , Management Director Jim Cornette announced that the originally scheduled tournament was cancelled . Instead , TNA was holding a Four Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match for the TNA World Tag Team Championship between the above teams at Bound for Glory IV . TNA issued a press release announcing that Steve McMichael would be the Special Guest Referee for this match after it was promoted for the event .
The TNA X Division Championship was defended by Sheik Abdul Bashir against Consequences Creed at the spectacle . At Hard Justice , Bashir attacked Creed with a steal chair during his bout with Petey Williams for the title , which allowed Williams to force Creed 's head into the mat with his signature Canadian Destroyer maneuver to retain the X Division Championship . Creed was given a rematch on the August 21 episode of Impact ! , with Bashir once again interfering by attacking Creed , resulting in Creed winning by disqualification and Williams retaining the X Division Championship again . A Three Way match for the title with Williams defending against Bashir and Creed was scheduled for No Surrender . At the event , Bashir defeated Williams and Creed to become the new TNA X Division Champion . On the October 9 episode of Impact ! , Creed won a Four Way match to challenge Bashir for the title at Bound for Glory , defeating Sonjay Dutt , Williams , and Jay Lethal in the process .
= = Event = =
Prior to the event broadcasting live , TNA held an untelevised match for the audience in attendance . It was an Intergender Tag Team match pitting the team of Eric Young and Sojournor Bolt against Lance Rock and Christy Hemme . The team of Young and Bolt won the contest .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Bound for Glory IV featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , Mark " Slick " Johnson , Traci Brooks , and Steve McMichael participated as referees for the encounters . Lauren Thompson and Borash were used as interviewers during the event . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , SoCal Val , Christy Hemme , Jim Cornette , Raisha Saeed , Jacqueline , Sharmell , and Kevin Nash all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The opening televised contest of Bound for Glory was the Steel Asylum to determine the number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . There were ten participants in this contest ; those involved were Alex Shelley , Chris Sabin , Curry Man , Jay Lethal , Jimmy Rave , Johnny Devine , Petey Williams , Shark Boy , Sonjay Dutt , and Super Eric . Christy Hemme accompanied Rave to the ring , while SoCal Val accompanied Dutt . In this encounter , the ring was surrounded by a large red steel cage that domed with a hole in the center of the ceiling . The objective was for a competitor to fight up the walls of the cage and escape via the hole in the center . The first person to complete the task won the match and became number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . The duration of the bout was 12 minutes and 7 seconds . After several minutes of fighting among one another , several wrestlers attempted to climb the cage but were stopped . At one point , Devine performed his signature Devine Intervention maneuver on Rave , with Rave landing awkwardly on his neck . The winner of the contest was Lethal , who climbed the cage and escaped through the hole while everyone was preoccupied .
A Six Person Intergender Tag Team Bimbo Brawl match with Traci Brooks as the Special Guest Referee was next , pitting the team of ODB , Rhaka Khan , and Rhino against The Beautiful People ( Angelina Love , Cute Kip , and Velvet Sky ) . In this bout , both male and female wrestlers could fight each other and all weapons were legal to use . The only way to win was by pinfall or submission . Rhino won the match for his team after tackling Kip with his signature Gore maneuver at 6 minutes and 15 seconds .
The TNA X Division Championship match followed , with Sheik Abdul Bashir defending against Consequences Creed . The match lasted 9 minutes and 18 seconds . Prior to the contest , ring announcer David Penzer introduced Sgt. Daniel Casara , who in turn introduced Creed . During the bout , Bashir held Creed in a submission hold with the referee attempting to raise Creed 's arm three times . If it fell all three times , Bashir would be named the winner . Creed held his arm up on the third try , continuing the match . Bashir won the contest later by pinning Creed with a roll @-@ up pinning maneuver while holding onto the middle rope for leverage . As such , Bashir retained the TNA X Division Championship .
The TNA Women 's Knockout Championship was defended by Taylor Wilde against Awesome Kong and Roxxi in a Three Way match next . Raisha Saeed accompanied Kong to the ring . She also interfered in the contest by pulling Roxxi out of the ring and kicking her at ringside . Roxxi later returned to the ring and attacked Kong before being pinned by Wilde with a bridging suplex pin at 5 minutes and 11 seconds . Wilde thus retained the TNA Women 's Knockout Championship .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was defended in a Four Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match with Steve McMichael as Special Guest Referee in the fifth contest . Beer Money , Inc . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) defended the title against the team of Abyss and Matt Morgan , The Latin American Xchange ( Hernandez and Homicide ) , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Jacqueline accompanied Beer Money , Inc. to the ring . The duration of the bout was 20 minutes and 20 seconds . This bout was contested under no count @-@ outs and no disqualification rules with weapons legal and the only way to win was for a competitor to either pin or make another wrestler submit . The match started off with Hernandez jumping over the top rope onto Roode and Storm . Several competitors bled during the contest , such as Devon and Abyss , who was cut open by a cheese grater by Ray . McMichael was directly involved in the match several times . The first being an altercation with Beer Money , Inc . , resulting in McMichael attacking Roode . Another time was near the end of the contest when Jacqueline interrupted a pin attempt by Homicide on Storm , with McMichael spanking her in retaliation . The last time was when he aided Hernandez in opening a tied bag of thumbtacks . Johnny Devine interfered in the encounter when Team 3D were assaulting Abyss with various weapons , such as a staple gun . Devine hit Abyss with a kendo stick from behind and helped Devon set up a table on the floor next to the stage . Ray and Devon then sprayed the table with lighter fluid . Devine lit the table on fire before Ray and Devon slammed Abyss through the flaming table off of the stage . The match ended when Team 3D forced Hernandez through a table covered in thumbtacks with their signature 3D tag team maneuver , before Storm spat beer in Devon 's eyes and Roode covered Hernandez for the pinfall to retain the TNA World Tag Team Championship .
The sixth match was a Three Way War between A.J. Styles , Booker T , and Christian Cage that lasted 13 minutes and 5 seconds . Sharmell accompanied Booker T to the ring . She interfered in the encounter by giving Booker T a steal briefcase which he used to knockout Styles at ringside . Later , Cage attempted his signature Unprettier maneuver on Styles , who countered the move into an Inverted DDT to force Cage 's head into the mat . Styles followed by placing Booker T in an armbar submission hold , before Cage broke it up . Booker T gained a near @-@ fall after slamming Styles back @-@ first against the mat with his trademark Book End maneuver . Afterwards , Booker T performed his popular " Spinarooni " hallmark for the audience before he was attacked by Cage , who went on to mock the move . Cage and Styles fought on top of a turnbuckle before Styles threw Cage off the top and into the ring . Styles followed by performing his signature Spiral Tap maneuver , but Cage moved out of the way . Booker T hit both Styles and Cage with a double Axe Kick , gaining a near @-@ fall on both . A short bit later , Cage performed the Unprettier on Styles from the top of a turnbuckle . As he went for the pin attempt , Booker T hit Cage with an Axe Kick off of a turnbuckle and followed with the pinfall to win the encounter .
The seventh match of the show pitted Jeff Jarrett against Kurt Angle , with Mick Foley serving as the Special Ringside Enforcer . Jarrett gained a near @-@ fall in the contest when he suplexed Angle off the top of a turnbuckle . Jarrett then placed Angle in a Figure @-@ Four Leglock submission hold , which was broken by the referee when Angle grabbed the bottom rope . Angle fought back with a series of consecutive German suplexes , forcing Jarrett against the mat back @-@ first . He then placed Jarrett in his signature Ankle lock submission hold , which Jarrett fought Angle to get released . Angle gained a near @-@ fall by slamming Jarrett back @-@ first against the mat with his signature Olympic Slam maneuver . Afterwards , Angle missed an areial splash from the top of a turnbuckle , when Jarrett moved out of the way . Angle then accidentally hit the referee , knocking him out in the storyline . Jarrett followed by performing his signature Stroke maneuver on Angle , with Foley counting the pinfall attempt before Angle kicked out . Afterwards , Angle hit Jarrett in the groin and then attacked Foley with a steel chair at ringside , before returning to the ring to hit Jarrett with the chair as well . Angle then revived the referee who counted Angle 's pinfall attempt before Foley stopped the count by pulling the referee from the ring . Foley then attacked Angle and applied his signature Mandible Claw submission hold . Jarrett followed up by bashing a guitar over Angle 's head and covering for a pinfall that Foley counted to win the match at 20 minutes and 7 seconds .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship in which the champion Samoa Joe defended against the challenger Sting . The duration of the encounter was 16 minutes and 54 seconds . The beginning of the match had Joe on the offensive , with Joe performing a dive between the ropes to hit Sting in the face with his forearm . The competitors then fought throughout the crowd for an extended period . At one point while the two were fighting on the arena steps , Joe jumped from a luxury box and kicked Sting down the stairs . Afterwards , Sting and Joe fought back towards the ring with each trading the offensive advantage . Back in the ring , Sting earned a near @-@ fall after an aerial splash from the top of a turnbuckle . Joe placed Sting in an STF submission hold after a powerbomb next . Sting reached the ropes , causing the hold to be broken by the referee . Sting threw Joe into a ring corner and performed his signature Stinger Splash before lifting Joe up and slamming Joe neck @-@ first onto the mat with Joe 's signature Muscle Buster maneuver . Joe got up off the mat immediately and attacked Sting . He then slammed Sting head and back @-@ first into the mat with Sting 's trademark Scorpion Death Drop maneuver . Sting also got up immediately after the move . Later , Kevin Nash entered the arena and walked to the ringside area . Nash had reportedly left the company but his attendance backstage was leaked to various media outlets . As Joe was arguing with the referee , Sting retrieved a baseball bat that he had left at ringside . Nash pulled the bat from Sting 's hands , not allowing him to use it in the match . Afterwards , Joe and Sting fought in the ring when Sting dodged a running Joe , causing him to almost collide with referee Earl Hebner who dodged as well . At this time , Nash hit Joe across the back with the baseball bat when Joe came in contact with the ring ropes . Sting followed by performing the Scorpion Death Drop on Joe and pinned him to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . The event came to a close as Sting celebrated in @-@ front of the crowd .
= = Reception = =
There were several reported attendance figures for Bound for Glory IV , with the initial attendance figure being 5 @,@ 000 people before being retracted and updated to a total of 5 @,@ 500 people by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . This was lower than the maximum seating capacity available at the Sears Centre of between 11 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 800 people for festival style events . However , the Bound for Glory IV setup caused the event to only hold a maximum capacity of 8 @,@ 000 people . Of the 5 @,@ 500 that attended the show , only 4 @,@ 500 of them were paid tickets . Despite this , it was seen as one of the largest paid crowds in the company 's history and one of the most responsive crowds the company has had as well . The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that 35 @,@ 000 people bought the event .
Chris and Bryan Sokol of the Canadian Online Explorer reviewed and rated the show on a scale out of 10 , giving it a 7 . This was the same rating given to the 2009 edition by Nick Tylwalk , but lower than the 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 given to the 2007 edition by Chris Sokol . Compared to TNA 's previous PPV event No Surrender , Bound for Glory was received better as No Surrender was given a 3 out of 10 by Jason Clevett . Meanwhile , Chris and Bryan Sokol gave TNA 's next PPV event Turning Point a 7 out of 10 . Rival World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) produced two PPV events in October that competed against Bound for Glory IV . The first was the No Mercy PPV event on October 5 , while the second was the Cyber Sunday PPV event on October 26 . No Mercy was reviewed by Chris and Bryan Sokol and given a 6 out of 10 , lower than the Bound for Glory IV rating . Cyber Sunday was rated an 8 out of 10 by Andy McNamara , higher than the Bound for Glory rating . Compared to WWE 's WrestleMania XXIV PPV event on March 30 , Bound for Glory IV was outperformed as WrestleMania XXIV was given a 9 out of 10 by Dale Plummer .
Chris and Bryan Sokol rated the matches on a scale out of 10 , with the main event receiving a 7 . The Jeff Jarrett versus Kurt Angle bout and the Four Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match were both given an 8 out of 10 . The Three Way War between A.J. Styles , Booker T , and Christian Cage was given a 7 , while the X Division Championship match got a 6 out of 10 . In their review , they commented that the ending of the event was a " sloppy finish to a decent PPV " . They felt the Jarrett versus Angle contest was a " great match with lots of close calls and near falls " , while the Three Way War they considered was " pretty good " . As for the Monster 's Ball match , they said that it was " crazy " , with " tons of brawling " . The X Division Championship encounter was called a " good match " in their review .
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the show . Keller rated the matches on a scale out of 5 stars , with the main event given a 3 1 / 4 stars and called a " fine match that fit its slot on the PPV well " but had a finish that he described as " horrible " . He gave Jarrett versus Angle 3 1 / 2 stars with Keller commenting that it was a " good old @-@ school match ... but a bit slow " . The Three Way War received a 3 star rating , stating that there was " enough good " but overall it was " above @-@ average . " The Monster 's Ball match was given 3 1 / 4 stars in the review and called " an exciting match " with Keller explaining that there were " four stars worth of action , but it crossed into gratuitousness " and also criticized some awkward moments and the fire 's danger . The X Division Championship contest got 2 1 / 4 stars with Keller commenting that it " started okay " with the middle being a " little too slow " and that the " build to the finish was solid " but the " actual pin was sloppy " .
James Caldwell , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter , posted a review of the show rating the matches on the same scale as Keller . The main event was given 3 1 / 2 stars with Caldwell commenting that it was a " really good main event match " but that the finishing sequence " killed the momentum " . The Jarrett and Angle bout got a 4 star rating and called a " really nice match with a good story " . Caldwell clarified that the " finish didn 't hurt the drama " . He also complimented Jarrett 's " great physical condition in his first match back " . The Three Way War received 3 stars with Caldwell saying it had " some really good moments " . Caldwell called the Monster 's Ball match a " heck of a stunt brawl " that " came off pretty well with tons of energy " before giving it 3 1 / 2 stars . He referred to the X Division Championship encounter as a " good singles match " and gave it 2 stars .
Daniel Wilkenfeld , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter , posted a review of the telecast . Wilkenfeld gave some overall comments on the show , saying the " first half of the card dragged " but the " latter half picked up the pace a lot " . Wilkenfeld compared the event against " normal TNA PPV standards " with Bound for Glory IV being a " pretty good outing " , giving it either a " B + , or maybe even an A β " as an average show but since it was Bound for Glory the bar was raised higher so he only gave it a C. He called Samoa Joe the " Star of the Night " for getting a " largely pro @-@ Sting crowd behind his destructive ways " . Wilkenfeld called the Jarrett and Angle bout as the possible " match of the night " in his review . He referred to the flaming table portion of the Monster 's Ball match as being " an insane flaming table spot " in which he could not understand how those are done " without bad things happening " . He was disappointed by the X Division Championship match , and said that it never got past its " competent " beginning , with its conclusion " both arbitrary and blown " .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = On @-@ screen = = =
Following Bound for Glory IV , TNA continued the rivalry between the veteran wrestlers and the younger wrestlers . At Turning Point on November 9 , TNA held several matches connected to this overall narrative . Since Samoa Joe and Sting agreed on the stipulation that there would be no rematch between the two , Sting went on to feud with A.J. Styles while Joe fought Kevin Nash . On the October 23 episode of Impact ! , the veterans in TNA formed the group The Main Event Mafia , consisting of Sting , Kurt Angle , Nash , Booker T , and Scott Steiner . Meanwhile , the younger wrestlers formed The TNA Front Line led by Joe and Styles .
Heading into Turning Point , Styles and Sting argued over Sting assaulting Styles at Hard Justice . On the October 30 episode of Impact ! , newly made co @-@ owner of TNA Mick Foley advertised Sting defending the TNA World Heavyweight Championship against Styles at Turning Point . Sting retained the title at the event . Sting and Styles fought again at TNA 's Final Resolution PPV event on December 7 , this time in an Eight Man Tag Team Match pitting The Main Event Mafia ( Sting , Nash , Steiner , and Booker T ) against The TNA Front Line ( Styles , Joe , Brother Devon , and Brother Ray ) for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . The Main Event Mafia won the match , thus Sting retained the championship for a second time against Styles . Sting and Styles fought one last time for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , but not for several months . They clashed one final time at the 2009 Bound for Glory event on October 18 . At that event , Styles headed into the bout as the TNA World Heavyweight Champion . Styles defeated Sting to retain the championship at the show .
The storyline behind Nash 's betrayal began in December 2007 . At the 2007 Turning Point event , Joe was scheduled to take part in a Six Man Tag Team match , partnering with Nash and Nash 's longtime real @-@ life friend Scott Hall to face The Angle Alliance ( Angle , Styles , and Tomko ) . Hall missed the event citing " food poisoning " , leaving Joe legitimately angered by the excuse , causing him to make an on @-@ camera statement insulting Hall . Following the incident , TNA began a storyline in which Joe was unhappy with his position in the company for various reasons and had continuous conflicts with Nash . After time , Nash became Joe 's on @-@ screen mentor , which led to Joe defeating Angle on April 13 at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event to become the new TNA World Heavyweight Champion . On the October 30 episode of Impact ! , Foley announced that Joe would face Nash at Turning Point . Nash defeated Joe at the event . Joe and Nash fought again at Final Resolution when they competed on opposing teams in the Eight Man Tag Team match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , which Nash 's team won . Nash and Joe did not have another match until April 19 , 2009 at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event , when Joe was apart of Team Jarrett ( Jarrett , Styles , Daniels , and Joe ) and Nash was apart of Team Angle ( Angle , Steiner , Booker T , and Nash ) in a Lethal Lockdown match . Team Jarrett won the encounter ; Joe went on to defeat Nash on May 24 at TNA 's Sacrifice PPV event afterwards .
Another encounter connected to the narrative that was advertised for Turning Point was Kurt Angle versus Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match . After Angle lost to Jeff Jarrett at Bound for Glory IV , Angle challenged Jarrett to a rematch , which was refused on the October 16 episode of Impact ! . To get Jarrett to accept his challenge , Angle assaulted several wrestlers in TNA . On the October 23 episode of Impact ! , Angle challenged Jarrett to a rematch for the second time . Jarrett refused the offer for a second time , but recommended a casualty of Angle 's attacks , Abyss , as Angle 's opponent . On the October 30 episode of Impact ! , a contest between Angle and Abyss ended in a disqualification after Angle struck Abyss with a steel chair . Following their encounter , a match was promoted pitting Angle against Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match at Turning Point . Angle won the bout at the show .
On the October 23 episode of Impact ! , Booker T introduced a new championship named the TNA Legends Championship and declared himself the inaugural champion . Afterwards , Christian Cage challenged Booker T to defend the championship against him at Turning Point . Booker T accepted after he added the stipulation that if Cage lost the encounter Cage would have to join The Main Event Mafia . Later on the October 30 episode of Impact ! , the match was made official when it was promoted for the event . Booker T retained the championship at Turning Point , defeating Cage and causing him to join the veterans and The Main Event Mafia in the storyline .
= = = Off @-@ screen = = =
A few wrestlers were injured at Bound for Glory IV . The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that Abyss suffered burns to his arms after going through a flaming table at the event . Jimmy Rave received a neck injury from being dropped on his head badly by Johnny Devine during the Steel Asylum .
The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that almost all of the participants involved in the Four Way Tag Team Monster 's Ball match at the show were furious over how Steve McMichael performed as the Special Guest Referee . Some of the reported issues were slow counting and being out of position , which several felt " screwed up the match . " McMichael was originally supposed to have served as a Special Ringside Enforcer , but TNA personnel did not want the role done twice in one night . The decision to change him to the Special Guest Referee was made the day of the show by Jeff Jarrett .
= = Results = =
= = Gallery = =
Several images captured at the Bound for Glory IV PPV event on October 12 , 2008 .
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= Choral symphony =
A choral symphony is a musical composition for orchestra , choir , and sometimes solo vocalists that , in its internal workings and overall musical architecture , adheres broadly to symphonic musical form . The term " choral symphony " in this context was coined by Hector Berlioz when he described his RomΓ©o et Juliette as such in his five @-@ paragraph introduction to that work . The direct antecedent for the choral symphony is Ludwig van Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony . Beethoven 's Ninth incorporates part of the Ode an die Freude ( " Ode to Joy " ) , a poem by Friedrich Schiller , with text sung by soloists and chorus in the last movement . It is the first example of a major composer 's use of the human voice on the same level as instruments in a symphony .
A few 19th @-@ century composers , notably Felix Mendelssohn and Franz Liszt , followed Beethoven in producing choral symphonic works . Notable works in the genre were produced in the 20th century by Gustav Mahler , Sergei Rachmaninoff , Igor Stravinsky , Ralph Vaughan Williams , Benjamin Britten and Dmitri Shostakovich , among others . The final years of the 20th century and the opening of the 21st century have seen several new works in this genre , among them compositions by Peter Maxwell Davies , Tan Dun , Philip Glass , Hans Werner Henze , Krzysztof Penderecki , and William Bolcom .
The term " choral symphony " indicates the composer 's intention that the work be symphonic , even with its fusion of narrative or dramatic elements that stems from the inclusion of words . To this end , the words are often treated symphonically to pursue non @-@ narrative ends , by use of frequent repetition of important words and phrases , and the transposing , reordering or omission of passages of the set text . The text often determines the basic symphonic outline , while the orchestra 's role in conveying the musical ideas is similar in importance to that of the chorus and soloists . Even with a symphonic emphasis , a choral symphony is often influenced in musical form and content by an external narrative , even in parts where there is no singing .
= = History = =
The symphony had established itself by the end of the 18th century as the most prestigious of instrumental genres . While the genre had been developed with considerable intensity throughout that century and appeared in a wide range of occasions , it was generally used as an opening or closing work ; in between would be works that included vocal and instrumental soloists . Because of its lack of written text for focus , it was seen as a vehicle for entertainment rather than for social , moral or intellectual ideas . As the symphony grew in size and artistic significance , thanks in part to efforts in the form by Haydn , Mozart and Beethoven , it also amassed greater prestige . A concurrent change in attitude toward instrumental music in general also took place , and the lack of text , once seen as a handicap , became considered a virtue .
In 1824 , Beethoven redefined the symphony genre in his Ninth by introducing text and voice into a previously instrumental genre . His doing so sparked a debate on the future of the symphony itself . Beethoven 's use of words , according to Richard Wagner , had shown " the limits of purely instrumental music " and marked " the end of the symphony as a vital genre " . Others were not sure how to proceed β whether to emulate the Ninth by writing symphonies with choral finales , or to develop the symphony genre in a purely instrumental fashion . Eventually , musicologist Mark Evan Bonds writes , the symphony was seen " as an all @-@ embracing , cosmic drama that transcended the realm of sound alone " .
Some composers both emulated and expanded upon Beethoven 's model . Berlioz showed in his choral symphony RomΓ©o et Juliette a fresh approach to the epic nature of the symphony as he used voices to blend music and narrative but saved crucial moments of that narrative for the orchestra alone . In doing so , Bonds writes , Berlioz illustrates for subsequent composers " new approaches for addressing the metaphysical in the realm of the symphony " . Mendelssohn wrote his Lobgesang as a work for chorus , soloists and orchestra . Labeling the work a " symphony @-@ cantata " , he expanded the choral finale to nine movements by including sections for vocal soloists , recitatives and sections for chorus ; this made the vocal part longer than the three purely orchestral sections that preceded it . Liszt wrote two choral symphonies , following in these multi @-@ movement forms the same compositional practices and programmatic goals he had established in his symphonic poems .
After Liszt , Mahler took on the legacy of Beethoven in his early symphonies , in what Bonds terms " their striving for a utopian finale " . Towards this end Mahler used a chorus and soloists in the finale of his Second Symphony , the " Resurrection " . In his Third , he wrote a purely instrumental finale following two vocal movements , and in his Fourth a vocal finale is sung by a solo soprano . After writing his Fifth , Sixth and Seventh Symphonies as purely instrumental works , Mahler returned to the vein of " festival @-@ symphonic ceremonial " in his Eighth Symphony , which integrates text throughout the body of the work . After Mahler , the choral symphony became a more common genre , taking a number of compositional turns in the process . Some composers , such as Britten , Rachmaninoff , Shostakovich and Vaughan Williams , followed symphonic form strictly . Others , such as Havergal Brian , Alfred Schnittke and Karol Szymanowski , chose either to expand symphonic form or to use different symphonic structures altogether .
Throughout the history of the choral symphony , works have been composed for special occasions . One of the earliest was Mendelssohn 's Lobgesang , commissioned by the city of Leipzig in 1840 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Johannes Gutenberg 's invention of movable type . More than a century later , Henryk Górecki 's Second Symphony , subtitled " Copernican " , was commissioned in 1973 by the Kosciuszko Foundation in New York to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus . In between these two works , in 1930 , conductor Serge Koussevitzky asked Stravinsky to write the Symphony of Psalms for the 50th anniversary of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and , in 1946 , composer Henry Barraud , then head of Radiodiffusion Française , commissioned Darius Milhaud to write his Third Symphony , subtitled " Te Deum " , to commemorate the end of World War II .
In the final years of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st , more such choral symphonies were written . Krzysztof Penderecki 's Seventh Symphony was for the third millennium of the city of Jerusalem . Tan Dun 's Symphony 1997 : Heaven Earth Mankind commemorated the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong that year to the People 's Republic of China . Philip Glass 's Fifth Symphony as one of several pieces commissioned to celebrate the beginning of the 21st century . Paul Spicer 's choral symphony Unfinished Remembering ( 2014 , libretto by Euan Tait ) was commissioned to commemorate the centenary of the outbreak of the First World War .
= = General features = =
Like an oratorio or an opera , a choral symphony is a musical work for orchestra , choir and ( often ) solo voices , although a few have been written for unaccompanied voices . Berlioz , who in 1858 first coined the term when describing his work RomΓ©o et Juliette , explained the distinctive relationship he envisaged between voice and orchestra :
Even though voices are often used , it is neither a concert opera nor a cantata , but a choral symphony . If there is singing , almost from the beginning , it is to prepare the listener 's mind for the dramatic scenes whose feelings and passions are to be expressed by the orchestra . It is also to introduce the choral masses gradually into the musical development , when their too sudden appearance would have damaged the compositions 's unity ....
Unlike oratorios or operas , which are generally structured dramaturgically into arias , recitatives and choruses , a choral symphony is structured like a symphony , in movements . It may employ the traditional four @-@ movement scheme of a fast opening movement , slow movement , scherzo and finale , or as with many instrumental symphonies , it may use a different structure of movements . The written text in a choral symphony shares equal standing with the music , as in an oratorio , and the chorus and soloists share equality with the instruments . Over time the use of text allowed the choral symphony to evolve from an instrumental symphony with a choral finale , as in the Beethoven 's Ninth , to a composition that can use voices and instruments throughout the entire composition , as in Stravinsky 's Symphony of Psalms or Mahler 's Eighth Symphony .
Sometimes the text can give a basic outline that correlates to the four @-@ movement scheme of a symphony . For instance , the four @-@ part structure of Edgar Allan Poe 's The Bells , a progression from youth to marriage , maturity , and death , naturally suggested the four movements of a symphony to Sergei Rachmaninoff , which he followed in his choral symphony of the same name . The text can encourage a composer to expand a choral symphony past the normal bounds of the symphonic genre , as with Berlioz for his RomΓ©o et Juliette , yet stay within the basic structural or aesthetic intent of symphonic form . It can also influence the musical content in parts where there is no singing , as in RomΓ©o et Juliette . There , Berlioz allows the orchestra to express the majority of the drama in instrumental music and saves words for expository and narrative sections of the work .
= = Relation of words and music = =
As in an oratorio , the written text in a choral symphony can be as important as the music , and the chorus and soloists can participate equally with the instruments in the exposition and development of musical ideas . The text can also help determine whether the composer follows symphonic form strictly , as in the case of Rachmaninoff , Britten and Shostakovich , or whether they expand symphonic form , as in the case of Berlioz , Mahler and Havergal Brian . Sometimes the choice of text has led the composer to different symphonic structures , as with Szymanowski , Schnittke and , again , Havergal Brian . The composer can also choose to treat the text fluidly , in a manner more like music than narrative . Such was the case with Vaughan Williams , Mahler and Philip Glass .
= = = Musical treatment of text = = =
Vaughan Williams ' program note for A Sea Symphony discusses how the text was to be treated as music . The composer writes , " The plan of the work is symphonic rather than narrative or dramatic , and this may be held to justify the frequent repetition of important words and phrases which occur in the poem . The words as well as the music are thus treated symphonically . " Walt Whitman 's poems inspired him to write the symphony , and Whitman 's use of free verse became appreciated at a time where fluidity of structure was becoming more attractive than traditional , metrical settings of text . This fluidity helped facilitate the non @-@ narrative , symphonic treatment of text that Vaughan Williams had in mind . In the third movement in particular , the text is loosely descriptive and can be " pushed about by the music " , some lines being repeated , some not consecutive in the written text immediately following one another in the music , and some left out entirely .
Vaughan Williams was not the only composer following a non @-@ narrative approach to his text . Mahler took a similar , perhaps even more radical approach in his Eighth Symphony , presenting many lines of the first part , " Veni , Creator Spiritus " , in what music writer and critic Michael Steinberg referred to as " an incredibly dense growth of repetitions , combinations , inversions , transpositions and conflations " . He does the same with Goethe 's text in Part Two of the symphony , making two substantial cuts and other changes .
Other works take the use of text as music still further . Vaughan Williams uses a chorus of women 's voices wordlessly in his Sinfonia Antartica , based on his music for the film Scott of the Antarctic , to help set the bleakness of the overall atmosphere . While a chorus is used in the second and third movements of Glass 's Seventh Symphony , also known as A Toltec Symphony , the text contains no actual words ; the composer states that it is instead formed " from loose syllables that add to the evocative context of the overall orchestral texture " .
= = = Music and words as equals = = =
Stravinsky said about the texts of his Symphony of Psalms that " it is not a symphony in which I have included Psalms to be sung . On the contrary , it is the singing of the Psalms that I am symphonizing " . This decision was as much musical as it was textual . Stravinsky 's counterpoint required several musical voices to function simultaneously , independent melodically and rhythmically , yet interdependent harmonically . They would sound very different when heard separately , yet harmonious when heard together . To facilitate maximum clarity in this interplay of voices , Stravinsky used " a choral and instrumental ensemble in which the two elements should be on an equal footing , neither of them outweighing the other " .
Mahler 's intent in writing his Eighth Symphony for exceptionally large forces was a similar balance between vocal and instrumental forces . It was not simply an attempt at grandiose effect , though the composer 's use of such forces earned the work the subtitle " Symphony of a Thousand " from his press agent ( a name still applied to the symphony ) . Like Stravinsky , Mahler makes extensive and extended use of counterpoint , especially in the first part , " Veni Creator Spiritus " . Throughout this section , according to music writer Michael Kennedy , Mahler displays considerable mastery in manipulating multiple independent melodic voices . Musicologist Deryck Cooke adds that Mahler handles his huge forces " with extraordinary clarity " .
Vaughan Williams also insisted on a balance between words and music in A Sea Symphony , writing in his program note for the work , " It is also noticeable that the orchestra has an equal share with the chorus and soloists in carrying out the musical ideas " . Music critic Samuel Langford , writing about the premiere of the work for The Manchester Guardian , concurred with the composer , writing , " It is the nearest approach we have to a real choral symphony , one in which the voices are used throughout just as freely as the orchestra . "
= = = Words determining symphonic form = = =
Rachmaninoff 's choral symphony The Bells reflected the four @-@ part progression from youth to marriage , maturity , and death in Poe 's poem . Britten reversed the pattern for his Spring Symphony β the four sections of the symphony represent , in its composer 's words , " the progress of Winter to Spring and the reawakening of the earth and life which that means .... It is in the traditional four movement shape of a symphony , but with the movements divided into shorter sections bound together by a similar mood or point of view . "
The gestation of Shostakovich 's Thirteenth Symphony , Babi Yar , was only slightly less straightforward . He set the poem Babi Yar by Yevgeny Yevtushenko almost immediately upon reading it , initially considering it a single @-@ movement composition . Discovering three other Yevtushenko poems in the poet 's collection Vzmakh ruki ( A Wave of the Hand ) prompted him to proceed to a full @-@ length choral symphony , with " A Career " as the closing movement . Musicologist Francis Maes comments that Shostakovich did so by complementing Babi Yar 's theme of Jewish suffering with Yevtushenko 's verses about other Soviet abuses : " ' At the Store ' is a tribute to the women who have to stand in line for hours to buy the most basic foods , ... ' Fears ' evokes the terror under Stalin . ' A Career ' is an attack on bureaucrats and a tribute to genuine creativity " . Music historian Boris Schwarz adds that the poems , in the order Shostakovich places them , form a strongly dramatic opening movement , a scherzo , two slow movements and a finale .
In other cases , the choice of text has led the composer to different symphonic structures . Havergal Brian allowed the form of his Fourth Symphony , subtitled " Das Siegeslied " ( Psalm of Victory ) , to be dictated by the three @-@ part structure of his text , Psalm 68 ; the setting of Verses 13 β 18 for soprano solo and orchestra forms a quiet interlude between two wilder , highly chromatic martial ones set for massive choral and orchestral forces . Likewise , Szymanowski allowed the text by 13th @-@ century Persian poet Rumi to dictate what Dr. Jim Samson calls the " single tripartite movement " and " overall arch structure " of his Third Symphony , subtitled " Song of the Night " .
= = = Words expanding symphonic form = = =
A composer may also respond to a text by expanding a choral symphony beyond the normal bounds of the symphonic genre . This is evident in the unusual orchestration and stage directions Berlioz prepared for his RomΓ©o et Juliette . This piece is actually in seven movements , and calls for an intermission after the fourth movement β the " Queen Mab Scherzo " β to remove the harps from the stage and bring on the chorus of Capulets for the funeral march that follows . Berlioz biographer D. Kern Holoman observed that , " as Berlioz saw it , the work is simply Beethovenian in design , with the narrative elements overlain . Its core approaches a five @-@ movement symphony with the choral finale and , as in the [ Symphonie ] Fantastique , both a scherzo and a march .... The ' extra ' movements are thus the introduction with its potpourri of subsections and the descriptive tomb scene [ at the end of the work ] . "
Mahler expanded the Beethovenian model for programmatic as well as symphonic reasons in his Second Symphony , the " Resurrection " , the vocal fourth movement , " Urlicht " , bridging the childlike faith of the third movement with the ideological tension Mahler seeks to resolve in the finale . He then abandoned this pattern for his Third Symphony , as two movements for voices and orchestra follow three purely instrumental ones before the finale returns to instruments alone . Like Mahler , Havergal Brian expanded the Beethovenian model , but on a much larger scale and with far larger orchestral and choral forces , in his Symphony No. 1 " The Gothic " . Written between 1919 and 1927 , the symphony was inspired by Goethe 's Faust and Gothic cathedral architecture . The Brian First is in two parts . The first consists of three instrumental movements ; the second , also in three movements and over an hour in length , is a Latin setting of the Te Deum .
= = Symphonies for unaccompanied chorus = =
A few composers have written symphonies for unaccompanied chorus , in which the choir performs both vocal and instrumental functions . Granville Bantock composed three such works β Atalanta in Calydon ( 1911 ) , Vanity of Vanities ( 1913 ) and A Pageant of Human Life ( 1913 ) . His Atalanta , called by musicologist Herbert Antcliffe " the most important [ work of the three ] alike in technical experiment and in inspiration " , was written for a choir of at least 200 , the composer specifying " ' not less than 10 voices for each part , ' " a work with 20 separate vocal parts . Using these forces , Bantock formed groups " of different weights and colors to get something of the varied play of tints and perspective [ of an orchestra ] " . In addition , the choir is generally divided into three sections , approximating the timbres of woodwinds , brass and strings . Within these divisions , Antcliffe writes ,
Almost every possible means of vocal expression is employed separately or in combination with others . To hear the different parts of the choir describing in word and tone " laughter " and " tears " respectively at the same time is to realize how little the possibilities of choral singing have as yet been grasped by the ordinary conductor and composer . Such combinations are extremely effective when properly achieved , but they are very difficult to achieve .
Roy Harris wrote his Symphony for Voices in 1935 for a cappella choir split into eight parts . Harris focused on harmony , rhythm and dynamics , allowing the text by Walt Whitman to dictate the choral writing . " In a real sense , the human strivings so vividly portrayed in Whitman 's poetry find a musical analog to the trials to which the singers are subjected " , John Profitt writes both of the music 's difficulty for performers and of its highly evocative quality . Malcolm Williamson wrote his Symphony for Voices between 1960 and 1962 , setting texts by Australian poet James McAuley . Lewis Mitchell writes that the work is not a symphony in any true sense , but rather a four @-@ movement work preceded by an invocation for solo contralto . The text is a combination of poems celebrating the Australian wilderness and visionary Christianity , its jagged lines and rhythms matched by the music . Mitchell writes , " Of all his choral works , with the possible exception of the Requiem for a Tribe Brother , the Symphony is the most Australian in feeling " .
= = Programmatic intent = =
Some recent efforts have paid less attention to symphonic form and more to programmic intent . Hans Werner Henze wrote his 1997 Ninth Symphony in seven movements , basing the structure of the symphony on the novel The Seventh Cross by Anna Seghers . The novel recounts the flight of seven fugitives from a Nazi prison camp , the seven crosses symbolizing the seven death sentences ; the ordeal of the one prisoner who makes it to freedom becomes the crux of the text . Penderecki 's Seventh Symphony , subtitled " Seven Gates of Jerusalem " and originally conceived as an oratorio , is not only written in seven movements but , musicologist Richard Whitehouse writes , is " pervaded by the number ' seven ' at various levels . " An extensive system of seven @-@ note phrases binds the work together , as well as the frequent use of seven notes repeated at a single pitch . Seven chords played fortissimo bring the work to a close .
Philip Glass 's Fifth Symphony , completed in 1999 and subtitled " Requiem , Bardo and Nirmanakaya " , is written in 12 movements to fulfill its programmatic intent . Glass writes , " My plan has been for the symphony to represent a broad spectrum of many of the world 's great ' wisdom ' traditions " , synthesizing " a vocal text that begins before the world 's creation , passes through earthly life and paradise , and closes with a future dedication " . Glass writes that he considered the millennium at the beginning of the 21st century to be a symbolic bridge between past , present and spiritual rebirth .
More recently , Glass based the philosophical and musical structure for his Seventh Symphony on the Wirrarika sacred trinity . Glass wrote about the work 's respective movement headings and their relation to the overall structure of the symphony , " ' The Corn ' represents a direct link between Mother Earth and the well @-@ being of human beings .... ' The Sacred Root ' is found in the high deserts of north and central Mexico , and is understood to be the doorway to the world of the Spirit . ' The Blue Deer ' is considered the holder of the Book of Knowledge . Any man or woman who aspires to be a ' Person of Knowledge ' will , through arduous training and effort , have to encounter the Blue Deer .... "
= = = Words changing programmatic intent = = =
Addition of a text can effectively change the programmatic intent of a composition , as with the two choral symphonies of Franz Liszt . Both the Faust and Dante symphonies were conceived as purely instrumental works and only later became choral symphonies . However , while Liszt authority Humphrey Searle asserts that Liszt 's later inclusion of a chorus effectively sums up Faust and makes it complete , another Liszt expert , Reeves Shulstad , suggests that Liszt changed the work 's dramatic focus to the point of meriting a different interpretation of the work itself . According to Shulstad , " Liszt 's original version of 1854 ended with a last fleeting reference to Gretchen and an ... orchestral peroration in C major , based on the most majestic of themes from the opening movement . One might say that this conclusion remains within the persona of Faust and his imagination " . When Liszt rethought the piece three years later , he added a " Chorus mysticus " , the male chorus singing the final words from Goethe 's Faust . The tenor soloist , accompanied by the chorus , sings the last two lines of the text . " With the addition of the ' Chorus Mysticus ' text " , Shulstad writes , " the Gretchen theme has been transformed and she no longer appears as a masked Faust . With this direct association to the final scene of the drama we have escaped Faust 's imaginings and are hearing another voice commenting on his striving and redemption " .
Likewise , Liszt 's inclusion of a choral finale in his Dante Symphony changed both the structural and programmatic intent of the work . Liszt 's intent was to follow the structure of the Divina Commedia and compose Dante in three movements β one each for the Inferno , Purgatorio and Paradiso . However , Liszt 's son @-@ in @-@ law Richard Wagner persuaded him that no earthly composer could faithfully express the joys of Paradise . Liszt dropped the third movement but added a choral element , a Magnificat , at the end of the second . This action , Searle claims , effectively destroyed the work 's formal balance and left the listener , like Dante , to gaze upward at the heights of Heaven and hear its music from afar . Shulstad suggests that the choral finale actually helps complete the work 's programmatic trajectory from struggle to paradise .
Conversely , a text can also spark the birth of a choral symphony , only for that work to become a purely instrumental one when the programmatic focus of the work changes . Shostakovich originally planned his Seventh Symphony as a single @-@ movement choral symphony much like his Second and Third Symphonies . Shostakovich reportedly intended to set a text for the Seventh from the Ninth Psalm , on the theme of vengeance for the shedding of innocent blood . In doing this he was influenced by Stravinsky ; he had been deeply impressed with the latter 's Symphony of Psalms , which he wanted to emulate in this work . While the Ninth Psalm 's theme conveyed Shostakovich 's outrage over Stalin 's oppression , a public performance of a work with such a text would have been impossible before the German invasion . Hitler 's aggression made the performance of such a work feasible , at least in theory ; the reference to " blood " could then be associated at least officially with Hitler . With Stalin appealing to the Soviets ' patriotic and religious sentiments , the authorities were no longer suppressing Orthodox themes or images . Nevertheless , Shostakovich eventually realized that the work encompassed far more than this symbology . He expanded the symphony to the traditional four movements and made it purely instrumental .
= = = Supplanting text wordlessly = = =
While Berlioz allowed the programmatic aspects of his text to shape the symphonic form of RomΓ©o and to guide its content , he also showed how an orchestra could supplant such a text wordlessly to further illustrate it . He wrote in his preface to RomΓ©o :
If , in the famous garden and cemetery scenes the dialogue of the two lovers , Juliet 's asides , and Romeo 's passionate outbursts are not sung , if the duets of love and despair are given to the orchestra , the reasons are numerous and easy to comprehend . First , and this alone would be sufficient , it is a symphony and not an opera . Second , since duets of this nature have been handled vocally a thousand times by the greatest masters , it was wise as well as unusual to attempt another means of expression . It is also because the very sublimity of this love made its depiction so dangerous for the musician that he had to give his imagination a latitude that the positive sense of the sung words would not have given him , resorting instead to instrumental language , which is richer , more varied , less precise , and by its very indefiniteness incomparably more powerful in such a case .
As a manifesto , this paragraph became significant for the amalgamation of symphonic and dramatic elements in the same musical composition . Musicologist Hugh MacDonald writes that as Berlioz kept the idea of symphonic construction closely in mind , he allowed the orchestra to express the majority of the drama in instrumental music and set expository and narrative sections in words . Fellow musicologist Nicholas Temperley suggests that , in RomΓ©o , Berlioz created a model for how a dramatic text could guide the structure of a choral symphony without circumventing that work from being recognizably a symphony . In this sense , musicologist Mark Evans Bonds writes , the symphonies of Liszt and Mahler owe a debt of influence to Berlioz .
More recently , Alfred Schnittke allowed the programmatic aspects of his texts to dictate the course of both his choral symphonies even when no words were being sung . Schnittke 's six @-@ movement Second Symphony , following the Ordinary of the Mass of the Roman Catholic Church , works programmatically on two levels simultaneously . While soloists and chorus briefly perform the mass , set to chorales taken from the Gradual , the orchestra provides an extended running commentary that can continue much longer than the section of the mass being performed . Sometimes the commentary follows a particular chorale but more often is freer and wider ranging in style . Despite the resulting stylistic disparity , biographer Alexander Ivashkin comments , " musically almost all these sections blend the choral [ sic ] tune and subsequent extensive orchestral ' commentary . ' " The work becomes what Schnittke called an " Invisible Mass " , and Ivashkin termed " a symphony against a chorale backdrop " .
The program in Schnittke 's Fourth Symphony , reflecting the composer 's own religious dilemma at the time it was written , is more complex in execution , with the majority of it expressed wordlessly . In the 22 variations that make up the symphony 's single movement , Schnittke enacts the 15 traditional Mysteries of the Rosary , which highlight important moments in the life of Christ . As he did in the Second Symphony , Schnittke simultaneously gives a detailed musical commentary on what is being portrayed . Schnittke does this while using church music from the Catholic , Protestant , Jewish and Orthodox faiths , the orchestral texture becoming extremely dense from the many musical strands progressing at the same time . A tenor and a countertenor also sing wordlessly at two points in the symphony . The composition saves words for a finale that uses all four types of church music contrapuntally as a four @-@ part choir sings the Ave Maria . The choir can choose whether to sing the Ave Maria in Russian or Latin . The programmatic intent of using these different types of music , Ivashkin writes , is an insistence by the composer " on the idea ... of the unity of humanity , a synthesis and harmony among various manifestations of belief " .
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= Hurricane Nate ( 2005 ) =
Hurricane Nate was an Atlantic hurricane that threatened Bermuda but remained at sea during early September 2005 . The fourteenth named storm and seventh hurricane of the annual Atlantic hurricane season , Nate formed southwest of Bermuda on September 5 and initially moved very slowly to the northeast . Early forecasts suggested a possible threat to the island , but Nate passed well to its south as a Category 1 hurricane on September 8 . After moving away from the island , the storm entered a region with cooler sea surface temperatures and unfavorable wind shear , causing it to weaken to a tropical storm before becoming extratropical on September 10 . The extratropical remnant was later absorbed by a larger weather system .
The hurricane caused no structural damage while tropical , although it generated rip currents in combination with other storms that killed one person off the New Jersey coast . Nate dropped light rainfall and produced gusty winds on the island of Bermuda . The remnants of hurricanes Nate and Maria contributed to heavy rainfall in parts of Scotland and later Western Norway , triggering a mudslide that killed one person . Canadian Navy ships en route to the US Gulf Coast , carrying relief supplies to assist in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , were delayed while trying to avoid Nate and Hurricane Ophelia .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged from the west coast of Africa on August 30 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean , maintaining a vigorous area of convection along the wave axis . By September 1 most of the deep convection had been stripped away by southwesterly wind shear . Despite this , the wave remained well @-@ defined as it continued west @-@ northwest . The wave split into two pieces ; the northern portion passed between the Leeward Islands and Hurricane Maria on September 3 , while the southern portion moved into the Caribbean Sea . On September 4 , the northern portion of the wave began to interact with an upper @-@ level low pressure system and an elongated trough that was located between Bermuda and the Leeward Islands β the same trough which contributed to the development of Hurricane Ophelia . As a result of the low wind shear , convection redeveloped and organized along the wave axis . Convective banding formed around a broad surface low . It is estimated that the system developed into a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 5 . At the time it was located approximately 350 miles ( 560 km ) to the south @-@ southwest of Bermuda .
Upon being designated , Tropical Depression Fifteen developed deep convection close to , and to the east of , the center of circulation . At the same time , banding features became better organized . Later on September 5 , the overall cloud pattern improved while thunderstorm activity condensed and deepened within the increasingly well @-@ defined circulation . Just six hours after being designated as a tropical depression , the cyclone intensified into a tropical storm ; it was given the name Nate by the National Hurricane Center . Over the following two days , Nate drifted slowly northeastward towards Bermuda .
Within the early hours of September 6 , Nate became quasi @-@ stationary under a weak steering pattern between Hurricane Maria and a disturbance over The Bahamas . Satellite imagery indicated that the cloud pattern continued to organize with excellent outflow surrounding the storm . Late on September 6 a developing banding eye feature became evident . Tropical Storm Nate strengthened further and became a hurricane at 1200 UTC on September 7 , as it began to turn away from Bermuda . Some models indicated that Nate could have been either absorbed by or merged with the larger Hurricane Maria , but the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecast that Nate would survive as a separate system , which it did . The large low to the northeast of The Bahamas gradually opened into a broad trough as a shortwave trough approached from the northwest . The larger trough slowly became elongated in a northeast β southwest manner late on September 7 . At the same time , the shortwave trough moved southward along the west side of the other trough . The increasing southwesterly flow along the southeast side of the broad trough caused Nate to accelerate northeastward . Nate reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) late on September 8 as it passed 120 miles ( 205 km ) southeast of Bermuda , while its strongest winds remained well offshore .
While at peak intensity , the storm maintained a well @-@ organized and " impressive " convective pattern . Soon after the storm peaked in strength , increasing wind shear and dry air caused Nate to weaken back into a tropical storm later on September 9 . Satellite imagery showed that the cloud pattern began to rapidly deteriorate . The hurricane was downgraded to a tropical storm at 1800 UTC on September 9 and continued to weaken as wind shear increased in association with an approaching trough and a related cold front . By late on September 9 , all of the already limited convective activity was confined to the eastern semicircle , leaving the low @-@ level center exposed . The storm was reduced to a swirl of low @-@ level clouds just hours later . Nate became extratropical the next day before becoming absorbed by a larger system by 0000 UTC on September 13 , to the north @-@ northeast of the Azores .
= = Impact , records , and naming = =
A tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda early on September 7 , and later that day a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch superseded it . However , the storm did not land on the island and the warnings were canceled as the storm moved away September 8 . Four cruise ships left the island early , and flights were canceled in anticipation of Nate . At 0400 UTC on September 8 , the National Hurricane Center assessed a 34 % chance that Nate would pass within 75 miles ( 121 km ) of the island .
The outer bands of Nate brushed Bermuda with sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and widespread showers . Gusts were higher , peaking at roughly 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Less than 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain was recorded at Bermuda International Airport . " We definitely did not get the worst case scenario with this storm " , observed the Bermuda Weather Service ; there were no fatalities as a result of the storm in Bermuda , and no damage was reported . Two ships reported tropical storm @-@ force winds in association with the storm : the Maersk New Orleans , to the north of the storm 's center , and a ship with the call sign WCZ858 to the east @-@ southeast . Rip currents from Nate and the more distant Maria killed one and injured another in New Jersey ; several others were caught in rip currents , though they were able to escape . In the Carolinas , Nate also contributed to heightened seas , though this time in combination with Hurricane Ophelia and persistent unrelated northeasterly winds . A buoy just offshore Cape Fear recorded waves up to 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) .
Tropical energy from the remnants of Nate and Maria merged to form a broad storm system that would track toward parts of Europe . The mid @-@ latitude cyclone produced a day of heavy rains across the Scottish Highlands that included a 24 @-@ hour precipitation total of 5 @.@ 17 in ( 131 mm ) on the Isle of Skye . As it continued north , the storm also dropped torrential rainfall over Western Norway . The region suffered extensive flooding and mudslides , including one that killed one person and injured nine more . Although the remnants of Nate and Maria avoided England , they broke a streak of above @-@ average temperatures in the region , filtering down much cooler Arctic air . In places , this led to the first frost of the winter season . Temperatures down to β 1 @.@ 7 Β° C ( 28 @.@ 9 Β° F ) were recorded following the influx of colder air , with readings below freezing as far south as Hertfordshire .
Four Canadian Navy ships headed to the Gulf Coast of the United States , carrying relief supplies to help in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina , were slowed down trying to avoid Hurricanes Nate and Ophelia . The convoy included a destroyer , two frigates , and an icebreaker , and developed a plan to travel between the two hurricanes to minimize damage to their cargo . Crews , anticipating potentially rough seas and gusty winds even with the averted course , secured onboard supplies such as generators , chainsaws , diapers , and cots . The genesis of Tropical Storm Nate continued the unprecedented levels of tropical activity during the 2005 hurricane season ; when it developed on September 5 , it was the earliest in any season that the fourteenth named tropical cyclone formed , surpassing the previous record held by an unnamed storm during the 1936 season .
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= Bribery Act 2010 =
The Bribery Act 2010 ( c.23 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that covers the criminal law relating to bribery . Introduced to Parliament in the Queen 's Speech in 2009 after several decades of reports and draft bills , the Act received the Royal Assent on 8 April 2010 following cross @-@ party support . Initially scheduled to enter into force in April 2010 , this was changed to 1 July 2011 . The Act repeals all previous statutory and common law provisions in relation to bribery , instead replacing them with the crimes of bribery , being bribed , the bribery of foreign public officials , and the failure of a commercial organisation to prevent bribery on its behalf .
The penalties for committing a crime under the Act are a maximum of 10 years ' imprisonment , along with an unlimited fine , and the potential for the confiscation of property under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 , as well as the disqualification of directors under the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986 . The Act has a near @-@ universal jurisdiction , allowing for the prosecution of an individual or company with links to the United Kingdom , regardless of where the crime occurred . Described as " the toughest anti @-@ corruption legislation in the world " , concerns have been raised that the Act 's provisions criminalise behaviour that is acceptable in the global market , and puts British business at a competitive disadvantage .
= = Background = =
Prior to the Act , British anti @-@ bribery law was based on the Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act 1889 , the Prevention of Corruption Act 1906 and the Prevention of Corruption Act 1916 , a body of law described as " inconsistent , anachronistic and inadequate " . Following the Poulson affair in 1972 , the Salmon Committee on Standards in Public Life recommended updating and codifying these statutes , but the government of the time took no action . Similar suggestions were brought up in the first report of the Committee on Standards in Public Life established by John Major in 1994 , and the Home Office published a draft consultation paper in 1997 , discussing extending anti @-@ bribery and anti @-@ corruption law . This was followed by the Law Commission 's report Legislating the Criminal Code : Corruption in 1998 . The consultation paper and report coincided with mounting criticism from the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development , who felt that , despite the United Kingdom 's ratification of the OECD Anti @-@ Bribery Convention , its bribery laws were inadequate .
A draft Bribery Bill was announced in the 2002 Queen 's Speech , but was rejected by the joint committee examining it . A second consultation paper was issued in 2005 examining the committee 's concerns , before the government announced in March that " there was broad support for reform of the current law , but there was no consensus as to how this could be achieved " . Following a white paper in March 2009 , the Bribery Bill , based on the Law Commission 's 2008 report Reforming Bribery , was announced in the Queen 's Speech . Initially given all @-@ party support after its introduction by Jack Straw in 2009 , the Bill was , according to The Guardian , subject to an attempted filibuster by Members of Parliament from the Conservative Party . This followed pressure from the Confederation of British Industry , who worried that the Bill in its original form would hamper the competitiveness of British industry .
The Bill was given Royal Assent on 8 April 2010 , becoming the Bribery Act 2010 , and was expected to come into force immediately . The government instead chose to hold several rounds of public consultations before announcing that it would come into force in April 2011 . Following the publication of guidance by the Ministry of Justice , the act came into effect on 1 July 2011 . The Ministry of Justice also released a Quick Start Guide , which highlights some key points of the Act . The Quick Start Guide also suggests companies to consult relevant bodies for advice , including the UK Trade and Investment , and the government sponsored Business Anti @-@ Corruption Portal . In October 2011 Munir Patel , a clerk at Redbridge Magistrates Court , became the first person to be convicted under the Bribery Act , along with misconduct in a public office .
= = Act = =
= = = General bribery offences = = =
Sections 1 to 5 of the Act cover " general bribery offences " . The crime of bribery is described in Section 1 as occurring when a person offers , gives or promises to give a " financial or other advantage " to another individual in exchange for " improperly " performing a " relevant function or activity " . Section 2 covers the offence of being bribed , which is defined as requesting , accepting or agreeing to accept such an advantage , in exchange for improperly performing such a function or activity . " Financial or other advantage " is not defined in the Act , but , according to Aisha Anwar and Gavin Deeprose in the Scots Law Times , " could potentially encompass items such as contracts , non @-@ monetary gifts and offers of employment " . The " relevant function or activity " element is explained in Section 3 β it covers " any function of a public nature ; any activity connected with a business , trade or profession ; any activity performed in the course of a person 's employment ; or any activity performed by or on behalf of a body of persons whether corporate or unincorporated " . This applies to both private and public industry , and encompasses activities performed outside the UK , even activities with no link to the country . The conditions attached are that the person performing the function could be expected to be performing it in good faith or with impartiality , or that an element of trust attaches to that person 's role .
Under Section 4 , the activity will be considered to be " improperly " performed when the expectation of good faith or impartiality has been breached , or when the function has been performed in a way not expected of a person in a position of trust . Section 5 provides that the standard in deciding what would be expected is what a reasonable person in the UK might expect of a person in such a position . Where the breach has occurred in a jurisdiction outside the UK , local practises or customs should be disregarded when deciding this , unless they form part of the " written law " of the jurisdiction ; " written law " is given to mean any constitution , statute or judicial opinion set down in writing . The general offences also cover situations where the mere acceptance of such an advantage would constitute improperly performing relevant functions or activities .
= = = Bribery of foreign public officials = = =
Bribery of foreign public officials is a distinct crime under Section 6 , in line with the OECD Anti @-@ Bribery Convention . A person will be guilty of this offence if they promise , offer or give a financial or other advantage to a foreign public official , either directly or through a third party , where such an advantage is not legitimately due . A foreign public official is defined , under Section 6 ( 4 ) , as " an individual holding legislative , administrative or judicial posts or anyone carrying out a public function for a foreign country or the country 's public agencies or an official or agent of a public international organisation " . The inclusion of " through a third party " is intended to prevent the use of go @-@ betweens to avoid committing a crime , although if the written law of the country of the foreign public official allows or requires the official to accept the advantage offered , no crime will be committed . Unlike with general bribery offences , there is no requirement to show that the public official acted improperly as a result ; this is a distinction between the Act and the Anti @-@ Bribery Convention . The offence under Section 6 only applies to the briber , and not to the official who receives or agrees to receive such a bribe .
= = = Failure of commercial organisations to prevent bribery = = =
Section 7 creates the " broad and innovatory offence " of the failure of commercial organisations to prevent bribery on their behalf . This applies to all commercial organisations which have business in the UK . Unlike corporate manslaughter , this does not only apply to the organisation itself ; individuals and employees may also be found guilty . The offence is one of strict liability , with no need to prove any kind of intention or positive action . It is also one of vicarious liability ; a commercial organisation can be guilty of the offence if the bribery is carried out by an employee , an agent , a subsidiary , or another third @-@ party , as found in Section 8 . The location of the third @-@ party is irrelevant to the prosecution β according to David Aaronberg and Nichola Higgins in the Archbold Review , " therefore , a German business with retail outlets in the UK which pays a bribe in Spain could , in theory at least , face prosecution in the UK " . Under Section 7 ( 2 ) , the commercial organisation has a defence if it can show that , while bribery did take place , the commercial organisation had in place " adequate procedures designed to prevent persons associated with [ the organisation ] from undertaking such conduct " . Under the Act 's explanatory notes , the burden of proof in this situation is on the organisation , with the standard of proof being " on the balance of probabilities " .
Guidance was published by the Secretary of State three months before the Act came into force . The Guidance sets out 6 principles to be followed by business . They cover such topics as Proportionate Procedures , Top @-@ level Commitment , Risk Assessment , Due Diligence , Communication ( including training ) and Monitoring & Review . The one firm conclusion to be drawn from the Guidance is that every commercial organisation that might be subject to the rigours of the Act needs to have a code of conduct in place that appropriately reflects the Guidance and to ensure its personnel are fully conversant with the risks and adequately trained . If it is then charged with the offence of failing to prevent bribery , it would be able to show evidence of the β adequate procedures β which it will need in order to defend itself .
= = = Prosecution and penalties = = =
Section 10 requires the authorisation of any prosecution by the director of the appropriate prosecution agency before a case can go ahead ; this is a shift from the old regime , which required the consent of the Attorney General for England and Wales . Section 11 explains the penalties for individuals and companies found guilty of committing a crime . If an individual is found guilty of a bribery offence , tried as a summary offence , they may be imprisoned for up to 12 months and fined up to Β£ 5 @,@ 000 . Someone found guilty on indictment , however , faces up to 10 years ' imprisonment and an unlimited fine . The crime of a commercial organisation failing to prevent bribery is punishable by an unlimited fine . In addition , a convicted individual or organisation may be subject to a confiscation order under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 , while a company director who is convicted may be disqualified under the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986 .
= = = Other provisions = = =
The scope of the Act 's provisions is set out in Section 12 . For someone to fall within the Act 's purview , they must have either committed a crime inside the United Kingdom , or acted outside of the United Kingdom in a way which would have constituted a crime had it happened in the UK . For a prosecution in the latter case , the person must have a " close connection " to the UK , which includes being a British citizen , resident or protected person , a company incorporated in the UK , or a Scottish partnership . Section 13 provides the only defence available with the general bribery offences β that the conduct was necessary for the proper functioning of the intelligence services or , when engaged in active service , the armed forces . Under Section 14 , senior officers or directors in a company which commits a general bribery offence will also be liable for the purposes of the Act . In the case of an offence committed by a partnership , Section 15 provides that the prosecution must be brought in the name of the partnership and not in the name of any of the partners .
Under Section 16 , the Act applies to servants of the crown , while Section 17 repeals all previous common law and statutory offences relating to bribery , replacing them with provisions of the Act . Section 18 provides that the Act applies to England and Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland ; while the separate consent of the Scottish Parliament is usually required in such cases , as is made clear in Section 19 , a Legislative Consent Motion was passed on 11 February 2010 , allowing for the application of the Act within Scotland .
= = Assessment = =
The Act has been described as " the toughest anti @-@ corruption legislation in the world " , raising the bar above the standard set by the United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act . Despite being " widely drafted and far @-@ reaching in scope [ and ] in many ways an improvement on earlier corruption legislation " , significant concerns have been raised , mainly around the fact that the Act may harm British industry 's competitiveness in the global market . David Aaronberg and Nichola Higgins , writing in the Archbold Review , argue that section 6 particularly has the potential to include actions which are ethically problematic but seen as legally permissible . Aisha Anwar and Gavin Deeprose in the Scots Law Times take a similar line , highlighting as particularly problematic areas corporate hospitality and facilitation payments , described as " essentially a form of extortion on the payer and , although not a common feature in the UK , they are commonplace in many international jurisdictions " , which may fall under the scope of the Act despite being permissible in the commercial world .
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= Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues =
" Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan . It was originally recorded on August 2 , 1965 , and released on the album Highway 61 Revisited . The song was later released on the compilation album Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II and as two separate live versions recorded at concerts in 1966 : the first of which appeared on the B @-@ side of Dylan 's " I Want You " single , with the second being released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 , The " Royal Albert Hall " Concert . The song has been covered by many artists , including Gordon Lightfoot , Nina Simone , Barry McGuire , Judy Collins , Frankie Miller , Linda Ronstadt , the Grateful Dead , Neil Young , The Black Crowes , and Bryan Ferry . Lightfoot 's version was recorded only weeks after Dylan 's original had been released and reached # 3 on the national RPM singles chart . In addition , the song was sampled by the Beastie Boys for their song " Finger Lickin ' Good . "
" Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " has six verses but no chorus . The song 's lyrics describe a nightmare vision of the narrator 's experience in Juarez , Mexico , in which he encounters sickness , despair , prostitutes , saints , shady women , corrupt authorities , alcohol and drugs , before finally deciding to return to New York City . The lyrics incorporate literary references to Malcolm Lowry 's Under the Volcano , Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Murders in the Rue Morgue " and Jack Kerouac 's Desolation Angels , while the song 's title references Arthur Rimbaud 's " My Bohemian Life ( Fantasy ) " . William Ruhlmann of the Allmusic website has described the song as a comic tour de force and music journalist Toby Creswell included it on his list of the 1001 greatest songs of all time . Music critic Dave Marsh ranked the live version of " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " from Liverpool that was released as the B @-@ side of " I Want You " as the number 243 greatest single of all time .
= = Lyrics and music = =
" Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " was recorded on August 2 , 1965 , at Columbia Studios in New York , the same day Dylan recorded " Ballad of a Thin Man " , " Highway 61 Revisited " and " Queen Jane Approximately " , three other songs that would appear on Highway 61 Revisited . However , " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " took more attempts to perfect than the other songs recorded that day ; it wasn 't until take 16 that Dylan and his band captured on tape the version that was released on the album . The backing musicians on the take that was used on Highway 61 Revisited were Mike Bloomfield on electric guitar , Al Kooper on Hohner Pianet , Paul Griffin on piano , Harvey Brooks on bass guitar and Bobby Gregg on drums .
According to Dylan biographer Clinton Heylin , on early takes of the song , Sam Lay was the drummer and Frank Owens played piano . In Heylin 's opinion , Gregg 's jazzier drumming and Griffin 's more fluid piano playing better communicated the feeling of dislocation that Dylan desired for the song . Take 5 of the song , which , according to Heylin , featured both Lay and Owens , was included on the 2005 album The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home : The Soundtrack . In 2015 , the entire recording session was released on the 18 @-@ disc edition of The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 β 1966 , while the 2 @-@ disc version of the album featured Take 3 and the 6 @-@ disc edition contained Takes 1 , 3 and 13 .
Lyrically , " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " continues the theme of road weariness from the album 's previous song , " Highway 61 Revisited . " The singer finds himself in Juarez , Mexico , at Easter time , amidst sickness , despair , whores and saints . While there , he encounters corrupt authorities and women of dubious character , named in the song as " Saint Annie " and " sweet Melinda " , before seeking succor in drugs and alcohol . The song establishes a nightmare vision as the singer is influenced by gravity , negativity , sex , drugs , drink , illness , remorse and memory . In the song 's final verse , the singer decides he has had enough and finds the means to leave it all behind and head back to New York City , where things may be better . Author Paul Williams has noted that scene and situation are combined into a gorgeous evocation of muddied consciousness in " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " , without ever resolving into a clear picture of what the song is about . Despite the sordid details of the singer 's experiences in Juarez , the lyrics maintain a sense of humor , and William Ruhlmann of the Allmusic website considers the song a comic tour de force .
During a concert in Melbourne in 1966 , Dylan said of the song , " This is about a painter down in Mexico city who travels through the North of Mexico up to Del Rio Texas all the time , his name is Tom Thumb , and right now he is about 125 years old but he 's still going , and everybody likes him a lot down there , he 's got lots of friends , and this is when he was going through his blue period painting , and he 's made countless amounts of paints you couldn 't think of them all . This is his blue period of painting I just dedicate this song that is called Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues . "
Like many of the songs on Highway 61 Revisited , " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " has abundant literary references , including images recalling Malcolm Lowry 's novel Under the Volcano and a street name taken from Edgar Allan Poe 's short story " The Murders in the Rue Morgue " . The song also uses the phrase " housing project hill " which is taken from Jack Kerouac 's novel Desolation Angels . A number of Dylan biographers , including Colin Irwin , Robert Shelton and Andy Gill , have suggested that the song 's title makes reference to Arthur Rimbaud 's poem " My Bohemian Life ( Fantasy ) " , in which Rimbaud refers to himself as " Tom Thumb in a daze . " In addition , some commentators have suggested that there may be a musical reference in the lines " And she takes your voice / And leaves you howling at the moon , " since " Howlin ' at the Moon " is the title of a song by Hank Williams , a musician who Dylan admired .
Musically , " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " consists of no chorus , but six verses , varied by a handful of chords and Dylan 's vocal emphasis . Keyboards , drums and vocals provide texture , while Mike Bloomfield plays Latin Americanesque fills on electric guitar . The keyboard parts in particular make innovative use of two different pianos , with Al Kooper playing an electric Hohner Pianet and Paul Griffin adding a bar room feel on tack piano . In all but the final verse , the even lines rhyme and the odd lines are unrhymed . In the final verse , however , the odd numbered lines rhyme on " ee " and all the even lines rhyme on " uf . " This change in the rhyming pattern provides a subtle sense of finality to the final two lines :
I 'm going back to New York City
I do believe I 've had enough .
= = Other appearances and acclaim = =
In addition to its appearance on the Highway 61 Revisited album , " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " was also included on the compilation album Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II ( known as More Bob Dylan Greatest Hits in Europe ) and on another compilation released exclusively in Europe titled Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits 2 . Alternate takes of the song from the August 2 , 1965 recording session have been released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home : The Soundtrack and The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 β 1966 .
The song has also been popular live in concert . Clinton Heylin has stated that " as performed live in 1965 β 66 , ' Tom Thumb ' became an inferno of pain . As if pain were indeed art . " A live version recorded at a concert in Liverpool , England on May 14 , 1966 , featuring Dylan backed by The Band , was released as the B @-@ side to the " I Want You " single in 1966 , and later also appeared on the Masterpieces compilation . The song was also performed on May 17 , 1966 by Dylan and The Band at the famous and controversial so @-@ called ' Albert Hall ' concert ( which in fact took place at the Manchester Free Trade Hall ) and consequently it appears on The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 , The " Royal Albert Hall " Concert . Dylan also played " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " regularly during his 1974 tour , and has played it in concert occasionally ever since .
In a 2005 reader 's poll published in Mojo magazine , " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " was listed as the number 13 all @-@ time greatest Bob Dylan song . In 2002 , Uncut magazine listed it as the number 38 all @-@ time best Bob Dylan song . Music journalist Toby Creswell included " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " on his list of the 1001 greatest songs of all time and music critic Dave Marsh ranked the live version from Liverpool as the number 243 greatest single of all time and as one of the dozen or so truly great B @-@ sides , noting that it demonstrated Dylan 's prowess as a great live performer .
= = Cover versions = =
Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Gordon Lightfoot covered " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " in 1965 in a version that reached number 3 on Canada 's national RPM singles chart , and number 8 on Toronto 's CHUM Chart . Other covers recorded in the 1960s include those by Barry McGuire , on his 1966 album This Precious Time , and Judy Collins , on her 1966 album In My Life . Nina Simone also covered it in 1969 on her To Love Somebody album . Nina Simone 's version differs considerably in tone from Dylan 's : while Dylan 's version is sympathetic , if sneering , towards the foolish subject , Simone 's version is an intense , first @-@ person account of illusions being crushed , until she is finally helpless in the hands of fate .
Frankie Miller covered " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " in 1973 on Once in a Blue Moon , Linda Ronstadt covered it in 1998 on We Ran and Bryan Ferry covered it on his 2007 album Dylanesque . The Grateful Dead have , on occasion , covered " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " live in concert , with bassist Phil Lesh taking a rare turn as lead vocalist , and a recording of the song by the band appears on the album View from the Vault , Volume One . Additionally , Neil Young covered the song for the Bob Dylan tribute concert The 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration in 1992 . The Beastie Boys sampled the last two lines of " Just Like Tom Thumb 's Blues " for their song " Finger Lickin ' Good " , which appeared on their 1992 Check Your Head album .
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= Gyles v Wilcox =
Gyles v Wilcox ( 1740 ) 26 ER 489 was a decision of the Court of Chancery of England that established the doctrine of fair abridgement , which would later evolve into the concept of fair use . The case was heard and the opinion written by Philip Yorke , 1st Earl of Hardwicke , and concerned Fletcher Gyles , a bookseller who had published a copy of Matthew Hale 's Pleas of the Crown . Soon after the initial publication , the publishers Wilcox and Nutt hired a writer named Barrow to abridge the book , and repackaged it as Modern Crown Law . Gyles sued for a stay on the book 's publishing , claiming his rights under the Statute of Anne had been infringed .
The main issues in the case were whether or not abridgements of a work inherently constituted copyright infringement , or whether they could qualify as a separate , new work . Lord Hartwicke ruled that abridgements fell under two categories : " true abridgements " and " coloured shortenings " . True abridgements presented a true effort on the part of the editor , and by this effort , constituted a new work which did not infringe upon the copyright of the original . Leaving it to literary and legal experts to decide , Hartwicke ruled that Modern Crown Law was not a true abridgement , but merely a duplication intending to circumvent the law .
The case set a legal precedent which has shaped copyright law to the present day . It established the common law doctrine of fair abridgement , which was cited in other cases , ultimately building up to the idea of fair use . The opinion also recognised the author 's right to a work through the nature of the labour it took to produce it , shifting copyright away from publishing rights and towards the idea of serving the greater good by encouraging the production of new , useful works .
= = Facts = =
Fletcher Gyles , an English bookseller , had previously published a book entitled Matthew Hale 's Pleas of the Crown , for which he had purchased the exclusive publishing rights . Around the same time , publishers Wilcox and Nutt paid a writer named Barrow to abridge the book , circulating it under the title Modern Crown Law . Gyles alleged that Modern Crown Law was a near verbatim copy of his publication , with only minor alterations , including the translation of Latin and French passages into English and cutting old , obsolete laws . Seeking to protect his printing rights , Gyles sued both Wilcox and Nutt , along with Barrow , for a stay on the publication .
= = Arguments = =
The case involved whether Wilcox , Barrow , and Nutt had violated Gyles ' publishing rights as defined under the Statute of Anne , particularly the section stating that an author , or purchaser of an author 's copyrights as Gyles was , " shall have the sole Liberty of Printing and Reprinting such Book and Books for the Term of four @-@ teen years . " Philip Yorke , 1st Earl of Hardwicke presided over and decided the case .
Browning , Gyles ' attorney , cited a case which had also appeared before Hardwicke , that of Read v Hodges . In that case , a publisher attempted to circumvent the rights of the author of Czar Peter the Great by including all three volumes in one and cutting several pages . Hardwicke rejected the argument , however , declaring that the former case had been decided merely on a motion , and that he had given his decision and statements without the thought he would have given a normal hearing . Hardwicke further took contention with the Attorney General for England and Wales ' assertion that the Statute of Anne provided a publishing monopoly , instead interpreting the act as one meant to promote public education and the public good .
As Hardwicke had decided to interpret the Statute of Anne as for the public good , the main question of the case became which " any such book or books " the act referred to and protected . The defendants argued that his abridgement must be considered separate from the original work published by Gyles . The defendant 's lawyers furthered pushed the court to try the case as if the abridgement had been recorded in the Stationers ' Register , an action that would have given Wilcox and Nutt the right to publish their book , and the lawsuit brought against a second , unique book . Therefore , the only question before the court was whether the second book differentiated sufficiently from the first . Further , the attorneys for the defendants argued that the book was not a direct transcription , but that several chapters had been omitted , while other , original sections had been added to the Wilcox and Nutt publication . They further pointed to the fact that the Gyles ' publication consisted of 275 sheets , whereas the abridgement contained only 35 sheets .
= = Judgment = =
The opinion , written by Hardwicke , found that a true abridgement of a published book may be considered an entirely separate , new work , as the abridgement showed the labour , originality , education , and judgement of the editor . This new book did not run the risk of infringing the rights of the author or bookseller who owned the publishing rights . However , Lord Hardwicke drew a distinction between works " fairly made " and those " colourably shortened " . Hardwicke refused to compare the books himself to determine whether Modern Crown Law was indeed a fair abridgement , or to force a judge and jury to sit and hear both books read , instead opting to have two legal experts and a literary master read the books and report the findings to the court . The parties were allowed to choose these examiners , in a way leaving the case to arbitration . After a week in which the parties were given a chance to make amends outside of court , the book in question was ruled a colourable shortening , created only to circumvent the law , and thus was an infringement of Gyles ' printing rights .
In his decision , Hartwicke went counter to the prevailing view that the Statute of Anne should be interpreted very strictly , proclaiming , " I am quite of a different opinion , and that it ought to receive a liberal construction , for it is far from being a monopoly , as it is intended to secure the property of books in the authors themselves , or the purchasers of the copy , as some recompense for their pains and labour in such works as may be of use to the learned world . "
= = Consequences = =
The case established the doctrine of fair abridgement , which allowed that abridgements displaying a fair amount of labour on the part of the editor , and that differed from the original published work in a significant way , could not be copyright violations . This in effect raised the abridger to the level of an author . The decision did not define the exact parameters that would qualify a work as a valid abridgement . This distinction came with a later case involving an abridgement of Hawksworth 's Voyages , in a decision written by Lord Chancellor Apsley . This concept of fair abridgement eventually evolved through common law , initiated from Gyles v Wilcox , into the current concept of fair use . Hardwicke 's decision also added the exercise of personal judgement to the list of admissible defences against the charge of copyright infringement , adding to the growing case law establishing that British copyright would be based on labour and not on originality . The opinion advanced the position that copyright law should serve the public interest by promoting the creation of new educational and useful works , rather than focusing on publishing rights . The case played a significant role in the development of English copyright law . The United States federal courts have cited the case as recently as the 1980s .
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= New York State Route 286 =
New York State Route 286 ( NY 286 ) is an east β west state highway in the vicinity of the city of Rochester , New York , in the United States . It links Rochester to its eastern suburbs and to western Wayne County . The western terminus of the route is at exit 7 on NY 590 just inside the Rochester city limits . Its eastern terminus is at NY 350 in Walworth . NY 286 is named Browncroft Boulevard from NY 590 to its junction with Qualtrough and Clark roads in Penfield . This portion of the highway passes through predominantly residential areas . East of this intersection , the route is known as Atlantic Avenue and traverses more rural areas .
The entirety of NY 286 east of Blossom Road was originally designated as part of NY 35 during the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 35 exited Rochester on Blossom Road and followed it east to modern NY 286 . The remainder of Browncroft Boulevard was designated as New York State Route 35B , an alternate route of NY 35 , in the mid @-@ 1930s . The NY 35 and NY 35B designations were eliminated in the early 1940s and replaced with NY 383 and New York State Route 383B , respectively . NY 383 was truncated to downtown Rochester in 1949 , at which time its former routing from Rochester to Walworth became NY 286 . NY 383B was renumbered accordingly to New York State Route 286A .
In the 1960s , the portion of Browncroft Boulevard from the Sea Breeze Expressway to Blossom Road was upgraded into a divided highway . NY 286 was rerouted to follow the improved Browncroft Boulevard while NY 286A was shifted south onto NY 286 's former alignment along Blossom Road . The NY 286A designation was removed in the early 1970s , but Blossom Road remains state @-@ maintained as NY 941V , an unsigned reference route .
= = Route description = =
NY 286 begins at the ramp connecting NY 590 southbound to Browncroft Boulevard just inside the Rochester city limits . It heads east through residential surroundings as a four @-@ lane highway , proceeding through the remainder of NY 590 exit 7 as it enters the northernmost portion of the town of Brighton . East of NY 590 , NY 286 widens to become a divided highway . It passes into Penfield upon crossing Irondequoit Creek and curves southeast as it straddles the northern boundary of Ellison Park . During this stretch , it intersects with Old Browncroft Boulevard , the pre @-@ divided highway alignment of Browncroft Boulevard which is now discontinuous near its midpoint .
The two highways loosely parallel each other southeastward for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) to White Village Drive , a residential side street branching off Browncroft Boulevard . Here , Old Browncroft Boulevard ends and NY 286 narrows slightly to become a four @-@ lane undivided highway . NY 286 continues eastward , leaving the Ellison Park area and intersecting Blossom Road . East of this junction , NY 286 takes on a linear east β west routing as it becomes Atlantic Avenue at a junction with Qualtrough and Clark Roads . The residential nature of the roadway largely ends at Five Mile Line Road , where the homes that have lined the roadway become more sporadic and give way to open , cultivated fields . NY 286 has a slight s @-@ curve between Five Mile Line and Baird Roads before reverting to its true eastward alignment prior to intersecting NY 250 .
Past NY 250 , the route continues to the east toward the Monroe β Wayne county line . Just before crossing into Wayne County , NY 286 curves slightly to the northeast . On the other side of the county line in Walworth , NY 286 turns back to the east at a junction with County Line Road , which is actually located 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) east of the official border . Farther east , NY 286 intersects several local major arterials , including West Walworth Road and Canandaigua Road , as it heads over several small hills and passes through a mixture of open fields and forested areas . NY 286 and Atlantic Avenue both come to an end at an intersection with NY 350 . The portion of NY 286 in Wayne County is maintained by the county as County Route 203 .
= = History = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 35 was extended northeast from Canawaugus ( west of the village of Avon ) to Ontario by way of Scottsville , Rochester , and Walworth . NY 35 entered Rochester on Scottsville Road and followed Genesee and Main streets through the city . At the east end of Main Street , NY 35 turned south and followed Winton Road to Blossom Road . It curved eastward here to follow Blossom Road east to Browncroft Boulevard in Penfield . At some point between 1934 and 1938 , an alternate route of NY 35 along the portion of Browncroft Boulevard between Winton and Blossom Roads was designated NY 35B .
The NY 35 designation remained in place until the early 1940s when it was split into two designations : NY 383 west of Walworth and NY 350 from Walworth to Ontario . As part of the change , NY 35B was renumbered to NY 383B . NY 383 itself was altered on January 1 , 1949 , to end in downtown Rochester . The former routing of NY 383 between East Avenue ( NY 96 ) in Rochester and NY 350 in Walworth became NY 286 while NY 383B was redesignated as NY 286A .
The portion of the Sea Breeze Expressway between Empire Boulevard ( at the time U.S. Route 104 and now NY 404 ) and Interstate 490 opened to traffic c . 1961 . Both NY 286 and NY 286A were truncated to begin at their interchanges with the expressway . In Wayne County , the routing of NY 286 was altered slightly in the vicinity of the county line . It originally veered onto what is now Knollwood Drive and followed Knollwood Drive and County Line Road to where the latter met Atlantic Avenue . A new roadway was constructed during the mid @-@ 1960s that directly connected the two portions of Atlantic Avenue and bypassed County Line Road entirely and became part of a realigned NY 286 by 1968 .
Browncroft Boulevard was upgraded into a four @-@ lane divided highway between the Sea Breeze Expressway ( NY 47 ) and Blossom Road during the mid @-@ 1960s . Some parts of the highway were upgraded on the spot ; others were bypassed and are now known today as Old Browncroft Boulevard . As a result of the upgrade , the alignments of NY 286 and NY 286A west of Blossom Road were flipped , placing NY 286 on Browncroft Boulevard and NY 286A on Blossom Road . The NY 286A designation was removed in the early 1970s and replaced with NY 941V , an unsigned reference route 2 @.@ 20 miles ( 3 @.@ 54 km ) in length . Reference markers along Blossom Road still read " 286A " .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Misery ( Gwen Stefani song ) =
" Misery " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani , taken from her third studio album , This Is What the Truth Feels Like . While originally intended to be released as the album 's second single , Interscope Records released it as a promotional single on March 11 , 2016 , before Stefani revealed on Instagram that it is the album 's third single . It was serviced to hot adult contemporary radio on May 23 , 2016 . The electropop track was written by Stefani , Justin Tranter , Julia Michaels , Mattias Larsson , and Robin Fredriksson , while production was handled by Mattman & Robin .
Lyrically , " Misery " discusses getting over a past lover , while accepting a new one . Many critics felt that the song was inspired by her relationships with Gavin Rossdale and Blake Shelton , and Stefani confirmed in an interview that " Misery " was written about the latter . Upon release , " Misery " received highly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the song for being " addictive " and " catchy " . However , some critics were confused over who the song was written about . A lyric video for the song was uploaded to Stefani 's Vevo account on March 10 , 2016 and featured hand @-@ drawn illustrations created by Stefani ; the song 's official video debuted on May 31 and displayed Stefani in various dresses and outfits .
= = Background and release = =
After the lackluster response to Stefani 's previous singles , " Baby Don 't Lie " and " Spark the Fire " , she scrapped the release of her studio album to begin work on " more authentic " material . When Stefani divorced her then @-@ husband Gavin Rossdale , she began writing intimate songs for a brand @-@ new project . Following the completion and release of " Used to Love You " , Stefani continued writing personal tracks to express her feelings . Several months after writing various songs , Stefani began shifting focus and writing tracks about Blake Shelton instead of Rossdale ; Stefani confirmed that " Misery " was written about " her newfound happiness with Shelton " in an interview with Dana Ross Falcone of Entertainment Weekly .
" Misery " became one of the later songs written for the project , and was later announced to be the second single released from This Is What the Truth Feels Like . Stefani later confirmed via Twitter that " Misery " would be released instead as a promotional single on March 8 , 2016 . After providing a sneak preview of the track on Instagram on March 10 , 2016 , Stefani released the track to the iTunes Store an hour later . The song was serviced to hot adult contemporary radio on May 23 , 2016 as the album 's third single .
= = Composition = =
An electropop song , " Misery " was written by Stefani , Justin Tranter , Julia Michaels , Mattias Larsson , and Robin Fredriksson ; production of the track was handled by Swedish songwriting duo Mattman & Robin . As described by Dee Lockett of Vulture , " Misery " contains " some synths , a funky bassline , and well @-@ placed hand claps to disguise the pain . " Leoni Cooper of NME stated that " Misery " has " future @-@ disco beats " , and " captures the highs and lows of being " gobsmacked in love , " using the metaphor that " a love is as irresistible as drugs . " Nicki Gostin , writing for the New York Daily News , questioned the song 's subject matter , stating " it 's not clear who she 's crooning about β ex Gavin Rossdale or new love Blake Shelton " ; Alexis Rhiannon of Bustle claimed that the song " give [ s ] an inside look to a painful past relationship . "
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , " Misery " received mostly favorable reviews from contemporary music critics . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone called the song " addictive " and " catchy " while having " feel @-@ good lyrics . " Mashable 's Emily Blake praised the song and stated " try not to get hooked . " A reviewer from TooFab enjoyed the " surprisingly upbeat " sound of the track compared to Stefani 's single , " Used to Love You " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Leah Greenblatt dubbed " Misery " as a " come @-@ on disguised as [ a ] caution " ; Greenblatt further praised the song for being a " stomper " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant called the track a " standout " .
Lucas Villa of AXS praised Stefani for " continu [ ing ] her streak of solid pop tunes by turning her confessional lyrics into completely delectable hooks , " further stating that " if this is misery , sign us up for more of it please " ; similarly , Emilee Lindner of fuseTV praised the track for " Gwen 's bouncy voice " . Lauren Duca , writing for The Frisky , labeled " Misery " as " catchy " and joked that " whether the song 's subject is Gavin Rossdale or Blake Shelton , I 'd burn calories listening to this song if it was about a Pomeranian Gwen met at a shelter and regrets not adopting . " On the same subject of Shelton and Rossdale , Amanda Bell of MTV News enjoyed the song , but was confused over the song 's lyrics and compared it to Stefani 's song " Make Me Like You " , stating " and unlike [ " Misery " ] , " Make Me Like You " was pretty straightforward with the ' in like ' adoration message " but later said she 's " miserably stumped " when it comes to " Misery " .
= = Music videos = =
Two videos were produced for " Misery " . A lyric video for the track was released on March 10 , 2016 on Stefani 's official YouTube account . The video displays handwritten lyrics by Stefani on graph paper , note cards , and post @-@ it notes ; it also features several photos of Stefani during a photo shoot for This Is What the Truth Feels Like .
The official music video debuted on May 31 , 2016 , also on her YouTube account . The video directed by longtime collaborator Sophie Muller and was filmed at a warehouse and parking garage with varying locations at a loft space , a staircase , and a hydraulic elevator .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with Stefani standing behind a counter in an abandoned warehouse . Her attire consists of an outfit similar to that of Lady Liberty . Various scenes of Stefani in a garden @-@ inspired sheer dress and a " flower crown " appear , as darkened shots of her face also are shown , amongst a trio of background dancers . For the song 's pre @-@ chorus , Stefani is shown in a gothic , black dress , sitting on a white couch , where she pretends to faint . During the entire chorus , Stefani wears a red , flowing dress and activates a smoke machine .
The second verse shows her in the garden dress , where she continually rides an elevator through the warehouse ; in a separate scene , the background dancers also ride the elevator . In front of a flower wallpaper , Stefani wears a fluffy , pink dress where she gracefully falls to floor . The next chorus displays Stefani in a black bob wig , " walk [ ing ] effortlessly down some stairs in patent leather , thigh @-@ high stilettos " . The song 's bridge has Stefani wearing a black and white leotard with thigh @-@ high silver boots , while sitting on a stool . A black horse appears , alongside Stefani in a black and white @-@ striped dress , before she slowly runs away from the horse . The song 's final chorus has Stefani riding a bicycle through a brightly @-@ lit parking garage , before she returns to the smoke machine and , once again , falls to the ground as the screen fades to black .
= = = Reception = = =
The official music video received highly favorable reviews from music critics . Seija Rankin of E ! Online stated " Contrary to the song 's title , this tune and the corresponding video is not actually miserable at all ; it 's quite upbeat . " Madison Vain for Entertainment Weekly applauded the visual , calling it " gorgeous " and a " high @-@ fashion affair " . Matthew Scott Donnelly , writing for Pop Crush , applauded it for " turn [ ing ] a parking garage into [ an ] artist 's oasis " ; he also appreciated the video 's " cool , sexy edge " . Nate Scott from the USA Today acclaimed the video : " Good lord , this video . Who is the art director ? Come take my life over and make everything this beautiful . "
= = Live performances = =
Stefani performed " Misery " for the first time on March 17 , 2016 . The performance was during a special private concert for MasterCard users in Tokyo , Japan . During the performance , Stefani wore " cropped red track pants and a red sequined cage top over a black bra " as the lyric video was displayed as the backdrop ; " Misery " was followed by a performance of " Make Me Like You " . On her Saturday Night Live performance of " Misery " , Stefani wore torn jeans and a high @-@ waisted top , accompanied by several backup singers , including No Doubt bandmates Gabrial McNair and Stephen Bradley . Stefani performed " Misery " on April 19 , 2016 on The Voice . Stefani and her back @-@ up dancers wore " colorful , tribal style ensembles " and performed using " a trippy , psychedelic lighting scheme " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Wolf Cousins Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; Maratone Studios , Stockholm , Sweden ; and Interscope Studios , Santa Monica , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of This Is What the Truth Feels Like
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Byne 's disease =
Byne 's disease , more accurately known as Bynesian decay , is a peculiar and permanently damaging condition ( resulting from an ongoing chemical reaction ) which often attacks mollusk shells that are in storage or on display for long periods of time .
Bynesian decay is a form of efflorescence of salts formed by the reaction of acidic vapors with the basic shell surface . The efflorescence can sometimes superficially resemble a growth of mold . Although first described in the early 19th century , Bynesian decay was not well understood until almost a hundred years later . The condition is named after the man ( L. Byne ) who is best known for describing it in the late 19th century , even though he was not the first person to describe it in print . In addition , Byne mistakenly assumed that the condition was caused by bacteria , and thus the condition came to be referred to as a " disease " .
In addition to mollusk shells , various other natural history specimens are susceptible to this form of decay , including eggshells and some fossils and mineral samples that are composed of calcium carbonate . This condition is of concern for museum scientists , and also for anyone who has a private collection of specimens of these kinds . In order to avoid Bynesian decay , the use of metal , non @-@ reactive polymers and acid @-@ free materials of archival quality are preferred over common paper , wood @-@ based materials , ordinary glues and varnishes in collection environments . Management of affected specimens includes washing and thorough drying , with a subsequent realocation to an archival setting .
= = Appearance = =
Byne 's disease can appear as a powdery white coating on a shell . It also often looks as if a shell has been " infected " with mold ; however , under magnification the mold @-@ like appearance is revealed to be a crystalline growth of salts .
= = History = =
In 1839 , the British naturalist and malacologist Thomas Brown ( 1785 β 1862 ) briefly mentioned this form of deterioration in his book A Conchologist 's Text @-@ Book . Agnes Kenyon also described the condition in 1896 , suggesting that " saline particles in the atmosphere [ were ] evidently exerting a corrosive effect " .
Origin of the name
In 1899 , the British amateur conchologist and naturalist Loftus St. George Byne ( 1872 β 1947 ) described this condition , in a presentation to the Conchological Society of Great Britain in Ireland , and did so again in another presentation in June of that same year .
Byne was convinced that butyric acid was present together with calcium acetate in the affected shells , although he never really described the methods he used in the so @-@ called " extensive chemical tests " he claimed to have applied to these specimens . Among other conclusions , he assumed that the butyric acid originated from bacterial activity . He also concluded that the decaying effect ' travelled from shell to shell and drawer to drawer ' , and thus the condition came to be called a " disease " .
Clarification and resolution
The true nature of the " disease " was partially clarified in 1934 , when the British government chemist John Ralph Nicholls explained that oak cabinets at the Natural History Museum in London were giving off acetic acid fumes , which were attacking the shells stored in them .
In 1985 , almost 150 years after the Byne 's disease was first mentioned in the literature , Norman H. Tennent and Thomas Baird published an extensive study on the subject . Their deep analysis , involving many complex and sophisticated techniques such as X @-@ Ray diffraction , infrared spectroscopy , thermogravimetric analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy , finally revealed the true nature of the decaying process . They identified the substances involved ( the calcium salts ) , as well as the chemical reactions that originated them . They concluded that Byne 's disease is not actually a disease , and is in fact caused by simple chemical reactions which occur in the presence of acidic vapors originating from the immediate environment in which the specimens are stored .
= = Chemistry = =
Bynesian decay usually starts when specimens are stored or displayed for considerable periods of time in an enclosed space . The storage method itself usually causes this problem , when containers , cabinets or display cases are entirely or partially made of wood , plywood or other wood products such as Masonite , or when the specimens are surrounded by , or in contact with , various other kinds of materials that are cellulose @-@ based and can turn water vapor acidic .
Other potentially damaging materials include non @-@ archival quality cardboard , card , paper , cotton and cork , all of which give off acidic vapors over time . PVC and polyurethane plastics are also a problem , as they degrade and give off acidic vapors with time . High humidity of the air is a significant contributing factor , as is lack of ventilation of the specimens . High ambient temperatures can increase the rapidity of the decay .
Generally , in cabinets or display cases that are entirely or partially made of wood , the hydrolysis of acetyl groups in the wood hemicelluloses creates acetic acid . The rate at which the acetic acid is produced is proportional to the concentration of esters in the wood , the humidity , the temperature , and the overall acidity of the environment . Acidic fumes can also be released from formaldehyde which can occur in wood as a degradation product of lignin . Acidic fumes can also be given off from ubiquitous formaldehyde resins ( commonly urea @-@ formaldehyde resins ) .
In the first case , acetic acid reacts with the calcium carbonate ( one of the main components of freshwater , marine and land shells , birds ' eggs and other such specimens ) producing calcium acetate , a salt . Formaldehyde can be oxidized by the oxygen in air to create formic acid , which then has basically the same effects as acetic acid , reacting with calcium carbonate to produce a salt . The salts ( calcium acetate and calcium formate ) crystallize through the specimen 's outer surface , destroying its fine detail and exposing more areas for further reaction . As the condition progresses , the salt crystals build up over the specimen 's surface , which becomes increasingly eroded .
The calcium carbonate and acetic acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
CaCO3 + 2CH3COOH β Ca ( CH3COO ) 2 + H2O + CO2
Calcium carbonate and formic acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
CaCO3 + 2CH2O2 β Ca ( HCOO ) 2 + H2O + CO2
Calcium carbonate and sulfuric acid chemical reaction occurs as follows :
CaCO3 + H2SO4 β CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
In this last reaction , calcium carbonate reacts with sulfuric acid and produce calcium sulfate , water and carbon dioxide .
= = Prevention = =
When specimens are to be placed in any size of container for long @-@ term storage or display , the consistent use of only archival @-@ quality materials prevents the development of Byne 's disease . Thus , materials such as metal cabinets and display cases , archival quality paper labels and card trays are used in museum collections of specimens that might be vulnerable to this reaction .
It is also worth mentioning that sea shells , after collecting , need to be washed thoroughly in freshwater to remove the salt that is on and in the shell , and then dried thoroughly before they are stored . Salt attracts moisture and makes shells more vulnerable to Bynesian decay .
The following is a chart that shows non @-@ archival materials and their archival equivalents :
If possible , the use of wood and cellulose derivatives should be avoided entirely . Many varnishes and paints are well known emitters of volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) , some of which may be acidic , and thus have the potential to damage calcium carbonate specimens . Because of this , these coatings should also be avoided ; water @-@ based varnishes and paints are considered less harmful , and should be preferred .
Because the reactions involved in Bynesian decay require a certain quantity of moisture in the air in order for them to take place , keeping the air somewhat dry , i.e. keeping the environmental relative humidity under control is beneficial . This is achieved by careful monitoring of the relative humidity ( using instruments such as a hygrometer ) , and applying dehumidifiers when necessary ; sometimes , simple air conditioning systems may suffice . Extremely low humidity can damage some specimens , so caution is recommended . Usually , a relative humidity maintained around 50 % is considered to be adequate . Applying sorbents containing a strong base , such as potassium hydroxide , inside the storage environment to protect the specimens against degradation is also possible . Copy paper or KOH @-@ impregnated filter paper are some low cost examples of sorbents which can be used . These strong bases have a preference to react with acid , thus they compete successfully with the calcium carbonate specimens for any acidic vapors that may be present . The bases also help reduce the overall acid concentration inside the enclosed space .
= = Management = =
The damage to specimens is unfortunately not reversible ; however , the decay can be arrested by washing or soaking the specimens in water , followed by a very thorough drying . The specimens must then be placed in an environment that consists of only archival materials , in a completely archival setting .
= = Pyrite disease = =
In collections which contain fossils , high humidity can also affect pyrite ( or its more reactive polymorph marcasite ) ( iron sulphide ) fossils in a somewhat similar condition , which is known as pyrite disease . The iron sulfide can react with water and oxygen to form iron sulfates and sulfuric acid , which then can produce Bynesian decay .
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= R. K. Narayan =
R. K. Narayan ( 10 October 1906 β 13 May 2001 ) , full name Rasipuram Krishnaswami Iyer Narayanaswami , is an Indian writer , best known for his works set in the fictional South Indian town of Malgudi . He is a leading author of early Indian literature in English , along with Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao .
Narayan 's mentor and friend , Graham Greene was instrumental in getting publishers for Narayan β s first four books , including the semi @-@ autobiographical trilogy of Swami and Friends , The Bachelor of Arts and The English Teacher . The fictional town of Malgudi , was first introduced in Swami and Friends . Narayan β s The Financial Expert , was hailed as one of the most original works of 1951 , and Sahitya Akademi Award winner The Guide , was adapted for film and for Broadway .
Narayan highlights the social context and everyday life of his characters , and he has been compared to William Faulkner , who also created a similar fictional town , and likewise explored with humour and compassion the energy of ordinary life . Narayan 's short stories have been compared with those of Guy de Maupassant , because of his ability to compress a narrative . However , he has also been criticised for the simplicity of his prose .
In a career that spanned over sixty years , Narayan received many awards and honours , including the AC Benson Medal from the Royal Society of Literature , the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Vibhushan , India 's third and second highest civilian awards . He was also nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of India 's parliament .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early days = = =
R. K. Narayan was born in Madras ( now Chennai ) , British India . His father was a school headmaster , and Narayan did some of his studies at his father 's school . As his father 's job entailed frequent transfers , Narayan spent part of his childhood under the care of his maternal grandmother , Parvati . During this time his best friends and playmates were a peacock and a mischievous monkey .
His grandmother gave him the nickname of Kunjappa , a name that stuck to him in family circles . She taught him arithmetic , mythology , classical Indian music and Sanskrit . According to his youngest brother R. K. Laxman , the family mostly conversed in English , and grammatical errors on the part of Narayan and his siblings were frowned upon . While living with his grandmother , Narayan studied at a succession of schools in Madras , including the Lutheran Mission School in Purasawalkam , C.R.C. High School , and the Christian College High School . Narayan was an avid reader , and his early literary diet included Dickens , Wodehouse , Arthur Conan Doyle and Thomas Hardy . When he was twelve years old , Narayan participated in a pro @-@ independence march , for which he was reprimanded by his uncle ; the family was apolitical and considered all governments wicked .
Narayan moved to Mysore to live with his family when his father was transferred to the Maharajah 's College High School . The well @-@ stocked library at the school , as well as his father 's own , fed his reading habit , and he started writing as well . After completing high school , Narayan failed the university entrance examination and spent a year at home reading and writing ; he subsequently passed the examination in 1926 and joined Maharaja College of Mysore . It took Narayan four years to obtain his bachelor 's degree , a year longer than usual . After being persuaded by a friend that taking a master 's degree ( M.A. ) would kill his interest in literature , he briefly held a job as a school teacher ; however , he quit in protest when the headmaster of the school asked him to substitute for the physical training master . The experience made Narayan realise that the only career for him was in writing , and he decided to stay at home and write novels . His first published work was a book review of Development of Maritime Laws of 17th @-@ Century England . Subsequently , he started writing the occasional local interest story for English newspapers and magazines . Although the writing did not pay much ( his income for the first year was nine rupees and twelve annas ) , he had a regular life and few needs , and his family and friends respected and supported his unorthodox choice of career . In 1930 , Narayan wrote his first novel , Swami and Friends , an effort ridiculed by his uncle and rejected by a string of publishers . With this book , Narayan created Malgudi , a town that creatively reproduced the social sphere of the country ; while it ignored the limits imposed by colonial rule , it also grew with the various socio @-@ political changes of British and post @-@ independence India .
= = = Turning point = = =
While vacationing at his sister 's house in Coimbatore , in 1933 , Narayan met and fell in love with Rajam , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl who lived nearby . Despite many astrological and financial obstacles , Narayan managed to gain permission from the girl 's father and married her . Following his marriage , Narayan became a reporter for a Madras @-@ based paper called The Justice , dedicated to the rights of non @-@ Brahmins . The publishers were thrilled to have a Brahmin Iyer in Narayan espousing their cause . The job brought him in contact with a wide variety of people and issues . Earlier , Narayan had sent the manuscript of Swami and Friends to a friend at Oxford , and about this time , the friend showed the manuscript to Graham Greene . Greene recommended the book to his publisher , and it was finally published in 1935 . Greene also counseled Narayan on shortening his name to become more familiar to the English @-@ speaking audience . The book was semi @-@ autobiographical and built upon many incidents from his own childhood . Reviews were favourable but sales were few . Narayan 's next novel The Bachelor of Arts ( 1937 ) , was inspired in part by his experiences at college , and dealt with the theme of a rebellious adolescent transitioning to a rather well @-@ adjusted adult ; it was published by a different publisher , again at the recommendation of Greene . His third novel , The Dark Room ( 1938 ) was about domestic disharmony , showcasing the man as the oppressor and the woman as the victim within a marriage , and was published by yet another publisher ; this book also received good reviews . In 1937 , Narayan 's father died , and Narayan was forced to accept a commission from the government of Mysore as he was not making any money .
In his first three books , Narayan highlights the problems with certain socially accepted practices . The first book has Narayan focusing on the plight of students , punishments of caning in the classroom , and the associated shame . The concept of horoscope @-@ matching in Hindu marriages and the emotional toll it levies on the bride and groom is covered in the second book . In the third book , Narayan addresses the concept of a wife putting up with her husband 's antics and attitudes .
Rajam died of typhoid in 1939 . Her death affected Narayan deeply and he remained depressed for a long time ; he was also concerned for their daughter Hema , who was only three years old . The bereavement brought about a significant change in his life and was the inspiration behind his next novel , The English Teacher . This book , like his first two books , is autobiographical , but more so , and completes an unintentional thematic trilogy following Swami and Friends and The Bachelor of Arts . In subsequent interviews , Narayan acknowledges that The English Teacher was almost entirely an autobiography , albeit with different names for the characters and the change of setting in Malgudi ; he also explains that the emotions detailed in the book reflected his own at the time of Rajam 's death .
Bolstered by some of his successes , in 1940 Narayan tried his hand at a journal , Indian Thought . With the help of his uncle , a car salesman , Narayan managed to get more than a thousand subscribers in Madras city alone . However , the venture did not last long due to Narayan 's inability to manage it , and it ceased publication within a year . His first collection of short stories , Malgudi Days , was published in November 1942 , followed by The English Teacher in 1945 . In between , being cut off from England due to the war , Narayan started his own publishing company , naming it ( again ) Indian Thought Publications ; the publishing company was a success and is still active , now managed by his granddaughter . Soon , with a devoted readership stretching from New York to Moscow , Narayan 's books started selling well and in 1948 he started building his own house on the outskirts of Mysore ; the house was completed in 1953 .
= = = The busy years = = =
After The English Teacher , Narayan 's writings took a more imaginative and creative external style compared to the semi @-@ autobiographical tone of the earlier novels . His next effort , Mr. Sampath , was the first book exhibiting this modified approach . However , it still draws from some of his own experiences , particularly the aspect of starting his own journal ; he also makes a marked movement away from his earlier novels by intermixing biographical events . Soon after , he published The Financial Expert , considered to be his masterpiece and hailed as one of the most original works of fiction in 1951 . The inspiration for the novel was a true story about a financial genius , Margayya , related to him by his brother . The next novel , Waiting for the Mahatma , loosely based on a fictional visit to Malgudi by Mahatma Gandhi , deals with the protagonist 's romantic feelings for a woman , when he attends the discourses of the visiting Mahatma . The woman , named Bharti , is a loose parody of Bharati , the personification of India and the focus of Gandhi 's discourses . While the novel includes significant references to the Indian independence movement , the focus is on the life of the ordinary individual , narrated with Narayan 's usual dose of irony .
In 1953 , his works were published in the United States for the first time , by Michigan State University Press , who later ( in 1958 ) , relinquished the rights to Viking Press . While Narayan 's writings often bring out the anomalies in social structures and views , he was himself a traditionalist ; in February 1956 , Narayan arranged his daughter 's wedding following all orthodox Hindu rituals . After the wedding , Narayan began travelling occasionally , continuing to write at least 1500 words a day even while on the road . The Guide was written while he was visiting the United States in 1956 on the Rockefeller Fellowship . While in the U.S. , Narayan maintained a daily journal that was to later serve as the foundation for his book My Dateless Diary . Around this time , on a visit to England , Narayan met his friend and mentor Graham Greene for the first time . On his return to India , The Guide was published ; the book is the most representative of Narayan 's writing skills and elements , ambivalent in expression , coupled with a riddle @-@ like conclusion . The book won him the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1958 .
Occasionally , Narayan was known to give form to his thoughts by way of essays , some published in newspapers and journals , others not . Next Sunday ( 1960 ) , was a collection of such conversational essays , and his first work to be published as a book . Soon after that , My Dateless Diary , describing experiences from his 1956 visit to the United States , was published . Also included in this collection was an essay about the writing of The Guide .
Narayan 's next novel , The Man @-@ Eater of Malgudi , was published in 1961 . The book was reviewed as having a narrative that is a classical art form of comedy , with delicate control . After the launch of this book , the restless Narayan once again took to travelling , and visited the U.S. and Australia . He spent three weeks in Adelaide , Sydney and Melbourne giving lectures on Indian literature . The trip was funded by a fellowship from the Australian Writers ' Group . By this time Narayan had also achieved significant success , both literary and financial . He had a large house in Mysore , and wrote in a study with no fewer than eight windows ; he drove a new Mercedes @-@ Benz , a luxury in India at that time , to visit his daughter who had moved to Coimbatore after her marriage . With his success , both within India and abroad , Narayan started writing columns for magazines and newspapers including The Hindu and The Atlantic .
In 1964 , Narayan published his first mythological work , Gods , Demons and Others , a collection of rewritten and translated short stories from Hindu epics . Like many of his other works , this book was illustrated by his younger brother R. K. Laxman . The stories included were a selective list , chosen on the basis of powerful protagonists , so that the impact would be lasting , irrespective of the reader 's contextual knowledge . Once again , after the book launch , Narayan took to travelling abroad . In an earlier essay , he had written about the Americans wanting to understand spirituality from him , and during this visit , Swedish @-@ American actress Greta Garbo accosted him on the topic , despite his denial of any knowledge .
Narayan 's next published work was the 1967 novel , The Vendor of Sweets . It was inspired in part by his American visits and consists of extreme characterizations of both the Indian and American stereotypes , drawing on the many cultural differences . However , while it displays his characteristic comedy and narrative , the book was reviewed as lacking in depth . This year , Narayan travelled to England , where he received the first of his honorary doctorates from the University of Leeds . The next few years were a quiet period for him . He published his next book , a collection of short stories , A Horse and Two Goats , in 1970 . Meanwhile , Narayan remembered a promise made to his dying uncle in 1938 , and started translating the Kamba Ramayanam to English . The Ramayana was published in 1973 , after five years of work . Almost immediately after publishing The Ramayana , Narayan started working on a condensed translation of the Sanskrit epic , the Mahabharata . While he was researching and writing the epic , he also published another book , The Painter of Signs ( 1977 ) . The Painter of Signs is a bit longer than a novella and makes a marked change from Narayan 's other works , as he deals with hitherto unaddressed subjects such as sex , although the development of the protagonist 's character is very similar to his earlier creations . The Mahabharata was published in 1978 .
= = = The later years = = =
Narayan was commissioned by the government of Karnataka to write a book to promote tourism in the state . The work was published as part of a larger government publication in the late 1970s . He thought it deserved better , and republished it as The Emerald Route ( Indian Thought Publications , 1980 ) . The book contains his personal perspective on the local history and heritage , but being bereft of his characters and creations , it misses his enjoyable narrative . The same year , he was elected as an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and won the AC Benson Medal from the Royal Society of Literature . Around the same time , Narayan 's works were translated to Chinese for the first time .
In 1983 , Narayan published his next novel , A Tiger for Malgudi , about a tiger and its relationship with humans . His next novel , Talkative Man , published in 1986 , was the tale of an aspiring journalist from Malgudi . During this time , he also published two collections of short stories : Malgudi Days ( 1982 ) , a revised edition including the original book and some other stories , and Under the Banyan Tree and Other Stories , a new collection . In 1987 , he completed A Writer 's Nightmare , another collection of essays about topics as diverse as the caste system , Nobel prize winners , love , and monkeys . The collection included essays he had written for newspapers and magazines since 1958 .
Living alone in Mysore , Narayan developed an interest in agriculture . He bought an acre of agricultural land and tried his hand at farming . He was also prone to walking to the market every afternoon , not so much for buying things , but to interact with the people . In a typical afternoon stroll , he would stop every few steps to greet and converse with shopkeepers and others , most likely gathering material for his next book .
In 1980 , Narayan was nominated to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house of the Indian Parliament , for his contributions to literature . During his entire six @-@ year term , he was focused on one issue β the plight of school children , especially the heavy load of school books and the negative effect of the system on a child 's creativity , which was something that he first highlighted in his debut novel , Swami and Friends . His inaugural speech was focused on this particular problem , and resulted in the formation of a committee chaired by Prof. Yash Pal , to recommend changes to the school educational system .
In 1990 , he published his next novel , The World of Nagaraj , also set in Malgudi . Narayan 's age shows in this work as he appears to skip narrative details that he would have included if this were written earlier in his career . Soon after he finished the novel , Narayan fell ill and moved to Madras to be close to his daughter 's family . A few years after his move , in 1994 , his daughter died of cancer and his granddaughter Bhuvaneswari ( Minnie ) started taking care of him in addition to managing Indian Thought Publications . Narayan then published his final book , Grandmother 's Tale . The book is an autobiographical novella , about his great @-@ grandmother who travelled far and wide to find her husband , who ran away shortly after their marriage . The story was narrated to him by his grandmother , when he was a child .
During his final years , Narayan , ever fond of conversation , would spend almost every evening with N. Ram , the publisher of The Hindu , drinking coffee and talking about various topics until well past midnight . Despite his fondness of meeting and talking to people , he stopped giving interviews . The apathy towards interviews was the result of an interview with Time , after which Narayan had to spend a few days in the hospital , as he was dragged around the city to take photographs that were never used in the article .
In May 2001 , Narayan was hospitalised . A few hours before he was to be put on a ventilator , he was planning on writing his next novel , a story about a grandfather . As he was always very selective about his choice of notebooks , he asked N. Ram to get him one . However , Narayan did not get better and never started the novel . He died on 13 May 2001 , in Chennai at the age of 94 .
= = Literary review = =
= = = Writing style = = =
Narayan 's writing technique was unpretentious with a natural element of humour about it . It focused on ordinary people , reminding the reader of next @-@ door neighbours , cousins and the like , thereby providing a greater ability to relate to the topic . Unlike his national contemporaries , he was able to write about the intricacies of Indian society without having to modify his characteristic simplicity to conform to trends and fashions in fiction writing . He also employed the use of nuanced dialogic prose with gentle Tamil overtones based on the nature of his characters . Critics have considered Narayan to be the Indian Chekhov , due to the similarities in their writings , the simplicity and the gentle beauty and humour in tragic situations . Greene considered Narayan to be more similar to Chekhov than any Indian writer . Anthony West of The New Yorker considered Narayan 's writings to be of the realism variety of Nikolai Gogol .
According to Pulitzer Prize winner Jhumpa Lahiri , Narayan 's short stories have the same captivating feeling as his novels , with most of them less than ten pages long , and taking about as many minutes to read . She adds that between the title sentence and the end , Narayan provides the reader something novelists struggle to achieve in hundreds more pages : a complete insight to the lives of his characters . These characteristics and abilities led Lahiri to classify him as belonging to the pantheon of short @-@ story geniuses that include O. Henry , Frank O 'Connor and Flannery O 'Connor . Lahiri also compares him to Guy de Maupassant for their ability to compress the narrative without losing the story , and the common themes of middle @-@ class life written with an unyielding and unpitying vision .
Critics have noted that Narayan 's writings tend to be more descriptive and less analytical ; the objective style , rooted in a detached spirit , providing for a more authentic and realistic narration . His attitude , coupled with his perception of life , provided a unique ability to fuse characters and actions , and an ability to use ordinary events to create a connection in the mind of the reader . A significant contributor to his writing style was his creation of Malgudi , a stereotypical small town , where the standard norms of superstition and tradition apply .
Narayan 's writing style was often compared to that of William Faulkner since both their works brought out the humour and energy of ordinary life while displaying compassionate humanism . The similarities also extended to their juxtaposing of the demands of society against the confusions of individuality . Although their approach to subjects was similar , their methods were different ; Faulkner was rhetorical and illustrated his points with immense prose while Narayan was very simple and realistic , capturing the elements all the same .
= = = Malgudi = = =
Malgudi is a fictional , semi @-@ urban town in southern India , conjured by Narayan . He created the town in September 1930 , on Vijayadashami , an auspicious day to start new efforts and thus chosen for him by his grandmother . As he mentioned in a later interview to his biographers Susan and N. Ram , in his mind , he first saw a railway station , and slowly the name Malgudi came to him . The town was created with an impeccable historical record , dating to the Ramayana days when it was noted that Lord Rama passed through ; it was also said that the Buddha visited the town during his travels . While Narayan never provided strict physical constraints for the town , he allowed it to form shape with events in the various stories , becoming a reference point for the future . Dr James M. Fennelly , a scholar of Narayan 's works , created a map of Malgudi based on the fictional descriptors of the town from the many books and stories .
Malgudi evolved with the changing political landscape of India . In the 1980s , when the nationalistic fervor in India dictated the changing of British names of towns and localities and removal of British landmarks , Malgudi 's mayor and city council removed the long @-@ standing statue of Frederick Lawley , one of Malgudi 's early residents . However , when the Historical Societies showed proof that Lawley was strong in his support of the Indian independence movement , the council was forced to undo all their earlier actions . A good comparison to Malgudi , a place that Greene characterised as " more familiar than Battersea or Euston Road " , is Faulkner 's Yoknapatawpha County . Also , like Faulkner 's , when one looks at Narayan 's works , the town gets a better definition through the many different novels and stories .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Narayan first broke through with the help of Graham Greene who , upon reading Swaminathan and Tate , took it upon himself to work as Narayan 's agent for the book . He was also instrumental in changing the title to the more appropriate Swami and Friends , and in finding publishers for Narayan 's next few books . While Narayan 's early works were not commercial successes , other authors of the time began to notice him . Somerset Maugham , on a trip to Mysore in 1938 , had asked to meet Narayan , but not enough people had heard of him to actually effect the meeting . Maugham subsequently read Narayan 's The Dark Room , and wrote to him expressing his admiration . Another contemporary writer who took a liking to Narayan 's early works was E. M. Forster , an author who shared his dry and humorous narrative , so much so that Narayan was labeled the " South Indian E. M. Forster " by critics . Despite his popularity with the reading public and fellow writers , Narayan 's work has not received the same amount of critical exploration accorded to other writers of his stature .
Narayan 's success in the United States came a little later , when Michigan State University Press started publishing his books . His first visit to the country was on a fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation , and he lectured at various universities including Michigan State University and the University of California , Berkeley . Around this time , John Updike noticed his work and compared Narayan to Charles Dickens . In a review of Narayan 's works published in The New Yorker , Updike called him a writer of a vanishing breed β the writer as a citizen ; one who identifies completely with his subjects and with a belief in the significance of humanity .
Having published many novels , essays and short stories , Narayan is credited with bringing Indian writing to the rest of the world . While he has been regarded as one of India 's greatest writers of the twentieth century , critics have also described his writings with adjectives such as charming , harmless and benign . Narayan has also come in for criticism from later writers , particularly of Indian origin , who have classed his writings as having a pedestrian style with a shallow vocabulary and a narrow vision . According to Shashi Tharoor , Narayan 's subjects are similar to those of Jane Austen as they both deal with a very small section of society . However , he adds that while Austen 's prose was able to take those subjects beyond ordinariness , Narayan 's was not . A similar opinion is held by Shashi Deshpande who characterizes Narayan 's writings as pedestrian and naive because of the simplicity of his language and diction , combined with the lack of any complexity in the emotions and behaviours of his characters .
A general perception on Narayan was that he did not involve himself or his writings with the politics or problems of India , as mentioned by V. S. Naipaul in one of his columns . However , according to Wyatt Mason of The New Yorker , although Narayan 's writings seem simple and display a lack of interest in politics , he delivers his narrative with an artful and deceptive technique when dealing with such subjects and does not entirely avoid them , rather letting the words play in the reader 's mind . Srinivasa Iyengar , former vice @-@ chancellor of Andhra University , says that Narayan wrote about political topics only in the context of his subjects , quite unlike his compatriot Mulk Raj Anand who dealt with the political structures and problems of the time . Paul Brians , in his book Modern South Asian Literature in English , says that the fact that Narayan completely ignored British rule and focused on the private lives of his characters is a political statement on its own , declaring his independence from the influence of colonialism .
In the west , Narayan 's simplicity of writing was well received . One of his biographers , William Walsh , wrote of his narrative as a comedic art with an inclusive vision informed by the transience and illusion of human action . Multiple Booker nominee Anita Desai classes his writings as " compassionate realism " where the cardinal sins are unkindness and immodesty . According to Wyatt Mason , in Narayan 's works , the individual is not a private entity , but rather a public one and this concept is an innovation that can be called his own . In addition to his early works being among the most important English @-@ language fiction from India , with this innovation , he provided his western readers the first works in English to be infused with an eastern and Hindu existential perspective . Mason also holds the view that Edmund Wilson 's assessment of Walt Whitman , " He does not write editorials on events but describes his actual feelings " , applies equally to Narayan .
= = Awards and honours = =
Narayan won numerous awards during the course of his literary career . His first major award was in 1958 , the Sahitya Akademi Award for The Guide . When the book was made into a film , he received the Filmfare Award for the best story . In 1964 , he received the Padma Bhushan during the Republic Day honours . In 1980 , he was awarded the AC Benson Medal by the ( British ) Royal Society of Literature , of which he was an honorary member . In 1982 he was elected an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters . He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature multiple times , but never won the honour .
Recognition also came in the form of honorary doctorates by the University of Leeds ( 1967 ) , the University of Mysore ( 1976 ) and Delhi University ( 1973 ) . Towards the end of his career , Narayan was nominated to the upper house of the Indian Parliament for a six @-@ year term starting in 1989 , for his contributions to Indian literature . A year before his death , in 2001 , he was awarded India 's second @-@ highest civilian honour , the Padma Vibhushan .
= = Legacy = =
Narayan 's greatest achievement was making India accessible to the outside world through his literature . He is regarded as one of the three leading English language Indian fiction writers , along with Raja Rao and Mulk Raj Anand . He gave his readers something to look forward to with Malgudi and its residents and is considered to be one of the best novelists India has ever produced . He brought small @-@ town India to his audience in a manner that was both believable and experiential . Malgudi was not just a fictional town in India , but one teeming with characters , each with their own idiosyncrasies and attitudes , making the situation as familiar to the reader as if it were their own backyard . In 2014 , Google commemorated Narayan 's 108th birthday by featuring a doodle showing him behind a copy of Malgudi Days .
" Whom next shall I meet in Malgudi ? That is the thought that comes to me when I close a novel of Mr Narayan 's . I do not wait for another novel . I wait to go out of my door into those loved and shabby streets and see with excitement and a certainty of pleasure a stranger approaching , past the bank , the cinema , the haircutting saloon , a stranger who will greet me I know with some unexpected and revealing phrase that will open a door on to yet another human existence . "
= = List of works = =
Novels
Non @-@ fiction
Mythology
Short story collections
= = = Adaptations = = =
Narayan 's book The Guide was adapted to film as Guide , a Hindi movie directed by Vijay Anand . An English @-@ language version was also released . Narayan was not happy with the way the film was made and its deviation from the book ; he wrote a column in Life magazine , " The Misguided Guide , " criticising the film . The book was also adapted to a Broadway play by Harvey Breit and Patricia Rinehart , and was staged at Hudson Theatre in 1968 with Zia Mohyeddin playing the lead role and a music score by Ravi Shankar .
His novel Mr. Sampath was made into a Tamil film , Miss Malini , starring Pushpavalli and Kothamangalam Subbu . A Hindi version with Padmini and Motilal was also produced by Gemini Studios . Another novel , The Financial Expert , was made into the Kannada movie Banker Margayya . Swami and Friends , The Vendor of Sweets and some of Narayan 's short stories were adapted by actor @-@ director Shankar Nag into the television series Malgudi Days . Narayan was happy with the adaptations and complimented the producers for sticking to the storyline in the books .
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= Boddingtons Brewery =
Boddingtons Brewery was a regional brewery in Manchester , England , which owned pubs throughout the North West . Boddingtons was best known for Boddingtons Bitter ( Boddies ) , a straw @-@ golden , hoppy bitter which was one of the first beers to be packaged in cans containing a widget , giving it a creamy draught @-@ style head . In the 1990s , the beer was promoted as The Cream of Manchester in a popular advertising campaign credited with raising Manchester 's profile . Boddingtons became one of the city 's most famous products after Manchester United and Coronation Street .
Whitbread bought Boddingtons Brewery in 1989 and Boddingtons Bitter received an increased marketing budget and nationwide distribution . Boddingtons achieved its peak market share in 1997 and at the time was exported to over forty countries . Boddingtons beer brands are now owned by the global brewer Anheuser β Busch InBev which acquired the Whitbread Beer Company in 2000 . Strangeways Brewery closed in 2004 and production of pasteurised ( keg and can ) Boddingtons was moved to Samlesbury in Lancashire . Production of the cask conditioned beer moved to Hydes Brewery in Moss Side , Manchester , until it was discontinued in 2012 , ending the beer 's association with the city .
= = History = =
= = = 1778 β 1969 = = =
Strangeways Brewery was founded in 1778 by two grain merchants , Thomas Caister and Thomas Fry , just north of what is now Manchester city centre . Their principal customers were the cotton workers of Manchester , then a burgeoning mill town . Henry Boddington , born in 1813 in Thame , Oxfordshire , joined the brewery in 1832 as a travelling salesman when the brewery was in the possession of Hole , Potter and Harrison . Like most Manchester breweries at the time , it was a modestly sized operation . Boddington had become a partner by 1848 , alongside John and James Harrison , and by this time the company went under the name John Harrison & Co . In January 1853 , Boddington borrowed money to become its sole owner . Between Boddington 's takeover until 1877 , the brewery 's output increased tenfold from 10 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 barrels a year , making it not only Manchester 's largest brewery but one of the largest in the North of England , with over 100 tied houses . By 1883 Henry Boddington & Co. was a limited liability company . Henry Boddington 's estate was valued at almost Β£ 150 @,@ 000 when he died in 1886 .
After Henry Boddington 's death , his son , William Slater Boddington became company chairman , and the company went public in 1888 when it was estimated to have assets of Β£ 320 @,@ 465 . It was now known as Boddingtons Breweries Ltd . The company owned 212 public houses by 1892 , making it the twelfth largest tied estate in the United Kingdom . Its major local competitors were Groves and Whitnall , Threlfalls and the Manchester Brewing Company . After W. Slater Boddington 's death in 1908 , the family retained an interest in the company and continued to take a practical hand in its running . Henry 's youngest son , Robert Slater Boddington ( 1862 β 1930 ) had a fifty @-@ year association with the company and oversaw the installation of a bottling hall in the 1920s . Robert 's third and fourth sons Philip ( 1893 β 1952 ) and Charles ( 1897 β 1982 ) served as joint chairman after their father 's death , and Charles took sole responsibility after Philip died .
By the 1930s , the Boddington family shareholding had dwindled to around 40 per cent . On the 22 December 1940 , the brewery water tanks were hit by bombs during the Manchester Blitz , and the brewery had to be closed down for several months , with production moved temporarily to the nearby Hydes Brewery . The brewery was rebuilt with the most up @-@ to @-@ date and modern equipment of the time , and was the first in Europe to install stainless steel brewing vats . In 1961 , the brewer Whitbread took a 13 per cent stake in the company . In 1962 the company purchased Richard Clarke & Co of Reddish , Stockport , adding 60 public houses to the firm .
= = = Mergers and acquisitions = = =
In 1969 the large Allied Breweries combine initiated a hostile takeover bid for Boddingtons , which valued the company at Β£ 5 million . Charles Boddington took the unusual step of issuing a spirited defence of the company to the shareholders :
You will be only too aware that present @-@ day pressures bear heavily towards the elimination of individuality and character in many consumer goods . There is an inexorable progression towards the mass @-@ produced nationwide product of standardised quality . You , however , are still , at this moment in time , a shareholder in one of the remaining independent brewery companies whose traditional draught beers have a reputation for quality and individual character beyond the immediate area of the North of England in which we operate ... The takeover of Boddingtons and its consequent elimination can achieve very little . It will do nothing for the national economy , add nothing to the nation 's exports , and contribute nothing at all to the quality of life that we are all used to enjoy .
The company 's independence was maintained after Whitbread acted as a white knight by raising its stake in the company from 13 to 23 per cent , and the family and many small shareholders refused to sell their stakes . The chairman of Whitbread , Colonel Whitbread , is reputed to have said , " You are a very old firm . You have a very good name . You mustn 't go out . " At the time , it was rare for a company to win the emotional argument for independence , and it was the first time a regional brewery had headed off an offer from a national company . In 1970 , Charles Boddington retired and his son Ewart assumed the directorship .
In 1971 , Allied Breweries sold its 35 per cent stake in the company , leaving Whitbread 25 per cent and the Boddington family 10 per cent , with the remainder of company shares held by small shareholders in the Manchester area . That year Guinness Draught stout and Heineken lager were introduced into the tied estate . During the 1970s the company operated within a 70 @-@ mile radius of Manchester , and growth was driven by the increasing popularity of its main product , Boddingtons Bitter . The Observer commented in 1974 that Boddingtons cheap pricing and distinctive flavour afforded it an unusually loyal following . In 1981 the same newspaper commented ,
what has stood Boddingtons in good stead is the highly distinctive flavour of its brews , especially its bitters . In fact , in the North @-@ West , Boddies is increasingly becoming a sort of cult brew .
In 1982 , Boddingtons bought the Oldham Brewery for Β£ 23 million , hoping to combine Oldham 's strength in lager and keg bitter with their own expertise in cask ales . After the acquisition , the company owned 272 public houses , 70 per cent of which were within 20 miles of its Manchester brewery . In 1983 , Boddingtons Bitter was distributed in the Home Counties for the first time . In 1985 Boddingtons paid Β£ 27 @.@ 5 million for the 160 @,@ 000 barrel capacity Higsons Brewery in Liverpool and its tied estate of 160 public houses to form a combine with a Β£ 65 million turnover . The Guardian commented that the company had paid mere asset value for Higsons as the company had been reporting poor profits . There was virtually no overlap between the two companies , and the takeover brought Boddingtons to Merseyside for the first time . By this time Strangeways was producing only two beers , a bitter and a mild , with bitter constituting over 90 per cent of production . In 1986 , the company employed 280 people and operated 530 tied houses , and while Strangeways Brewery had a capacity of 500 @,@ 000 barrels a year , it was operating at around 50 per cent capacity . That year the company introduced its own lager , brewing Kaltenberg under license .
In 1987 , the company rejected a Β£ 270 million reverse takeover bid by Midsummer Leisure . By this time Boddingtons had a tied estate of 520 pubs . In 1988 , the company closed the Oldham Brewery with the loss of 70 jobs , and shed 140 transport jobs at Higsons and Strangeways by contracting out delivery work to TNT .
Boddingtons remained independent until 1989 , when Ewart Boddington sold Strangeways Brewery and the Boddingtons brand ( but not the tied estate ) to Whitbread for Β£ 50 @.@ 7 million . Whitbread was motivated to plug a gap in its portfolio by owning a credible national cask ale brand . The sale was amicable , with both parties aware that Whitbread capital and distribution could make the Boddingtons brand national , although some Boddington family board members had been resistant to the sale . Boddingtons had been in decline before the Whitbread takeover , and although it retained an almost " cult " following within its Manchester heartland , only 5 per cent of sales were outside the North West .
= = = Whitbread era = = =
Whitbread transformed the brand from regional to national , expanding production from 200 @,@ 000 to 850 @,@ 000 barrels a year between 1989 and 1995 . By 1993 the cask version was outsold only by Tetley and John Smith 's , and the majority of sales were outside of the North West . By 1994 it was the fourth @-@ highest selling bitter brand in the country . The canned variant was distributed nationwide from 1990 and was the highest @-@ selling canned bitter in the UK from 1992 until 2000 . The beer was officially exported overseas from 1993 , initially to Canada . The rise in sales of the beer coincided with the elevation of Manchester from " city of dark , beaten mills to the cultural magnet of Madchester " . Manchester and the North of England were now fashionable in the public consciousness and rejuvenated from industrial slump . Whitbread chief executive Peter Jarvis commented in 1995 that :
It was very fortuitous that the brewery was in Manchester . To outsiders , Manchester is a very attractive place β known the world over for soccer , art , music and broadcasting . It would be difficult to have a Cream of Wolverhampton even though Banks 's beer is very good . People do not aspire to visit Wolverhampton . On the whole they try to by @-@ pass it .
Success was attributed to an excellent marketing campaign , and being the first canned ale to be sold with a widget after Guinness . In 1997 Boddingtons sales peaked , and 1998 saw a drop in sales of 10 per cent . Boddingtons had been turned into : " a fashion product ... and as with all fashion products , the drinkers moved on " . In 1998 production of the Flowers ale brands was moved to Strangeways . Boddingtons ' share of the UK ale market grew to 4 @.@ 9 per cent in 1998 @-@ 1999 , and sales grew by 7 @.@ 3 percent during 1999 @-@ 2000 .
Meanwhile , in 1995 the independent owner of the 450 @-@ strong former Boddingtons tied estate , The Boddington Group , was taken over by Greenalls .
= = = Interbrew takeover = = =
In May 2000 the Whitbread Beer Company was acquired by the Belgian brewer Interbrew , which owned Stella Artois . At that time one in eight barrels of Boddingtons was exported to some 40 countries worldwide , including China , the United States , Taiwan and the West Indies . The Strangeways Brewery kegging facility closed in February 2003 with the loss of 50 jobs . In August 2003 , amidst falling sales , Interbrew relaunched the cask product in the North West of England , with an increased strength . The relaunch was unsuccessful and the changes were reversed .
In September 2004 the owners ( now known as InBev ) announced plans to close the Strangeways Brewery and move most production from Manchester to Magor in South Wales and Samlesbury , Lancashire , with the loss of 60 jobs . Two years earlier the brewery had employed 250 people . Boddingtons cask ale production , which accounted for less than 10 per cent of output , was moved to Hydes Brewery in Moss Side . The closure plan was made despite the company admitting the brewery was profitable but the brewery site had become a valuable property asset and was subsequently sold for Β£ 12 million to developers . A spokesman for the firm argued : " [ The ] building was built in the Victorian times and it is an old historic brewery but it was a victim of its age . It is an inflexible brewery β it can 't bottle or can and customer needs have moved on " . Production ended in February 2005 and the brewery was demolished in 2007 . Bloomberg Businessweek described the move by InBev as " unsentimental " .
In May 2010 it was speculated in The Times that InBev ( Anheuser @-@ Busch InBev from 2008 onwards ) would attempt to sell the Boddingtons brand to another brewer after its failed attempt to sell the UK rights to Bass ale . The newspaper was damning of what it perceived as InBev 's mismanagement of the brand , which had " declined under AB InBev 's hands . The brand was once a leading part of the old Whitbread Beer Company , but its fortunes had dwindled since the closure in 2005 of the Strangeways Brewery . "
In 2010 Boddingtons was the sixth @-@ highest selling bitter in the United Kingdom , although sales had dropped by almost three quarters since the takeover by Anheuser β Busch InBev in 2000 . In July 2011 AB InBev 's UK president Stuart MacFarlane claimed " We still believe in the brand " whilst admitting to not advertising the brand for five years , instead reaping the rewards of memories of earlier advertising . Contract brewing of Boddingtons Cask continued until March 2012 when production of the beer ended .
Production was around 250 @,@ 000 hectolitres in 2012 , with around 80 per cent of production destined for the UK market , and around 20 per cent for export markets such as Taiwan , Singapore and the United Arab Emirates .
= = Beers = =
Boddingtons has a distinctive straw @-@ golden coloured body with a creamy white head , which is achieved by the addition of nitrogen .
Boddingtons Draught Bitter ( 3 @.@ 5 % ABV )
The nitrogenated and pasteurised variant of the beer available in kegs and cans . It is brewed in Samlesbury . The canned variant , launched in 1991 , contains a widget to give the beer a creamy white head . The beer 's ABV was reduced from 3 @.@ 8 % to 3 @.@ 5 % in late 2008 . On draught in the United Kingdom it is typically served at 5 to 7 degrees Celsius , although an Extra Cold variant served at 3 to 5 degrees Celsius has been available since 2006 . Its taste , or perceived lack of it , has been criticised by some , with Andrew Jefford describing it as a " blandly foamy nitrokeg travesty of the original [ cask conditioned version ] " .
Boddingtons Pub Ale ( 4 @.@ 6 % ABV )
A higher ABV version of Boddingtons Draught Bitter , brewed since 1993 for export markets . It was available in the United Kingdom from 1995 β 6 as Boddingtons Export .
= = Advertising = =
The Boddingtons two bees logo was introduced in 1900 . The bees are a symbol of Manchester , from a time when it was a " hive of industry " , but the two bees also represent a pun on the company name of Boddingtons Breweries .
Boddingtons largely eschewed above the line advertising until 1987 , when it was first advertised on Granada television in the North West of England . The tagline from 1987 until 1991 was " If you don 't get Boddies , you 'll just get bitter " . Under Whitbread 's custodianship the comedian Frankie Howerd fronted the campaign in a series of six television advertisements which mainly aired in the North West in 1990 β 1991 . Lowe Howard @-@ Spink was the advertising agency responsible for the Howerd advertisements .
From July 1991 until 1999 , a series of Boddingtons advertisements created by the Bartle Bogle Hegarty ( BBH ) agency used " The Cream of Manchester " tagline . The campaign , credited with revitalising the image of Manchester , was arguably third behind Manchester United and Coronation Street in raising the city 's profile . Originally a set of print advertisements , the campaign was extended to television in 1992 . The television advertisements featured beautiful women with unlikely Mancunian accents and " achieved the seemingly impossible task of making bitter glamorous " . The most famous television advertisement featured a glamorous couple on @-@ board gondolas on Manchester 's River Irwell , in a parody of a well @-@ known " just one Cornetto " ice cream advertisement . According to the Manchester Evening News , " it told the world something about the reinvention of the murky old city , that its once @-@ filthy waterway could almost pass for Venice . "
The series won several international advertising awards for BBH . The brand 's creaminess was emphasised through items such as face cream , ice cream , sun cream and whipped cream . Managing director of Whitbread , Miles Templeman , explained that :
We were thinking how to turn a second @-@ rate north @-@ west brand into something more stylish , to make it more appealing again . BBH thought of focusing on the creamy aspect , of selling a beer like a face cream .
A previously unknown Melanie Sykes launched her career as a television presenter following her appearances in the adverts from 1996 until 1999 . Animated television advertisements starring the transgender playboy cow Graham Heffer ran from 1999 until 2002 . The adverts attracted complaints from the public for allegedly promoting bestiality , homosexuality and drug @-@ taking . Boddingtons become an official partner of the 2002 XVII Commonwealth Games held in Manchester in a deal worth at least Β£ 1 million . To mark the occasion , a special Boddingtons 5 % ABV Commonwealth Ale cask ale was produced for the North West of England , and subsequently launched nationwide . The last Boddingtons television advertising campaign in 2005 was criticised for capitalising on the beer 's Manchester heritage with a Happy Mondays soundtrack , even though production had moved out of the city . Mike Thompson , a former worker at the brewery and representative of the Transport & General Workers ' Union , said :
This is at best cynical and at worst a slur on our great city , its heritage and the Strangeways workers . People have lost their livelihoods because of how this company has behaved . They will not be best pleased at what we can only see as pouring salt on the wounds .
Boddington 's was mentioned in episode 2 season 5 of Friends
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= Eyre Highway =
Eyre Highway is a 1 @,@ 660 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @,@ 030 mi ) highway linking Western Australia and South Australia via the Nullarbor Plain . Signed as National Highways 1 and A1 , it forms part of Highway 1 and the Australian National Highway network linking Perth and Adelaide . It was named after explorer Edward John Eyre , who was the first European to cross the Nullarbor by land , in 1840 β 1841 . Eyre Highway runs from Norseman in Western Australia , past Eucla , to the state border . Continuing to the South Australian town of Ceduna , it then crosses the top of the Eyre Peninsula before reaching the city of Port Augusta in South Australia .
The construction of the East β West Telegraph line in the 1870s , along Eyre 's route , resulted in a hazardous trail that could be followed for interstate travel . A national highway was called for , but the federal government did not see the route as important enough until 1941 , when a war in the Pacific seemed imminent . The highway was constructed between July 1941 and June 1942 , but was trafficable by January 1942 . Though originally named Forrest Highway , after John Forrest , by the war cabinet , it was officially named and gazetted Eyre Highway , a name agreed upon by the states ' nomenclature committees .
The finished road , while an improvement over the previous route , still was not much more than a track , and remained such throughout the 1940s and 1950s . Efforts to seal the highway began in Norseman in 1960 , with the Western Australian section completed in 1969 and the South Australian section finished in 1976 . Further improvement works have been undertaken since the 1980s , including widening and reconstructing portions of the road .
= = Route description = =
Eyre Highway is the only sealed road linking the states of Western Australia and South Australia , running east from Norseman in Western Australia for 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) across the Nullarbor Plain to Ceduna , South Australia . It then crosses the top of the Eyre Peninsula as it continues eastwards for 470 kilometres ( 290 mi ) , before reaching the city of Port Augusta . Eyre Highway is part of the National Highway route between Perth and Adelaide , and also forms part of Australia 's Highway 1 . It is signed as National Highway 1 in Western Australia , and National Highway A1 in South Australia . The vast majority of the highway is a two @-@ lane single carriageway with a speed limit of 110 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) , except in and around built up areas . Road trains ( A @-@ double or B @-@ triple ) up to 36 @.@ 5 metres ( 120 ft ) are permitted on Eyre Highway , but are limited to the slightly lower maximum speed of 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) .
The Western Australian section of Eyre Highway is on the western side of the Nullarbor Plain ; the South Australian section crosses the eastern section of the Nullarbor Plain , and the top of the Eyre Peninsula . The Nullarbor gets its name from Latin for " no tree " , and the typical view is that of a straight highway and practically unchanging flat saltbush @-@ covered terrain , although some parts are located on ridges . The Eyre Peninsula has been extensively cleared for agriculture , although there are remnant corridors of native eucalyptus woodland alongside its roads .
Main Roads Western Australia and the Department of Planning , Transport and Infrastructure in South Australia monitor traffic volume across the states ' road networks , including various locations along Eyre Highway . In Western Australia , the recorded traffic volumes ranged between 430 and 760 vehicles per day in 2013 / 14 . In South Australia , the estimated annual average daily traffic as of September 2015 varied between 500 and 1500 west of Lincoln Highway , and was 2700 to the east .
Eyre Highway was assessed by the Australian Automobile Association in 2011 to be among the lowest risk highways in the country , based on total number of casualty crashes per length of road . However , individual risk based on casualty crash rates per vehicle kilometre travelled was assessed as high for the 95 @-@ kilometre ( 59 mi ) section east of Yalata to Fowlers Bay , medium for a 106 @-@ kilometre ( 66 mi ) section from Fowlers Bay to Ceduna , low @-@ medium between Ceduna and Port Augusta , and low west of Yalata . In 2013 , Eyre Highway similarly received a lower safety rating for the South Australian sections , compared to the Western Australian section . Out of five stars , approximately 10 % was rated as one- or two @-@ star in Western Australia , generally towards the Norseman end , and 91 % was rated three- or four @-@ star . In South Australia , 49 % was rated as one- or two @-@ star , mostly from Yalata to Ceduna , and across the Eyre Peninsula , with the remaining 51 % rated as three- or four @-@ star .
= = = Western Australia = = =
Eyre Highway begins at the town of Norseman , on the Coolgardie β Esperance Highway . Apart from Eucla , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the South Australia border , roadhouses serving the highway are the only settlements on the 720 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 450 mi ) stretch through Western Australia . These are located 65 to 180 kilometres ( 40 to 110 mi ) apart , at Balladonia , Caiguna , Cocklebiddy , Madura , and Mundrabilla . The section between Balladonia and Caiguna includes what is regarded as the longest straight stretch of road in Australia and one of the longest in the world . The road stretches for 145 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 90 @.@ 5 mi ) without turning , and is signposted and commonly known as the " 90 Mile Straight " . Travelling east , the highway descends through the Madura Pass just before the Madura roadhouse from the Nullarbor Plain to the coastal Roe Plains . It skirts the bottom of the escarpment , climbing back through the Eucla Pass just before Eucla .
Because of its remoteness , some widened sections of the highway serve as emergency airstrips for the Royal Flying Doctor Service . These airstrips are signposted , have runway pavement markings painted on the road , and turnaround bays for small aircraft .
= = = South Australia = = =
After crossing the border at the settlement of Border Village , the highway passes through the Nullarbor Wilderness Protection Area and then through the localities of Yalata , Penong and Ceduna . Before arriving at Ceduna , it enters the Eyre Peninsula . After Ceduna , the highway passes the intersection with Flinders Highway and heads south @-@ east towards the town of Kyancutta . After passing through the localities of Wirrulla , Poochera , Yanninee and Wudinna , the highway arrives at Kyancutta where it meets the north end of the Tod Highway . After Kyancutta , the highway turns to the east towards the town of Kimba . Before arriving at Kimba , it turns to the north @-@ east . After Kimba , the highway passes through the southern end of the Lake Gilles Conservation Park and to the immediate north of both the town of Iron Knob and the Cultana Training Area before meeting the Lincoln Highway . It then continues north @-@ east until it intersects Augusta Highway and Stuart Highway , north @-@ west of the Joy Baluch AM Bridge which crosses Spencer Gulf at Port Augusta .
An alternative route between Ceduna and Port Augusta , formerly signed Alternate Route 1 and now signed B100 , follows Flinders Highway and Lincoln Highway down the western and eastern sides of the peninsula respectively .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Edward John Eyre was the first European to traverse the coastline of the Great Australian Bight and the Nullarbor Plain by land , in 1840 β 1841 , on an almost 2 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) trip from Adelaide to Albany , Western Australia .
Three decades later , the East β West Telegraph line was installed . Constructed between 1875 and 1877 , it followed the same route across the Nullarbor and along the Great Australian Bight , after John Forrest retraced Eyre 's route in 1870 and confirmed its suitability . Repeater stations were installed at Port Lincoln , Streaky Bay , Smoky Bay , Fowlers Bay , Eucla , Israelite Bay , Esperance , and Bremer Bay . Stations were latter added at Franklin Harbour ( Cowell ) in 1885 , Yardea in 1896 , and Balladonia in 1897 .
An inland route across the Nullarbor was established with the 1912 to 1917 construction of the Trans @-@ Australian Railway , from Port Augusta via Tarcoola to Kalgoorlie . With few roads or tracks encountering the line , most of it is only accessible by rail .
= = = Highway planning and construction = = =
The construction of the telegraph had resulted in a trail that could be followed for interstate travel , but it was a haphazard route which only the more adventurous motorists would take . Many travellers were unprepared for the harsh conditions and lack of services ; they would cause a nuisance for station owners and other travellers by scrounging petrol , contaminating water supplies , leaving gates open , and committing acts of vandalism . In 1938 the Royal Automobile Club of Western Australia ( RAC ) called for a national highway to be constructed by the federal government , as it would be a strategic defence road , provide another link between Western Australia and other states , and improve the tourist experience . The federal government did not see the road as important enough for its involvement .
In May 1941 , following the construction of the central north β south Stuart Highway , the federal government announced its decision to build the east β west highway between Norseman and Port Augusta . A northerly route , close to the Trans @-@ Australian Railway , had been considered , but extensive limestone outcrops made it impractical . Taking a route east from Norseman , with some detours around limestone ridges , would allow a road to be formed quickly and easily . With a war in the Pacific seemingly imminent , construction soon began , in July 1941 . The Army was responsible for fuel , food , and communications , while the state government departments of Main Roads ( Western Australia ) and Highways ( South Australia ) managed the actual construction .
While initial estimates placed the construction cost at Β£ 125 @,@ 000 over a period of four months , it actually cost twice as much , and was not completed until June 1942 , though the road was sufficiently trafficable and in use by January 1942 . The finished road , while an improvement over the previous route , still was not much more than a track . The only sections with a bitumen surface were the Madura and Eucla Passes . The formed width was 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , with some sections lightly gravelled over a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) width .
= = = Naming = = =
In the 1930s and 1940s , the Western Australian Nomenclature Advisory Committee had been choosing directional names for the state 's main arterial roads ( such as Great Eastern Highway ) , while the South Australian Highways Department had been naming the major roads to other states after explorers ( such as Flinders Highway , named after Matthew Flinders ) . The historical memorials committee of the Royal Geographical Society in South Australia was disappointed in 1938 that no road had been named after Eyre , despite its suggestion that the road from Port Augusta towards Perth should be Eyre Highway . In the same year , the RAC suggested that the proposed new highway be named Forrest Highway , after John Forrest , and the Assistant Minister for Commerce , Senator Macdonald , concurred .
On 21 January 1942 , Prime Minister John Curtin announced the war cabinet decision to name the newly constructed road Forrest Highway , for military purposes . Separately , the states ' nomenclature committees were considering names for the road . A proposal for a single name to be used in both states was put by the Western Australian committee to the South Australian committee when the highway was completed . Two names were suggested : Great Western Highway , in line with similar directional names in Western Australia , and Eyre Highway , after the explorer . After several communications between the committees , both decided to use the name Eyre Highway . After a receiving a letter from the South Australian Premier in May 1943 , supporting the nomenclature committee 's recommendation , Curtin agreed to the name , subject to approval from the Western Australian government .
The South Australian section was named Eyre Highway on 20 May 1943 , with the portion from Murat Bay ( Ceduna ) to the state border declared a main road . Eyre Highway was gazetted in Western Australia on 11 June 1943 , and included the road from Coolgardie to Norseman until Coolgardie β Esperance Highway was gazetted on 16 August 1957 .
= = = Sealing = = =
The state of Eyre Highway remained relatively unchanged throughout the 1940s and 1950s . The road received yearly maintenance , but further , more expensive works were not warranted due to the low traffic volume of approximately fourteen vehicles per day . However , the maintenance and grading was hindered by a lack of rainfall β the road was smoothed out each year , and small sections were gravelled , but the soil the road was made from was too weak to be an effective road surface . When it did rain , even in small amounts , the road would become boggy , from patches that had broken down into a powdery substance ( known as " bulldust " ) during dry periods . Large numbers of vehicles travelling the highway in 1962 , for the Commonwealth Games in Perth , damaged the road in numerous locations , and the lack of moisture required salt water to be pumped from 350 feet ( 110 m ) below the surface for use in repairs and maintenance .
Work to seal Eyre Highway was undertaken in the 1960s and 1970s . As the federal government refused requests from Western Australia and South Australia for a special allocation to fund the sealed road , the work was left for the states to finance , over a number of years . Construction began in 1960 , at the Norseman end . By the end of that year five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) had been reconstructed , and was ready to be sealed over a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) width . Fourteen miles ( 23 km ) were sealed in 1961 , another 67 miles ( 108 km ) were completed by 1963 , and in 1964 the seal reached 111 miles ( 179 km ) out from Norseman . By the mid @-@ 1960s , approximately 60 miles ( 100 km ) were being sealed each year . With increased priority given to the project from 1966 , Western Australia 's portion of the highway was completed in 1969 , with a ceremony held in Eucla on 17 October .
In South Australia , a decade @-@ long program to seal the highway began in the mid @-@ 1960s . The first section to be completed was the 462 @-@ kilometre ( 287 mi ) route between Port Augusta and Ceduna , in December 1967 . In October 1972 the Ceduna to Penong seal was completed , and the final link to be sealed , between Penong and the state border , was completed with a ceremony held on 29 September 1976 near Wigunda Tank , South Australia . Between Yalata and the state border , the highway was realigned and deviated considerably from the original unsealed route . In deciding the new alignment for the South Australian section of the highway between Yalata and the state border , long , straight , flat sections were purposely avoided to prevent driver boredom and consequent fatigue , as well as sun @-@ glare and glare from oncoming headlights . The new alignment also took into consideration the potential tourism opportunities provided along the coast of the Great Australian Bight . The older highway route runs from Border Village to the Nullarbor Homestead , approximately 15 to 20 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 to 12 @.@ 4 mi ) away from the coast . The previous route from the Nullarbor Homestead to Nundroo Motel also travelled further inland than the new alignment , past Ivy Tank Motel and Yalata Roadhouse .
= = = Further improvements = = =
The 1960s standard of a twenty @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 2 m ) sealed width with four @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) gravel shoulders was proving to be inadequate by the 1980s . Increasing numbers of truck and tourist coaches caused fretting , and reduced the actual sealed width to 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft ) along much of Eyre Highway . Main Roads in Western Australia spent around a million dollars a year on rehabilitating 50 @-@ to @-@ 100 @-@ kilometre ( 30 to 60 mi ) sections . A major project to improve Eyre Highway , rather than just repair the damage , began in 1984 with federal government funding to reconstruct 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) in Western Australia .
The highway was rebuilt with a seven @-@ metre @-@ wide ( 23 ft ) pavement , with shoulders partially sealed to a width of one metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) . Work began in mid @-@ 1985 near Cocklebiddy , with a 58 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 36 mi ) section completed in 1986 . Work undertaken from 1987 to 1988 reached out 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) east of Cocklebiddy , and 225 kilometres ( 140 mi ) had been completed by June 1990 . The upgrade from Cocklebiddy to the state border was completed in October 1994 .
Since the 1990s , regular maintenance and minor improvements have been an ongoing effort ; $ 3 @.@ 9 million was spent on these works in Western Australia in 1996 . There have been larger @-@ scale works including reconstruction of sections near Caiguna , Balladonia , and the Frazer Range in Western Australia , as well as Cungena and Kyancutta in South Australia .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Minehead =
Minehead is a coastal town and civil parish in Somerset , England . It lies on the south bank of the Bristol Channel , 21 miles ( 34 km ) north @-@ west of the county town of Taunton , 12 miles ( 19 km ) from the border with the county of Devon and in proximity of the Exmoor National Park . The parish of Minehead has a population of approximately 11 @,@ 981 making it the most populous town in the West Somerset local government district . This figure includes Alcombe , a suburban village which has been subsumed into Minehead .
There is evidence of human occupation in the area since the Bronze and Iron Ages . Before the Norman Conquest it was held by Γlfgar , Earl of Mercia and after it by William de Moyon and his descendants , who administered the area from Dunster Castle , which was later sold to Sir George Luttrell and his family . There was a small port at Minehead by 1380 , which grew into a major trading centre during the medieval period . Most trade transferred to larger ports during the 20th century , but pleasure steamers did call at the port . Major rebuilding took place in the Lower or Middle town area following a fire in 1791 and the fortunes of the town revived with the growth in sea bathing , and by 1851 was becoming a retirement centre . There was a marked increase in building during the early years of the 20th century , which resulted in the wide main shopping avenue and adjacent roads with Edwardian style architecture . The town 's flood defences were improved after a storm in 1990 caused flooding .
Minehead is governed by a town council , which was created in 1983 and has been part of the West Somerset local government district since 1974 . In addition to the parish church of St. Michael on the Hill in Minehead , the separate parish church of St Michael the Archangel is situated in Church Street , Alcombe . Alcombe is also home to the Spiritualist Church in Grove Place . Since 1991 , Minehead has been twinned with Saint @-@ Berthevin , a small town close to the regional centre of Laval in the Mayenne dΓ©partement of France . Blenheim Gardens , which is Minehead β s largest park , was opened in 1925 . The town is also the home of a Butlins Holiday Park which increases Minehead 's seasonal tourist population by several thousand .
There are a variety of schools and religious , cultural and sporting facilities including sailing and wind surfing and golf . One popular ancient local tradition involves the Hobby Horse , or Obby Oss , which takes to the streets for four days on the eve of the first of May each year , with accompanying musicians and rival horses . The town is the starting point of the South West Coast Path National Trail , the nation 's longest long @-@ distance countryside walking trail . The Minehead Railway was opened in 1874 and closed in 1971 but has since been reopened as the West Somerset Railway .
= = History = =
The town sits at the foot of a steeply rising outcrop of Exmoor known as North Hill , and the original name of the town was mynydd , which means mountain in Welsh . It has also been written as Mynheafdon ( 1046 ) , Maneheve ( 1086 ) , Menehewed ( 1225 ) and Menedun ( also 1225 ) , which contain elements of Welsh and Old English words for hill .
Bronze Age barrows at Selworthy Beacon and an Iron Age enclosure at Furzebury Brake , west of the town show evidence of prehistoric occupation of the area , although there is also possible evidence in the intertidal area , where the remains of a submerged forest still exist .
Minehead was part of the hundred of Carhampton . It is mentioned as a manor belonging to William de Moyon in the Domesday Book in 1086 , although it had previously been held by Γlfgar , Earl of Mercia . William de Mohun of Dunster , 1st Earl of Somerset and his descendants administered the area from Dunster Castle , which was later sold to Sir George Luttrell and his family .
There was a small port at Minehead by 1380 , but it was not until 1420 that money given by Lady Margaret Luttrell enabled improvements to be made and a jetty built . During the reign of Elizabeth I , the town had its own Port Officer similar to the position at Bristol . Vessels in the 15th century included the Trinite which traded between Ireland and Bristol , and others carrying salt and other cargo from La Rochelle in France . Other products included local wool and cloth which were traded for coal from South Wales . In 1559 a Charter of Incorporation , established a free Borough and Parliamentary representation , but was made conditional on improvements being made to the port . The harbour silted up and fell into disrepair so that in 1604 James I withdrew the town 's charter . Control reverted to the Luttrells and a new harbour was built , at a cost of Β£ 5 @,@ 000 , further out to sea than the original , which had been at the mouth of the Bratton Stream . It incorporated a pier , dating from 1616 , and was built to replace that at Dunster which was silting up . Trade was primarily with Wales for cattle , sheep , wool , butter , fish and coal . These are commemorated in the town arms which include a woolpack and sailing ship . Privateers based at Minehead were involved in the war with Spain and France during 1625 β 1630 and again during the War of the Spanish Succession from 1702 β 1713 . The first cranes were installed after further improvements to the port in 1714 .
The Mermaid , one of the oldest business premises in the town , has been , at various times , a ship chandler 's , a nineteenth @-@ century " department store " and in more recent years a tearoom . The building was the home of Minehead β s famous Whistling Ghost β Old Mother Leakey , who died in 1634 . The ghost became notorious by allegedly " whistling up a storm " whenever one of her son β s ships neared port . The level of anxiety in the town became so great that , in 1636 , the Bishop of Bath and Wells presided over a Royal Commission to inquire into the matter . The commission eventually reported that the witnesses were unreliable and when its findings were signed by Archbishop Laud and ghost 's publicity began to wane .
By the beginning of the 18th century , trade between Minehead and Ireland , South Wales , Bristol and Bridgwater grew , with forty vessels based in the harbour for trade and herring fishing . It was also a departure point for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostella . Until the 19th century trade continued with Ireland but Minehead vessels started to travel further afield to Virginia and the West Indies . Further problems with the port continued and led to a decline in trade and the fisheries in the late 18th century and in 1834 the port lost its jurisdiction to Bridgwater . In the 20th century most trade transferred to larger ports , but pleasure steamers did call at the port . Minehead Lifeboat Station was established in 1901 near the harbour . The pier was demolished during the Second World War as it obstructed the view from the gun battery on the quay head , as part of the coastal defence preparations , which stopped steamers calling at the harbour until it was cleared in 1951 .
Major rebuilding took place in the Lower or Middle town area following a fire in 1791 . In that year a Carrara marble statue of Queen Anne , sculpted by Francis Bird was presented to the town by Sir Jacob Bancks , who served as the local Member of Parliament from 1698 to 1715 . It originally stood in the parish church but was moved to Wellington Square in 1893 , when the marble pedestal and canopy by H. Dare Bryan were added . Lower town and the quay area were rebuilt and the fortunes of the town revived with the growth in sea bathing , and by 1851 was becoming a retirement centre .
Early areas of development of the town include Higher Town with its cottages , many of which are " listed " buildings of historic interest , some of which are still thatched , and the Quay area . In Victorian times wealthy industrialists built large houses on North Hill and hotels were developed so that tourism became an important industry . There was a marked increase in building in the early years of the 20th century when the landowners , the Luttrells of Dunster Castle , released extensive building land . Probably the most prolific Edwardian architect was W.J.Tamlyn from North Devon who settled in the town and was responsible for designing several hundred domestic properties as well as the Market House , Town Hall and Queens Hall . It was in the Edwardian and Victorian era that tourism in the town increased . | Edwardian style architecture . The steamship SS Pelican grounded in Minehead Bay on 22 June 1928 , on an unmarked reef known as the Gables that circles Minehead Bay , 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) from land . The Pelican was sailing from Port Talbot to Highbridge . The crew of five were rescued by the Minehead Lifeboat . Evacuees were billeted in Minehead during the Second World War . Butlins opened in 1962 , and has brought thousands of visitors to the town .
= = Governance = =
The civil parish of Minehead is governed by a town council , which was created in 1983 . In 2002 , the parish was estimated to have a population of 10 @,@ 330 . Administratively , Minehead has been part of the West Somerset local government district since 1974 , having previously been Minehead Urban District . The district is in turn part of the Somerset shire county , and administrative tasks are shared between county , district and town councils .
It falls within the Bridgwater and West Somerset constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election . The current MP is Ian Liddell @-@ Grainger , a member of the Conservative Party .
Minehead is within the South West England ( European Parliament constituency ) , which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
Minehead is located on the Bristol Channel coast of South @-@ West England , and thus experiences one of the highest tidal ranges in the world . The tidal rise and fall in the Bristol Channel can be as great as 14 @.@ 5 m ( 48 ft ) , second only to the Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada .
The town is overlooked by North Hill , and is just outside the boundaries of Exmoor National Park . The cliff exposures around the shoreline are dramatic and fossils are exposed . Areas of the town included Higher Town , Quay Town and Lower or Middle Town , although they are no longer separate .
In 1990 , much of Minehead 's beach was washed away in a severe storm which also caused serious flooding in the town . A Β£ 12 @.@ 6 million sea defence scheme by the Environment Agency was designed to reduce the risk of this erosion and flooding happening in the future . The Environment Agency built 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) of new sea wall and rock or concrete stepped revetments between 1997 and 1998 and imported 320 @,@ 000 tons of additional sand in 1999 to build a new beach . This beach sits between four rock groynes and has been built at a much higher level than the previous beach so that the waves are broken before they reach the new sea wall . Any waves that do reach the new wall are turned back by its curved shape . The town 's new sea defences were officially opened in 2001 .
Blenheim Gardens , which is Minehead β s largest park , was opened in 1925 . The bandstand within the park is used to host musical events .
Along with the rest of South West England , Minehead has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The annual mean temperature is about 10 Β° C ( 50 Β° F ) with seasonal and diurnal variations , but due to the modifying effect of the sea , the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom . January is the coldest month with mean minimum temperatures between 1 Β° C ( 34 Β° F ) and 2 Β° C ( 36 Β° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region with mean daily maxima around 21 Β° C ( 70 Β° F ) . In general , December is the dullest month and June the sunniest . The south west of England enjoys a favoured location , particularly in summer , when the Azores High extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK .
Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills , and reduces exposure to sunshine . The average annual sunshine totals around 1 @,@ 600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at this time of year . Average rainfall is around 800 β 900 mm ( 31 β 35 in ) . About 8 β 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , with June to August having the lightest . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Landmarks = =
The town 's major tourist attraction is Butlins holiday camp . Others include : the terminus of the West Somerset Railway ; the town 's main ornamental park , Blenheim Gardens , off Blenheim Road ; and the Minehead & West Somerset Golf Club , Somerset 's oldest golf club , established in 1882 , which has an 18 @-@ hole links course . A variety of sailing and wind surfing options are on offer , as well as the usual beach activities . There are many other attractions and amusement arcades and a variety of well @-@ known high street stores such as W H Smith and Boots , together with independent local shops . The town has both a Tesco and a Morrisons supermarket on its outskirts with a new Lidols currently under development .
The South West Coast Path National Trail starts at a marker , erected in Minehead in 2001 , partly paid for by the South West Coast Path Association . The UK 's longest long @-@ distance countryside walking trail , it runs along the South West Coast to Poole in Dorset .
= = Transport = =
The town 's location β sea to the north and Exmoor to the south β means that transport links are limited . Minehead is located on the A39 road .
Local bus services are operated by Webberbus ( seven routes ) , First Somerset & Avon ( three routes ) , and Quantock Motor Services ( two routes ) .
Minehead railway station is close to the beach . The Minehead Railway was opened on 16 July 1874 , linking the town to Taunton and beyond . It was operated by the Bristol and Exeter Railway which was amalgamated into the Great Western Railway in 1876 . The Minehead Railway was itself absorbed into the GWR in 1897 , which in turn was nationalised into British Railways in 1948 . It was closed on 4 January 1971 but has since been reopened as the West Somerset Railway , which is notable for being the longest heritage railway in Britain .
= = Education = =
In Minehead , there are two first schools , one middle school and an upper school , West Somerset Community College , which provides education for 1298 students between the ages of 13 and 18 . In 2006 there was debate about changing West Somerset 's 3 @-@ tier school system to a 2 @-@ tier system to match the rest of Somerset and the majority of education authorities in the UK .
= = Religious sites = =
The Anglican parish church of St. Michael dates from the 15th century and has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building ; its tower used to display a beacon light for ships approaching the harbour . After being caught in a violent storm at sea , Robert Quirke dedicated a ship and its cargo to God 's service , as well as donating a cellar near the quay for prayers to be offered for those at sea . Dating from 1628 and known as the Gibraltar Celler [ sic ] , it is now the Chapel of St Peter . Quirke also donated money from the sale of the ship and its cargo to build almshouses .
St Michael 's parish church contains a number of historical highlights , including an impressive late medieval rood screen and rood stair , and an attractive stained glass window designed by Sir Henry Holiday . The view from the churchyard of the surrounding hills and coastline is breathtaking .
The Church of St Michael the Archangel in Alcombe was built in 1903 as a chapel of ease for the Dunster parish , but in 1953 it became the Parish Church of Alcombe in its own right . St. Andrew 's Church , on Wellington Square in the town , was built of red sandstone in 1877 β 1880 , by George Edmund Street .
Butlins Minehead is the only Butlins resort still to have a small on @-@ site chapel , and over the Easter period the entire resort plays host to an annual Spring Harvest , the largest Christian festival in the UK . The Catholic parish of Minehead covers an area of 200 square miles ( 520 km2 ) and is served by the Sacred Heart Parish Church , built in 1896 , as well as a mass centre in the nearby village of Watchet . There are also religious sites serving the needs of the Baptist , Evangelical , Methodist and United Reformed communities and the Plymouth Brethren .
= = Local economy = =
Minehead has one of the UK 's three remaining Butlins holiday camps , and tourism has been a part of Minehead 's economy since Victorian times . At the height of the season in late July and early August , the town 's population is significantly increased by an influx of tourists .
There is a Farmers ' Market in the Parade every Friday from 8 @.@ 30 am to 2 pm , with a wide range of reasonably priced local produce .
= = Culture = =
The town hosts the annual Minehead and Exmoor Festival , a week @-@ long classical music festival that has been running since 1963 . Richard Dickins has held the post of artistic director for the festival since 1982 .
The wooded bluffs above Minehead feature as the Hermit 's abode " in that wood which slopes down to the sea " , in The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge . The poet lived nearby , at Nether Stowey ( between Bridgwater and Minehead ) . His statue can be seen at the nearby harbour at Watchet . He and Wordsworth ( who lived nearby at Alfoxton House ) would often roam the hills and coast on long night walks ; leading to local gossip that they were ' spies ' for the French . The Government sent an agent to investigate , but found they were , indeed , " mere poets " . Cecil Frances Alexander wrote the popular Anglican hymn All Things Bright And Beautiful in Minehead and in nearby Dunster the verse :
" The purple headed mountain , The river running by , The sunset and the morning , That brightens up the sky ; β " Refers to Grabbist hill and the River Avill that runs near it through the popular tourist location Snowdrop Valley on Exmoor
Minehead was the subject of a parody skit as the fictional target of a takeover in Monty Python 's infamous " Mr. Hilter " sketch , where barely concealed caricatures of Hitler , von Ribbentrop and Heinrich Himmler conspire at a local rooming house . There , the " National Bocialist " party wish to unite Minehead and Taunton in a manner similar to the Anschluss between Germany and Austria in 1938 .
= = = May Day Hobby Horse = = =
One popular ancient local tradition involves the Hobby Horse , or Obby Oss , which takes to the streets on the eve of the first of May each year , with accompanying musicians and rival horses , for four days . In fact there are three rival hobby horses , the Original Sailor 's Horse , the Traditional Sailor 's Horse and the Town Horse . They appear on May Eve ( called " Show Night " ) , on May Day morning ( when they salute the sunrise at a crossroads on the outskirts of town ) , 2 and 3 May ( when a ceremony called " The Bootie " takes place in the evening called " Bootie Night " at part of town called Cher ) . Each horse is made of a boat @-@ shaped wooden frame , pointed and built up at each end , which is carried on the dancer 's shoulders . As at Padstow , his face is hidden by a mask attached to a tall , pointed hat . The top surface of the horse is covered with ribbons and strips of fabric . A long fabric skirt , painted with rows of multicoloured roundels , hangs down to the ground all round . A long tail is attached to the back of the frame . Each horse is accompanied by a small group of musicians and attendants . The Town Horse is accompanied by " Gullivers " , dressed similarly to the horse but without the large frame ; as at Padstow , smaller , children 's horses have sometimes been constructed . The horses ' visits are ( or were ) believed to bring good luck . In the past there was also a similar hobby horse based at the nearby village of Dunster , which would sometimes visit Minehead . The first of May has been a festival day in Minehead since 1465 .
= = Sport and recreation = =
Minehead Barbarians , the town 's rugby club , have been playing together since the 1930s , but the main local football club , Minehead F.C. , is even older , founded in 1889 . In September 2007 , the TWIF European Outdoor Tug of war Championships was held at the football club 's stadium . Minehead Cricket Club , based at the West Somerset Community College in Alcombe , field four men 's teams and one women 's team. there are plans for a swimming pool to be built in the grounds of the West Somerset Community College . There is a bowls club on Irnham Road .
Minehead has on several occasions played host to the Britain 's Strongest Man contest , most recently in 2004 , and since 2006 the Butlins Resort has been one of the venues for the World Wrestling Entertainment 's UK winter tour . In 2010 stage four of the Tour of Britain cycling race started in Minehead .
In April 2010 RadioMinehead.com started to broadcast music , travel news , events guide and general to and for the Minehead community .
The 2011 European Outdoor Tug of War Championships was held within the grounds at Butlin 's Minehead from 22 to 25 September .
Since December 2012 Minehead has hosted the PDC Players Championship Finals .
Minehead also hosts many motorsport events including the Somerset Stages Rally which has been hosted in the area for years . There is also the Enduroland Quad and Motocross Event held in Bratton Woods .
= = Notable residents = =
Richard Chorley ( 1927 β 2002 ) , noted physical geographer , was born and raised in Minehead .
Arthur C. Clarke ( 1917 β 2008 ) , science fiction writer , was born in Minehead .
Peter Hurford ( born 1930 ) , organist and composer , was born in Minehead .
Stephen Mulhern ( born 1977 ) , television presenter , was born in Minehead .
Adam O 'Brian ( born 1989 ) , actor in The Imposter ( 2012 film ) , was raised in Minehead .
Sir Nick Partridge OBE , Chief Executive of The Terrence Higgins Trust , and a key campaigner on HIV and AIDS , lived in the town in the 1970s when his family moved there to run a hotel .
Tim Kevan writer , blogger and barrister , author of the Baby Barista series of books , was raised in Minehead
Danielle Waterman ( born 1984 ) , Member of the England women 's national rugby union team and member of the 2014 Women 's Rugby World Cup winning team , was raised in Minehead
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= Γthelnoth ( archbishop of Canterbury ) =
Γthelnoth ( also Ethelnoth , Ednoth , or Eadnodus ; died 1038 ) was a medieval Archbishop of Canterbury . Descended from an earlier English king , Γthelnoth became a monk prior to becoming archbishop . While archbishop , he travelled to Rome and brought back saint 's relics . He consecrated a number of other bishops who came from outside his archdiocese , leading to some friction with other archbishops . Although he was regarded as a saint after his death , there is little evidence of his veneration or of a cult in Canterbury or elsewhere .
= = Early life = =
Γthelnoth was a son of the ΓthelmΓ¦r the Stout and a grandson of Γthelweard the Historian , who was a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Γthelred I. In the view of the historian Frank Barlow , Γthelnoth was probably the uncle of Godwin of Wessex . He was baptised by Dunstan , and a story was told at Glastonbury Abbey that as the infant was baptised , his hand made a motion much like that an archbishop makes when blessing . From this motion , Dunstan is said to have prophesied that Γthelnoth would become an archbishop .
Γthelnoth became a monk at Glastonbury , then was made dean of the monastery of Christ Church Priory , at Canterbury , the cathedral chapter for the diocese of Canterbury . He was also a chaplain to King Cnut of England and Denmark as well as Dean of Canterbury when on 13 November 1020 Γthelnoth was consecrated as Archbishop of Canterbury . Γthelnoth 's elevation probably was a gesture of appeasement , as Γthelnoth 's brother Γthelweard had been executed in 1017 by Cnut , who also banished a brother @-@ in @-@ law named Γthelweard in 1020 . A later story stated that Cnut favoured Γthelnoth because Γthelnoth had bestowed chrism on the king . This may be a garbled account of Γthelnoth 's participation in Cnut 's confirmation as a Christian in 1016 or his coronation in 1017 . There are some indications that he was a student of Γlfric of Eynsham , the homilist .
= = Archbishop of Canterbury = =
In 1022 Γthelnoth went to Rome to obtain the pallium , and was received by Pope Benedict VIII . On his return trip , he bought a relic of St Augustine of Hippo for 100 silver talents and one gold talent . He gave the relic to Coventry Abbey . He also presided over the translation of the relics of Γlfheah , his predecessor at Canterbury who was regarded as a martyr and saint . In 1022 Γthelnoth consecrated Gerbrand as bishop for the Diocese of Roskilde , which was in Scandinavia . The archbishop of Hamburg @-@ Bremen was the metropolitan of Roskilde , and the fact that Gerbrand was consecrated by an English archbishop later caused friction between the bishop and his metropolitan . Cnut was forced to concede that in the future he would not appoint bishops in Bremen 's archdiocese without the metropolitan 's advice . A later tradition held that Γthelnoth consecrated two Welsh bishops , one at Llandaff and one at St. David 's .
The medieval chronicler William of Malmesbury praised Γthelnoth 's wisdom . A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he refused to crown King Harold Harefoot , as he had promised Cnut to crown none but a son of the king by his wife , Emma .
= = Death and legacy = =
Γthelnoth died in 1038 , on either 28 October , 29 October , 30 October , or 1 November . Prior to his death , some of his episcopal functions were performed by a royal priest , Eadsige . He was buried in Canterbury Cathedral . He is considered a saint , with a feast day of 30 October . While he is listed in Jean Mabillon 's Lives of the Benedictine Saints and in the Acta Sanctorum , there is no contemporary or later evidence of a cult being paid to him at Canterbury or elsewhere .
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= John Hirst ( historian ) =
John Bradley Hirst FASSA ( 9 July 1942 β 3 February 2016 ) was an Australian historian and commentator . He has been described as an " historian , public intellectual , and active citizen " . Born in Adelaide , Hirst attended Unley High School and undertook his undergraduate and postgraduate study at the University of Adelaide . Abandoning an early desire to become a Methodist Minister , in 1968 he was appointed a lecturer at Melbourne 's new La Trobe University , where he remained until the end of his career . His wife and fellow @-@ student Christine accompanied him to Melbourne . They had two children , Catherine and David . Hirst was subsequently head of department and Reader in History at La Trobe . He retired in 2006 , and was an Emeritus Scholar at La Trobe until his death . Hirst had a distinguished career " in teaching , supervision and research . He developed new subjects and methodologies to teach them . In addition to those concerning Australian history there was his pioneering subject designed to inform students about Australia 's European cultural heritage . " This work was published as The Shortest History of Europe and has been translated into nine languages ( Swedish , Greek , Chinese , Spanish , German , Portuguese , Russian , Turkish and Korean ) . Hirst was seconded to the University of Melbourne to edit Historical Studies , Australia 's leading historical journal , from 1977 to 1980 . In retirement , he travelled regularly to Sydney to instruct , without remuneration , groups of post @-@ graduate students in thesis writing .
= = Academic contribution = =
Hirst produced a large number of important articles , chapters and books on Australian history . His academic interests were wide @-@ ranging , including social , cultural and political history . Hirst 's goal was to elucidate the qualities and characteristics of Australian society and how they had developed . Jeremy Sammut has described him as " an elegant and outstanding stylist , as adept at clarifying complex issues by reducing them to their essentials as he was at crafting the pithy line that eliminated all doubt his interpretation was true and correct " . In his historical work , Hirst 's colleague at La Trobe University , Alan Frost , has noted that Hirst " challenged orthodoxies and produced many new insights " . He wrote two seminal books on colonial New South Wales which Frank Bongiorno has described as displaying " a raw intellectual power " : Convict Society and its Enemies ( 1983 ) and The Strange Birth of Colonial Democracy ( 1988 ) ( both reprinted as Freedom on the Fatal Shore in 2008 ) . Convict Society and its Enemies was particularly influential , arguing that rather than being a brutal slave society , early New South Wales was a place where rights and freedoms were well @-@ established from the beginning . Hirst 's study of Federation , The Sentimental Nation , was also a ground @-@ breaking work , arguing that national sentiment was more important than economics in uniting the nation . Alan Frost has described Hirst 's shorter analyses as notable : " Distance in Australia : Was It a Tyrant ? " ( 1975 ) , his response to Geoffrey Blainey 's most famous concept , " deserves much more attention than it now receives " ; his " Egalitarianism " ( 1986 ) challenges " received wisdom about colonial life " . Many of his best shorter pieces were collected in Sense and Nonsense in Australian History ( 2009 ) . A major achievement of Hirst 's was a project to index the Melbourne Argus newspaper ( 1860 β 1909 ) .
= = Public intellectual = =
Frank Bongiorno described Hirst as a " creative historian capable of engaging a wide audience , as well as a public intellectual who delighted , infuriated and provoked " . He contributed many influential opinion pieces and commentaries to leading Australian newspapers and journals . Jeremy Sammut has noted that Hirst was motivated by an independent mind and a distaste for unthinking conformity . He " defied simplistic categorisation as a partisan because his politics were idiosyncratic " . Hirst described himself as an old @-@ fashioned social democrat . To read Hirst is not to encounter a reactionary but " to be delighted as he marshals facts , logic and evidence with unarguable skill and precision to establish the heterodox case , while conveying powerful insights into whatever historical experience or process is discussed " . A common theme in the obituaries cited is that Hirst was fearlessly honest , whatever the subject . As Sammut has noted , he was inspired by a commitment to " the rigorous pursuit of historical truth that drove him to explore the deeper patterns and meanings of the past , and the contemporary implications , that others had missed or misled us about " .
= = Public appointments = =
Never an ivory tower academic , Hirst held a number of influential appointments during the course of his career . He was a member of the Prime Minister 's Republic Advisory Committee , the chair of the Commonwealth Civics Education Group , a member of the Film Australia Board , a council member of the National Museum of Australia , and a member of the board of Old Parliament House in Canberra . He wrote the official history of Australia for new citizens and took a prominent part in the history summit convened by Prime Minister John Howard in 2006 . Hirst advised the Victorian Government on the school history curriculum and was history adviser to the National Curriculum Authority . He was elected to the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia in 1986 . A committed republican , Hirst was the Convenor of the Republican Movement in Victoria .
Hirst died on 3 February 2016 at the age of 73 .
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= Three Words ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Three Words " is the sixteenth episode of the eighth season ( and the 177th episode overall ) of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files and first aired in the United States and Canada on April 8 , 2001 , on Fox . It was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Tony Wharmby . The episode explores the series ' overarching mythology and earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 6 and was viewed by 7 @.@ 77 million households , receiving mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder secretly conducts his own investigation after a man is gunned down on the White House lawn attempting to inform the President of a planned alien invasion . However , he is soon in over his head as he tries to expose further evidence of colonization .
The episode was written as a way to signal Mulder 's exit from the FBI . The producers and writers felt that , if Mulder 's character was given a clean exit , the show could more easily focus on the characters of John Doggett and Monica Reyes in the following season . Former series star and recurring actor David Duchovny later declared that he had been happy to see his character depart in this manner .
= = Plot = =
Under the cover of darkness an unidentified man jumps over the fence to the White House and is intercepted by Secret Service personnel . As he struggles with them , he pulls a gun and accidentally shoots himself . Bleeding on the ground , the man hands over a computer disk , begging them to give it to the president . Three words are written on the disk : " FIGHT THE FUTURE " .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) remembers his experiences on the alien ship as he touches the scars on his face and chest . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) enters with Dr. Lim and they give him surprisingly good news : The neurological condition that was killing him , before his disappearance , is gone and he is in perfect health . Mulder returns to his apartment with Scully and he congratulates her on the pregnancy she had sought for a long time . Meanwhile , in prison , an inmate librarian gives Absalom β the former leader of a doomsday UFO " group " last seen in " DeadAlive " β a book about the apocalypse . Hidden inside is a newspaper article about the man who jumped the fence . Absalom later escapes during a work detail by attacking a guard with a board with a nail in it .
At FBI headquarters , Deputy Director Alvin Kersh calls John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) into his office . He informs them that Mulder has applied for reinstatement to the X @-@ Files . He intends to deny the request , claiming a higher percentage of success with Doggett . Kersh ignores Doggett and Skinner 's defenses of Mulder , perceiving him to be a crusader unfit for proper Bureau work .
Agent Doggett returns home after work and finds Absalom waiting for him with a gun . Absalom demands Doggett show the back of his neck to confirm that Doggett is still himself . He tells Doggett that the man killed at the White House , Howard Salt , died for what he knew about an alien invasion . Absalom duct tapes his gun to Doggett 's back in a plan to get Salt 's information with Doggett used as a hostage . The two attempt to sneak into the census bureau 's database ; Absalom claims that the census bureau had data which showed the aliens were already here . Unfortunately , the plan fails because of an X @-@ Ray scanner detecting the gun . Security shoots Absalom through the head despite his use of Doggett as a body shield .
While debriefing with Skinner , Mulder enters Skinner 's office and accuses Doggett of deliberately attempting to cover up the truth by setting up Absalom to be killed , an accusation to which Doggett takes great offense . Doggett later meets with his liaison , Knowle Rohrer , who reveals the password to the statistics bureau is " Fight the Future . "
Scully , on Doggett 's request , tells Mulder that the disk was labeled β Fight the Future . β Mulder realizes that this is the password for the network and attempts to break into the census bureau . Mulder slips into the Center with the help of The Lone Gunmen and begins searching the data on the computers . Doggett soon arrives , realizing that the password leak was a trap . After a bitter argument ( and upon both Scully and the Gunmen revealing to Mulder the arrival of black ops mercenaries on the scene ) , they leave before security arrives .
John Doggett confronts Rohrer about the tip he gave but Rohrer claims he was just trying to help Doggett learn the truth . As Doggett and Skinner leave , it can be seen that Rohrer has strange protrusions at the back of his neck .
= = Production = =
" Three Words " was written by executive producers Chris Carter and Frank Spotnitz , directed by Tony Wharmby and saw Nelson Mashita reprise his role of Doctor Lim , having appeared in the previous episode " Deadalive " . Judson Scott also made his third appearance in the series as cult leader Absalom , reprising the role from both " Deadalive " and " This Is Not Happening " . The baseball field scene was filmed at Cheviot Hills Park , in Los Angeles , the park having previously been used in the sixth season episode " The Unnatural " and would be later re @-@ used in the ninth season episode " Lord of the Flies " .
In the episode , Mulder prepares to submit his application to be reassigned to X @-@ Files division . Meanwhile , Mulder 's boss , Deputy Director Kersh , informs Doggett that he intends to deny the request . As season eight was nearly over , the producers and writers decided to refuse Mulder re @-@ admittance into the FBI as a way to segue John Doggett and Monica Reyes into the series as the new main stars of season nine . David Duchovny agreed with this method , noting , " I completely thought it was correct that they should be trying to focus elsewhere , and that , since I was going to come back for the second half of season eight , if you were to refocus on whatever Mulder 's up to , you 'd be in the same lousy situation at the beginning of season nine . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode first aired on Fox on April 8 , 2001 , earning a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 6 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 6 % of the nation 's estimated households . " Three Words " was viewed by 7 @.@ 77 million households and ranked as the 32nd most @-@ watched episode for the week ending April 8 . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Who will control the X @-@ Files ? " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 β Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
" Three Words " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five , calling it " extremely well @-@ performed by all concerned . " Shearman and Pearson felt that the episode was similar to the earlier " Per Manum " and was somewhat formulaic ; however , they noted that this was a necessary and positive step towards redefining the series after the changes made in its last two seasons explaining " the point of all this is only to emphasise how different The X @-@ Files universe now feels , the familiarity of the ingredients only making us more aware that the mix is never going to be the same again " . Writing for Television Without Pity , Jessica Morgan rated the episode a " B " , although she felt that by this stage the series ' mythology was moving " in concentric circles of pain and confusion " .
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and wrote that the episode , " finds Duchovny back on his feet and ready for action , and he brings a new energy to the part . " He enjoyed the way the show presented the story as one wherein , " we spend as much time watching Mulder from the outside as we do seeing events from his perspective , " because it " makes things interesting . " Handlen also wrote that while the episode did not hit the emotional notes that its predecessor , " Deadalive " , did , it was nonetheless " stronger plotwise " and built to an " inevitable conclusion in classic X @-@ Files style " .
Not all reviews were positive ; Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a mixed review , writing , " This was an episode that had tremendous promise and Carter and Spotnitz almost got it right . Sadly , they failed to invest themselves fully and intelligently into Mulder 's return . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris wrote that , despite opening " with tremendously affecting acting from [ David ] Duchovny " , the episode lapses into " a lost opportunity to explore the psyche of a person who has suffered torture " .
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= Tahirih Justice Center =
The Tahirih Justice Center , known simply as Tahirih , is a United States @-@ based non @-@ governmental organization ( NGO ) that provides pro bono direct legal services and social and medical service referrals to immigrant women and girls who are fleeing from gender @-@ based violence and persecution . Tahirih helps women who are attempting to escape from such abuse as female genital cutting , domestic violence , human trafficking , torture and rape . The organization also conducts public policy initiatives designed to achieve legislative change for women fleeing from human rights abuses , to highlight problems faced by immigrant women in the United States , and to end the possible exploitation of mail @-@ order brides by international marriage brokers . In 2007 , the Tahirih Justice Center won The Washington Post Award for Excellence in Nonprofit Management . In 2012 , Tahirih 's executive director won the Diane Von Furstenberg Choice Award .
Layli Miller @-@ Muro founded the Tahirih Justice Center in 1997 following a well @-@ publicized asylum case in which she was involved as a student attorney . Miller @-@ Muro later co @-@ wrote a book with the client she had aided and used her portion of the proceeds for the initial funding of Tahirih . As of 2012 , the organization had assisted more than 13 @,@ 000 women and children fleeing from a wide variety of abuses . The organization played a significant role in the passage of the International Marriage Broker Regulation Act ( IMBRA ) , which was signed by President Bush in early 2006 and incorporated into the Violence Against Women Act ( VAWA ) . IMBRA gives foreign women important information about prospective American husbands ( for a summary , see also Mail @-@ order bride , Legal issues ) .
The organization is named after TΓ‘hirih , an influential female poet and theologian in 19th @-@ century Persia who campaigned for women 's rights . Tahirih is a BahΓ‘ 'Γ @-@ inspired organization , although its clients and employees vary widely in ethnicity , religious identification , and nationality .
= = History = =
The Tahirih Justice Center opened in September 1997 and has become one of the most prominent organizations in the United States for women seeking justice from human rights abuses . Tahirih continually expanded its number of annual clients and hired more employees as the demand for its services grew in the late 1990s and into the next decade .
= = = Beginning = = =
Fauziya Kassindja was a Togolese teenager who fled her native land in 1994 to escape from a forced polygamous marriage and a tribal practice of female genital cutting . She went through Ghana and Germany before arriving at Newark Liberty International Airport in New Jersey , where she was detained and incarcerated by INS officials . She spent the next year and a half in various prisons throughout the Eastern United States while her legal team attempted to obtain asylum for her . In a case that made history in immigration law , she was finally granted asylum in June 1996 by the Board of Immigration Appeals . Gender @-@ based violence had been established as grounds for seeking asylum in the U.S.
Miller @-@ Muro had been a student attorney in Fauziya 's case and the two became strong friends . The successful outcome led her to co @-@ author with Ms. Kassindja the book Do they hear you when you cry ? ( 1998 ) , about the latter 's case and life . After Miller @-@ Muro discovered that few organizations offered legal assistance to women seeking asylum or refugee status in the Washington , D.C. area , she founded the Tahirih Justice Center in 1997 to build on the accomplishments of Matter of Kasinga and to provide extensive legal coverage of immigrant women and girls fleeing to the U.S. from gender @-@ based violence .
= = = Growth = = =
Tahirih 's creation and growth was fueled by the widespread abuses suffered by women and girls around the world and the limited resources available to them when seeking protection in the United States . According to the United Nations , two million women undergo female genital cutting in Africa every year . A recent CIA report estimated that between 45 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 women and children are brought to the U.S. every year under false pretenses and are forced to work as prostitutes , abused laborers or servants . UNICEF estimates that more than 200 @,@ 000 children are enslaved by cross @-@ border smuggling in West and Central Africa . Although Tahirih can only provide immediate assistance to immigrant women and girls that are already within U.S. borders , its cases are representative of the types of violence from which women and girls are fleeing . The organization grew consistently over the years : in 2001 , it helped a total of 618 people . In 2011 , Tahirih helped 1 @,@ 051 people .
The continual success of competent legal representation prompted Tahirih 's enlargement . The last publicly reported rate of approval for asylum applications in the U.S. before 2001 was 23 @.@ 3 % . Applications written by the Tahirih Justice Center had a 99 % success rate , a figure it continues to maintain . The organization hired its first paid staff in August 1998 and had expanded to 36 employees by 2010 . The organizational structure has grown and Tahirih has expanded nationally , adding an office in Houston , TX in 2009 and one in Baltimore , MD in 2010 , all while assisting more than 13 @,@ 000 people since opening its doors . Tahirih clients come from five continents β North America , South America , Europe , Africa , and Asia , and from nations such as Mexico , Argentina , Algeria , Mongolia , Turkey , South Africa , Iran , and Syria .
= = Goals and organization = =
The Tahirih Justice Center is " founded on the belief that the achievement of full equality between women and men is necessary for society to progress . "
As part of this mission , the organization litigates in gender @-@ based asylum , gender @-@ based persecution , and domestic violence cases . The organization has urged what it believes are repressive , negligent or dismissive governments throughout the world to take responsibility for acts of gender @-@ based violence and persecution by providing victims with shelters and ensuring prompt , responsive police forces , all while doing more to eliminate overt and harmful policies designed to suppress and incite fear among women .
The Tahirih Justice Center is governed by a 16 @-@ member Board of Directors that oversees the organization 's functions . Each board member serves a two @-@ year term and has the option to remain for an indefinite number of terms if repeatedly elected . Board members are individuals usually concerned or involved with issues pertinent to Tahirih . A 17 @-@ member Board of Advisors , composed of lawyers , judges , and human rights activists , helps the organization by making recommendations .
= = Strategy and programs = =
To fulfill its objectives , the Tahirih Justice Center is involved in legal services , fundraising , public policy advocacy , and reaches out to other international groups and organizations .
= = = Legal services = = =
Tahirih conducts a wide array of legal services to help its clients . The Pro Bono Network , a network of pro bono attorneys and referral resources for clients , is the largest and most important . In 2010 , Tahirih received US $ 6 @,@ 813 @,@ 094 in donated professional services , including from pro bono lawyers representing Tahirih clients . In 2010 , 77 % of Tahirih 's income came from donated professional services with slightly more than 23 % from grants , corporations , and individuals . The program offers individual and group training for pro bono attorneys , and connects clients with other community resources such as peer support groups , medical and mental health services , housing , and public benefits . The Pro Bono Network allows staff to engage in educational initiatives to immigrant community groups , social service programs , and legal service providers . These are designed to highlight Tahirih 's services and the special rights and needs of immigrant women and girls fleeing violence .
The organization aids clients holistically , trying to connect women with community resources that may improve the quality of their lives in addition to dealing with their legal problems . Tahirih 's referral programs direct women to literacy programs , English language instruction , day care , and job skills training . Tahirih maintains a core of medical volunteers who evaluate the conditions of clients to support their legal claims and assists clients in accessing psychological counseling in the United States .
= = = Fundraising = = =
The Tahirih Justice Center holds the Annual Fundraising Benefit to highlight its accomplishments over the year and promote its issues by having former clients share their stories . The Benefit features speakers closely associated with Tahirih issues and awards to recognize important and groundbreaking work in helping women fleeing from gender @-@ based violence . For the 2005 Annual Benefit , Queen Noor of Jordan was the keynote speaker . The Center founded the Washington Lawyers ' Network ( WLN ) to mobilize and sustain a philanthropic network of Washington @-@ area attorneys that promote awareness and provide funding for Tahirih . In 2003 , Tahirih raised over $ 12 @,@ 000 through WLN fundraising events and membership drives . However , the vast majority of the organization 's revenue comes from non @-@ fundraising sources .
= = = Public policy advocacy = = =
The Tahirih Justice Center conducts national and regional advocacy campaigns to educate the public and law enforcement institutions about the threats faced by immigrant women and girls who do not have easy access to legal services . Tahirih employees have given presentations in universities and public forums throughout the United States on issues ranging from the equality of men and women in religious traditions to gender @-@ based violence and persecution . Tahirih has set focused primarily on four public policy areas over the past decade : ( 1 ) Forced Marriage Initiative ; ( 2 ) Campaign to Prevent Abuse and Exploitation through the International Marriage Broker Industry ; ( 3 ) Protecting and Promoting the Rights of Immigrant Survivors of Crime ; and ( 4 ) Protecting and Promoting Access to Asylum for Women and Girls Fleeing Gender @-@ Based Persecution .
Tahirih has highlighted the possible dangers of recent , post @-@ 9 / 11 Congressional initiatives to enforce federal civil immigration law that may make immigrant women reluctant to report crime to authorities for fear of deportation . Specifically , Tahirih is concerned that the deputization of state and local police as immigration agents by the Clear Law Enforcement for Criminal Alien Removal ( CLEAR ) and Homeland Security Enhancement Acts would increase the barriers some women face to reach safety . After the CLEAR Act was reintroduced in June 2005 , Tahirih spearheaded a sign @-@ on letter to Congress from nearly 100 organizations that advocate for immigrant survivors of domestic violence , sexual assault , human trafficking , and other crimes . Tahirih works with other non @-@ governmental organizations like Amnesty International to promote its issues and advocate on legislative agenda .
One of Tahirih 's largest and most successful public policy initiatives has been the Campaign to End the Exploitation and Abuse of Women by International Marriage Brokers . A 2003 Tahirih survey of 175 legal service providers revealed that more than 50 % were serving or had served women who met their spouses through a broker . Tahirih joined other like @-@ minded organizations in this campaign and led a four @-@ year effort that culminated in the passage of the International Marriage Broker Regulation Act of 2005 ( IMBRA ) when it was attached to the bill that reauthorized VAWA . IMBRA provides foreign women with important information about their prospective American husbands , such as whether the men have violent criminal histories . The law mandates that foreign women know the rights and resources available to domestic violence victims in the United States . Through this law , foreign women who marry American men will be given critical tools to protect themselves and their children from domestic violence .
= = Issues = =
The Tahirih Justice Center deals with a number of human rights issues related to women and girls . The organization focuses on cases that fall within the scope of its mission and goals . In particular , accepted requests must involve the protection of women from persecution , although men may be eligible for assistance to protect their female family members from abuse . Women who wish to receive Tahirih 's services free of charge must demonstrate that they are not able to afford to pay for such services . When requests for assistance fall outside Tahirih 's scope , staff members attempt to locate other legal service providers who can offer the prospective client assistance .
= = = Domestic violence and genital mutilation = = =
Women who come to the United States with immigrant husbands or who marry American citizens once they are in the country are vulnerable to domestic violence because of their unfamiliarity with legal rights in the United States . Many Tahirih clients are women who have suffered from domestic violence and whose cases can be covered under VAWA . VAWA allows immigrants who can prove they have been victims of domestic abuse and would otherwise be able to gain legal status the ability to self @-@ petition for a green card . Tahirih attempts to help these women by making them lawful permanent residents independent of their husbands . Tahirih has initiated the Battered Immigrant Women Advocacy Project to advocate before the INS and immigration courts on behalf of battered immigrant women seeking lawful permanent residence .
The Tahirih Justice Center considers female genital cutting , which " comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or other non @-@ therapeutic reasons , " a violation of human rights . The Tahirih Justice Center 's pioneering work in gender @-@ based asylum law attempts to find protection for women fleeing from the practice to the United States . Tahirih staff have received media requests to comment on matters surrounding the issue , and the organization frequently publicizes the issue in annual reports , brochures , and other informational material .
= = = " Mail @-@ order " brides = = =
In recent years , the organization has worked to protect women from abroad who are unfamiliar with the English language and the U.S. legal system from abusive marital relationships that have been arranged by international marriage brokers . The international marriage broker industry has grown in response to a demand by American men , some of whom turn out to be sexual predators , for traditional wives from countries such as the Philippines , Russia , and Ukraine . Tahirih 's Campaign to Prevent Abuse and Exploitation through the International Marriage Broker Industry advocates for the accountability of marriage agencies , seeks legislative change , and engages in litigation and public outreach to protect women from abuse . The Tahirih Justice Center was instrumental in Washington , D.C. law firm Arnold & Porter 's successful fraud lawsuit against international marriage broker Encounters International on behalf of Nataliya Fox . The Tahirih Justice Center helped draft the International Marriage and Broker Regulation Act ( IMBRA ) and continues to work with other human rights organizations to ensure its implementation .
= = = Trafficking of women = = =
The Tahirih Justice Center works within the legal confines established by Congress to ensure the safety of women and girls who are trafficked , defined as " the recruitment , harboring , transportation , provision , or obtaining of a person for labor or services , through the use of force , fraud or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude , peonage , debt bondage , or slavery " to the U.S. The organization has pushed for legislation and regulations to protect and assist trafficking victims , such as the Trafficking Victims Protection Act ( TVPA ) and the Women Immigrants Safe Harbor Act ( WISH ) . Partly through Tahirih 's efforts , in the 2005 fiscal year , the United States Department of Homeland Security issued 112 T @-@ visas to foreign survivors of human trafficking identified in the United States .
= = Controversy = =
Criticism of the Tahirih Justice Center and other like @-@ minded organizations often involves the manner in which they portray information . In particular , Tahirih 's work against international marriage brokers , especially its leading role in supporting IMBRA , has drawn castigation from some who believe American males are being characterized in an unfairly negative light . International marriage broker agencies cite the alleged low levels of divorce among their clients , compared with the American national average , as proof of success . Tahirih counters that many of the men who use these brokers are repeat abusers looking for their next victim . Tahirih claims that international marriage brokers market and advertise mostly to men who are potentially dangerous . Miller @-@ Muro , Tahirih 's Executive Director , stated that " The agencies have a financial incentive to ensure the satisfaction of their paying clients β the men β but there is no comparable incentive to safeguard the woman . "
Scholars are worried about the mental images and conceptions that the general public forms about the origins of practices that Tahirih condemns . When describing the Matter of Kasinga and the associated media attention , historian Charles Piot was concerned about the perpetration of possibly negative and racist stereotypes about Africa . In an analysis of several New York Times articles about the case , Piot called the " evocation of images of the immutable nature of patriarchal tradition " in Africa " extraordinary . " Tahirih argues that several cultural practices throughout the world have adverse health effects that often go unnoticed because of poor education among the local community . Tahirih posits that many of the subjects who undergo practices such as female genital cutting are uninformed about the potential pain and other consequences that result from the procedure . Since Tahirih views these issues as ones relating to human rights , it believes in the protection of individuals who may experience these acts .
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= Dangerously in Love 2 =
" Dangerously in Love 2 " is a song written and produced by BeyoncΓ© and Errol McCalla , Jr . The ballad was first recorded by Destiny 's Child for their third studio album Survivor ( 2001 ) , under the title " Dangerously in Love " . The song later became the title track to BeyoncΓ© 's debut album with some minor adjustments instrumentally . " Dangerously in Love 2 " is an R & B and soul ballad , the lyrics of which detail romantic obsession .
" Dangerously in Love 2 " received generally positive response from music critics , who wrote that the song effectively shows the vocal capabilities of BeyoncΓ© . It won a Grammy Award for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards . Though not released as a single , " Dangerously in Love 2 " charted at number 57 the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and at number 17 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . BeyoncΓ© performed the ballad at the 46th Grammy Awards , the Verizon Ladies First Tour , the Dangerously in Love Tour , The BeyoncΓ© Experience and the I Am ... Tour . BeyoncΓ© has earned a number of positive reviews for her live performances of the song on her tours .
= = Background and composition = =
" Dangerously in Love " was written and produced by BeyoncΓ© and Errol McCalla , Jr . It was recorded for the Destiny 's Child album , Survivor ( 2001 ) . BeyoncΓ© re @-@ recorded the song at the SugarHill Studios in Houston , Texas in 2002 for her debut solo album , Dangerously in Love . Her version , which was titled " Dangerously in Love 2 " , features a modified arrangement . It was set as a remix track , but later became the title track to her debut studio album .
" Dangerously in Love 2 " is a moderate R & B , soul and quiet storm ballad pacing in medium time . It was written in the key of F major , and moves at a moderate tempo set at 100 beats per minute . Vocal elements of the song range from E3 to D5 . " Dangerously in Love " is backed by piano and thumping drum instrumentation . Many music critics noted it to be musically similar to the original Destiny 's child version . Lyrically , the song is about being romantically obsessed , as indicated in the chorus : " I am in love with you / You set me free / I can 't do this thing called life without you here with me " . According to Lisa Verrico of The Times , " Dangerously in Love 2 " bears resemblance to Janet Jackson 's work if viewed from a " flirty " perspective .
= = Reception = =
" Dangerously in Love 2 " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Natalie Nichols of Los Angeles Times stated that the song is just one of many wailing ballads designed to demonstrate " the soulful bleating of Beyonce , the centerpiece of R & B star trio Destiny 's Child . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave a mixed review of the song , stating that it seemed a bit dated and that it was " a near @-@ carbon copy of Survivor β s melodramatic ' Dangerously in Love ' [ that ] is completely superfluous . " While covering the 2004 reunion of Destiny 's Child , Jet Magazine considered the song a major hit of BeyoncΓ© 's debut album . In an article from Teen Ink , the song was noted as one of the top " lush ballads " of the album . " Dangerously in Love 2 " won in the category Best Female R & B Vocal Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2004 .
BeyoncΓ© 's version charted on a few Billboard component charts . " Dangerously in Love 2 " made its first chart appearance on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number 73 on July 3 , 2004 . For the following seven weeks , the song kept on charting in the lower positions of the chart , until it was titled as the greatest gainer on the chart issue dated August 21 , 2004 , ascending 28 places from number 71 to number 43 . Its entry on the US Radio Songs chart at number 75 , prompted its debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 issue dated September 18 , 2004 at number 76 . " Dangerously in Love 2 " was propelled to number 60 on the Hot 100 chart the following week as it made the largest chart move on the Radio Songs chart by ascending to number 59 . The song peaked at number 17 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart on September 25 , 2004 , and at number 57 US Billboard Hot 100 on October 2 , 2004 . On June 14 , 2006 , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( 2006 ) for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 ringtones . As at October 6 , 2010 , " Dangerously in Love 2 " had sold around 130 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States .
= = Live performances = =
Destiny 's Child performed " Dangerously in Love " live for the first time at the Pepsi Arena in Albany , New York in 2001 . The performance was also part of the setlist for their World Tour . BeyoncΓ© also famously performed the song at the 2004 Grammy Awards on February 8 , 2004 , where it won in the category of Best Female R & B Vocal Performance . BeyoncΓ© was wearing a long , glittery turquoise and silver dress . She positioned herself between the edges of a giant picture frame and sung " Dangerously in Love 2 " as if she were in a living oil painting . She was joined by seventeen backup singers , musicians and dancers . At the end , she held out her hand and a dove landed in her outstretched palm . Jon Wiederhorn of MTV News commented that the performance was " nothing short of extravagant . "
BeyoncΓ© also added the song to the track @-@ listing of her first solo @-@ tour Dangerously in Love Tour , notably at Wembley Arena in London , United Kingdom . There she performed a special rendition of the song that came in at well over 8 @-@ minutes . During the Verizon Ladies First Tour which also featured Alicia Keys , Missy Elliott and Tamia , BeyoncΓ© performed " Dangerously in Love 2 " in New York in front of more than 20 @,@ 000 fans . Before starting her performance , she asked the audience whether they have ever fell in love . As she started to sing , more dancers joined in on smaller and circular platforms . Simultaneously , fire shot from the floor and a long , rectangular screen merged video of flames with images of the performers , seemingly setting them on fire . Shaheem Reid of MTV News complimented the performance writing : " [ BeyoncΓ© ] had New Yorkers cheering like the Yankees had just won the World Series when she perfectly hit the high note toward the end of ' Dangerously in Love 2 ' . "
On August 5 , 2007 , BeyoncΓ© performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan . While singing , BeyoncΓ© was accompanied by her all @-@ female band , and she incorporated Jill Scott 's " He Loves Me " in " Dangerously in Love 2 " . Shaheem Reid of MTV News praised the performance , writing : " For all the dancing she did , BeyoncΓ© got an equally big β if not more resounding β response for displaying her undeniable vocal ability on the ballads [ ... ] ' Dangerously in Love ' . " Another review from PopEater stated : " BeyoncΓ© Knowles transforms into an open book of emotion , sensuality , physics @-@ defying dance moves and goosebump @-@ inducing vocals . [ ... ] she showed us that even her ballads could be over @-@ the @-@ top and her voice had enough star power even when it wasn β t complemented by her gyrating hips . "
BeyoncΓ© additionally performed the song on a number of other occasions , including the song as part of her set list on The BeyoncΓ© Experience in Los Angeles and I Am ... Tour during the first stops in the beginning of the tour . In Los Angeles , BeyoncΓ© gave a full @-@ length performance of the song , dressed in a long sequent number that flowed straight down to her feet . It was executed with several female and male backup dancers , and live instrumentation . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , stating : " BeyoncΓ© needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes [ ... ] " . Although the song was performed on selected dates of the I Am ... Tour , it was not included on the physical release of the tour on DVD / CD . The song was also performed during the I Am ... Yours 2009 Las Vegas revue show , in a medley that included an acoustic version of " Sweet Dreams " and a cover of Anita Baker 's song " Sweet Love " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from Dangerously in Love liner notes .
Vocals : BeyoncΓ© Knowles
Writing : BeyoncΓ© Knowles , Errol McCalla Jr .
Vocal Engineer : Brian Springer
Mix engineer : Dexter Simmons
Guitars : Dan Workman
Additional Guitars : John " Jab " Broussard
Instrument Engineer : Dan Workman
Producing : BeyoncΓ© Knowles , Errol " Poppi " McCalla Jr .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Flight feather =
Flight feathers ( Pennae volatus ) are the long , stiff , asymmetrically shaped , but symmetrically paired pennaceous feathers on the wings or tail of a bird ; those on the wings are called remiges ( singular remex ) while those on the tail are called rectrices ( singular rectrix ) . The primary function of the flight feathers is to aid in the generation of both thrust and lift , thereby enabling flight . The flight feathers of some birds have evolved to perform additional functions , generally associated with territorial displays , courtship rituals or feeding methods . In some species , these feathers have developed into long showy plumes used in visual courtship displays , while in others they create a sound during display flights . Tiny serrations on the leading edge of their remiges help owls to fly silently ( and therefore hunt more successfully ) , while the extra @-@ stiff rectrices of woodpeckers help them to brace against tree trunks as they hammer . Even flightless birds still retain flight feathers , though sometimes in radically modified forms .
The moult of their flight feathers can cause serious problems for birds , as it can impair their ability to fly . Different species have evolved different strategies for coping with this , ranging from dropping all their flight feathers at once ( and thus becoming flightless for some relatively short period of time ) to extending the moult over a period of several years .
= = Remiges = =
Remiges ( from the Latin for " oarsman " ) are located on the posterior side of the wing . Ligaments attach the long calami ( quills ) firmly to the wing bones , and a thick , strong band of tendinous tissue known as the postpatagium helps to hold and support the remiges in place . Corresponding remiges on individual birds are symmetrical between the two wings , matching to a large extent in size and shape ( except in the case of mutation or damage ) , though not necessarily in pattern . They are given different names depending on their position along the wing .
= = = Primaries = = =
Primaries are connected to the manus ( the bird 's " hand " , composed of carpometacarpus and phalanges ) ; these are the longest and narrowest of the remiges ( particularly those attached to the phalanges ) , and they can be individually rotated . These feathers are especially important for flapping flight , as they are the principal source of thrust , moving the bird forward through the air . Most thrust is generated on the downstroke of flapping flight . However , on the upstroke ( when the bird often draws its wing in close to its body ) , the primaries are separated and rotated , reducing air resistance while still helping to provide some thrust . The flexibility of the remiges on the wingtips of large soaring birds also allows for the spreading of those feathers , which helps to reduce the creation of wingtip vortices , thereby reducing drag . The barbules on these feathers , friction barbules , are specialized with large lobular barbicels that help grip and prevent slippage of overlying feathers and are present in most of the flying birds .
Species vary somewhat in the number of primaries they possess . The number in non @-@ passerines generally varies between 9 and 11 , but grebes , storks and flamingos have 12 , and ostriches have 16 . While most modern passerines have ten primaries , some have only nine . Those with nine are missing the most distal primary ( sometimes called the remicle ) which is typically very small and sometimes rudimentary in passerines .
The outermost primaries β those connected to the phalanges β are sometimes known as pinions .
= = = Secondaries = = =
Secondaries are connected to the ulna . In some species , the ligaments that bind these remiges to the bone connect to small , rounded projections , known as quill knobs , on the ulna ; in other species , no such knobs exist . Secondary feathers remain close together in flight ( they cannot be individually separated like the primaries can ) and help to provide lift by creating the airfoil shape of the bird 's wing . Secondaries tend to be shorter and broader than primaries , with blunter ends ( see illustration ) . They vary in number from 6 in hummingbirds to as many as 40 in some species of albatross . In general , larger and longer @-@ winged species have a larger number of secondaries . Birds in more than 40 non @-@ passerine families seem to be missing the fifth secondary feather on each wing , a state known as diastataxis . In these birds , the fifth set of secondary covert feathers does not cover any remex , possibly due to a twisting of the feather papillae during embryonic development . Loons , grebes , pelicans , hawks and eagles , cranes , sandpipers , gulls , parrots , and owls are among the families missing this feather .
= = = Tertials = = =
Tertials arise in the brachial region and are not considered true remiges as they are not supported by attachment to the corresponding bone , in this case the humerus . These elongated " true " tertials act as a protective cover for all or part of the folded primaries and secondaries , and do not qualify as flight feathers as such . However , many authorities use the term tertials to refer to the shorter , more symmetrical innermost secondaries of passerines ( arising from the olecranon and performing the same function as true tertials ) in an effort to distinguish them from other secondaries . The term humeral is sometimes used for birds such as the albatrosses and pelicans that have a long humerus .
= = = Tectrices = = =
The calami of the flight feathers are protected by a layer of non @-@ flight feathers called covert feathers or tectrices ( singluar tectrix ) , at least one layer of them both above and beneath the flight feathers of the wings as well as above and below the rectrices of the tail . These feathers may vary widely in size β in fact , the upper tail tectrices of the male peafowl , rather than its rectrices , are what constitute its elaborate and colorful " train " .
= = = Emargination = = =
The outermost primaries of large soaring birds , particularly raptors , often show a pronounced narrowing at some variable distance along the feather edges . These narrowings are called either notches or emarginations depending on the degree of their slope . An emargination is a gradual change , and can be found on either side of the feather . A notch is an abrupt change , and is only found on the wider trailing edge of the remige . ( Both are visible on the primary in the photo showing the feathers ; they can be found about halfway along both sides of the left hand feather β a shallow notch on the left , and a gradual emargination on the right . ) The presence of notches and emarginations creates gaps at the wingtip ; air is forced through these gaps , increasing the generation of lift .
= = = Alula = = =
Feathers on the alula or bastard wing are not generally considered to be flight feathers in the strict sense ; though they are asymmetrical , they lack the length and stiffness of most true flight feathers . However , alula feathers are definitely an aid to slow flight . These feathers β which are attached to the bird 's " thumb " and normally lie flush against the anterior edge of the wing β function in the same way as the slats on an airplane wing , allowing the wing to achieve a higher than normal angle of attack β and thus lift β without resulting in a stall . By manipulating its thumb to create a gap between the alula and the rest of the wing , a bird can avoid stalling when flying at low speeds or landing .
= = = Delayed development in hoatzins = = =
The development of the remiges ( and alulae ) of nestling hoatzins is much delayed compared to the development of these feathers in other young birds , presumably because young hoatzins are equipped with claws on their first two digits . They use these small rounded hooks to grasp branches when clambering about in trees , and feathering on these digits would presumably interfere with that functionality . Most youngsters shed their claws sometime between their 70th and 100th day of life , but some retain them β though callused @-@ over and unusable β into adulthood .
= = Rectrices = =
Rectrices ( from the Latin for " helmsman " ) , which help the bird to brake and steer in flight , lie in a single horizontal row on the rear margin of the anatomic tail . Only the central pair are attached ( via ligaments ) to the tail bones ; the remaining rectrices are embedded into the rectricial bulbs , complex structures of fat and muscle that surround those bones . Rectrices are always paired , with a vast majority of species having six pairs . They are absent in grebes and some ratites , and greatly reduced in size in penguins . Many grouse species have more than 12 rectrices . Some species ( including ruffed grouse , hazel grouse and common snipe ) have a number that varies among individuals . Domestic pigeons have a highly variable number , due to centuries of selective breeding .
= = Numbering conventions = =
In order to make the discussion of such topics as moult processes or body structure easier , ornithologists assign a number to each flight feather . By convention , the numbers assigned to primary feathers always start with the letter P ( P1 , P2 , P3 , etc . ) , those of secondaries with the letter S , those of tertials with T and those of rectrices with R.
Most authorities number the primaries descendantly , starting from the innermost primary ( the one closest to the secondaries ) and working outwards ; others number them ascendantly , from the most distal primary inwards . There are some advantages to each method . Descendant numbering follows the normal sequence of most birds ' primary moult . In addition , in the event that a species is missing the small distal 10th primary , as some passerines are , its lack does not impact the numbering of the remaining primaries . Ascendant numbering , on the other hand , allows for uniformity in the numbering of non @-@ passerine primaries , as they almost invariably have four attached to the manus regardless of how many primaries they have overall . This method is particularly useful for indicating wing formulae , as the outermost primary is the one with which the measurements begin .
Secondaries are always numbered ascendantly , starting with the outermost secondary ( the one closest to the primaries ) and working inwards . Tertials are also numbered ascendantly , but in this case , the numbers continue on consecutively from that given to the last secondary ( e.g. ... S5 , S6 , T7 , T8 , ... etc . ) .
Rectrices are always numbered from the centermost pair outwards in both directions .
= = Specialized flight feathers = =
The flight feathers of some species have undergone evolutionary changes which allow them to provide additional functionality .
In some species , for example , either remiges or rectrices make a sound during flight . These sounds are most often associated with courtship or territorial displays . The outer primaries of male broad @-@ tailed hummingbirds produce a distinctive high @-@ pitched trill , both in direct flight and in power @-@ dives during courtship displays ; this trill is diminished when the outer primaries are worn , and absent when those feathers have been moulted . During the northern lapwing 's zigzagging display flight , the bird 's outer primaries produce a humming sound . The outer primaries of the male American woodcock are shorter and slightly narrower than those of the female , and are likely the source of the whistling and twittering sounds made during his courtship display flights . Male club @-@ winged manakins use modified secondaries to make a clear trilling courtship call . A curve @-@ tipped secondary on each wing is dragged against an adjacent ridged secondary at high speeds ( as many as 110 times per second β slightly faster than a hummingbird 's wingbeat ) to create a stridulation much like that produced by some insects . Both Wilson 's and common snipe have modified outer tail feathers which make noise when they are spread during the birds ' roller coaster display flights ; as the bird dives , wind flows through the modified feathers and creates a series of rising and falling notes , which is known as " winnowing " . Differences between the sounds produced by these two former conspecific subspecies β and the fact that the outer two pairs of rectrices in Wilson 's snipe are modified , while only the single outermost pair are modified in common snipe β were among the characteristics used to justify their splitting into two distinct and separate species .
Flight feathers are also used by some species in visual displays . Male standard @-@ winged and pennant @-@ winged nightjars have modified P2 primaries ( using the descendant numbering scheme explained above ) which are displayed during their courtship rituals . In the standard @-@ winged nightjar , this modified primary consists of an extremely long shaft with a small " pennant " ( actually a large web of barbules ) at the tip . In the pennant @-@ winged nightjar , the P2 primary is an extremely long ( but otherwise normal ) feather , while P3 , P4 and P5 are successively shorter ; the overall effect is a broadly forked wingtip with a very long plume beyond the lower half of the fork .
Males of many species , ranging from the widely introduced ring @-@ necked pheasant to Africa 's many whydahs , have one or more elongated pairs of rectrices , which play an often @-@ critical role in their courtship rituals . The outermost pair of rectrices in male lyrebirds are extremely long and strongly curved at the ends . These plumes are raised up over the bird 's head ( along with a fine spray of modified uppertail coverts ) during his extraordinary display . Rectrix modification reaches its pinnacle among the birds of paradise , which display an assortment of often bizarrely modified feathers , ranging from the extremely long plumes of the ribbon @-@ tailed astrapia ( nearly three times the length of the bird itself ) to the dramatically coiled twin plumes of the magnificent bird @-@ of @-@ paradise .
Owls have remiges which are serrated rather than smooth on the leading edge . This adaptation disrupts the flow of air over the wings , eliminating the noise that airflow over a smooth surface normally creates , and allowing the birds to fly and hunt silently .
The rectrices of woodpeckers are proportionately short and very stiff , allowing them to better brace themselves against tree trunks while feeding . This adaptation is also found , though to a lesser extent , in some other species that feed along tree trunks , including woodcreepers and treecreepers .
Scientists have not yet determined the function of all flight feather modifications . For instance , male swallows in the genera Psalidoprocne and Stelgidopteryx have tiny recurved hooks on the leading edges of their outer primaries , but the function of these hooks is not yet known ; some authorities suggest they may produce a sound during territorial or courtship displays .
= = Vestigiality in flightless birds = =
Over time , a small number of bird species have lost their ability to fly . Some of these , such as the steamer ducks , show no appreciable changes in their flight feathers . Some , such as the Titicaca grebe and a number of the flightless rails , have a reduced number of primaries .
The remiges of ratites are soft and downy ; they lack the interlocking hooks and barbules that help to stiffen the flight feathers of other birds . In addition , the emu 's remiges are proportionately much reduced in size , while those of the cassowaries are reduced both in number and structure , consisting merely of 5 β 6 bare quills . Most ratites have completely lost their rectrices ; only the ostrich still has them .
Penguins have lost their differentiated flight feathers . As adults , their wings and tail are covered with the same small , stiff , slightly curved feathers as are found on the rest of their bodies .
The ground @-@ dwelling kakapo , which is the world 's only flightless parrot , has remiges which are shorter , rounder and more symmetrically vaned than those of parrots capable of flight ; these flight feathers also contain fewer interlocking barbules near their tips .
= = Moult = =
Once they have finished growing , feathers are essentially dead structures . Over time , they become worn and abraded , and need to be replaced . This replacement process is known as moult ( molt in the United States ) . The loss of wing and tail feathers can affect a bird 's ability to fly ( sometimes dramatically ) and in certain families can impair the ability to feed or perform courtship displays . The timing and progression of flight feather moult therefore varies among families .
For most birds , moult begins at a certain specific point , called a focus ( plural foci ) , on the wing or tail and proceeds in a sequential manner in one or both directions from there . For example , most passerines have a focus between the innermost primary ( P1 , using the numbering scheme explained above ) and outermost secondary ( S1 ) , and a focus point in the middle of the center pair of rectrices . As passerine moult begins , the two feathers closest to the focus are the first to drop . When replacement feathers reach roughly half of their eventual length , the next feathers in line ( P2 and S2 on the wing , and both R2s on the tail ) are dropped . This pattern of drop and replacement continues until moult reaches either end of the wing or tail . The speed of the moult can vary somewhat within a species . Some passerines that breed in the Arctic , for example , drop many more flight feathers at once ( sometimes becoming briefly flightless ) in order to complete their entire wing moult prior to migrating south , while those same species breeding at lower latitudes undergo a more protracted moult .
In many species , there is more than one focus along the wing . Here , moult begins at all foci simultaneously , but generally proceeds only in one direction . Most grouse , for example , have two wing foci : one at the wingtip , the other between feathers P1 and S1 . In this case , moult proceeds descendantly from both foci . Many large , long @-@ winged birds have multiple wing foci .
Birds that are heavily " wing @-@ loaded " β that is , heavy @-@ bodied birds with relatively short wings β have great difficulty flying with the loss of even a few flight feathers . A protracted moult like the one described above would leave them vulnerable to predators for a sizeable portion of the year . Instead , these birds lose all their flight feathers at once . This leaves them completely flightless for a period of three to four weeks , but means their overall period of vulnerability is significantly shorter than it would otherwise be . Eleven families of birds , including loons , grebes and most waterfowl , have this moult strategy .
The cuckoos show what is called saltatory or transilient wing moults . In simple forms this involves the moulting and replacement of odd @-@ numbered primaries and then the even @-@ numbered primaries . There are however complex variations with differences based on life history .
Arboreal woodpeckers , which depend on their tails β particularly the strong central pair of rectrices β for support while they feed , have a unique tail moult . Rather than moulting their central tail feathers first , as most birds do , they retain these feathers until last . Instead the second pair of rectrices ( both R2 feathers ) are the first to drop . ( In some species in the genera Celeus and Dendropicos , the third pair is the first dropped . ) The pattern of feather drop and replacement proceeds as described for passerines ( above ) until all other rectrices have been replaced ; only then are the central tail rectrices moulted . This provides some protection to the growing feathers , since they 're always covered by at least one existing feather , and also ensures that the bird 's newly strengthened tail is best able to cope with the loss of the crucial central rectrices . Ground @-@ feeding woodpeckers , such as the wrynecks , do not have this modified moult strategy ; in fact , wrynecks moult their outer tail feathers first , with moult proceeding proximally from there .
= = Age differences in flight feathers = =
There are often substantial differences between the remiges and rectrices of adults and juveniles of the same species . Because all juvenile feathers are grown at once β a tremendous energy burden to the developing bird β they are softer and of poorer quality than the equivalent feathers of adults , which are moulted over a longer period of time ( as long as several years in some cases ) . As a result , they wear more quickly .
As feathers grow at variable rates , these variations lead to visible dark and light bands in the fully formed feather . These so @-@ called growth bars and their widths have been used to determine the daily nutritional status of birds . Each light and dark bar correspond to around 24 hours and the use of this technique has been called ptilochronology ( analogous to dendrochronology ) .
In general , juveniles have feathers which are narrower and more sharply pointed at the tip . This can be particularly visible when the bird is in flight , especially in the case of raptors . The trailing edge of the wing of a juvenile bird can appear almost serrated , due to the feathers ' sharp tips , while that of an older bird will be straighter @-@ edged . The flight feathers of a juvenile bird will also be uniform in length , since they all grew at the same time . Those of adults will be of various lengths and levels of wear , since each is moulted at a different time .
The flight feathers of adults and juveniles can differ considerably in length , particularly among the raptors . Overall , juveniles tend to have slightly longer rectrices , and shorter , broader wings ( with shorter outer primaries , and longer inner primaries and secondaries ) than do adults of the same species . However , there are many exceptions . In longer @-@ tailed species , such as swallow @-@ tailed kite , secretary bird and European honey buzzard , for example , juveniles have shorter rectrices than adults do . Juveniles of some Buteo buzzards have narrower wings than adults do , while those of large juvenile falcons are longer . It is theorized that the differences help young birds compensate for their inexperience , weaker flight muscles and poorer flying ability .
= = Wing formula = =
A wing formula describes the shape of distal end of a bird 's wing in a mathematical way . It can be used to help distinguish between species with similar plumages , and thus is particularly useful for those who ring ( band ) birds .
To determine a bird 's wing formula , the distance between the tip of the most distal primary and the tip of its greater covert ( the longest of the feathers that cover and protect the shaft of that primary ) is measured in millimeters . In some cases , this results in a positive number ( e.g. , the primary extends beyond its greater covert ) , while in other cases it is a negative number ( e.g. the primary is completely covered by the greater covert , as happens in some passerine species ) . Next , the longest primary feather is identified , and the differences between the length of that primary and that of all remaining primaries and of the longest secondary are also measured , again in millimeters . If any primary shows a notch or emargination , this is noted , and the distance between the feather 's tip and any notch is measured , as is the depth of the notch . All distance measurements are made with the bird 's wing closed , so as to maintain the relative positions of the feathers .
While there can be considerable variation across members of a species β and while the results are obviously impacted by the effects of moult and feather regeneration β even very closely related species show clear differences in their wing formulas .
= = Primary extension = =
The distance that a bird 's longest primaries extend beyond its longest secondaries ( or tertials ) when its wings are folded is referred to as the primary extension or primary projection . As with wing formulae , this measurement is useful for distinguishing between similarly plumaged birds ; however , unlike wing formulae , it is not necessary to have the bird in @-@ hand to make the measurement . Rather , this is a useful relative measurement β some species have long primary extensions , while others have shorter ones . Among the Empidonax flycatchers of the Americas , for example , the dusky flycatcher has a much shorter primary extension than does the very similarly plumaged Hammond 's flycatcher . Europe 's common skylark has a long primary projection , while that of the near @-@ lookalike Oriental skylark is very short .
As a general rule , species which are long distance migrants will have longer primary projection than similar species which do not migrate or migrate shorter distances .
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= Coprinellus micaceus =
Coprinellus micaceus is a common species of fungus in the family Psathyrellaceae with a cosmopolitan distribution . The fruit bodies of the saprobe typically grow in clusters on or near rotting hardwood tree stumps or underground tree roots . Depending on their stage of development , the tawny @-@ brown mushroom caps may range in shape from oval to bell @-@ shaped to convex , and reach diameters up to 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) . The caps , marked with fine radial grooves that extend nearly to the center , rest atop whitish stems up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . In young specimens , the entire cap surface is coated with a fine layer of reflective mica @-@ like cells that provide the inspiration for both the mushroom 's species name and the common names mica cap , shiny cap , and glistening inky cap . Although small and with thin flesh , the mushrooms are usually bountiful , as they typically grow in dense clusters . A few hours after collection , the gills will begin to slowly dissolve into a black , inky , spore @-@ laden liquid β an enzymatic process called autodigestion or deliquescence . The fruit bodies are edible before the gills blacken and dissolve , and cooking will stop the autodigestion process .
The microscopic characteristics and cytogenetics of C. micaceus are well known , and it has been used frequently as a model organism to study cell division and meiosis in Basidiomycetes . Chemical analysis of the fruit bodies has revealed the presence of antibacterial and enzyme @-@ inhibiting compounds . Formerly known as Coprinus micaceus , the species was transferred to Coprinellus in 2001 as phylogenetic analyses provided the impetus for a reorganization of the many species formerly grouped together in the genus Coprinus . Based on external appearance , C. micaceus is virtually indistinguishable from C. truncorum , and it has been suggested that many reported collections of the former may be of the latter .
= = History and taxonomy = =
Coprinellus micaeus was illustrated in a woodcut by the 16th @-@ century botanist Carolus Clusius in what is arguably the first published monograph on fungi , the 1601 Rariorum plantarum historia . Fungorum in Pannoniis observatorum brevis historia ( History of rare plants . Brief history of fungi observed in Pannonia [ Hungary ] ) . Clusius erroneously believed the species to be poisonous , and classified it as a genus of Fungi perniciales ( harmful fungi ) . The species was first described scientifically by French botanist Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard in 1786 as Agaricus micaceus in his work Herbier de la France . In 1801 , Christian Hendrik Persoon grouped together all of the gilled fungi that auto @-@ digested ( deliquesced ) during spore discharge into the section Coprinus of the genus Agaricus . Elias Magnus Fries later raised Persoon 's section Coprinus to genus rank in his Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici , and the species became known as Coprinus micaceus . It was the type species of subsection Exannulati in section Micacei of the genus Coprinus , a grouping of related taxa with veils made of sphaerocysts ( round swollen cells usually formed in clusters ) exclusively or with thin @-@ filamentous connective hyphae intermixed . Molecular studies published in the 1990s demonstrated that many of the coprinoid ( Coprinus @-@ like ) mushrooms were in fact unrelated to each other . This culminated in a 2001 revision of the genus Coprinus , which was split into four genera ; C. micaeus was transferred to Coprinellus .
Due partly to their ready availability and the ease with which they may be grown in the laboratory , C. micaceus and other coprinoid mushrooms were common subjects in cytological studies of the 19th and 20th centuries . The German botanist Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link reported his observations of the structure of the hymenium ( the fertile spore @-@ bearing surface ) in 1809 , but misinterpreted what he had seen . Link thought that microscopic structures known today as basidia were thecae , comparable in form to the asci of the Ascomycetes , and that each theca contained four series of spores . His inaccurate drawings of the hymenium of C. micaceus were copied in subsequent mycological publications by other authors , and it was not until microscopy had advanced that mycologists were able to determine the true nature of the basidia , when nearly three decades later in 1837 Joseph @-@ Henri LΓ©veillΓ© and August Corda independently published correct descriptions of the structure of the hymenium . In 1924 , A. H. Reginald Buller published a comprehensive description and analysis of the processes of spore production and release in the third volume of his Researches on Fungi .
The specific epithet micaceus is derived from the Latin word mica , for " crumb , grain of salt " and the suffix -aceus , " like , similar " ; the modern application of " mica " to a very different substance comes from the influence of micare , " glitter " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " shiny cap " , the " mica cap " or the " glistening inky cap " , all in reference to the mealy particles found on the cap that glisten like mica .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially 1 β 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 β 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , oval to cylindrical , but expands to become campanulate ( bell @-@ shaped ) , sometimes with an umbo ( a central nipple @-@ like protrusion ) ; finally it flattens somewhat , becoming convex . When expanded , the cap diameter reaches 0 @.@ 8 β 3 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 β 1 @.@ 2 in ) with the margin torn into rays and turned upwards slightly . The color is yellow @-@ brown or tan often with a darker center , then pale yellow or buff from the margin inwards . The cap margin is prominently grooved almost all the way to the center ; the grooves mark the positions of the longer gills on the underside of the cap . When young , the cap surface is covered with white or whitish shiny particles , remnants of the universal veil that covers immature specimens . The particles are loosely attached and easily washed away , so that older specimens are often smooth . Coprinellus micaceus is hygrophanous , meaning it assumes different colors depending on its state of hydration .
The gills are crowded together closely , and have an adnexed ( narrow ) attachment to the stem . Initially white , they change color to dark brown then eventually black as the spores mature . Expansion of the cap causes the gills to split open down their median planes , tearing the cap margin into rays . The process of spore discharge and autodigestion begin at the bottom of the gills before the upper parts of the gills have become completely blackened . The brittle stem is hollow , and measures 4 β 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 β 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 β 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 β 0 @.@ 2 in ) thick and is roughly the same diameter throughout the length of the stem . It is generally white , but may discolor to pale dirty cream from the base up . The stem surface is at first velvety with a very fine whitish powder , but this eventually wears off , leaving it more or less smooth . Stems may have a rudimentary ring at the base , another universal veil remnant . The spore print is dark brown or black . The flesh is thin , fragile , white in the stem , and brownish in the cap . Its odor and taste are not distinctive . Individual fruit bodies take an average of five to seven days to fully mature .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores of C. micaceus are reddish @-@ brown , with dimensions of 7 β 10 by 4 @.@ 5 β 6 Β΅m . Generally , they are lentiform ( shaped like a biconvex lens ) , but viewed from the side they appear more almond @-@ shaped or spindle @-@ shaped , while in front view they appear oval or mitriform ( roughly the shape of a miter β a peaked cap ) . Spores have a germ pore , a flattened area in the center of the spore surface through which a germ tube may emerge . The spore @-@ bearing cells ( the basidia ) are four @-@ spored , club @-@ shaped , and measure 10 β 15 by 4 β 7 Β΅m . Studies have shown that the basidia develop in four discrete generations . The first generation basidia are the most protuberant , and extend out the greatest distance from the surface of the hymenium . Subsequent generations of basidia have shorter and less protuberant bodies . When a living gill is viewed with a microscope , the four sets of basidia can be seen distinctly . Arthur Buller coined the term inaequihymeniiferous to describe this mode of hymenial development . The purpose of the staggered basidia sizes is to facilitate the release of spores from the hymenium . There are four zones of spore discharge that correspond to the four sets of basidia , and basidia that have released all of their spores quickly begin to autodigest . The staggered setup minimizes the chance of spores colliding with neighboring basidia during release .
Cystidia that are located along the edge of the cap ( called cheilocystidia ) are spherical , and 30 β 120 by 20 β 74 Β΅m . The facial cystidia ( called pleurocystidia ) are club @-@ shaped or elongated ellipses , up to 130 β 155 Β΅m in length . The pleurocystidia protrude from the face of the gill and act as guards , preventing adjacent gills from touching each other , and also ensuring that the basidia and spores have sufficient room for development . C. micaceus may also have scattered caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) that are 60 β 100 by 5 β 10 Β΅m , but their presence is variable and cannot reliably be used for identification . Both De Bary and Buller , in their investigations into the structure of the cystidia , concluded that there is a central mass of cytoplasm formed where numerous thin plates of cytoplasm meet at the center of the cell . De Bary believed that the plates were filamentous branching processes , but Buller thought that they were formed in a process similar to the walls of foam bubbles , and that the central mass was able to slowly change form and position by altering the relative volumes of the vacuoles enclosed by the numerous thin cytoplasmic walls . In older cells , the cytoplasm may be limited to the periphery of the cell , with one huge vacuole occupying the cell center .
The globular cells that make up the mica @-@ resembling scales on the cap are colorless , smooth @-@ walled , and range in size from about 25 β 65 Β΅m , although most are between 40 β 50 Β΅m . Buller explained the " glitter " of these cells as follows : " The sparkling of the meal @-@ cells , as well as of the cystidia on the edges and faces of the gills , is simply due to light which strikes them from without and is refracted and reflected to the eye in the same manner as from the minute drops of water one so often sees at the tips of grass leaves on English lawns early in the morning after a dewy night . "
In 1914 , Michael Levine was the first to report successfully cultivating C. micaceus from spores in the laboratory . In his experiments , fruit bodies appeared roughly 40 to 60 days after initially inoculating the growth media ( agar supplemented with soil , horse dung , or cornmeal ) with spores . Like other coprinoid species , C. micaceus undergoes synchronous meiosis . The chromosomes are readily discernible with light microscopy , and all of the meiotic stages are well @-@ defined . These features have made the species a useful tool in laboratory investigations of Basidiomycete cytogenetics . The chromosome number of C. micaceus is n = 12 .
= = = Edibility = = =
Coprinellus micaceus is an edible species , and cooking inactivates the enzymes that cause autodigestion or deliquescence β a process that can begin as soon as one hour after collection . It is considered ideal for omelettes , and as a flavor for sauces , although it is " a very delicate species easily spoiled by overcooking " . The flavor is so delicate that it is easy to overpower and hide with almost anything . The fungus also appeals to fruit flies of the genus Drosophila , who frequently use the fruit bodies as hosts for larvae production .
A study of the mineral contents of various edible mushrooms found that C. micaceus contained the highest concentration of potassium in the 34 species tested , close to half a gram of potassium per kilogram of mushroom . Because the species can bioaccumulate detrimental heavy metals like lead and cadmium , it has been advised to restrict consumption of specimens collected from roadsides or other collection sites that may be exposed to or contain pollutants .
= = = Similar species = = =
The edible Coprinellus bisporus is nearly identical but lacks the yellowish cap granules and only has two spores per basidium . The scaly inky cap ( Coprinus variegatus = Coprinus quadrifidus ) has a grayish @-@ brown cap with dull white to brownish scales ; its odor is disagreeable . The trooping crumble cap ( Coprinellus disseminatus , edible ) has smaller , yellow @-@ brown to grey @-@ brown caps and white gills that turn black but do not dissolve away ; it always grows in large clusters on rotting wood ( sometimes buried wood ) . Coprinus atramentarius is a larger , gray species that grows in dense clusters on stumps or on the ground from buried wood , lacks glistening particles on the cap , and the cap and gills dissolve at maturity . Coprinellus radians develops singly or in clumps from a tufted mat of coarse yellow @-@ orange mycelium on the wood . Coprinellus truncorum is also covered with glistening granules and is said to be almost indistinguishable from C. micaceus in the field ; microscopy is needed to tell the difference , as C. truncorum has ellipsoid spores with a rounded germ pore , compared to the shield @-@ shaped ( mitriform ) spores with truncated germ pores of C. micaceus . One study suggests that compared to C. truncorum , C. micaceus is browner in the center of the cap ( rather than grayish ) and has a greater tendency to grow in clusters ; more molecular evidence is required to determine if the two taxa are genetically identical .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Coprinellus micaceus is a saprotrophic species , deriving nutrients from dead and decomposing organic matter , and grows in and around stumps or logs of broad @-@ leaved trees or attached to buried wood . It prefers feeding on bark , particularly the secondary phloem , rather than the wood . In the scheme of the succession of fungal species involved in the decomposition of wood , C. micaceus is a late stage colonizer , and prefers to feed on wood that has already decomposed sufficiently to have reached " a friable softened consistency " . A 2010 study suggests that the fungus can also live as an endophyte , inhabiting the woody tissue of healthy trees without causing disease symptoms . The fungus is also associated with disturbed or developed ground , such as the sides of roads and paths , gardens , building sites and the edges of parking lots ; it has also been noted for growing indoors on rotting wood in humid environments . In one instance it was discovered about 120 m ( 400 ft ) underground in an abandoned coal mine , growing on wooden gangways and props used to support the roof .
Fruit bodies are commonly found growing in dense clusters , but can also be found growing singly or in small clumps , especially in forested areas . In North America , C. micaceus is one of the first edible mushrooms to appear in the spring , and fruits from May to September . In Europe , it fruits from May to December . Although it can grow at any time of the year , it is more prevalent during the spring and fall , coinciding with the higher humidity resulting from spring and autumn rains . A study of air quality conducted in the city of Santiago de Compostela in the Iberian Peninsula , concluded that most " Coprinus " spores present in the atmosphere belonged to C. micaceus , and that the number of spores went up with increased humidity and rainfall , but decreased with greater temperatures . The species is known for reappearing with successive fruitings at the same location . In one case , a total of 38 lb ( 17 @.@ 2 kg ) of fresh mushrooms were collected from one elm stump in 10 successive crops over a spring and summer .
Coprinellus micaceus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been collected in northern Africa , South Africa , Europe ( including Turkey ) , North America ( as far north as Alaska ) , the Hawaiian islands , South America , India , Australia , New Zealand , and Japan . Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA sequences from specimens collected in southeastern Asia and Hawaii show that the Hawaiian species form a distinct clade with little genetic diversity compared to Asian populations ; this suggests that the Hawaiian populations have been introduced relatively recently and have not had much time to develop genetic variation . One study suggests that in South Africa , where C. micaceus is rare , it has been frequently confused with the similar @-@ appearing C. truncorum , a more common species in that region . A similar inference has been raised about North American species .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Research into the natural product chemistry of Coprinellus micaceus has revealed the presence of several chemical compounds unique to the species . Micaceol is a sterol with " modest " antibacterial activity against the pathogens Corynebacterium xerosis and Staphylococcus aureus . The compound ( Z , Z ) -4 @-@ oxo @-@ 2 @,@ 5 @-@ heptadienedioic acid has inhibitory activity against glutathione S @-@ transferase , an enzyme that has been implicated in the resistance of cancer cells against chemotherapeutic agents , especially alkylating drugs . A 2003 study did not find any antibacterial activity in this species . A 1962 publication reported the presence of the biologically active indole compound tryptamine in C. micaceus , although the concentration was not determined . The fruit bodies additionally produce a variety of pigment compounds known as melanins β complex chemical polymers that contribute to the formation of soil humus after the fruit bodies have disintegrated . C. micaceus has been found to be devoid of the toxin coprine , the Antabuse @-@ mimicking chemical found in Coprinopsis atramentaria that causes illness when consumed simultaneously with alcohol .
= = = Cited books = = =
Arora D. ( 1986 ) . Mushrooms Demystified : a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi . Berkeley , California : Ten Speed Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 89815 @-@ 169 @-@ 4 .
Buller AH . ( 1924 ) . " Chapter XI : The micaceus sub @-@ type illustrated by Coprinus micaceus " . Researches on Fungi III . London , UK : Longmans , Green , and Co. pp. 328 β 56 .
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= Frances Oldham Kelsey =
Frances Kathleen Oldham Kelsey , CM ( July 24 , 1914 β August 7 , 2015 ) was a Canadian pharmacologist and physician . As a reviewer for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , she refused to authorize thalidomide for market because she had concerns about the drug 's safety . Her concerns proved to be justified when it was shown that thalidomide caused serious birth defects . Kelsey 's career intersected with the passage of laws strengthening FDA oversight of pharmaceuticals . Kelsey was the second woman to be awarded the President 's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service by President John F. Kennedy .
= = Birth and education = =
Born in Shawnigan Lake on Vancouver Island , British Columbia , Kelsey was graduated by St. Margaret 's School high school at age 15 , and attended Victoria College , British Columbia ( 1930 β 1931 ) in Victoria , British Columbia ( now University of Victoria ) . She then enrolled at McGill University to study pharmacology . At McGill , she received both a B.Sc. ( 1934 ) and a M.Sc. ( 1935 ) in pharmacology , and " on [ a ] professor 's urging , wrote to EMK Geiling , M.D. , a noted researcher [ who ] was starting up a new pharmacology department at the University of Chicago , asking for a position doing graduate work " . Geiling presumed that Frances was a man and offered her the position . Kelsey accepted and began working for Geiling in 1936 .
During her second year , Geiling was retained by the FDA to research unusual deaths related to elixir sulfanilamide , a sulfonamide medicine . Kelsey assisted on this research project , which showed that the 107 deaths were caused by the use of diethylene glycol as a solvent . The next year , the United States Congress passed the Federal Food , Drug , and Cosmetic Act of 1938 . That same year she completed her studies and received a Ph.D. in pharmacology at the University of Chicago . Working with Geiling led to her interest in teratogens , drugs that cause congenital malformations .
= = Early career and marriage = =
Upon completing her Ph.D. , Kelsey joined the University of Chicago faculty . In 1942 , like many other pharmacologists , Kelsey was looking for a synthetic cure for malaria . As a result of these studies , Kelsey learned that some drugs are able to pass through the placental barrier . While there she also met fellow faculty member Dr. Fremont Ellis Kelsey , whom she married in 1943 .
While on the faculty at the University of Chicago , Kelsey was awarded her M.D. during 1950 . She supplemented her teaching with work as an editorial associate for the American Medical Association Journal for two years . Kelsey left the University of Chicago in 1954 , decided to take a position teaching pharmacology at the University of South Dakota , and moved with her husband and two daughters to Vermillion , South Dakota , where she taught until 1957 .
She became a dual @-@ citizen of Canada and the United States in the 1950s in order to continue practicing medicine in the U.S. , but retained strong ties to Canada where she continued to visit her siblings regularly until late in life .
= = Work at the FDA and thalidomide = =
In 1960 , Kelsey was hired by the FDA in Washington , D.C. At that time , she " was one of only seven full @-@ time and four young part @-@ time physicians reviewing drugs " for the FDA . One of her first assignments at the FDA was to review an application by Richardson Merrell for the drug thalidomide ( under the tradename Kevadon ) as a tranquilizer and painkiller with specific indications to prescribe the drug to pregnant women for morning sickness . Even though it had already been approved in Canada and more than 20 European and African countries , she withheld approval for the drug and requested further studies . Despite pressure from thalidomide 's manufacturer , Kelsey persisted in requesting additional information to explain an English study that documented a nervous system side effect .
Kelsey 's insistence that the drug should be fully tested prior to approval was vindicated when the births of deformed infants in Europe were linked to thalidomide ingestion by their mothers during pregnancy . Researchers discovered that the thalidomide crossed the placental barrier and caused serious birth defects . She was hailed on the front page of The Washington Post as a heroine for averting a similar tragedy in the U.S. Morton Mintz , author of The Washington Post article , said " [ Kelsey ] prevented β¦ the birth of hundreds or indeed thousands of armless and legless children . " Kelsey insisted that her assistants , Oyam Jiro and Lee Geismar , as well as her FDA superiors who backed her strong stance , deserved credit as well . The narrative of Dr. Kelsey 's persistence , however , was used to help pass rigorous drug approval regulation in 1962 .
After Morton Mintz broke the story in July 1962 , there was a substantial public outcry . The Kefauver Harris Amendment was passed unanimously by Congress in October 1962 to strengthen drug regulation . Companies were required to demonstrate the efficacy of new drugs , report adverse reactions to the FDA , and request consent from patients participating in clinical studies . The drug testing reforms required " stricter limits on the testing and distribution of new drugs " to avoid similar problems . The amendments , for the first time , also recognized that " effectiveness [ should be ] required to be established prior to marketing . " The new laws were not without controversy .
As a result of her blocking American approval of thalidomide , Kelsey was awarded the President 's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service by President John F. Kennedy , becoming the second woman to receive that award . British PathΓ© released a film of Kennedy acknowledging Kelsey in a speech . After receiving the award , Kelsey continued her work at the FDA . There she played a key role in shaping and enforcing the 1962 amendments . She also became responsible for directing the surveillance of drug testing at the FDA .
Kelsey retired from the FDA in 2005 , at age 90 , after 45 years of service . In 2010 the FDA named the Kelsey Award for her , to be awarded annually to an FDA employee .
= = Later life and death = =
Kelsey continued to work for the FDA while being recognised for her earlier work . She was still working at the FDA 's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research in 1995 and was appointed deputy for scientific and medical affairs . In 1994 , the Frances Kelsey Secondary School in Mill Bay , British Columbia was named in her honour . She retired in 2005 .
In 2010 , the FDA presented Kelsey with the first Drug Safety Excellence Award and named the annual award after her , announcing that it would be given to one FDA staff member annually . In announcing the awards , Center Director Steven K. Galson said β I am very pleased to have established the Dr. Frances O. Kelsey Drug Safety Excellence Award and to recognize the first recipients for their outstanding accomplishments in this important aspect of drug regulation . β
Kelsey turned 100 in July 2014 , and shortly thereafter , in the fall of 2014 , she moved from Washington , D.C. , to live with her daughter in London , Ontario . In June 2015 , when she was named to the Order of Canada , MercΓ©des Benegbi , a thalidomide victim and the head of the Thalidomide Victims Association of Canada , praised Dr. Kelsey for showing strength and courage by refusing to bend to pressure from drug company officials , and said β To us , she was always our heroine , even if what she did was in another country . β
Kelsey died in London , Ontario , on August 7 , 2015 at the age of 101 , less than 24 hours after Ontario β s Lieutenant @-@ Governor , Elizabeth Dowdeswell , visited her home to present her with the insignia of Member of the Order of Canada for her role against thalidomide .
= = Legacy and awards = =
1962 β’ President 's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service
1963 β’ Gold Key Award from University of Chicago , Medical and Biological Sciences Alumni Association
2000 β’ Inducted into the National Women 's Hall of Fame
2001 β’ Named a Virtual Mentor for the American Medical Association
2006 β’ Foremother Award from the National Research Center for Women & Families
2010 β’ Recipient of the first Dr. Frances O. Kelsey Award for Excellence and Courage in Protecting Public Health given out by the FDA
2012 β’ Honorary doctor of science degree from Vancouver Island University
2015 β’ Named to the Order of Canada
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= Battle of Boroughbridge =
The Battle of Boroughbridge was a battle fought on 16 March 1322 between a group of rebellious barons and King Edward II of England , near Boroughbridge , north @-@ west of York . The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the King and Thomas , Earl of Lancaster , his most powerful subject , it resulted in Lancaster 's defeat and execution . This allowed Edward to re @-@ establish royal authority , and hold on to power for another five years .
Not in itself a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence , the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic , English conflict . Both the extensive use of foot soldiers rather than cavalry , and the heavy impact caused by the longbow , represented significant steps in military developments .
= = Background = =
Edward II was a weak and ineffectual king ( made to look the more so by comparison with his father and son , Edward I and Edward III ) , and his reign was marked by military failure and internal strife . A great number of the barony turned against the King , and the leader of the opposition eventually became Thomas of Lancaster . Lancaster was Edward 's cousin , and next to the King he was the richest man in the country . Through a set of regulations known as the Ordinances , Lancaster and his associates had been trying to put restrictions on royal authority , but by the late 1310s Edward was again in full control of central government . The situation was aggravated by the King 's ostentatious patronage of his favourite , Hugh Despenser , and Hugh 's father by the same name .
In 1319 , the King and Lancaster fell out during a failed campaign against Scotland . The next year Lancaster refused to attend a parliament summoned by the King , and later the same year , Edward obtained papal absolution from his oath to follow the Ordinances . Meanwhile , an inheritance dispute had broken out in the Welsh Marches between the Despensers and certain marcher lords , including Humphrey de Bohun , Earl of Hereford . Lancaster now took the initiative with the discontented . In 1321 he summoned two meetings of magnates , one at Lancaster 's residence of Pontefract in March , and the other at Sherburn in June . The meetings consisted of northern and marcher lords , as well as Lancaster 's own retainers , but little assistance was forthcoming from the northerners . The marcher rebellion , and the threat of civil war , forced the King to exile the younger Despenser , but the favourite was recalled within weeks .
Edward now seized the initiative , and moved northwards . Lancaster convened one final meeting at Doncaster in November , and also entered into an alliance with Robert I of Scotland to strengthen his hand against the King . In January 1322 Edward crossed the River Severn , and secured the surrender of several of the marcher lords while Lancaster remained passive . As the royal army crossed the River Trent after the Battle of Burton Bridge , Lancaster was forced to flee north . On 16 March Lancaster and his army had reached Boroughbridge by the River Ure where they were joined by the Earl 's Secretary Sir Robert de Holland and the force he had raised in Lancashire . There they were cut off by the forces of Sir Andrew Harclay , a veteran from the Scottish wars , who had gathered the levies from the counties of Cumberland and Westmorland .
= = Battle = =
When Lancaster arrived at the town of Boroughbridge , Harclay was already in possession of the bridge crossing the river . The rebel forces counted probably no more than 700 knights and men @-@ at @-@ arms , against the 4 @,@ 000 or so soldiers in the royal army . Lancaster initially tried to negotiate , but Harclay could not be swayed . Since there was no realistic alternative place to cross the river , and with the royal forces in pursuit from the south , the rebels had no choice but to fight . The ensuing battle was short and one @-@ sided .
Harclay had deployed his men on foot to hold the bridge from the northern side . Additional forces were placed at a nearby ford , though contemporary sources do not specify the exact location of this ford . The royal pikemen were deployed in a schiltron formation , a tactic learned from the Scots in the Scottish wars . The formation proved effective against the oncoming cavalry . The rebels divided into two columns ; one led by Hereford and Roger de Clifford , attacking the bridge on foot , the other under Lancaster , trying to cross the ford by horse . According to a graphic description in the chronicle the Brut , Hereford was killed as he crossed the bridge by a pikeman hiding underneath , who thrust his spear up through the Earl 's anus . Clifford was also severely injured , and that column of the army fell into disarray . Lancaster 's party fared little better ; under heavy archery fire his cavalry was cut off before it even reached the ford , and was forced to retreat . This event shows an early β if not entirely novel β effective use of the longbow against cavalry , a tactic which was to become central to future English military success .
Lancaster negotiated a truce with Harclay , and withdrew to the town . During the night a great number of the rebels deserted , and the next day the sheriff of York arrived from the south with additional forces . Lancaster , now greatly outnumbered and with no chance of retreat , had no choice but to surrender to Harclay .
= = Aftermath = =
Thomas of Lancaster was taken to Pontefract Castle , which by then had fallen to the King . There he was submitted to what was little more than a show trial , and β in front of a gathering of earls and barons β sentenced to death . On 22 March 1322 , he was led out of the castle and beheaded in front of a jeering crowd . In the years to come , a cult emerged around the person of the late earl as a martyr , and even a possible saint . Lancaster had shown no signs of extraordinary piety or other personal abilities during his lifetime , and the cult has been interpreted as a reaction to the incompetent and oppressive reign of Edward II .
Some thirty of Lancaster 's followers were also executed , among these Clifford and the baron John Mowbray .
Andrew Harclay was richly rewarded for his loyal and competent performance at Boroughbridge . On 15 March he was created Earl of Carlisle , and promised lands worth 1000 marks yearly . Yet Harclay , who had turned down Lancaster 's overtures to join in the rebellion , was no great adherent of the King . As a warden of the Scottish Marches he grew constantly more frustrated with the King 's idleness , and eventually negotiated a peace treaty with the Scots . This action on Harclay 's part amounted to treason , and early in 1323 he was apprehended by the King 's men , and hanged , drawn and quartered .
As for Edward II himself , his dependence on the Despensers grew only deeper , and their transgressions more severe . Lancaster 's supporters ( including Roger Mortimer , William Trussell and Robert de Holland ) found themselves systematically accused of false charges , being imprisoned and having their lands taken over by the Despencers . Mortimer and Trussell eventually fled to Paris where they were to be joined by Edward 's estranged wife Isabella who was to become Mortimer 's lover .
In 1327 Isabella and Mortimer staged a coup against the King . Edward II was deposed and his son , Edward III , succeeded in his place .
= = External sources = =
The Battle of Boroughbridge at The Battlefields Trust .
English Heritage Battlefield Report : Boroughbridge 1322
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= History of Minnesota =
The history of the U.S. state of Minnesota is shaped by its original Native American residents , European exploration and settlement , and the emergence of industries made possible by the state 's natural resources . Minnesota achieved prominence through fur trading , logging , and farming , and later through railroads , and iron mining . While those industries remain important , the state 's economy is now driven by banking , computers , and health care .
The earliest known settlers followed herds of large game to the region during the last glacial period . They preceded the Anishinaabe , the Dakota , and other Native American inhabitants . Fur traders from France arrived during the 17th century . Europeans , moving west during the 19th century , drove out most of the Native Americans . Fort Snelling , built to protect United States territorial interests , brought early settlers to the area . Early settlers used Saint Anthony Falls for powering sawmills in the area that became Minneapolis , while others settled downriver in the area that became Saint Paul .
Minnesota gained legal existence as the Minnesota Territory in 1849 , and became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11 , 1858 . After the upheaval of the American Civil War and the Dakota War of 1862 , the state 's economy started to develop when natural resources were tapped for logging and farming . Railroads attracted immigrants , established the farm economy , and brought goods to market . The power provided by St. Anthony Falls spurred the growth of Minneapolis , and the innovative milling methods gave it the title of the " milling capital of the world " .
New industry came from iron ore , discovered in the north , mined relatively easily from open pits , and shipped to Great Lakes steel mills from the ports at Duluth and Two Harbors . Economic development and social changes led to an expanded role for state government and a population shift from rural areas to cities . The Great Depression brought layoffs in mining and tension in labor relations but New Deal programs helped the state . After World War II , Minnesota became known for technology , fueled by early computer companies Sperry Rand , Control Data and Cray . The Twin Cities also became a regional center for the arts with cultural institutions such as the Guthrie Theater , Minnesota Orchestra , and the Walker Art Center .
= = Native American inhabitation = =
The oldest known human remains in Minnesota , dating back about 9000 years ago , were discovered near Browns Valley in 1933 . " Browns Valley Man " was found with tools of the Clovis and Folsom types . Some of the earliest evidence of a sustained presence in the area comes from a site known as Bradbury Brook near Mille Lacs Lake which was used around 7500 BC . Subsequently , extensive trading networks developed in the region . The body of an early resident known as " Minnesota Woman " was discovered in 1931 in Otter Tail County . Radiocarbon dating places the age of the bones approximately 8 @,@ 000 years ago , approximately 7890 Β± 70 BP or near the end of the Eastern Archaic period . She had a conch shell from a snail species known as Busycon perversa , which had previously only been known to exist in Florida .
Several hundred years later , the climate of Minnesota warmed significantly . As large animals such as mammoths became extinct , native people changed their diet . They gathered nuts , berries , and vegetables , and they hunted smaller animals such as deer , bison , and birds . The stone tools found from this era became smaller and more specialized to use these new food sources . They also devised new techniques for catching fish , such as fish hooks , nets , and harpoons . Around 5000 BC , people on the shores of Lake Superior ( in Minnesota and portions of what is now Michigan , Wisconsin , and Canada ) were the first on the continent to begin making metal tools . Pieces of ore with high concentrations of copper were initially pounded into a rough shape , heated to reduce brittleness , pounded again to refine the shape , and reheated . Edges could be made sharp enough to be useful as knives or spear points .
Archaeological evidence of Native American settlements dates back as far as 3000 BC ; the Jeffers Petroglyphs site in southwest Minnesota contains carvings thought to date to the Late Archaic Period ( 3000 BC to 1000 BC ) . Around 700 BC , burial mounds were first created , and the practice continued until the arrival of Europeans , when 10 @,@ 000 such mounds dotted the state .
By AD 800 , wild rice became a staple crop in the region , and corn farther to the south . Within a few hundred years , the Mississippian culture reached into the southeast portion of the state , and large villages were formed . The Dakota Native American culture may have descended from some of the peoples of the Mississippian culture .
When Europeans first started exploring Minnesota , the region was inhabited primarily by tribes of Dakota , with the Ojibwa ( sometimes called Chippewa , or Anishinaabe ) beginning to migrate westward into the state around 1700 . The economy of these tribes was chiefly based on hunter @-@ gatherer activities . There was also a small group of Ho @-@ Chunk ( Winnebago ) Native Americans near Long Prairie , who later moved to a reservation in Blue Earth County in 1855 .
= = European exploration = =
Though highly controversial , an inscribed stone known as the Kensington Runestone suggests that a group of Norse explorers may have ventured as far inland as Minnesota as early as 1362 , though many consider it a hoax .
It was a few more centuries before contact between Europeans and Native Americans of Minnesota could be confirmed . In the late 1650s , Pierre Esprit Radisson and MΓ©dard des Groseilliers were probably the first to meet Dakota Native Americans while following the southern shore of Lake Superior ( which would become northern Wisconsin ) . The north shore was explored in the 1660s . Among the first to do this was Claude Allouez , a missionary on Madeline Island . He made an early map of the area in 1671 .
Around this time , the Ojibwa Native Americans reached Minnesota as part of a westward migration . Having come from a region around Maine , they were experienced at dealing with European traders . They dealt in furs and possessed guns . Tensions rose between the Ojibwa and Dakota in the ensuing years .
In 1671 , France signed a treaty with a number of tribes to allow trade . Shortly thereafter , French trader Daniel Greysolon , Sieur du Lhut arrived in the area and began trading with the local tribes . Du Lhut explored the western area of Lake Superior , near his namesake , the city of Duluth , and areas south of there . He helped to arrange a peace agreement between the Dakota and Ojibwa tribes in 1679 .
Father Louis Hennepin with companions Michel Aco and Antoine Auguelle ( aka Picard Du Gay ) headed north from the area of Illinois after coming into that area with an exploration party headed by RenΓ© @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle . They were captured by a Dakota tribe in 1680 . While with the tribe , they came across and named the Falls of Saint Anthony . Soon , Du Lhut negotiated to have Hennepin 's party released from captivity . Hennepin returned to Europe and wrote a book , Description of Louisiana , published in 1683 , about his travels where many portions ( including the part about Saint Anthony Falls ) were strongly embellished . As an example , he described the falls as being a drop of fifty or sixty feet , when they were really only about sixteen feet . Pierre @-@ Charles Le Sueur explored the Minnesota River to the Blue Earth area around 1700 . He thought the blue earth was a source of copper , and he told stories about the possibility of mineral wealth , but there actually was no copper to be found .
Explorers searching for the fabled Northwest Passage and large inland seas in North America continued to pass through the state . In 1721 , the French built Fort Beauharnois on Lake Pepin . In 1731 , the Grand Portage trail was first traversed by a European , Pierre La VΓ©rendrye . He used a map written down on a piece of birch bark by Ochagach , an Assiniboine guide . The North West Company , which traded in fur and competed with the Hudson 's Bay Company , was established along the Grand Portage in 1783 β 1784 .
Jonathan Carver , a shoemaker from Massachusetts , visited the area in 1767 as part of another expedition . He and the rest of the exploration party were only able to stay for a relatively short period , due to supply shortages . They headed back east to Fort Michilimackinac , where Carver wrote journals about the trip , though others would later claim the stories were largely plagiarized from others . The stories were published in 1778 , but Carver died before the book earned him much money . Carver County and Carver 's Cave are named for him .
Until 1818 the Red River Valley was considered British and was subject to several colonization schemes , such as the Red River Colony . The boundary where the Red River crossed the 49th parallel was not marked until 1823 , when Stephen H. Long conducted a survey expedition . When several hundred settlers abandoned the Red River Colony in the 1820s , they entered the United States by way of the Red River Valley , instead of moving to eastern Canada or returning to Europe . The region had been occupied by MΓ©tis people , the children of voyageurs and Native Americans , since the middle 17th century .
Several efforts were made to determine the source of the Mississippi River . The true source was found in 1832 , when Henry Schoolcraft was guided by a group of Ojibwa headed by Ozaawindib ( " Yellow Head " ) to a lake in northern Minnesota . Schoolcraft named it Lake Itasca , combining the Latin words veritas ( " truth " ) and caput ( " head " ) . The native name for the lake was Omashkooz , meaning elk . Other explorers of the area include Zebulon Pike in 1806 , Major Stephen Long in 1817 , and George William Featherstonhaugh in 1835 . Featherstonhaugh conducted a geological survey of the Minnesota River valley and wrote an account entitled A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor .
Joseph Nicollet scouted the area in the late 1830s , exploring and mapping the Upper Mississippi River basin , the St. Croix River , and the land between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers . He and John C. FrΓ©mont left their mark in the southwest of the state , carving their names in the pipestone quarries near Winnewissa Falls ( an area now part of Pipestone National Monument in Pipestone County ) .
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow never explored the state , but he did help to make it popular . He published The Song of Hiawatha in 1855 , which contains references to many regions in Minnesota . The story was based on Ojibwa legends carried back east by other explorers and traders ( particularly those collected by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft ) .
= = Territorial foundation and settlement = =
= = = Land acquisition = = =
All of the land east of the Mississippi River was granted to the United States by the Second Treaty of Paris at the end of the American Revolution in 1783 . This included what would become modern day Saint Paul but only part of Minneapolis , including the northeast , north @-@ central and east @-@ central portions of the state . The wording of the treaty in the Minnesota area depended on landmarks reported by fur traders , who erroneously reported an " Isle Phelipeaux " in Lake Superior , a " Long Lake " west of the island , and the belief that the Mississippi River ran well into modern Canada . Most of the state was purchased in 1803 from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase . Parts of northern Minnesota were considered to be in Rupert 's Land . The exact definition of the boundary between Minnesota and British North America was not addressed until the Anglo @-@ American Convention of 1818 , which set the U.S. β Canada border at the 49th parallel west of the Lake of the Woods ( except for a small chunk of land now dubbed the Northwest Angle ) . Border disputes east of the Lake of the Woods continued until the Webster @-@ Ashburton Treaty of 1842 .
Throughout the first half of the 19th century , the northeastern portion of the state was a part of the Northwest Territory , then the Illinois Territory , then the Michigan Territory , and finally the Wisconsin Territory . The western and southern areas of the state , although theoretically part of the Wisconsin Territory from its creation in 1836 , were not formally organized until 1838 , when they became part of the Iowa Territory .
= = = Fort Snelling and the establishment of Minneapolis and Saint Paul = = =
Fort Snelling was the first major U.S. military presence in the state . The land for the fort , at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers , was acquired in 1805 by Zebulon Pike . When concerns mounted about the fur trade in the area , construction of the fort began in 1819 . Construction was completed in 1825 , and Colonel Josiah Snelling and his officers and soldiers left their imprint on the area . One of the missions of the fort was to mediate disputes between the Ojibwe and the Dakota tribes . Lawrence Taliaferro was an agent of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs . He spent 20 years at the site , finally resigning in 1839 .
In the 1850s , Fort Snelling played a key role in the infamous Dred Scott court case . Slaves Dred Scott and his wife were taken to the fort by their master , John Emerson . They lived at the fort and elsewhere in territories where slavery was prohibited . After Emerson 's death , the Scotts argued that since they had lived in free territory , they were no longer slaves . Ultimately , the U.S. Supreme Court sided against the Scotts . Dred Scott Field , located just a short distance away in Bloomington , is named in the memory of Fort Snelling 's significance in one of the most important legal precedents in U.S. History .
By 1851 , treaties between Native American tribes and the U.S. government had opened much of Minnesota to settlement , so Fort Snelling no longer was a frontier outpost . It served as a training center for soldiers during the American Civil War and later as the headquarters for the Department of Dakota . A portion has been designated as Fort Snelling National Cemetery where over 160 @,@ 000 are interred . During World War II , the fort served as a training center for nearly 300 @,@ 000 inductees . After World War II , the fort was threatened with demolition due to the building of freeways Highway 5 and Highway 55 , but citizens rallied to save it . Fort Snelling is now a historic site operated by the Minnesota Historical Society .
Fort Snelling was largely responsible for the establishment of the city of Minneapolis . In an effort to be self @-@ sufficient , the soldiers of the fort built roads , planted crops , and built a grist mill and a sawmill at Saint Anthony Falls . Later , Franklin Steele came to Fort Snelling as the post sutler ( the operator of the general store ) , and established interests in lumbering and other activities . When the Ojibwe signed a treaty ceding lands in 1837 , Steele staked a claim to land on the east side of the Mississippi River adjacent to Saint Anthony Falls . In 1848 , he built a sawmill at the falls , and the community of Saint Anthony sprung up around the east side of the falls . Steele told one of his employees , John H. Stevens , that land on the west side of the falls would make a good site for future mills . Since the land on the west side was still part of the military reservation , Stevens made a deal with Fort Snelling 's commander . Stevens would provide free ferry service across the river in exchange for a tract of 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 65 km2 ) at the head of the falls . Stevens received the claim and built a house , the first house in Minneapolis , in 1850 . In 1854 , Stevens platted the city of Minneapolis on the west bank . Later , in 1872 , Minneapolis absorbed the city of Saint Anthony .
The city of Saint Paul , Minnesota owes its existence to Fort Snelling . A group of squatters , mostly from the ill @-@ fated Red River Colony in what is now the Canadian province of Manitoba , established a camp near the fort . The commandant of Fort Snelling , Major Joseph Plympton , found their presence problematic because they were using timber and allowing their cattle and horses to graze around the fort . Plympton banned lumbering and the construction of any new buildings on the military reservation land . As a result , the squatters moved four miles downstream on the Mississippi River . They settled at a site known as Fountain Cave . This site was not quite far enough for the officers at the fort , so the squatters were forced out again . Pierre " Pig 's Eye " Parrant , a popular moonshiner among the group , moved downriver and established a saloon , becoming the first European resident in the area that later became Saint Paul . The squatters named their settlement " Pig 's Eye " after Parrant . The name was later changed to Lambert 's Landing and then finally Saint Paul . However , the earliest name for the area comes from a Native American colony Im @-@ in @-@ i @-@ ja Ska , meaning " White Rock " and referring to the limestone bluffs nearby .
Minneapolis and Saint Paul are collectively known as the " Twin Cities " . The cities enjoyed a rivalry during their early years , with Saint Paul being the capital city and Minneapolis becoming prominent through industry . The term " Twin Cities " was coined around 1872 , after a newspaper editorial suggested that Minneapolis could absorb Saint Paul . Residents decided that the cities needed a separate identity , so people coined the phrase " Dual Cities " , which later evolved into " Twin Cities " . Today , Minneapolis is the largest city in Minnesota , with a population of 382 @,@ 618 in the 2000 census . Saint Paul is the second largest city , with a population of 287 @,@ 151 . Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor a metropolitan area with a population of 2 @,@ 968 @,@ 806 as of 2000 , with a total state population of 4 @,@ 919 @,@ 479 .
= = = Early European settlement and development = = =
Henry Hastings Sibley built the first stone house in the Minnesota Territory in Mendota in 1838 , along with other limestone buildings used by the American Fur Company , which bought animal pelts at that location from 1825 to 1853 . Another area of early economic development in Minnesota was the logging industry . Loggers found the white pine especially valuable , and it was plentiful in the northeastern section of the state and in the St. Croix River valley . Before railroads , lumbermen relied mostly on river transportation to bring logs to market , which made Minnesota 's timber resources attractive . Towns like Marine on St. Croix and Stillwater became important lumber centers fed by the St. Croix River , while Winona was supplied lumber by areas in southern Minnesota and along the Minnesota River . The unregulated logging practices of the time and a severe drought took their toll in 1894 , when the Great Hinckley Fire ravaged 480 square miles ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) in the Hinckley and Sandstone areas of Pine County , killing over 400 residents . The combination of logging and drought struck again in the Baudette Fire of 1910 and the Cloquet Fire of 1918 .
Saint Anthony , on the east bank of the Mississippi River later became part of Minneapolis , and was an important lumber milling center supplied by the Rum River . In 1848 , businessman Franklin Steele built the first private sawmill on the Saint Anthony Falls , and more sawmills quickly followed . The oldest home still standing in Saint Anthony is the Ard Godfrey house , built in 1848 , and lived in by Ard and Harriet Godfrey . The house of John H. Stevens , the first house on the west bank in Minneapolis , was moved several times , finally to Minnehaha Park in south Minneapolis in 1896 .
= = = Minnesota Territory = = =
Stephen A. Douglas ( D ) , the chair of the Senate Committee on Territories , drafted the bill authorizing Minnesota Territory . He had envisioned a future for the upper Mississippi valley , so he was motivated to keep the area from being carved up by neighboring territories . In 1846 , he prevented Iowa from including Fort Snelling and Saint Anthony Falls within its northern border . In 1847 , he kept the organizers of Wisconsin from including Saint Paul and Saint Anthony Falls . The Minnesota Territory was established from the lands remaining from Iowa Territory and Wisconsin Territory on March 3 , 1849 . The Minnesota Territory extended far into what is now North Dakota and South Dakota , to the Missouri River . There was a dispute over the shape of the state to be carved out of Minnesota Territory . An alternate proposal that was only narrowly defeated would have made the 46th parallel the state 's northern border and the Missouri River its western border , thus giving up the whole northern half of the state in exchange for the eastern half of what later became South Dakota .
With Alexander Ramsey ( W ) as the first governor of Minnesota Territory and Henry Hastings Sibley ( D ) as the territorial delegate to the United States Congress , the populations of Saint Paul and Saint Anthony swelled . Henry M. Rice ( D ) , who replaced Sibley as the territorial delegate in 1853 , worked in Congress to promote Minnesota interests . He lobbied for the construction of a railroad connecting Saint Paul and Lake Superior , with a link from Saint Paul to the Illinois Central .
= = = Statehood = = =
In December 1856 , Rice brought forward two bills in Congress : an enabling act that would allow Minnesota to form a state constitution , and a railroad land grant bill . Rice 's enabling act defined a state containing both prairie and forest lands . The state was bounded on the south by Iowa , on the east by Wisconsin , on the north by Canada , and on the west by the Red River of the North and the Bois de Sioux River , Lake Traverse , Big Stone Lake , and then a line extending due south to the Iowa border . Rice made this motion based on Minnesota 's population growth .
At the time , tensions between the northern and the southern United States were growing , in a series of conflicts that eventually resulted in the American Civil War . There was little debate in the United States House of Representatives , but when Stephen A. Douglas introduced the bill in the United States Senate , it caused a firestorm of debate . Northerners saw their chance to add two senators to the side of the free states , while Southerners were sure that they would lose power . Many senators offered polite arguments that the population was too sparse and that statehood was premature . Senator John Burton Thompson of Kentucky , in particular , argued that new states would cost the government too much for roads , canals , forts , and lighthouses . Although Thompson and 21 other senators voted against statehood , the enabling act was passed on February 26 , 1857 .
After the enabling act was passed , territorial legislators had a difficult time writing a state constitution . A constitutional convention was assembled in July 1857 , but Republicans and Democrats were deeply divided . In fact , they formed two separate constitutional conventions and drafted two separate constitutions . Eventually , the two groups formed a conference committee and worked out a common constitution . The divisions continued , though , because Republicans refused to sign a document that had Democratic signatures on it , and vice versa . One copy of the constitution was written on white paper and signed only by Republicans , while the other copy was written on blue @-@ tinged paper and signed by Democrats . These copies were signed on August 29 , 1857 . An election was called on October 13 , 1857 , where Minnesota residents would vote to approve or disapprove the constitution . The constitution was approved by 30 @,@ 055 voters , while 571 rejected it .
The state constitution was sent to the United States Congress for ratification in December 1857 . The approval process was drawn out for several months while Congress debated over issues that had stemmed from the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act . Southerners had been arguing that the next state should be pro @-@ slavery , so when Kansas submitted the pro @-@ slavery Lecompton Constitution , the Minnesota statehood bill was delayed . After that , Northerners feared that Minnesota 's Democratic delegation would support slavery in Kansas . Finally , after the Kansas question was settled and after Congress decided how many representatives Minnesota would get in the House of Representatives , the bill passed . The eastern half of the Minnesota Territory , under the boundaries defined by Henry Mower Rice , became the country 's 32nd state on May 11 , 1858 . The western part remained unorganized until its incorporation into the Dakota Territory on March 2 , 1861 .
= = Civil War era and Dakota War of 1862 = =
Minnesota strongly supported the Union war effort , with about 22 @,@ 000 Minnesotans serving . The 1st Minnesota Volunteer Infantry was particularly important to the Battle of Gettysburg . Governor Alexander Ramsey happened to be in Washington D.C. when Ft . Sumter was fired upon . He went immediately to the White House and made his state the first to offer help in putting down the rebellion .
At the same time , the state faced another crisis as the Dakota War of 1862 broke out . The Dakota had signed the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux and Treaty of Mendota in 1851 because they were concerned that without money from the United States government , they would starve , due to the loss of habitat of huntable game . They were initially given a strip of land of ten miles ( 16 km ) north and south of the Minnesota River , but they were later forced to sell the northern half of the land . In 1862 , crop failures left the Dakota with food shortages , and government money was delayed . After four young Dakota men , searching for food , shot a family of white settlers near Acton , the Dakota leadership decided to continue the attacks in an effort to drive out the settlers . Over a period of several days , Dakota attacks at the Lower Sioux Agency , New Ulm and Hutchinson , as well as in the surrounding farmlands , resulted in the deaths of at least 300 to 400 white settlers and government employees , causing panic in the settlements and provoking counterattacks by state militia and federal forces which spread throughout the Minnesota River Valley and as far away as the Red River Valley . The ensuing battles at Fort Ridgely , Birch Coulee , Fort Abercrombie , and Wood Lake punctuated a six @-@ week war , which ended with the trial of 425 Native Americans for their participation in the war . Of this number , 303 men were convicted and sentenced to death .
Episcopal Bishop Henry Benjamin Whipple pleaded to President Abraham Lincoln for clemency , and the death sentences of all but 39 men were reduced to prison terms . On December 26 , 1862 , 38 men were hanged by the U.S. Army at Mankato β the largest mass execution in the United States . Many of the remaining Dakota Native Americans , including non @-@ combatants , were confined in a prison camp at Pike Island over the winter of 1862 β 1863 , where more than 300 died of disease . Survivors were later exiled to the Crow Creek Reservation , then later to a reservation near Niobrara , Nebraska .
A small number of Dakota Native Americans managed to return to Minnesota in the 1880s and establish communities near Granite Falls , Morton , Prior Lake , and Red Wing . However , after this time Dakota people were no longer allowed to reside in Minnesota with the exception of the meritorious Sioux called the Loyal Mdewakanton . This separate class of Dakota did not participate in the Dakota War of 1862 , since they were assimilated Christians and instead decided to help some of the missionaries escape the Sioux warriors who chose to fight .
= = Economic and social development = =
= = = Farming and railroad development = = =
After the Civil War , Minnesota became an attractive region for European immigration and settlement as farmland . Minnesota 's population in 1870 was 439 @,@ 000 ; this number tripled during the two subsequent decades . The Homestead Act in 1862 facilitated land claims by settlers , who regarded the land as being cheap and fertile . The railroad industry , led by the Northern Pacific Railway and Saint Paul and Pacific Railroad , advertised the many opportunities in the state and worked to get immigrants to settle in Minnesota . James J. Hill , in particular , was instrumental in reorganizing the Saint Paul and Pacific Railroad and extending lines from the Minneapolis @-@ Saint Paul area into the Red River Valley and to Winnipeg . Hill was also responsible for building a new passenger depot in Minneapolis , served by the landmark Stone Arch Bridge which was completed in 1883 . During the 1880s , Hill continued building tracks through North Dakota and Montana . In 1890 , the railroad , now known as the Great Northern Railway , started building tracks through the mountains west to Seattle . Other railroads , such as the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad and the Milwaukee Road , also played an important role in the early days of Minnesota 's statehood . Later railways , such as the Soo Line and Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway facilitated the sale of Minneapolis flour and other products , although they were not as involved in attracting settlers .
Oliver Hudson Kelley played an important role in farming as one of the founders of the National Grange , along with several other clerks in the United States Department of Agriculture . The movement grew out of his interest in cooperative farm associations following the end of the Civil War , and he established local Grange chapters in Elk River and Saint Paul . The organization worked to provide education on new farming methods , as well as to influence government and public opinion on matters important to farmers . One of these areas of concern was the freight rates charged by the railroads and by the grain elevators . Since there was little or no competition between railroads serving Minnesota farm communities , railroads could charge as much as the traffic would bear . By 1871 , the situation was so heated that both the Republican and Democratic candidates in state elections promised to regulate railroad rates . The state established an office of railroad commissioner and imposed maximum charges for shipping . Populist Ignatius L. Donnelly also served the Grange as an organizer .
Saint Anthony Falls , the only waterfall of its height on the Mississippi , played an important part in the development of Minneapolis . The power of the waterfall first fueled sawmills , but later it was tapped to serve flour mills . In 1870 , only a small number of flour mills were in the Minneapolis area , but by 1900 Minnesota mills were grinding 14 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's grain . Advances in transportation , milling technology , and water power combined to give Minneapolis a dominance in the milling industry . Spring wheat could be sown in the spring and harvested in late summer , but it posed special problems for milling . To get around these problems , Minneapolis millers made use of new technology . They invented the middlings purifier , a device that used jets of air to remove the husks from the flour early in the milling process . They also started using roller mills , as opposed to grindstones . A series of rollers gradually broke down the kernels and integrated the gluten with the starch . These improvements led to the production of " patent " flour , which commanded almost double the price of " bakers " or " clear " flour , which it replaced . Pillsbury and the Washburn @-@ Crosby Company ( a forerunner of General Mills ) became the leaders in the Minneapolis milling industry . This leadership in milling later declined as milling was no longer dependent on water power , but the dominance of the mills contributed greatly to the economy of Minneapolis and Minnesota , attracting people and money to the region .
= = = Industrial development = = =
At the end of the 19th century , several forms of industrial development shaped Minnesota . In 1882 , a hydroelectric power plant was built at Saint Anthony Falls , marking one of the first developments of hydroelectric power in the United States . Iron mining began in northern Minnesota with the opening of the Soudan Mine in 1884 . The Vermilion Range was surveyed and mapped by a party financed by Charlemagne Tower . Another mining town , Ely began with the foundation of the Chandler Mine in 1888 . Soon after , the Mesabi Range was established when ore was found just under the surface of the ground in Mountain Iron . The Mesabi Range ultimately had much more ore than the Vermilion Range , and it was easy to extract because the ore was closer to the surface . As a result , open @-@ pit mines became well @-@ established on the Mesabi Range , with 111 mines operating by 1904 . To ship the iron ore to refineries , railroads such as the Duluth , Missabe and Iron Range Railway were built from the iron ranges to Two Harbors and Duluth on Lake Superior . Large ore docks were used at these cities to load the iron ore onto ships for transport east on the Great Lakes . The mining industry helped to propel Duluth from a small town to a large , thriving city . In 1904 , iron was discovered in the Cuyuna Range in Crow Wing County . Between 1904 and 1984 , when mining ceased , more than 106 million tons of ore were mined . Iron from the Cuyuna Range also contained significant proportions of manganese , increasing its value .
= = = Mayo Clinic = = =
Dr. William Worrall Mayo , the founder of the Mayo Clinic , emigrated from Salford , United Kingdom to the United States in 1846 and became a medical doctor in 1850 . In 1863 , Mayo moved to Rochester , followed by his family the next year . In the summer of 1883 , an F5 tornado struck , dubbed the 1883 Rochester tornado , causing a substantial number of deaths and injuries . Dr. W. W. Mayo worked with nuns from the Sisters of St. Francis to treat the survivors . After the disaster , Mother Alfred Moes and Dr. Mayo recognized the need for a hospital and joined together to build the 27 @-@ bed Saint Marys Hospital which opened in 1889 . The hospital , with over 1100 beds , is now part of the Mayo Clinic , which grew out of the practice of William Worrall Mayo and his sons , William James Mayo ( 1861 β 1939 ) and Charles Horace Mayo . Dr. Henry Stanley Plummer joined the Mayo Brothers ' practice in 1901 . Plummer developed many of the systems of group practice which are universal around the world today in medicine and other fields , such as a single medical record and an interconnecting telephone system .
= = = Urbanization and government = = =
As a result of industrialization , the population became more concentrated into urban areas . By 1900 , the Twin Cities were becoming a center of commerce , led by the Minneapolis Grain Exchange and the foundation of the Federal Reserve Bank with its ninth district in Minneapolis . Many of the businessmen who had made money in the railroad , flour milling , and logging industries lived in the Twin Cities and personified the gilded age . They started to donate money for cultural institutions such as the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra ( now the Minnesota Orchestra ) . The parks of Minneapolis , under the direction of Theodore Wirth became famous , and the new Minnesota State Capitol building and the Cathedral of Saint Paul attracted attention to Saint Paul .
The role of government also grew during the early 20th century . In the rural areas , most people obtained food and manufactured goods from neighbors and other people they knew personally . As industry and commerce grew , goods such as food , materials , and medicines were no longer made by neighbors , but by large companies . In response , citizens called on their government for consumer protection , inspection of goods , and regulation of public utilities . The growth of the automobile spurred calls to develop roads and to enforce traffic laws . The state officially started its trunk highway system in 1920 , with the passage of the Babcock Amendment that established 70 Constitutional Routes around the state . New regulation was necessary for banking and insurance . The safety of industrial workers and miners became an increasing concern , and brought about the workers ' compensation system . Since government was getting more complex , citizens demanded more of a role in their government , and became more politically active .
= = = Great Depression = = =
Wilbur Foshay , an owner of several utility companies , built the Foshay Tower in 1929 , just before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . The building was the tallest building in Minnesota at the time . It remained the tallest building in Minneapolis until 1973 , when the IDS Tower surpassed it . The tower was a symbol of the wealth of the times , but when the stock market crashed , Foshay lost his fortune in the crash .
The Great Depression had several effects on Minnesota , with layoffs on the Iron Range and a drought in the Great Plains from 1931 through 1936 . While the Depression had several causes , one most relevant to Minnesota was that United States businesses in the 1920s had improved their efficiency through standardizing production methods and eliminating waste . Business owners were reaping the benefits of this increase in productivity , but they were not sharing it with their employees because of the weakness of organized labor , nor were they sharing it with the public in the form of lowered prices . Instead , the windfall went to stockholders . The eventual result was that consumers could no longer afford the goods that factories were producing .
Floyd B. Olson of the Minnesota Farmer @-@ Labor Party was elected as the governor in the 1930 election . In his first term , he signed a bonding bill that authorized $ 15 million ( $ 210 million as of 2016 ) for highway construction , in an effort to provide work for the unemployed . He also signed an executive order that provided for a minimum wage of 45 cents per hour for up to 48 hours weekly . This effort predated the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 that established a nationwide minimum wage . By 1932 , with the Depression worsening , the Farmer @-@ Labor Party platform was proposing a state income tax , a graduated tax on nationwide chain stores ( such as J.C. Penney and Sears , Roebuck and Company ) , low @-@ interest farm loans , and a state unemployment insurance program . The progressive 1933 legislative session saw a comprehensive response to the depression including a moratorium on mortgage foreclosures , a reduction in property taxes for farmers and homeowners , the state income tax , and chain store taxes , tavern reform , ratification of a child labor amendment , a state old @-@ age pension system , and steps toward preserving the area that later became the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness .
Meanwhile , formerly quiet labor unions began asserting themselves rather forcefully . The Minneapolis Teamsters Strike of 1934 turned ugly , with the union demanding the right to speak for all trucking employees . As a result of this strike and many others across the nation , Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 . Government programs such as the Civilian Conservation Corps and Works Progress Administration brought much @-@ needed work projects to the state . Congress passed the Indian Reorganization Act in 1934 , giving Minnesota 's Ojibwa and Dakota tribes more autonomy over their own affairs .
= = Modern Minnesota = =
= = = Arts and culture = = =
The Minneapolis Institute of Arts was established in 1883 . The present building , a neoclassical structure , was opened in 1915 , with additions in 1974 by Kenzo Tange and in 2006 by Michael Graves .
The Minnesota Orchestra dates back to 1903 when it was founded as the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra . It was renamed the Minnesota Orchestra in 1968 and moved into its own building , Orchestra Hall , in downtown Minneapolis in 1974 . The building has a modern look with a brick , glass , and steel exterior , in contrast to the old @-@ world look of traditional concert halls . The interior of the building features more than 100 large cubes that deflect sound and provide excellent acoustics . Later the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra became the second full @-@ time professional orchestral ensemble in the cities .
The Walker Art Center was established in 1927 as the first public art gallery in the Upper Midwest . In the 1940s , the museum shifted its focus toward modern art , after a gift from Mrs. Gilbert Walker made it possible to acquire works by Pablo Picasso , Henry Moore , Alberto Giacometti , and others . The museum continued its focus on modern art with traveling shows in the 1960s .
The Guthrie Theater , opened in 1963 , was the brainchild of Sir Tyrone Guthrie , who wanted to found a regional theater without the commercial constraints of Broadway . The high cost of staging Broadway productions meant that shows had to be immediately successful and return a high amount of revenue . This discouraged innovation and experimentation , and made it difficult to stage important works of literature . These ideas were first disseminated in a 1959 article in the drama section of the New York Times , and citizens in the Minneapolis @-@ Saint Paul area were eager to support the idea . The theater served as a prototype for other resident non @-@ profit theaters .
= = = Minnesota in World War II = = =
Like other U.S. States , Minnesota made its contributions to the effort of World War II in wartime manufacturing and other areas . The United States Navy contracted with Cargill to build ships after seeing their success in building ships and barges used to haul grain . Cargill built facilities in Savage , Minnesota on the south bank of the Minnesota River and turned out 18 refueling ships and four towboats in four years . After the war , the Cargill facilities became a major grain shipping terminal . Honeywell built airplane control systems and periscope sights for submarines , and also developed a proximity fuse for anti @-@ aircraft shells . The United States government built the Twin Cities Ordnance Plant to produce munitions . The plant employed 8 @,@ 500 workers in 1941 , and since there was a shortage of male workers during the war , more than half of the workers at the munitions plant were women . The plant also employed nearly 1000 African American workers , as President Roosevelt had issued an executive order forbidding racial discrimination in defense industries . Native American workers also found opportunities due to workforce shortages in wartime .
During the wartime years , Savage was also the home of Camp Savage , a school designed to improve the foreign language skills of Japanese @-@ American soldiers and to train them in military intelligence gathering . The school was originally established in San Francisco , but moved to Minnesota after the bombing of Pearl Harbor . Eventually , the school outgrew its facilities in Savage and was moved to Fort Snelling . Fort Snelling itself served a major role as a reception center for newly drafted recruits after the Selective Service Act was passed in 1940 . New recruits were given a physical exam and the Army General Qualification Test to determine their fitness for service in a particular branch . The most intelligent recruits , about 37 % of Minnesotans going through Fort Snelling , were assigned to the Army Air Corps . Recruits were also issued uniforms and sent from the fort to other training centers . Over 300 @,@ 000 recruits were processed through Fort Snelling during the World War II years .
= = = Modern economy = = =
Agriculture evolved from an individual occupation into a major industry after World War II . Technological developments increased productivity on farms , such as automation of feedlots for hogs and cattle , machine milking at dairy farms , and raising chickens in large buildings . Planting also became more specialized with hybridization of corn and wheat , fertilization , and mechanical equipment such as tractors and combines became the norm . University of Minnesota professor Norman Borlaug contributed to this knowledge as part of the Green Revolution . Large canneries such as the Minnesota Valley Canning Company fed the country from Minnesota 's productive farmland .
The Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company ( 3M ) was founded in 1902 in Two Harbors , Minnesota , and was later moved to Duluth , Saint Paul , and then Maplewood . The founders of 3M got their start by manufacturing sandpaper . Under the leadership of William L. McKnight , the company established product lines such as abrasives for wet sanding , masking tape and other adhesives , roofing granules , resins , and films .
Suburban development intensified after the war , fueled by the demand for new housing . In 1957 , the Legislature created a planning commission for the Twin Cities metropolitan area . This became the Metropolitan Council in 1967 .
Northwest Airlines , the dominant airline at Minneapolis @-@ Saint Paul International Airport , was founded in 1926 carrying mail from the Twin Cities to Chicago . The airline , long headquartered in Eagan , merged with Delta Air Lines in October 2008 . The company will keep the Delta name and will be headquartered in Atlanta .
= = = The digital state = = =
More than any other Midwestern state , Minnesota attracted engineers , especially in the computer industry . Minnesota also became a center of technology after the war . Engineering Research Associates was formed in 1946 to develop computers for the Navy . It later merged with Remington Rand , and later became Sperry Rand . William Norris left Sperry in 1957 to form Control Data Corporation ( CDC ) . Cray Research was formed when Seymour Cray left CDC to form his own company . Medical device maker Medtronic also was founded in the Twin Cities in 1949 . Honeywell was a national player as well , until 1999 when it was bought out and its headquarters moved to New Jersey . National firms , such as International Business Machines , operated large branch offices . IBM also operated a substantial manufacturing and development site in Rochester , starting in 1956 . State government and powerful politicians such as Hubert Humphrey maintained a favorable climate . The University of Minnesota trained many computer specialists who decided to stay in the Minnesota rather than move to sunny California . Minnesota thus became a successful junior partner to Route 128 around Boston and Silicon Valley .
= = = Postwar politics = = =
Historian Annette Atkins has explored the changing long @-@ term pattern of Minnesota politics . In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century , the heavily rural state was hostile to business and railroads , with the Republicans dominant in the small towns , and the Democrats on the farms . Numerous left @-@ wing groups and third @-@ parties emerged , such as the Anti @-@ Monopolist party in the 1870s , the Populists in the 1890s , the Non @-@ Partisan League in the 1910s , and the Farmer @-@ Labor party in the 1930s . Isolationism was strong , Atkins argues , because of the fear that Eastern bankers and industrialists forced the United States into World War I to enlarge their profits . Business fought unions , and the unions fought back , and with the governor on their side unions won some violent battles in the 1930s . In recent decades , however , the liberal coalition has weakened . Labor unions are a shadow of their old strength . Most farmers have left for the towns and especially the Twin Cities , where half the people live . The state high income tax is troublesome , and complaints are often heard about to generous welfare benefits . The New Right has mobilized social conservatives , especially those from traditional religious backgrounds , with abortion a furiously contested issue . State government has become much more friendly toward growth and the needs of business entrepreneurship . Environmentalism has split left and right , with the industrial workers in the Up North and Iron Range districts demanding that their jobs be protected from environmentalists . Atkins finds that :
What makes the North country valuable to conservationists is the seclusion , beauty , isolation , quiet , clear water , and absence of development . The preservationists have tried to limit or prohibit roads , hydroelectric generators , sawmills and lumbering , resorts , power boats , airplanes , and snowmobiles β¦ . The tensions between development and preservation , restraint and grows , beauty and jobs runs deep and strong .
Hubert Humphrey was a Minnesotan who became a nationally prominent politician . He first ran for mayor of Minneapolis in 1943 , but lost the election to the Republican candidate by just a few thousand votes . As a Democrat , Humphrey recognized that his best chance for political success was to obtain the support of the Minnesota Farmer @-@ Labor Party . Other members of the Farmer @-@ Labor Party had been considering the idea , as encouraged by Franklin D. Roosevelt , but the merger only became reality after Humphrey traveled to Washington , D.C. to discuss the issue . Rather than simply absorbing the Farmer @-@ Labor party , with its constituency of 200 @,@ 000 voters , Humphrey suggested calling the party the Minnesota Democratic @-@ Farmer @-@ Labor Party . He was elected mayor of Minneapolis in 1945 , and one of his first actions was to propose an ordinance making racial discrimination by employers subject to a fine . This ordinance was adopted in 1947 , and although few fines were issued , the city 's banks and department stores realized that public relations would improve by hiring blacks in increasing numbers . Humphrey delivered an impassioned speech at the 1948 Democratic National Convention encouraging the party to adopt a civil rights plank in their platform . He was elected to the United States Senate in 1948 and was re @-@ elected in 1954 and 1960 .
In the early 1960s , the topic of civil rights was coming to national prominence with sit @-@ ins and marches organized by Martin Luther King Jr. and other black leaders . In 1963 , President John F. Kennedy sent a comprehensive civil rights bill to Congress , based largely on the ideas that Humphrey had been placing before the Senate for the previous fifteen years . The bill passed the House in early 1964 , but passage through the Senate was more difficult , due to southern segregationists who filibustered for 75 days . Finally , in June 1964 , the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law . Humphrey called this his greatest achievement . Lyndon B. Johnson recruited Humphrey for his running mate in the 1964 presidential election , and Humphrey became Vice President of the United States . Governor Karl Rolvaag ( DFL ) appointed Walter Mondale to fill Humphrey 's Senate seat . Humphrey voiced doubts about the 1965 bombings of North Vietnam , which alienated him from Johnson . He later defended Johnson 's conduct of the Vietnam War , alienating himself from liberals , who were beginning to oppose the war around 1967 . In the 1968 presidential election , Humphrey ran against Richard Nixon and Independent candidate George Wallace and lost the popular vote by only 0 @.@ 7 % . Humphrey later returned to the Senate in 1971 after Eugene McCarthy left office .
Eugene McCarthy ( DFL ) served in the United States House of Representatives from 1949 through 1959 and in the United States Senate from 1959 through 1971 . He gained a reputation as an intellectual with strong convictions and integrity . In 1967 , he challenged Lyndon B. Johnson for the presidential nomination , running on an anti @-@ war platform in contrast to Johnson 's policies . His strong support in the New Hampshire primary convinced Johnson to leave the race .
Democrat Walter Mondale also achieved national prominence as Vice President under Jimmy Carter . He served in the Senate from his appointment in 1964 until becoming Vice President in 1977 . In 1984 , he ran for President of the United States , choosing Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate . The election proved to be a landslide victory for popular incumbent Ronald Reagan . In 2002 , just 11 days before election day , when incumbent Senator Paul Wellstone was killed in a plane crash , Mondale stepped into the race as the Democratic candidate for the U.S. Senate . He lost the bid by two percentage points to the Republican , Norm Coleman .
In 1970 , Wendell Anderson ( DFL ) was elected as governor of Minnesota . He spent two years working with a split Minnesota Legislature to enact a tax and school finance reform package that shifted the source of public education funding from local property taxes to state sales taxes , as well as adding excise taxes to liquor and cigarettes . This achievement , dubbed the " Minnesota Miracle " , was immensely popular . In the next few years , the Legislature enacted other facets of their " new liberalism " , including ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment , strong environmental laws , increases in workers ' compensation and unemployment benefits , and elimination of income taxes for the working poor . Time Magazine featured Wendell Anderson and the state in an article entitled , " Minnesota : A State That Works " . In 1976 when Mondale resigned his Senate seat to become Jimmy Carter 's running mate , Anderson resigned the governor 's seat and turned it over to Lieutenant Governor Rudy Perpich ( DFL ) , who promptly appointed Anderson to fill Mondale 's vacant Senate seat . Voters turned Perpich and Anderson out of office in 1978 , in an election dubbed the " Minnesota Massacre " . Perpich was again elected as governor in 1983 and served until 1991 .
Paul Wellstone ( DFL ) was elected to the United States Senate in 1990 , defeating incumbent Rudy Boschwitz ( R ) in one of the biggest election upsets of the decade . In 1996 , he defeated Boschwitz again in a rematch of the 1990 election . Wellstone was known for being a liberal activist , as evidenced by his books How the Rural Poor Got Power : Narrative of a Grassroots Organizer , describing his work with the group Organization for a Better Rice County , and The Conscience of a Liberal : Reclaiming the Compassionate Agenda . He explored a possible presidential bid in 1998 , telling people he represented the " Democratic wing of the Democratic Party " . On October 25 , 2002 , he was killed in a plane crash near Eveleth , Minnesota , along with his wife , his daughter , three campaign staffers , and the two pilots .
Jesse Ventura , elected governor in 1998 , had a colorful past as a Navy SEAL , a professional wrestler , an actor , mayor of Brooklyn Park , and a radio and TV broadcaster . He left office after one term . His election brought international attention to the Independence Party .
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= The Fab Five ( film ) =
The Fab Five is a 2011 ESPN Films documentary about the 1990s Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball players known collectively as the Fab Five : Chris Webber , Jalen Rose , Juwan Howard , Jimmy King , and Ray Jackson . It chronicles the recruitment , glory years , notorious time @-@ out fiasco , cultural impact and the scandal that followed these players who are described as iconic figures in the media . The film originally aired on March 13 , 2011 on a national broadcast on ESPN . On its original airing , the film drew 2 @.@ 7 million viewers , setting a record as the highest @-@ rated ESPN documentary ever .
The film spawned critical commentary in a broad spectrum of media outlets which include leading newspapers such as The New York Times , The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post ; leading periodicals such as Forbes ; online forums such as Slate ; and leading news outlets such as MSNBC . In particular , the film sparked a verbal war between Jalen Rose and Duke University 's Grant Hill through the media regarding issues of race in sports and education that fueled the Duke β Michigan basketball rivalry . Coincidentally , the following week , the 2011 editions of Michigan and Duke met in the third round of the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament ; Duke won , 73 @-@ 71 .
= = Story = =
Previously Mitch Albom had chronicled the Fab Five in a book entitled Fab Five : Basketball , Trash Talk , The American Dream , and Fox Sports had attempted to review the group . The press regarded this as the first complete recounting of the fabled group . Rose describes this film as " almost like the Bible of the Fab Five Story " . An ESPN commentator describes the five players as the greatest incoming college basketball recruiting class ever . He notes that they were presented to the world as the embodiment of what was wrong with college sports because they wore revolutionary baggy shorts and black socks and blasted hip @-@ hop music while talking a lot of trash . The film documents the " formation , rise , scandal and epilogue of the team " . It documents the 1991 β 92 and 1992 β 93 teams , the University of Michigan basketball scandal , and related off the court issues such as hate mail . Forbes notes that the legacy of the quintet , which includes successive appearances in the championship game of the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship , was overshadowed by the scandal , which necessitated the removal of Final Four banners and vacating of games . The film is noted for presenting the inside story a group of players who the contemporary media derided as thugs and villains , while enterprise rode them as a multimillion @-@ dollar merchandising juggernaut .
The film chronicles a group of athletes who influenced a nation of basketball fans β some of whom became professional basketball players . It includes commentaries from former Michigan coaches Steve Fisher , Brian Dutcher , and Perry Watson , and rap icons Ice Cube and Chuck D. It also extends to details such as : " Howard discussing his grandmother 's death the day he signed his letter of intent , to Ray Jackson talking about being ' the fifth wheel ' and considering a transfer , to Jimmy King 's brutal honesty about his disdain for Christian Laettner -- in somewhat unpalatable verbiage , to Rose talking about the loitering ticket he got in the Detroit ' crack house . ' " The film also presented numerous other highlights of the era as well as some from the high school days of the featured players . Webber was considered notable for his non @-@ involvement in the production , while the rest of the Fab Five were credited as executive producers . Rose approached ESPN Films about the project and brought the other players into the fold . His production role came through his own company , Three Tier Entertainment . The film was directed by Jason Hehir and narrated by Taye Diggs .
At first , only three of the freshmen started . Although they all played when the season opened on December 2 , 1991 against the University of Detroit , they did not all play at the same time until December 7 against Eastern Michigan and did not start regularly until February 9 , 1992 . In that first game starting together as a regular unit , the five freshmen accounted for all the team 's points in a 74 β 65 victory against Notre Dame . The film presented the opinions of upperclassmen Eric Riley and James Voskuil when they were replaced by freshmen in the starting lineup . Both fought off impulses to transfer .
The four members of the Fab Five who participated in the film have had a tense relationship with Chris Webber , the one player who was not in the film . There was speculation that Chris Webber did not participate to avoid questions about the timeout call in the 1993 NCAA tournament title game . Webber said he initially agreed to be in the documentary but backed out after being told shooting would wrap up in a week , giving him insufficient time to prepare . Jimmy King called that assertion β a flat @-@ out lie . β
= = Ratings = =
ESPN built up the film with nearly a month of previews and promos . The week before the initial broadcast , ESPN aired clips of the film during some of its other programming ; they featured the team 's feelings about Duke prior to the 1992 championship game . These clips started what would become a national controversy .
The film 's initial airing established a record as the ratings leader among all ESPN documentaries with a 2 @.@ 1 rating according to Nielsen Company , surpassing two of the 30 for 30 films , each of which posted a 1 @.@ 8 rating : Pony Exce $ $ ( aired December 11 , 2010 , focusing on SMU football of the 1980s , a decade that culminated in scandal ) and The U ( aired December 12 , 2009 , detailing the University of Miami football team in the 1980s and 1990s ) . The Fab Five aired at 9 p.m. ET , drawing an average of 2 @,@ 088 @,@ 000 households and 2 @,@ 746 @,@ 000 viewers , both bests among ESPN documentaries ; it surpassed the previous high marks set by Pony Exce $ $ , when it was seen by an average of 1 @,@ 843 @,@ 000 homes and 2 @,@ 517 @,@ 000 viewers on ESPN . The Fab Five was rebroadcast at 11 p.m. on ESPN2 . In excess of 11 million people watched part of the movie on one of the two original national broadcasts on the day of the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament selections .
The Fab Five also garnered high TV ratings during their playing days ; they were one of the featured teams in both of the two highest rated NCAA Men 's Basketball Championship games ever played in terms of households ( although not viewers ) , The film aired almost precisely twenty years after the legendary group was assembled . In an attempt to meet the same college basketball fan viewer interest on the tournament selection weekend , HBO produced its own hour @-@ long documentary titled Runnin β Rebels of UNLV on Jerry Tarkanian and the UNLV Runnin ' Rebels basketball teams of the 1972 β 92 era . Fox Sports also aired an hour @-@ long special featuring sports agent Rob Pelinka , a Michigan teammate of the Fab Five , called Pelinka Chips In on March 14 , but the special had low ratings . Pelinka had a cameo in the Fab Five film . β
= = Critical review = =
The New York Times described the film as a " flashback to a time when baggy basketball shorts , hip @-@ hop music and black shoes were considered controversial and an affront to hoops purists " . Washington Post columnist Jason Reid noted that the film went out of its way to present the inappropriate racial commentary by Jalen Rose when he described Duke basketball head coach Mike Krzyzewski 's recruits as Uncle Toms . Among those critical of the racial commentary was Duke player Grant Hill , who was cited in an Associated Press story that ran in major national media outlets . Hill blogged on The New York Times with a response naming a litany of Dukies castigated by Rose 's general aspersions . His response was at the top of The New York Times ' " most @-@ emailed list " for several days and was shared on Facebook by nearly 100 @,@ 000 people within its first few days . King responded to Hill in The Wall Street Journal . In the midst of the media exchange , the 2011 editions of the teams advanced to meet on March 20 at 2011 NCAA Tournament West Regional in Charlotte , North Carolina , at the Time Warner Cable Arena with Duke ranked as a # 1 seed and Michigan as an # 8 seed . Duke head coach Mike Krzyzewski did not respond until after both teams were eliminated from the tournament , but he noted that he felt the statements were insulting and gave specific reasons why each of the Fab Five members did not go to Duke . Duke player and Michigan native Shane Battier supported Hill 's statements saying , " Maya Angelou couldn β t have written it and expressed it better . "
The Detroit Free Press ' Mark Snyder regarded The Fab Five as a " Warts and all " depiction . He went on to describe it as a " . . .a tour de force of information from coaches . . .to the scorned upperclassmen . . . , then @-@ Free Press beat writer Greg Stoda and the Detroit News ' Bryan Burwell , and even rappers Ice Cube and Chuck D reflecting on the style elements . . . " The article concluded by summarizing the film as " riveting , brutal in its honesty , realistic in its language and stunning in its archival footage " . One reviewer , however , felt that the reserves were a bit overlooked .
A Michigan writer from The Grand Rapids Press described the film as " youthful nostalgia that must be felt by a whole generation " , but noted that the film was lacking in terms of outside perspective . He noted that fans would have welcomed voices of Bobby Knight , Dick Vitale , Jimmy Jackson , or Christian Laettner . He also noted the absence of Webber 's voice as leaving the film with a hole . However , he noted that as much as the Fab Five revolutionized basketball in the American culture , this film remade the image of the Fab Five . Nonetheless , some questioned why Webber declined to participate and speculate on various reasons .
Another Michigan writer from SB Nation described the film as thorough in its ability to provide the viewer with the answers to natural intrigues such as : " How was the recruiting class assembled ? Who pushed for the baggy shorts ? The black socks ? How did a stodgy University of Michigan culture react to this bold , brash and outspoken team ? " Other columnists were also satisfied to learn that Rose came up with the shorts and Jackson came up with the socks . He also commended the film on its detail surrounding Chris Webber 's infamous timeout in the 1993 NCAA championship . The same reviewer enumerated his five biggest omissions from the film : Michigan athletic director Bill Martin , 1991 β 92 Duke Blue Devils men 's basketball team , 1992 β 93 North Carolina Tar Heels men 's basketball team , Michael Talley and Webber . He was also critical of Mitch Albom 's involvement with the Fab Five .
Rivals.com spoke against the tone of the film , which shows a lack of respect for team values . However , in describing the payment scandal , Webber 's related legal problems and the removal of the Fab Five 's banners from Crisler Arena , and the infamous timeout gaffe at the end of the 1993 national championship game at the 1993 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament the documentary was considered fearless .
Another controversy arose from the film when the Illinois Fighting Illini men 's basketball teams of the late 1980s with Kendall Gill and Stephen Bardo claimed to be the originators of baggy shorts in basketball . All of the Wolverines who took part in the production of the film described how they felt they originated the baggy shorts as a result of Rose 's request . Even rapper Ice Cube described his recollection of them as the originators .
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= The Sweet Escape ( song ) =
" The Sweet Escape " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her second studio album of the same name ( 2006 ) . It was written by Stefani , Akon , and Giorgio Tuinfort . Akon , who is also a featured artist , developed the song 's beat before collaborating with Stefani . He designed it based on her previous work with No Doubt , and Stefani later commented that it put her " on the yellow brick road to the No Doubt record I might do " . " The Sweet Escape " is an apology for a fight between two lovers and describes a dream of a pleasant life for them . As the album 's title track , its title was chosen to help market Stefani 's music and fashion lines .
The song received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics , though there was a negative response to Akon 's presence as a featured artist . " The Sweet Escape " was released as the album 's second single on December 19 , 2006 and was commercially successful in mainstream and adult contemporary markets . It reached the top 10 of most singles charts and topped the New Zealand Singles Chart . The song was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 50th Grammy Awards . In the song 's accompanying music video , Stefani attempts to escape from a golden prison .
= = Background and writing = =
Interscope Records ' CEO Jimmy Iovine , who helped with A & R for The Sweet Escape , arranged the collaboration between Stefani and Akon . Interscope sent Stefani a copy of Akon 's 2004 debut album Trouble and repeatedly encouraged her to work with him . Akon readily accepted , and Stefani accepted after several people had pushed her to work with him .
When Akon was asked to work with Stefani , he reviewed her work , ranging from her music with No Doubt to her solo career . He noted that the sound Stefani had cultivated with No Doubt was missing from her solo work . Stefani , preoccupied with her baby Kingston Rossdale , cancelled their session and commented that she " didn 't want to go through the pain of trying to work with someone [ she ] didn 't know " . Iovine called Stefani , telling her , " You can cancel everything else in your life , but don 't cancel this session . " She decided to work with Akon and expected that they would work on writing a write a generic hip hop song , one that would not fit her well .
When they met , Akon played some of his tracks for her . They thought about words that would suit the marketing of Stefani 's music and her clothing lines L.A.M.B. and Harajuku Lovers , settling on " Sweet Escape " . Akon played her the beat he had developed , and they began working on the song . They wrote it in 10 minutes , coming up with a doo @-@ wop song rather than the hip hop sound Stefani had expected .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" The Sweet Escape " is a ska and doo @-@ wop song composed in the key of B β minor . It is written in compound quadruple meter , commonly used in doo @-@ wop , and has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . Stefani 's vocal range covers nearly two octaves , from G3 to F5 .
The song uses two @-@ measure phrases that , aside from the choruses , use a i β III β IV β VI chord progression . The B β minor chord is held for 1 β
of a beat , and a relative transformation is then used to produce a second @-@ inversion D β major chord , which is held for 1 β
of a beat . In the second measure , a first @-@ inversion E β major chord with an added ninth precedes a G β major major seventh chord ; the chords are held for the same durations as the previous two .
The song opens with an introduction which consists of eight measures of instrumentals , followed by eight measures in which Akon sings " Woohoo , yeehoo " . The introduction has been claimed to be similar to that in the 1986 song " Sweet Sweet Gwendoline " by German band Die Γrzte . Overdubbing is introduced in the middle of the first verse to produce a sequence of eighth note B β minor chords from Stefani 's vocals . Stefani 's voice is overdubbed again when she sings the chorus twice . Akon performs , and Stefani then sings the second verse and the choruses again . She returns to the latter part of the first verse and repeats the choruses . The song closes as Akon repeats the lines " Woohoo , yeehoo " and " I want to get away to our sweet escape " as the song fades .
The song 's lyrics discuss an argument between spouses . Stefani apologizes " for acting stank " to her lover . She asks her lover for forgiveness and describes wanting to be a better wife . Although Stefani acknowledges her misdeeds , she nonetheless pushes off some of the blame in a manner that drew comparisons to Monica 's 1995 single " Don 't Take It Personal ( Just One of Dem Days ) " and TLC 's 1999 single " I 'm Good at Being Bad " . In contrast to her songwriting on No Doubt 's Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) , Stefani intimates a desire for a pleasant domestic life , most extensively during the chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
" The Sweet Escape " received generally positive reviews from contemporary pop music critics . In a review for AllMusic , Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the song as " an irresistible [ ... ] track , driven by a giddy ' wee @-@ oh ! ' hook and supported by a nearly anthemic summertime chorus " . John Murphy of musicOMH referred to " The Sweet Escape " as " a lovely , summery bouncy pop song with a very infectious chorus " . Murphy compared the song to Weezer 's 2002 single " Keep Fishin ' " , and Blender 's Ben Sisario compared it to the work of The Beach Boys . Alex Miller from the NME compared the song to Madonna 's early work but added that it sounded " cringey and saccharine " . Anna Britten from Yahoo ! Music commented that it sounded like music from 1970 , specifically that of soul group Chairmen of the Board . Bill Lamb of About.com called the song " a welcome change from the over @-@ produced ' Wind It Up ' " , but noted that it " easily jets in one ear and out the other leaving little trace of its presence " . MuchMusic 's video review program Video on Trial referred to the song as " incredibly intoxicating " .
Akon 's presence as a featured artist on the track received negative reviews . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters found that Akon contributed too few vocals to the song and that they were wasted . Rolling Stone reviewer Rob Sheffield agreed , viewing the song as a fumbled attempt to capitalize on the success of Akon 's " Smack That " featuring Eminem . The Observer 's Paul Flynn was displeased with his presence in lieu of higher profile hip hop artists such as Dr. Dre and AndrΓ© 3000 on Stefani 's previous album Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) . He added that the song sounded like a " weirdly flat " version of Madonna 's 1986 single " True Blue " . Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine described his vocals as " yelping " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , " The Sweet Escape " debuted at number 93 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue dated December 30 , 2006 . Following Stefani and Akon 's performance of the song on American Idol in late March 2007 , it peaked at number two on the chart dated April 14 behind Akon 's subsequent single " Don 't Matter " , selling 140 @,@ 200 downloads during that week . The song spent 15 consecutive weeks in the top 10 and remained on the chart for over nine months , listed at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 year @-@ end chart . The single was successful in mainstream music , topping the Pop 100 and Pop 100 Airplay charts and reaching number two on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . It had strong airplay on adult contemporary stations and reached the top five of the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks and Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks charts . The song was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 2008 Grammy Awards , but lost to Robert Plant and Alison Krauss ' " Gone Gone Gone ( Done Moved On ) " . At over 2 @.@ 1 million downloads , " The Sweet Escape " was the third best @-@ selling digital track of 2007 , and Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems listed it as the fifth most played song of the year . The song had equal success on Billboard 's Canadian Hot 100 ; it reached number two on unpublished versions of the chart , and debuted at number 14 when the chart was introduced during the week of June 2 , 2007 , the 10th week that " The Sweet Escape " had been listed . The song remained on the Canadian Hot 100 for over six months after the chart was officially introduced .
" The Sweet Escape " was similarly successful in Europe , topping the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart for three weeks in March 2007 . In the United Kingdom , the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number three , selling 30 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The following week , the track peaked at number two behind Take That 's " Shine " , giving Stefani her highest @-@ charting solo single in the UK . It spent a second consecutive week at number two behind Sugababes and Girls Aloud 's cover of " Walk This Way " , selling 23 @,@ 500 copies . The single was successful across continental Europe as well , reaching the top five in France , Hungary , Norway , the Netherlands , and Romania , and the top 10 in Austria , Belgium , the Czech Republic , Finland , Germany , and Switzerland .
The song debuted at number two on Australia 's ARIA Singles Chart and remained there for six weeks , behind Hinder 's " Lips of an Angel " and later Silverchair 's " Straight Lines " . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified " The Sweet Escape " double platinum for shipping 140 @,@ 000 copies . In New Zealand , the single debuted atop the chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video premiered on January 10 , 2007 on LAUNCHcast . The video opens with scenes of Stefani and the Harajuku Girls in a golden jail . After obtaining the key from a dog , they escape . Stefani is then shown in a penthouse two hours later . She lets down two long braids , allowing the Harajuku Girls to scale the building and cut off the braids . They meet Akon at a parking lot , and Stefani drives off with him . They are pursued by two of the Harajuku Girls as police officers , and the video closes with Stefani back in jail after two hours of chasing . The video is intercut with sequences of Stefani and Akon in front of a letter G in lights .
The video was filmed in December 2006 , several days before Christmas . It was directed by Joseph Kahn and produced by Maryann Tenado of H.S.I. Productions . The jail and penthouse scenes in the video are symbolic of " being jailed by love " . Stefani being unable to escape her metaphoric prisons represents how one cannot escape from oneself . The penthouse scene is an allusion to the 19th @-@ century fairy tale " Rapunzel " . The video features product placement for two General Motors vehicles , the Chevrolet Tahoe , and the Buick Lucerne .
" The Sweet Escape " premiered on MTV 's top @-@ 10 video chart program Total Request Live at number seven January 16 , 2007 , and it peaked at number two the next month . The video was nominated for Most Earthshattering Collaboration , one of four categories created for the reinvented 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to BeyoncΓ© and Shakira 's " Beautiful Liar " . After its January 20 debut on MuchMusic 's Countdown , it reached number one for two weeks in March 2007 . In December 2007 , MTV International introduced a certification system to recognize music videos that were successful on stations outside the US . Plays were totaled from February through June 2007 , and with 11 @,@ 000 plays , " The Sweet Escape " was the most successful video , receiving a platinum award .
= = Live performances = =
" The Sweet Escape " was featured on Stefani 's The Sweet Escape Tour . She also performed the song with Akon at the 2007 Kids ' Choice Awards , American Idol , and The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
= = In popular culture = =
The song and video were parodied on the February 17 , 2007 episode of Mad TV as " Aren 't Asians Great ? " . The video features Nicole Parker as Stefani and discusses the singer 's love of Asian culture as well as Asian contributions to the world .
= = Track listings = =
UK and German CD single
" The Sweet Escape " ( featuring Akon ) β 4 : 06
" Hollaback Girl " ( Harajuku Lovers Live Version ) β 4 : 49
Australian and German CD maxi single
" The Sweet Escape " ( featuring Akon ) β 4 : 06
" Hollaback Girl " ( Harajuku Lovers Live Version ) β 4 : 49
" Wind It Up " ( Robots to Mars Remix ) β 3 : 34
" The Sweet Escape " ( video ) β 4 : 05
US 12 " single
A1 . " The Sweet Escape " ( Konvict Remix ) ( featuring Akon ) β 4 : 03
A2 . " The Sweet Escape " ( Album Version ) ( featuring Akon ) β 4 : 06
B1 . " The Sweet Escape " ( Konvict Instrumental ) β 4 : 03
B2 . " The Sweet Escape " ( Album Version Instrumental ) β 4 : 06
B3 . " The Sweet Escape " ( Album Version Acappella ) β 3 : 51
Digital download β Konvict Remix
" The Sweet Escape " ( Konvict Remix ) ( featuring Akon ) β 4 : 01
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Honorius of Canterbury =
Honorius ( died 30 September 653 ) was a member of the Gregorian mission to Christianize the Anglo @-@ Saxons from their native Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism in 597 AD who later became Archbishop of Canterbury . During his archiepiscopate , he consecrated the first native English bishop of Rochester as well as helping the missionary efforts of Felix among the East Anglians . Honorius was the last to die among the Gregorian missionaries .
= = Early life = =
A Roman by birth , Honorius may have been one of those chosen by Pope Gregory the Great for the Gregorian mission to England , although it seems more likely that he was a member of the second party of missionaries , sent in 601 . It is not known if his name was given to him at birth or if he chose it when he became archbishop .
= = Archbishop = =
In 627 , Honorius was consecrated as archbishop by Paulinus of York at Lincoln . Honorius wrote to Pope Honorius I asking the pope to raise the see of York to an archbishopric , so that when one archbishop in England died , the other would be able to consecrate the deceased bishop 's successor . The pope agreed , and sent a pallium for Paulinus , but by this time , Paulinus had already been forced to flee from Northumbria . When Paulinus , after the death of King Edwin of Northumbria in October 633 , fled Northumbria , he was received by Honorius and appointed to the bishopric of Rochester . The papal letter is dated to June 634 , and implies that news of Edwin 's death had not reached the pope . This evidence may mean that the traditional date of Edwin 's death may need to be moved to October 634 . The papal letter may also mean that the traditional date of consecration for Honorius may need re @-@ dating , as the long gap between 627 , when he is said to have been consecrated , and 634 , when he finally received a pallium , is much longer than usually found . It may be that Honorius was consecrated closer to 634 . The papal letter to Honorius is given in the Ecclesiastical History of the medieval writer Bede .
Honorius consolidated the work of converting the English by sending Felix , a Burgundian , to Dunwich after Felix came to the archbishop and made known his desire to go to East Anglia as a missionary . Honorius may have consecrated Felix as the first bishop of East Anglia or Felix may have already have been consecrated on the continent . The dating of this episode is unclear , but it is probably close to 631 . It is possible that King Sigeberht of East Anglia , who converted to Christianity while he was in exile on the continent , had already met Felix and was behind Felix 's journey to Honorius . As well as his help to Felix , Honorius consecrated the first Anglo @-@ Saxon bishop , Ithamar of Rochester , and his successor was also a native of England .
Honorius had few conflicts with the Irish missionary efforts , and admired Aidan , one of the leading Irish clergy .
= = Death and legacy = =
Honorius died on 30 September 653 , the last of the Gregorian missionaries . He was buried at the Church of St. Augustine 's in Canterbury . He was later revered as a saint , with his feast day being 30 September . His relics were translated to a new tomb in 1091 , and around that same time a haigiography of his life was written by Goscelin . In the 1120s his relics were still being venerated at St Augustine 's .
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= Spiderland =
Spiderland is the second and final studio album by the American rock band Slint . It was released on March 27 , 1991 , through Touch and Go Records . Featuring dramatically alternating dynamics and vocals ranging from spoken word to shouting , the album contains narrative lyrics that emphasize alienation . Spiderland was Slint 's first release on Touch and Go , and the group 's only album to feature Todd Brashear .
Although Spiderland was not widely recognized on its initial release , it eventually sold more than 50 @,@ 000 copies and became a landmark album in underground music after Slint broke up . The album has been highly influential on the styles of many bands in the post @-@ rock and math rock genres , including Mogwai and Godspeed You ! Black Emperor , and has been named a favorite of several indie rock musicians . In 2007 , Slint reunited for a tour consisting of performances of Spiderland in its entirety .
= = Context = =
Slint formed in 1987 in Louisville , Kentucky , from the remnants of the punk rock band Squirrel Bait ; the founding members included Brian McMahan ( guitar , vocals ) , David Pajo ( guitar ) , Britt Walford ( drums ) and Ethan Buckler ( bass guitar ) . The band 's debut album , the Steve Albini @-@ produced Tweez , was released on the group 's self @-@ owned label Jennifer Hartman Records and Tapes . The album 's sound has been described as a combination of " scratchy guitars , thumping bass lines and hard hitting drums " . Buckler promptly left the band out of dissatisfaction with Albini 's production , and was replaced with Todd Brashear . The band 's second recording was for the instrumental extended play Slint , which included a new version of " Rhoda " from Tweez . The EP , which would not be released until 1994 , was a departure from Tweez 's sound and reflected the band 's new musical direction .
After the band ended its brief tour in support of Tweez , most of its members attended college . Around this time McMahan and Walford began writing together for the band 's next record , creating six new songs which the band practiced throughout the summer of 1990 . Slint entered River North Records in August 1990 to record Spiderland . At that time there were no vocals or lyrics prepared for the album , so the band wrote them while in the studio . The album 's producer , Brian Paulson , was known for his " live " recording style in the studio , with minimal takes . Paulson recalled " It was weird while I was doing [ Spiderland ] because I remember sitting there , and I just knew there was something about it . I 've never heard anything like this . I 'm really digging this but it 's really fucking weird . "
The recording sessions for Spiderland are reputed to have been difficult for the members of the band and were , according to AllMusic , " intense , traumatic and one more piece of evidence supporting the theory that band members had to be periodically institutionalized during the completion of the album . " Rumors circulated that at least one member of Slint had been checked into a psychiatric hospital . Walford later addressed these stories in an article in Select by saying , " [ We were ] definitely trying to be serious about things , pretty intense , which made recording the album kinda stressful . " The recording was completed in four days .
= = Music = =
The music of Spiderland is noted for its angular guitar rhythms , dramatically alternating dynamic shifts and irregular time signatures . McMahan 's singing style interchanges between mumbling spoken word and strained shouting . The lyrics of Spiderland are often written in a narrative style . Influences on the record included Gang of Four , Black Sabbath and Sonic Youth . Will Hermes of Spin summarized the album 's sound as " mid- ' 70s King Crimson gone emo : screeching guitar chords and gorgeous note @-@ spinning in odd @-@ metered instrumentals speckled with words both spoken and sung " .
The album 's opening track , " Breadcrumb Trail " , describes a day spent at a carnival with a fortune @-@ teller . The song features a complex arrangement with sharp transitions , and the guitar fluctuates between a clean @-@ sounding riff with harmonics in the verse to heavy distortion featuring extremely high @-@ pitched notes in the chorus .
" Nosferatu Man " , the second track , is inspired by the 1922 German Expressionist silent film Nosferatu . The song 's verse includes a dissonant guitar riff , which uses high @-@ pitched notes similar to those in " Breadcrumb Trail " and a drumbeat based on snare and toms , absent of cymbals . The chorus , featuring " jagged " distorted guitar and a thrash @-@ influence beat , segues into an extended jam before the song ends with 30 seconds of feedback .
" Don , Aman " features Walford on lead vocals and guitar . Delivered in a hushed tone , the song 's ambiguous lyrics depict the thoughts of an " isolated soul " before , after and during an evening at a bar . The tempo quickens throughout , and then becomes loud and distorted before slowing back to the original tempo .
" Washer " , the album 's longest track , features a " barely audible " intro with guitar and cymbals before the rest of the band comes in . The song builds tension until the final verse , which features loud distortion , and is followed by a lengthy outro .
" For Dinner ... " is an instrumental track . Beginning with a quiet section of " brooding chords throb [ bing ] with the occasional rumble of muted toms and bass drum " , the song cycles through sections of building and releasing tension . One guitar chord is repeatedly strummed for the last minute of the song before ending .
The final song of the album , " Good Morning Captain " , is a tribute to the Samuel Taylor Coleridge poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner . The song features a two chord guitar structure , a " spindly , tight riff " from the rhythm section and a " jerky " beat . During the recording of the song 's final chorus , McMahan became physically sick due to the strain of yelling over the guitars . David Peschek of The Guardian compared " Good Morning Captain " to Led Zeppelin 's " Stairway to Heaven " , writing that " the extraordinary Good Morning Captain is [ Slint 's ] Stairway to Heaven , if it 's possible to imagine Stairway to Heaven bleached of all bombast . "
On the iTunes edition of the album , an additional track is added to the end of the album , entitled " Utica Quarry , Nighttime " . The track is , simply , 15 minutes of field recordings of Utica Quarry , the same place where the photos for Spiderland were taken .
= = Title and packaging = =
The name Spiderland originates from McMahan 's younger brother , who thought that the record sounded " spidery " . The album 's black @-@ and @-@ white cover photograph , which depicts the members of the band ( Brashear , McMahan , Walford and Pajo , from left to right ) treading water in the lake of an abandoned quarry , was taken by Will Oldham . An article in The Stranger credited the cover for creating a mystique surrounding Slint , noting " [ m ] ost people only had seen Slint as four heads floating in a Kentucky quarry on Spiderland 's cover . Listeners pondered the band 's sparsely adorned black @-@ and @-@ white covers as if they were runes bearing secrets . " Chris Gaerig of the Michigan Daily wrote , " the cover of Slint 's masterful Spiderland captures the joyous fear and violence of the album so precisely it shakes souls . The group β submerged in a lake to their chins with deranged smiles β seems to be stalking you , hovering out of the black @-@ and @-@ white faΓ§ade . " Several other promotional images have been taken from the same photo session with Oldham .
A photo of a spider taken by Noel Saltzman is used on the back cover , reflecting the album 's title . The inside sleeve contains the message " interested female vocalists write 1864 douglas blvd. louisville , ky . 40205 " . McMahan confirmed that this message was serious , and said " We did get some responses and we did listen to CDs and tapes . We didn 't end up doing anything immediately , so that idea of adding someone sort of fell by the wayside . " The message " this recording is meant to be listened to on vinyl " is printed on some CD issues of Spiderland , demonstrating Slint 's preference of analog audio devices .
= = Reception = =
Spiderland received positive reviews from music critics , including Spin , NME , and The Village Voice . In a contemporary review for Melody Maker , Steve Albini , producer of Slint 's 1989 album Tweez , gave the album ten stars and called it " a majestic album , sublime and strange , made more brilliant by its simplicity and quiet grace . " Albini found its unadorned production impeccable and said that it vividly captures McMahan and Pajo 's playing so well that their guitars " seem to hover in space directly past the listener 's nose " , while " the incredibly precise @-@ yet @-@ instinctive drumming has the same range and wallop it would in your living room . "
In a retrospective review for AllMusic , Dean Carlson said that Spiderland is " one of the most essential and chilling releases in the mumbling post @-@ rock arena " . However , he felt that it is " slightly overrated " and that McMahan 's vocals convey " strangled pity instead of outright empathy . " Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic and wrote that , despite their " sad @-@ sack affect " , Slint are actually " art @-@ rockers without the courage of their pretensions " with poor lyrics . In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , Rolling Stone journalist Mac Randall felt that the album 's music lacks songform , even though it sounds more accessible than Tweez : " [ t ] he absence of anything resembling a tune continues to nag . "
In 2003 , Pitchfork wrote of Spiderland : " a heady , chilling listen ; the irregularity of its hypnotic melodies , fractured beats and mismatched lyrics demand a new kind of appreciation , independent of traditional notions of songcraft . With its half @-@ mumbled , half @-@ hollered vocals , deliberate percussion and drone @-@ gone @-@ aggressive guitars , Spiderland 's urgency is almost traumatic to swallow : despondency never tasted so real . " They named it the twelfth best album of the 1990s . In 2014 , Spiderland was reissued with 14 previously unreleased tracks and received universal acclaim from critics .
= = Legacy = =
Though largely ignored upon its initial release , Spiderland has attracted greater attention through time . This growth in popularity has been attributed in part to the appearance of the track " Good Morning , Captain " on the soundtrack to the 1995 film Kids . The soundtrack has sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies , though Kory Grow of the College Music Journal suggested that the album " has inspired countless bands ( and therefore fans ) far beyond its SoundScan numbers " . Spiderland has become a landmark indie rock album and is considered , along with Talk Talk 's Spirit of Eden and Laughing Stock , to have been the primary catalyst of the post @-@ rock genre . The album is also regarded as being essential to " the fabric of math @-@ rock genre " . David Peschek said that the album is " the ur @-@ text for what became known as post @-@ rock , a fractured , almost geometric reimagining of rock music stripped of its dionysiac impulse . " Rachel Devine of The List called Spiderland " arguably the most disproportionately influential [ album ] in music history " . Pitchfork Media reviewer Stuart Berman commented : " Spiderland β s greatest legacy is not that it motivated a cluster of semi @-@ popular bands in the late @-@ 90s and early 2000s to adopt its whisper @-@ to @-@ scream schematic . It β s the boundless inspiration it perpetually provides for all the bands that have yet to emerge from the basement . "
McMahan reflected on the album 's success : " We worked really hard on Spiderland . I mean , I definitely felt much more personal about it . I thought it represented us as people , musically , a lot more than Tweez did . That 's about it . It seemed like when we were around , and actively playing and stuff , that people 's responses to us were fairly ambivalent . I thought it was funny when the press picked up on it . For an independent release , it had a strange sort of audience and kept selling three or four years after we recorded it ; it still sells more copies than when it first came out . " Touch and Go founder Corey Rusk said that Spiderland is " like an icon now . But when it came out , nobody cared ! The band had broken up by the time the album came out , and it really didn 't sell particularly well or get written about all that much in the year it was released . But it was a revolutionary , groundbreaking record , and it 's one of the few instances where people catch up to it later on . "
Post @-@ rock bands Mogwai , Godspeed You ! Black Emperor , Isis and Explosions in the Sky have been influenced by Spiderland . Dinosaur Jr and Sebadoh member Lou Barlow said of Spiderland , " It was quiet @-@ to @-@ loud without sounding like grunge or indie rock . It sounded more like a new kind of music . " PJ Harvey has named Spiderland as one of her favorite albums , and supposedly contacted Slint regarding the band 's request for a female vocalist . Bob Nastanovich of Pavement and Mark Clifford of Seefeel have also cited Spiderland as among their favorite albums . The album cover of Spiderland was recreated by The Shins in the music video for " New Slang " .
= = = Reunion = = =
Despite having plans for a tour of Europe to promote Spiderland , Slint broke up in 1991 for reasons that were not revealed . Members of the band went on to join other musical projects , including Tortoise , The Breeders , Palace and The For Carnation . Slint reunited briefly in 2005 for an eighteen @-@ date tour . Pajo said , " We don 't want to be a reunion band that keeps reuniting . [ ... ] I know that this is going to be it . " However , in 2007 Slint reunited again for a tour featuring performances of Spiderland in its entirety as part of All Tomorrow 's Parties ' " Don 't Look Back " concert series celebrating classic albums . The tour included appearances at the 2007 Pitchfork Music Festival and Primavera Sound Festival . McMahan said in an interview at the Pitchfork Music Festival that performing the album live was " pretty cool . It moves a little slower than it does on the record , but it 's all there . [ ... ] It took some getting used to , some revisiting the material and rehearsing . " In an August 2013 interview with Vish Khanna , former producer Steve Albini revealed that the band was working on remastering Spiderland with engineer Bob Weston .
Critical responses to Slint 's reunion has been mixed , with detractors commenting on the music 's unsuitability for a live setting . Chicago Sun @-@ Times music critic Jim DeRogatis wrote that although " fans greeted [ Slint 's performance at the Pitchfork Music Festival ] as manna from heaven . [ ... ] the musicians ' fragile , intertwining guitar lines , mumbled attempts at poetry and uninspiring shoegazer personas were poor matches for the setting and the occasion , especially during the static , percussion @-@ deprived ' Don , Aman ' and the bloated anthem ' Good Morning , Captain ' . " According to members of The A.V. Club , Slint 's performance of " Don , Aman " at the festival " capture [ d ] the band 's greatness and its greatest weakness : Slint completely lacks stage charisma , and playing a deathly quiet , moody song on a big outdoor stage just doesn 't work . " Both DeRogatis and the A. V. Club review also noted that the band 's performance was plagued by sound problems . A New York review of a performance at Webster Hall opined " the deeply brooding , fussily @-@ executed album finally sounded , sixteen years later , like the existential , cosmos @-@ annihilating shrug it was envisioned as . Which is to say : It sounded fucking great . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Todd Brashear , Brian McMahan , David Pajo , and Britt Walford , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Slint
Todd Brashear β bass guitar
David Pajo β guitar
Brian McMahan β guitar , vocals
Britt Walford β drums , vocals , guitar
Technical personnel
Will Oldham β photography
Brian Paulson β engineering
Noel Saltzman β photography
= = Accolades = =
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= Phil Pressey =
Phillip Michael " Phil " Pressey ( born February 17 , 1991 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Salt Lake City Stars of the NBA Development League . His prior professional teams were the Boston Celtics , Philadelphia 76ers and Phoenix Suns of the National Basketball Association and the Maine Red Claws of the NBADL . As a junior playing point guard for the 2012 β 13 Missouri Tigers men 's basketball team , Pressey announced on April 10 , 2013 , that he would forgo his senior season of eligibility at Missouri and enter the 2013 NBA draft instead . He led the 2011 β 12 Big 12 Conference in assists , steals and assist @-@ to @-@ turnover ratio and was a 2011 β 12 All @-@ Big 12 team selection as a result . He shares the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) single @-@ game assists record ( 19 ) and was the 2012 SEC Preseason Player of the Year . He earned 2012 β 13 All @-@ SEC First team selection and was the conference assist champion . He earned Associated Press 2013 All @-@ American honorable mention recognition . He holds Missouri single @-@ game , single @-@ season and career assists records and numerous Missouri steals records , including career steals .
Pressey was a high school basketball All @-@ state selection by the Texas Association of Basketball Coaches ( TABC ) and helped his team achieve 2009 and 2010 Southwest Preparatory Conference ( SPC ) state championships in basketball . In high school , several YouTube videos of him dunking ( often over much taller players ) became popular . He is the son of 1982 NBA Draft first @-@ round selection and 1982 Consensus All @-@ American Paul Pressey .
= = Early years = =
In June 2006 , Pressey stood at 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 60 m ) . That year , he led the Boston Amateur Basketball Club ( BABC ) , also known as the Boston Amateur Athletic Club , to the 2006 Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) National Championship . He had joined the team as a seventh grader in 2005 . He played his freshman and sophomore high school basketball seasons for Cushing Academy . As the family moved for Paul 's jobs with various NBA franchises , Pressey spent summers with BABC teammate ( and future Missouri teammate ) Alex Oriakhi .
In 2008 , Pressey 's family moved to Dallas when Paul took a job with the New Orleans Hornets , and Phil began to play with Episcopal School of Dallas for his junior season . During his two years at Episcopal , the team won its second and third consecutive SPC Division I boy 's state championship in 2009 and 2010 . He was one of the two best point guards at the July 2009 LeBron James Skills Academy , according to reports in The Plain Dealer . Pressey made his verbal commitment to Missouri on September 13 , 2009 . Pressey 's father , Paul , had been teammates with Missouri head coach Mike Anderson . Anderson had known Pressey since he was an infant and remained close to the family as " Uncle Mike " . On April 12 , 2010 , Pressey 's older brother Matt , who was a junior college transfer , gave his verbal commitment to join his brother in Missouri 's 2010 entering class . On April 15 , Oregon attempted to lure Anderson , but after meeting with Oregon 's athletic director , Anderson decided to stay at Missouri .
As a senior Pressey earned TABC All @-@ state recognition and Dallas Morning News first team All @-@ area recognition . The All @-@ area team included Perry Jones , Le 'Bryan Nash , Marcus Smart and Kyan Anderson . During the 2010 SPC championship game , Pressey tallied 32 points , 9 assists , 8 rebounds and 3 steals against Greenhill School . Videos of him dunking in high school have made him a YouTube sensation . During the 2010 TABC All @-@ star game , he dunked over Tony Mitchell , who at the time was a player approximately a foot taller than Pressey . As of 31 December 2012 , this video has about 800 @,@ 000 views . Because of his diminutive stature , he is often compared to another undersized Dallas basketball player , Spud Webb .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman season = = =
On December 18 , 2010 , Pressey tallied 11 assists while adding 15 points against the Central Arkansas Bears . This tied a Missouri Tigers freshman single @-@ game assist record ( Shawn Teague , 1980 vs. Lamar ) . Then , he broke his right index finger prior to the December 22 , 2010 Braggin ' Rights game against Illinois . Pressey missed four games and did not return to the lineup until the January 8 Big 12 Conference opener against Colorado , where he appeared in the second half . Another highlight for Pressey came when he posted 6 steals for the Tigers against the Texas A & M Aggies in the 2011 Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament on March 10 , 2011 . This established a new Missouri Tigers postseason single @-@ game record . Freshman single @-@ game records do not appear in the media guide . He started 12 games for the 2010 β 11 Tigers and set numerous Missouri freshman season records , including average steals ( 2 @.@ 0 ) , average assists ( 3 @.@ 9 ) and total assists ( 117 ) .
= = = Sophomore season = = =
In a January 14 , 2012 contest against the Texas Longhorns , Pressey posted 18 points and 10 assists for his second career double @-@ double . During his sophomore season for the 2011 β 12 Tigers , he recorded 12 assists in a game four times : Villanova ( 12 / 6 ) , Texas Tech ( 1 / 28 ) , # 5 Kansas ( 2 / 25 ) and Oklahoma State ( 3 / 8 ) . At the end of February , he was named to the Naismith Award top 30 midseason Watchlist . Pressey 's total of 223 assists and average of 6 @.@ 4 assists broke Anthony Peeler 's school single @-@ season records ( 179 , 5 @.@ 8 ) set for the 1989 β 90 Missouri Tigers . For the 2011 β 12 Big 12 season , he was an All @-@ Big 12 selection ( 1st team - CBSSports.com ; 2nd team - Associated Press ; 3rd team - Big 12 coaches ) . He was also a 2012 Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament all @-@ tournament selection and a Bob Cousy Award finalist .
= = = Junior season = = =
Pressey became captain of the Missouri team as a junior . CBS Sports listed him as a 2012 first team preseason All @-@ American and the 8th best player in its preseason top 100 . Sports Illustrated also named him to its preseason All @-@ American first team . CBS also named him the second best point guard ( behind Isaiah Canaan ) . Pressey was both a preseason John R. Wooden Award top 50 selection and a preseason Naismith Award top 50 selection in 2012 . Pressey was the preseason SEC player of the year selection by the SEC media and a first team All @-@ SEC selection by the coaches . Pressey holds the Missouri career assists average record and entered the season within striking distance of Peeler 's Missouri career assists and career steals totals of 497 and 196 .
In December , the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame named Pressey as a Cousy Award nominee . In the December 22 , 2012 Braggin ' Rights game against Illinois he posted 11 assists and 12 points for his third career double @-@ double . In Missouri 's subsequent game on December 28 , 2012 , he recorded another double @-@ double with 19 assists and 19 points against UCLA tying the Southeastern Conference single @-@ game assist record ( Kenny Higgs , 1976 @-@ 77 LSU ; Bill Hann , 1967 @-@ 68 Tennessee ) . On January 5 , Pressey established a new career high with 26 points , while recording 5 assists and 3 rebounds against Bucknell . This earned him SEC player of the week . On January 8 , Pressey tied the Mizzou Arena single @-@ game assist record with 13 against Alabama along with 11 points as part of his fifth double @-@ double . On January 9 , he was selected as one of 20 Cousy Award finalists . At the time , he was described as the most efficient defender in the nation in terms of points allowed per play defended . On January 10 the Wooden Award midseason top 25 list , which included Pressey , was announced . On February 9 , he surpassed Peeler 's career assist total of 497 against Ole Miss . Pressey posted a new career @-@ high 27 points along with 10 assists and 4 steals on February 23 against Kentucky as part of his fourth double @-@ double of the season and sixth of his career . On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Pressey to its 2012 β 13 Men 's All @-@ District VI ( IA , MO , KS , OK , NE , ND , SD ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . That same day , he was a selection to the 8 @-@ man 2013 All @-@ SEC First Team by the SEC coaches . He was a selection to the 5 @-@ man 2013 All @-@ SEC First Teams by three of four FOX Sports South writers . Pressey was also an All @-@ SEC First Team selection by the Kansas City Star . Pressey ended the season with 196 career steals , tying Peeler 's school record , and bettered his own school single @-@ season assist records with 240 and 7 @.@ 1 / game . He was named to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All β District 21 first team on March 26 , as selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , making him eligible for the State Farm Coaches β Division I All @-@ America team . Pressey earned Associated Press honorable mention All @-@ American recognition . He was the 2012 β 13 Southeastern Conference men 's basketball season assist champion with a 7 @.@ 1 assists / game average .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 2013 NBA Draft = = =
On April 10 , 2013 , Pressey announced he would not be returning to play his senior season for the Missouri Tigers , choosing instead to enter the 2013 NBA Draft . Pressey stated his intentions in a statement posted on the Tigers team website . According to the Associated Press , while averaging a career @-@ best 11 @.@ 9 points and 7 @.@ 1 assists as a junior his play was erratic as he also committed an average 3 @.@ 5 turnovers . Pressey had a 37 @.@ 6 % field goal percentage during his final season , which the Associated Press described as one in which he " struggled with late @-@ game decision @-@ making in losses to UCLA , Louisiana State , Texas A & M , Arkansas , Kentucky and Tennessee " . ESPN noted that he is projected to be a late second round draft selection at best . Three senior starters , including Oriakhi , as well as Laurence Bowers and Keion Bell were graduating . Pressey was one of 60 players invited to the NBA Draft Combine .
= = = Boston Celtics ( 2013 β 2015 ) = = =
After going undrafted in the 2013 NBA Draft , Pressey signed with the Boston Celtics to play in the 2013 Orlando Summer League . He was a known commodity to the Celtics . Pressey 's AAU team had even practiced at the team facility in Waltham . His performance in the Summer League led to Pressey signing a deal with the Celtics on July 22 , 2013 . The contract was believed to be a three @-@ year deal for the league minimum , which was $ 490 @,@ 180 during his rookie season . The Celtics began the season without four @-@ time All @-@ Star point guard Rajon Rondo who had endured a anterior cruciate ligament injury during the prior season . Pressey made his regular season debut in the 2013 β 14 Celtics season opener on October 30 at the Air Canada Centre against the Toronto . He did not play in the next three games , but after the Celtics got off to an 0 β 4 start , head coach Brad Stevens shuffled the lineup . On November 6 , at home against the Utah Jazz , Pressey recorded the first three assists , first steal and first field goal of his career . Then on November 9 , he posted four assists and tallied in 7 points in 21 minutes of play . He posted a team @-@ high 5 assists on November 19 , 2013 against the Houston Rockets . He established a new career high with 8 assists on November 25 against the Charlotte Bobcats . On January 15 , with Rondo 's return imminent , the Celtics traded guards Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks , clearing the way for Pressey to start that night against the Toronto Raptors . Pressey posted 10 assists and no turnovers in his first start . On January 22 , with Rondo , Avery Bradley and Jerryd Bayless all sitting out and Pressey making his second career start , Pressey scored a career @-@ high 20 points against Washington before fouling out . Since Rondo 's return , Pressey 's occasional starts have been to give Rondo rest . He posted a double @-@ double on April 5 against the Detroit Pistons with 12 points and a career @-@ high 11 assists . On April 11 , he had another career high with 13 assists as part of a 10 @-@ point double double against the Charlotte Bobcats . He matched the 13 assists the following night against the Cleveland Cavaliers .
In July 2014 , Pressey re @-@ joined the Celtics for the 2014 NBA Summer League . His performance earned him a roster spot for the regular season , as the team guaranteed his contract for the 2014 β 15 season . On February 5 , 2015 , he was assigned to the Maine Red Claws of the NBA Development League . He was recalled the next day . On July 15 , Pressey was waived by the Celtics .
= = = Philadelphia 76ers ( 2015 ) = = =
On July 24 , 2015 , Pressey signed with the Portland Trail Blazers , but was waived on October 23 after appearing in four preseason games . On October 25 , he was claimed off waivers by the Utah Jazz , but was waived by the team the following day . On November 1 , he was acquired by the Idaho Stampede of the NBA Development League as an affiliate player of the Jazz . However , three days later , he signed with the Philadelphia 76ers to help the team deal with numerous injuries . Philadelphia had to use an NBA hardship exemption in order to sign him as he made their roster stand at 16 , one over the allowed limited of 15 . He debuted with the 76ers that night against the Milwaukee Bucks , his father 's long @-@ time team . On December 4 , he was waived by the 76ers after appearing in 14 games .
= = = Idaho Stampede / Phoenix Suns ( 2015 β present ) = = =
On December 7 , 2015 , Pressey was reacquired by the Idaho Stampede of the NBA Development League . Two days later , he made his debut with Idaho in a 102 β 96 loss to the Texas Legends , recording four points , six rebounds , six assists and one steal in 24 minutes . He scored a season @-@ high 21 points twice , and had three double @-@ doubles for Idaho , recording a season @-@ high 13 assists on February 8 , 2016 against the Los Angeles D @-@ Fenders .
On February 20 , 2016 , Pressey signed a 10 β day contract with the Phoenix Suns . He made his debut for the Suns the following day , recording six points , two rebounds , five assists , one steal and three blocks in 28 minutes off the bench in a 118 β 111 loss to the San Antonio Spurs , becoming the first NBA player shorter than 6 ' 0 " to record three blocks in a game since Nate Robinson in 2013 . A day later , he had a 10 @-@ assist game against the Los Angeles Clippers . On March 1 , he signed a second 10 @-@ day contract with the Suns . Following the expiration of his second 10 @-@ day contract , the Suns parted ways with Pressey .
On March 12 , 2016 , Pressey was reacquired by Idaho .
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = Personal = =
Phil 's parents are Elizabeth ( Liz ) and Paul Pressey . Together they have four children : Ashley , Angela , Paul Jr . ( known by his middle name of Matthew ) and Phillip . Paul was an NCAA basketball All @-@ American , National Invitation Tournament Champion , NBA All @-@ Defensive Team selection , JUCO National champion and a first round NBA Draft choice . Phil was teammates with his older brother Matt for two years at Missouri . As of September 2013 , Matt is playing with the Plymouth Raiders in the British Basketball League . Their older sister Angie was an All @-@ American volleyball player for the California Golden Bears . Pressey wore cornrows throughout his high school basketball career . Pressey was a childhood friend and AAU teammate of Alex Oriakhi who transferred from Connecticut after playing for the 2010 β 11 national champion Huskies team to join the 2012 β 13 Tigers .
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= Cauldron II : The Pumpkin Strikes Back =
Cauldron II : The Pumpkin Strikes Back is a computer game developed and published by British developer Palace Software ( Palace ) as a sequel to their 1985 title Cauldron . The two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) platform game was released in 1986 for the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC home computers . Players control a bouncing pumpkin that is on a quest of vengeance against the " Witch Queen " . The roles of the two were reversed from the first game , in which the witch defeated a monster pumpkin .
Following the success of Cauldron , Palace employee Steve Brown began work on a sequel . To provide fans of the original title with a new experience , a very different gameplay was implemented for the sequel , although several minor features retained connections to the first . Inspired by the bouncing pumpkin character in Cauldron , Brown designed the game around the character 's movement . The bouncing mechanic proved problematic for the programmers who were unable to perfect its implementation . Technical limitations also prevented them from implementing certain animations , such as turning pages of a book .
Cauldron II was first released on the Commodore 64 . It was released in the following years on other systems and as re @-@ releases . The game received praise , mainly for its audio @-@ visuals , in video game magazines . Difficulty in handling the bouncing pumpkin 's movement was a common complaint , although reviewers felt the overall package was of good value .
= = Gameplay = =
In Cauldron , the protagonist was a witch who became the " Witch Queen " by defeating an enemy called the " Pumpking " . In its sequel , players control a pumpkin that has survived the witch 's ascent to power and seeks to defeat her . Cauldron II takes place in the witch 's castle , and players control the pumpkin , moving it through the 2D game world that is shown as side views . Six magical items β a Goblet , Axe , Shield , Crown , Scissors , and Book of Spells β are scattered throughout the castle and when collected by the player character , augments the pumpkin 's abilities , providing it with offensive and defensive capabilities . Collecting the items also allows the pumpkin to access the witch 's chambers and cut a lock of her hair , which is required to defeat the witch and complete the game .
The protagonist traverses the castle by bouncing , and players control the pumpkin by manipulating the direction and height of its bounce . Similar to the previous game , Halloween @-@ themed enemies , such as ghosts , monsters , and skeletons , inhabit the game world . Contact with an enemy drains the pumpkin 's magic meter that also fuels the protagonist 's offensive projectiles . The character dies once the meter is depleted . The pumpkin has a limited number of lives to continue the game , which ends once all of the pumpkin 's lives have been expended . On continuing , the pumpkin reappears on the screen with a refilled meter .
= = Development = =
The success of Cauldron in 1985 prompted Palace Software to produce a sequel . Rather than recycle the previous game 's design , the development team wanted to be innovative and implement new gameplay features . Steven Brown and Richard Leinfellner resumed their roles as designer and programmer , respectively . Richard Joseph handled the audio design and Stan Schembri programmed the Commodore 64 version .
Brown first drew inspiration from the final scene of Cauldron : the witch 's fight against the Pumpking , which bounced around a room . He felt the bouncing pumpkin looked " cool " and decided to base the sequel 's gameplay on this aspect . Although unsure about the idea , the other team members proceeded with development . Intended to mimic a bouncing ball , the pumpkin 's movement could change direction only if force is applied to it while it is in contact with a surface that provides friction . This mechanic prohibited the pumpkin from changing directions while in mid @-@ air , and proved problematic for the programmers to implement . Issues included difficulties with collision detection , unpredictable movements that led to glitches , and troubles with the firing mechanism . The pumpkin 's ability to fire projectiles was intended to provide offensive game mechanics to players . In early designs , however , the projectile inadvertently generated a force that changed the pumpkin 's direction . The programmers tried to correct this , but were unable to create a perfect solution .
As the gameplay designs were being implemented , Brown switched focus to the game 's aesthetics . Scenes from the game were sketched on storyboards to aid development . Cauldron II 's game world , the witch 's castle , was designed to resemble Palace Software 's logo as an advertising tactic . Brown photographed separate screens of the game and assembled them into a complete map , showing the shape of his company 's logo , for video game magazines . Enemy designs were similar to those in the previous game , based on the Halloween holiday . Brown envisioned a graphical effect for the game 's narration , showing a book whose pages turned as the story is read . However , technical limitations at the time prohibited the implementation of such a visual effect . Brown also wanted the game 's visuals to scroll seamlessly as the character moved through the game world , but flick @-@ screening ( showing one section of the world at a time ) was more feasible . As with the previous game , Brown created a Plasticine model of the witch character as a reference for a painting that was used for the game 's box art . The group tested the game prior to release and deemed it too challenging . They reduced the difficulty level so that more players could complete the game .
Palace Software developed Cauldron II for three home computers : Amstrad CPC , Commodore 64 , and ZX Spectrum . The game was first released for the Commodore 64 , and then for the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum . It was later re @-@ released on the ZX Spectrum in 1989 by Telecomsoft under its Silverbird budget label . Cauldron II was also re @-@ released with the first game as a compilation title for Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum computers .
= = Reception = =
The game was well received by video game journalists upon its release . ZX Spectrum magazines Crash and ZX Computing awarded Cauldron II their top accolades : " Crash Smash " and " Monster Hit " , respectively . Similar to the first Cauldron , praise from the video game press focused on the graphical quality , and criticism directed at the gameplay was mixed . Computer and Video Games reviewer Paul Boughton praised the size of the game world , but criticized the audio quality of the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum versions , citing the limited capabilities of the two systems . In concluding his review , Boughton felt any version of the game would be worth purchasing . Phil South of Your Sinclair praised the game 's presentation and design , calling the graphics " lovely " and the platform gameplay " original " . ZX Computing ' reviewer praised the audio @-@ visuals , and recommended the title for fans of the previous game . A Crash magazine reviewer lauded the audio @-@ visuals of the ZX Spectrum version and commented that the gameplay offered more than its predecessor 's . The reviewer described Cauldron II as difficult , but felt that the sense of accomplishment gained from successful completion outweighed the negative aspect . Computer Gamer 's reviewer criticized the bouncing gameplay , citing unpredictable reactions and difficulty in navigating around tough enemies . Rich Pelley and Jon Pillar of Your Sinclair echoed similar comments . Retro Gamer writer Craig Grannell described the game 's difficulty as the " only real criticism " . The ZX Computing reviewer also criticized the bouncing aspect , but praised the overall game design as enjoyable . Phil King , another Crash reviewer , praised the Silverbird re @-@ release . He called the graphics " colorful " and " well @-@ animated " , and felt that the game was of good value despite an excessive difficulty . The commercial success of the two Cauldron games prompted Palace to give Brown more creative freedom for his following project , Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior .
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= 30 Seconds to Mars ( album ) =
30 Seconds to Mars is the debut studio album by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars . It was first released on August 27 , 2002 , by Immortal Records and distributed by Virgin Records . The album was produced by Bob Ezrin , Brian Virtue , and Thirty Seconds to Mars , and was recorded in rural Wyoming during 2001 and early 2002 . It had been in the works for a couple of years , with lead vocalist Jared Leto writing the majority of the songs .
30 Seconds to Mars was described as a concept album centering on human struggle and self @-@ determination , characterized by personal lyrics that use otherworldly elements and conceptual ideas to illustrate a truthful personal situation . The album incorporates progressive sounds with influences and elements from new wave , space rock , and electronica . Upon release , 30 Seconds to Mars received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who commended the album 's lyrical content and the band 's musicianship , which has been compared to the works of Pink Floyd , Tool , and Brian Eno .
The album debuted at number 107 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the US Top Heatseekers . It was a slow @-@ burning success that eventually sold two million copies worldwide . It produced two singles , " Capricorn ( A Brand New Name ) " and " Edge of the Earth " . Thirty Seconds to Mars promoted the album by opening concerts for bands such as Puddle of Mudd , Incubus , Sevendust , and Chevelle .
= = Background and recording = =
By 1998 , Thirty Seconds to Mars was performing gigs at small American venues and clubs . When they first started , lead vocalist Jared Leto did not allow his vocation as a Hollywood actor to be used in promotion of the band . They played their first concerts under different names , before finally settling on the name " Thirty Seconds to Mars " , which was taken from a rare manuscript titled Argus Apocraphex . During this period , the band recorded demo tracks such as " Valhalla " and " Revolution " , or " Jupiter " and " Hero " , which later appeared on the debut album as " Fallen " and " Year Zero " respectively , but also " Buddha for Mary " . Their work led to a number of record labels being interested in signing Thirty Seconds to Mars , which eventually signed to Immortal Records . In 1999 , Virgin Records entered into the contract .
The work of Thirty Seconds to Mars generated the interest of record producer Bob Ezrin , who had previously worked on several groundbreaking projects , including The Wall by Pink Floyd , Love It to Death by Alice Cooper , and Destroyer by Kiss . Thirty Seconds to Mars contacted Ezrin because they felt that he had the ability to help them achieve their own vision and create a distinct sound ; moreover , the band 's members grew up listing to his work with Pink Floyd , Kiss and Alice Cooper . Brian Virtue , who had previously worked with Jane 's Addiction , joined the band and Ezrin in producing the record .
Thirty Seconds to Mars retreated to the isolation of Wyoming 's countryside in 2001 to record the album , tentatively titled Welcome to the Universe . The band and Ezrin chose an empty warehouse lot on 15 @,@ 000 acres , starting an intense period of preproduction focused on fifty songs . The isolation allowed the band to work at a different pace . Jared Leto said that while recording in Wyoming , " there was an interesting dichotomy , a kind of contradiction with the technology and the organic world that we were surrounded [ ... ] It 's something that I think ended up in the music " . Ezrin helped the band to understand the importance of an album 's structure and how to create a progression , rather than a simple series of singles . " We really wanted to create something that had depth , " Leto explained . He described the process of working with Ezrin as tumultuous but also fulfilling , having its own dynamics . He also stated that Virtue was a key element in helping the band define their sound .
The track " Fallen " , originally titled " Jupiter " , was the first to be produced for the album . Thirty Seconds to Mars initially thought to exclude the track from the record since they were not satisfied with it , but then they decided to rework the song because there were people that had strong feelings about it . The track features programming by Danny Lohner and background vocals by Maynard James Keenan . Several musicians , including Elijah Blue Allman , Renn Hawkey , as well as producers Ezrin and Virtue , contributed on selected tracks .
= = Composition = =
= = = Style and influences = = =
The style of the album combined progressive metal and space rock with influences and elements from new wave and electronica , utilizing programming and synthesizers . According to Jared Leto , the band wanted to create " something that had cohesiveness and kind of an atmospheric musical story to it " . He identified groups that had a sense of identity and atmosphere as being influential on the album 's songwriting . He cited classic stoner rock artists , to which he and his brother Shannon had listened while growing up . Eventually , they gravitated toward more conceptual work like Pink Floyd , David Bowie and The Cure . Thirty Seconds to Mars also drew influences from acts such as BjΓΆrk , Rush , and Depeche Mode ; according to Shannon Leto , the inspirations derived from " mostly big conceptional bands ; bands that had depth ; bands that were dynamic " .
The sound of 30 Seconds to Mars takes on many musical stylistic shifts . Elizabeth Bromstein from Now magazine described it as a concoction of ' 80s electronics , industrial music and nu metal with a heavy dose of progressive rock . Jaan Uhelszki of Alternative Press felt that the album is made of " sterner stuff " , with the band 's prog @-@ metal foundation " enhanced by an unexpectedly powerful sense of melody " . Smiley Ben of BBC Collective noted in the album alternative rock tendencies . Ryan Rayhill from Blender found the album befitting prog @-@ rock prototypes Rush and opined that Thirty Seconds to Mars " emerged with an eponymous debut that sounds like Tool on The Dark Side of the Moon " , referring to the 1973 album by Pink Floyd .
= = = Lyrics and themes = = =
30 Seconds to Mars is a concept album focusing on human struggle and self @-@ determination . It deals with characters who battle with social alienation , emotional isolation , and political malaise . The title itself " 30 Seconds to Mars " indicates the accelerated human society and suggests a potential escapism from it . The album 's lyrics describe the personal human experience through the use of metaphors and moments of fantasy . Jared Leto regarded it as a " very personal album that sometimes uses otherworldly elements and conceptual ideas to illustrate a truthful personal situation " . He cited the human struggle as the most inspiring source for the band and explained that the record features " a definite desire for change , for renewal , for a new beginning and ultimately , for escape " . Author Karin Lowachee commented that Leto , who wrote most of the lyrics , allows the listener to draw his or her own conclusions to the meanings of the songs . She noted that " this makes the music especially personal , as whatever images you conjure from the sound and words can be interpreted by your own inner language " .
Opening track " Capricorn ( A Brand New Name ) " deals with a desire for renewal . Leto , however , stated that he prefers to let the listener take its own understanding and meaning from the song , claiming that the interpretation , from individual to individual , is one of the most interesting aspects of music . The track " Fallen " faces the necessity to escape from the inner world that every person has created for itself . The lyrics of " Oblivion " , originally titled " The Reckoning " , lead into a frantic threat , in which " Unity divides / Division will unite " . Leto described this paradox as a rather common but unfortunate occurrence . A dramatic narration drives " Buddha for Mary " , whose story is not about a specific person and represents a metaphor . " End of the Beginning " features a foreboding tone and emphasizes the human nature in constant search for something . The album ends with the hidden track " The Struggle " , whose lyrics were taken from the ancient Chinese military treatise The Art of War , attributed to Sun Tzu .
The track " Revolution " , excluded from the final track listing , was considered by some critics as having an anti @-@ American tone . Leto rejected the claim and explained that it can be taken " many different ways " and if taken literally or politically , it could be misinterpreted . He said that the band " didn 't want a song like that to overshadow what we are about " and especially after the September 11 attacks , they felt it did not fit thematically with the rest of the album , stating that " it took on new dimensions " . The album features elements inspired by the science fiction novel Dune by Frank Herbert , which influenced the album 's songwriting for its themes regarding the interactions of politics , religion , technology , and human emotion .
= = Packaging = =
The photography for the album was handled by drummer Shannon Leto , with additional works provided by Ken Schles . The cover art features a teenage boy and some of the band 's symbolism . It includes a phoenix logo , named " Mithra " by the band , that bears the motto " Provehito in Altum " . Roughly translated from Latin , the phrase means " Launch forth into the deep " . The band chose a phoenix for its association with rebirth and renewal in the Greek mythology . The group expressed interest in signs and symbols and their relationships with cultures and subcultures . The album 's cover art was unveiled through the band 's official website on July 29 , 2002 . However , it was not conceived to be the original concept for the artwork . The initial cover art was discontinued and destroyed during production following the September 11 attacks due to the graphic content of the image . It featured a fighter pilot ejecting from an exploding plane . Thirty Seconds to Mars explained that they never saw it as a violent image , but felt that it was inappropriate in the wake of the events .
= = Release and promotion = =
30 Seconds to Mars was released on August 27 , 2002 on Immortal Records in the United States and September 30 on EMI in the United Kingdom . It was originally expected to be released in early 2002 . However , the band was behind schedule and the cover design needed a reshoot . The album 's compact disc featured enhanced material developed by Little Lion Studios , including a promotional video titled " Capricorn " directed by Lawton Outlaw and a behind the scenes footage edited by Ari Sandel . The Japanese edition of the album included the bonus track " Anarchy in Tokyo " . " Capricorn ( A Brand New Name ) " was the first single taken from 30 Seconds to Mars . It was issued a month before the album 's release on July 23 , 2002 . It had an accompanying music video directed by Paul Fedor . The British released of the single was pressed with the B @-@ side " Phase 1 : Fortification " . " Edge of the Earth " was released as the album 's second single on March 3 , 2003 , with a music video directed by Kevin McCullough .
After five years since its original release , 30 Seconds to Mars was made available in Australia on April 7 , 2007 on Virgin Records . EMI re @-@ issued a limited edition of the album in Japan on December 2 , 2009 . To commemorate the 10th anniversary of the album , Thirty Seconds to Mars hosted an event called MarsX on August 27 , 2012 . It was broadcast worldwide through the online platform VyRT and included live playback and commentary of the record with the band , interactive discussion focused on the formation of Thirty Seconds to Mars , and exclusive acoustic performances . The album was also re @-@ issued as a limited edition picture disc double @-@ vinyl LP .
= = = Touring = = =
The band promoted the album through a number of tours in North America . Even before its release , Puddle of Mudd invited Thirty Seconds to Mars to open a six @-@ week tour for them in the spring of 2002 . On January 30 , Thirty Seconds to Mars began a promotional tour in North America . The band played its first European concert on June 24 , 2002 , at The Barfly in London , England . In July 2002 , they began a club tour and also embarked on a North American tour supporting Incubus . In early October , they were invited by MTV to join the Campus Invasion Tour , playing ten dates in Canada alongside I Mother Earth , Billy Talent , and Pepper Sands . The band was also scheduled to open a spring tour for Adema but was forced to withdraw due to scheduling conflicts .
After playing a series of shows supporting Our Lady Peace , Thirty Seconds to Mars opened an autumn tour for Sevendust . The band 's first appearance on television was on Last Call with Carson Daly on November 18 , which aired on November 27 , 2002 . It was the last performance with guitarist Solon Bixler , which left the band due to issues primarily related to touring . The band later performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn , which marked the first live performance with guitarist Tomo MiliΔeviΔ . In 2003 , the band went on tour with Chevelle , Trust Company , and Shihad , and played thirteen shows for Lollapalooza .
= = Critical reception = =
30 Seconds to Mars earned mostly positive reviews upon release . However , at Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 60 , based on 5 reviews . Jason Pettigrew from Alternative Press regarded it as " an ambitious , immense @-@ sounding work that 's at once rich in melody " and " lyrically jarring " . Ryan Rayhill from Blender noticed " throbbing synths " and " exploding guitars " , and called the album a " high @-@ minded space opera of epic scope " narrating " tales of living in deep , black oblivion " . Smiley Ben of BBC Collective described the overall sound as " certainly compelling " , and praised the sonic variety , writing that the band " knowingly push [ es ] boundaries " producing " great music with an edge " . AllMusic reviewer Jon O 'Brien called the record a " highly ambitious space @-@ themed concept album " , and commended its " heavy , riff @-@ laden " guitars , " soaring " vocals and sci @-@ fi lyrics .
Johan Wippsson from Melodic claimed that the band has " something new to add to the world " with their space @-@ influenced modern rock . Jeremy Gladstone of Kludge commented that the album reaches its peak with " Buddha for Mary " , which he called a " virtual sonic achievement " , but felt that the quality of the songs drops off at the halfway point , describing the entire project as " top @-@ heavy " . Canadian critic Karin Lowachee found the group 's sound and vision reminiscent of their " concept @-@ styled forbears " but " uniquely owned " for a contemporary audience , and wrote that the band " defies the trend by stepping out ahead of it and into the future " , giving the listener something original to enjoy . Amber Authier from Exclaim ! echoed this sentiment , stating that the band stretched musical borders and represented something that is " a little different " , offering a " solid sound " .
Mitch Joel from Blistering commended the band 's musical diversity , noting that they are " worth more than most of their peers on a song @-@ by @-@ song magnitude . " Elizabeth Bromstein of Now magazine found the track @-@ to @-@ track variation limited , although she appreciated the range of styles . Peter Relic of Rolling Stone gave a mixed response , stating that the album has its finer moments but felt that it is undone by Jared Leto 's " baffling , pretentious poetry " and the " sanitized quality of the heavy guitars . Q magazine described it as having " a polished sheen " , but opined that the " earnest , sci @-@ fi @-@ tinged lyrics gets monotonous " over the course of the album . In contrast , Jason D. Taylor from AllMusic commented that the " space @-@ age themes compliment the group 's advanced musical achievements wonderfully " . Megan O 'Toole of The Gazette felt that every track on the album is a " unique masterpiece that simultaneously operates on a number of different musical and spiritual levels " , writing that its music has the potential to " affect and infect the deepest recesses " of the soul .
= = Impact = =
Jason D. Taylor of AllMusic considered the release of 30 Seconds to Mars a " daring new step in musical evolution " and noted that its impact left " vast corridors of sound open for the listener to meander down at will " . He commented that Thirty Seconds to Mars managed to record an album that " breathes life " into the " empty shell that corporate rock has become " , and felt that in " reanimating an avenue of musical expression that has for many years been on its deathbed " , the band possibly offered the best rock experience of 2002 . Kludge listed 30 Seconds to Mars as one of the best 100 albums of 2002 . Melodic included it on their list of top 50 albums of the year and regarded it as " one of the most unique album when it comes to an own style " . Music critic Megan O 'Toole felt Thirty Seconds to Mars managed to " carve out a unique niche for themselves in the rock realm " .
A writer of MuchMusic called the album a " work that is built to last " , noting that the band produced " something unique " with " depth and substance " . Artistdirect agreed and explained that 30 Seconds to Mars established the group as " fresh , new force " , revealing a " multi @-@ faceted outfit that thrived on creative exploration and escape " . Jon O 'Brien , writing for AllMusic , labelled the album one of the " more convincing actor @-@ turned @-@ rock star " efforts . In a retrospective review in 2012 , Ian Winwood from Kerrang ! deemed the record an " epic starting point " for the music that followed , and stated that it displayed Jared Leto 's " vast , cinematic writing style " . He considered its music " undoubtedly the most aggressive they 've created " and regarded lead single " Capricorn ( A Brand New Name ) " as the band 's " most muscular moment " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , 30 Seconds to Mars entered the Billboard 200 at number 107 on the issue dated September 14 , 2002 . It also debuted at number one on the Top Heatseekers . After nine weeks , it fell to number 40 , with sales of over 40 @,@ 000 units . As of August 2006 , Nielsen SoundScan estimates actual sales of the album at over 120 @,@ 000 in the United States . Its lead single , " Capricorn ( A Brand New Name ) " , entered the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart at number 40 and eventually reached a peak of number 31 . In the United Kingdom , 30 Seconds to Mars debuted at number 136 on the UK Albums Chart . It was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) in July 2013 , denoting shipments of over 60 @,@ 000 units .
In France , 30 Seconds to Mars debuted at number 142 on the national albums chart on October 5 , 2002 . After its release to the Australian market , the album entered the ARIA Charts at number 95 on the issue dated June 11 , 2007 . It peaked at number 89 the following week . In Greece , it entered the national albums chart in June 2011 , in view of a band 's concert held in Athens in July , reaching a peak of number 41 . 30 Seconds to Mars was a slow @-@ burning success , and eventually sold two million copies worldwide as of March 2011 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jared Leto , except where noted .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from 30 Seconds to Mars album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Action of 27 June 1798 =
The Action of 27 June 1798 was a minor naval engagement between British and French frigates in the Strait of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea . The engagement formed part of a wider campaign , in which a major French convoy sailed from Toulon to Alexandria at the start of the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt . The French frigate Sensible had been detached from the convoy after the capture of Malta , under orders to carry wounded soldiers and looted treasure back to France while the main body continued to Egypt . The British frigate HMS Seahorse was one of a number of vessels detached from the main British Mediterranean Fleet in the Tagus River , sent to augment the fleet under Sir Horatio Nelson that was actively hunting the French convoy .
Lookouts on Seahorse spotted Sensible at 16 : 00 on 26 June and Captain Edward Foote immediately gave chase , the French frigate fleeing southwards . For 12 hours the pursuit continued until Foote was able to catch and defeat his opponent , inflicting heavy casualties on the weaker and overladen French frigate . Among the prisoners captured was General Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers who had been wounded in the storming of Malta , and among the treasure was an ornate seventeenth century cannon once owned by Louis XIV . The captured Sensible was initially fitted out as an active warship , but on arrival in Britain in 1799 the ship was downgraded to a transport . The action provided the British with the first conclusive evidence of the French intention to invade Egypt , but despite an extensive search for Nelson 's fleet Foote was unable to relay the location of the French to his admiral before the Battle of the Nile on 1 August .
= = Background = =
On 19 May 1798 , a French fleet departed Toulon for a top secret destination . The force consisted of 22 warships and 120 transports , to be joined by additional forces from Genoa , Corsica and Civitavecchia as it passed south through the Ligurian Sea . The fleet 's target was Egypt , a territory nominally controlled by the Ottoman Empire that French General Napoleon Bonaparte considered an ideal springboard for operations against British India . Passing southwards without interference from the Royal Navy , which had been absent from the Mediterranean for over a year following the outbreak of war between Britain and Spain , Bonaparte 's convoy passed Sicily on 7 June and two days later was at anchor off the harbour of Valletta on Malta . The island nation of Malta was under the command of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem , a religious order that depended on France for much of its wealth and recruits . Bonaparte believed that capturing Malta was essential to controlling the Central Mediterranean , and when Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim refused the fleet entry to the harbour , Bonaparte responded with a large scale invasion . The knights put up no resistance , although fighting against native Maltese troops lasted for 24 hours until the central city of Mdina fell . With this defeat the knights withdrew to their fortress at Valletta but were persuaded to surrender the following day with promises of pensions and estates in France .
With Malta secure , Bonaparte seized the Maltese army and navy , adding them to his own forces . He garrisoned Valletta and among the wealth he appropriated from the island was the entire property of the Roman Catholic Church in the island . Much of this was auctioned off , while other treasures were to be transported to France , along with dispatches carried by the wounded General Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers and other soldiers wounded during the invasion . On 19 June Bonaparte divided his forces , leaving 4 @,@ 000 men to hold the island while the remainder of the convoy embarked on the second leg of the journey to Egypt . One ship was detailed to return to France with the wounded , despatches and some of the treasure . For this purpose the 36 @-@ gun frigate Sensible under Captain G. F. J. BourdΓ© was selected , although much of the regular crew was removed and replaced with freed Maltese galley slaves .
Although Bonaparte had not expected British interference in his operations against Egypt , the Royal Navy had responded to the reports of French mobilisation on the south coast by despatching a small squadron to the Ligurian Sea under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson . Arriving on 21 May , Nelson 's squadron was struck by a severe storm and was forced to make hasty repairs off Sardinia . The storm had also dispersed the squadron 's frigates , leaving Nelson with only three ships of the line . Although he was reinforced by another ten ships of the line and a fourth rate on 7 June , he still lacked any scouts and was thus severely hampered in his ability to search for information on French operations . The detached frigates had been scattered across the Western Mediterranean , and were unable to locate either the British or the French fleets . Reinforcements sent by Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St Vincent at the Tagus River suffered from the same problem , the frigates spreading out widely in their search but failing to discover either of the main British or French forces , which were rapidly sailing southeastwards towards Alexandria .
= = Battle = =
One of the British reinforcements cruising in the Central Mediterranean in June was the frigate HMS Seahorse , commanded by Captain Edward Foote . Seahorse was officially rated as a 38 @-@ gun ship , but in reality carried 46 guns , including 14 32 @-@ pounder carronades , very heavy short @-@ range cannon . Foote had been despatched by Earl St. Vincent to join Nelson 's squadron in his hunt for the French and carried on board a number of reinforcements for HMS Culloden , one of Nelson 's ships commanded by Captain Thomas Troubridge . On 26 June 1798 , Seahorse was passing along the southern Sicilian coast in search of information about the whereabouts of the British fleet when at 16 : 00 his lookout sighted a ship . Advancing rapidly , Foote recognised the stranger as a French frigate and prepared for battle . The frigate was Sensible , which was on a northeasterly course from Malta to Toulon when sighted . BourdΓ© , knowing that his ship was overladen , undermanned and carried only 36 guns , some of which were only 6 @-@ pounders , turned away and sailed south , hoping to outrun his opponent during the night .
For 12 hours Sensible fled southwards , but Foote 's pursuit was relentless and BourdΓ© found the distance between his frigate and Seahorse gradually disappearing . At 04 : 00 on 27 July , with the island of Pantelleria 36 miles ( 58 km ) to the northwest , Foote was able to pull Seahorse alongside his opponent and open a heavy fire from close range . At the first shots , many of the galley slaves deserted their positions and fled below decks , leaving the French ship dangerously exposed . Within eight minutes Sensible was battered into submission , BourdΓ© 's desperate attempt to board Seahorse easily avoided by Foote . The French frigate received 36 cannon shot in the hull and significant damage to the masts . Casualty estimates vary , but between 18 and 25 men were killed and 35 to 55 were wounded from a total of approximately 300 . Seahorse by contrast suffered only light damage , losing two men dead and 16 , including first Lieutenant Wilmot , wounded .
Foote removed much of the treasure and prisoners from Sensible before despatching the vessel under a prize crew to Earl St. Vincent in the Tagus . Among the goods seized from the frigate were copies of the French naval code books , as well as information about the destination of Bonaparte 's invasion fleet . Sailing immediately for Alexandria , Foote was joined soon afterwards by HMS Terpsichore under Captain William Hall Gage , who was also searching for Nelson . Together they reached Alexandria on 21 July , discovering that the French were already in the harbour although Nelson was nowhere to be seen . Observing the French dispositions , Foote and Gage disguised their ships as a French frigate and its prize , Gage hoisting French colours over British to indicate that his ship had been captured and Foote displaying the secret French recognition codes . This appears to have convinced the French that the strangers were not enemy ships , and no move was made against them , Foote and Gage free to observe the French anchorage in Aboukir Bay before striking out along the African coast in search of Nelson . The British admiral was at this time resupplying his ships at Syracuse on Sicily , and when he sailed on 25 July he passed eastwards to Morea where he learned of the French invasion of Egypt from the Turkish governor of Coron . Striking directly southwards , Nelson arrived at Aboukir Bay on 1 August without ever encountering Foote or learning his intelligence . Seahorse eventually returned to Alexandria on 17 August to discover that Nelson had fought and won the Battle of the Nile nearly three weeks earlier .
= = Aftermath = =
Earl St Vincent was suffering from an extreme shortage of frigates , and on the arrival of Sensible at the Tagus immediately ordered the frigate to be commissioned as HMS Sensible , stripping six men from each of his ships to man her and turning the frigate into an active warship in just 12 hours . For a year Sensible remained with St. Vincent , until she was sent back to Britain in November 1799 . On arrival the ship was downgraded from frontline service , but did spend several years commissioned as a military transport until wrecked off Ceylon on 3 March 1802 . Among the treasures removed from the ship was a decorated brass cannon captured from the Ottomans in the seventeenth century and presented to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem by King Louis XIV of France , as well as a model of a galley made from gilt silver . These were sold , along with the other cargo and ships fittings at Sheerness in November 1799 , the prize money shares subsequently awarded to the crew of Seahorse .
General d 'Hilliers and the other prisoners were taken to Britain , but the officers were soon paroled . On their return to France , d 'Hilliers and BourdΓ© were court martialled and initially condemned by the Minister of Marine Γtienne Eustache Bruix . Bruix believed that the ship had been too easily surrendered and publicly released a strongly worded letter criticising their " talents and courage " . This level of criticism , which British naval historian William James considers excessive , was eventually toned down and after a spirited defence by d 'Hilliers both officers were honourably acquitted . Foote was praised for his success , and Lieutenant Wilmot , who successfully carried the frigate to the Tagus , was promoted . Foote later commanded Seahorse off Naples , and became embroiled in the controversy that surrounded the execution of the leaders of the Parthenopean Republic in 1799 .
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= Xavier Mertz =
Xavier Mertz ( 6 October 1882 β 8 January 1913 ) was a Swiss explorer , mountaineer and skier , from Basel . He took part in the Far Eastern Party , a 1912 β 13 component of the Australasian Antarctic Expedition , which claimed his life . The Mertz Glacier is named after him .
The son of a textile machinery manufacturer , Mertz studied patent law at the University of Bern , and science at the University of Lausanne , specialising in glacier and mountain formations . While a student , Mertz became active as a skier , competing in national competitions , and as a mountaineer , climbing many of the highest peaks in the Alps . In early 1911 , Mertz was hired by geologist and explorer Douglas Mawson for his Australasian Antarctic Expedition . He was initially employed as a ski instructor , but in Antarctica Mertz instead joined Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis in the care of the expedition 's Greenland Huskies .
In the summer of 1912 β 13 , Mertz and Ninnis were chosen by Mawson to accompany him on the Far Eastern Party , using the dogs to push rapidly from the expedition 's base in AdΓ©lie Land towards Victoria Land . After Ninnis and a sledge carrying most of the food disappeared down a crevasse , 311 miles ( 501 km ) from the hut , Mertz and Mawson headed back west , gradually using the dogs to supplement their remaining food stocks . About 100 miles ( 160 km ) from safety , Mertz died , leaving Mawson to carry on alone . The cause of Mertz 's death has never been firmly established ; the commonly purported theory is hypervitaminosis A ( an excessive intake of vitamin A ) from consuming the livers of the Huskies . Other theories suggest he may have died from a combination of malnutrition , a change in diet , cold exposure , and psychological stresses .
= = Early life = =
Xavier Mertz was born in Basel , the son of Emile Mertz , who owned a large engineering firm in the city . With the aim of working in the family business , which manufactured textile machinery , Mertz attended the University of Bern , where he studied patent law . While in Bern , he became active as a mountaineer and skier . Mertz competed in several national competitions ; in 1906 he was third in the Swiss cross @-@ country skiing championship , and second in the German championship . In 1908 , he won the Swiss ski jumping championship , with a distance of 31 metres ( 102 ft ) . As a mountaineer , he was particularly prolific in the Alps ; he climbed Mont Blanc β the highest peak in the range β and claimed several first ascents of other mountains . After he attained his degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Bern , Mertz studied science at the University of Lausanne ; he specialised in glacier and mountain formations , for which he received his second doctorate .
= = Antarctic = =
In early 1911 , Mertz went to London to meet with the Australian geologist and explorer Douglas Mawson . Mawson , who had served as physicist during Ernest Shackleton 's 1908 β 09 Nimrod Expedition , was planning his own Antarctic expedition . In his application letter , Mertz wrote that he hoped Mawson would be using skis , as " they have proved so good for the purpose & knowing that I am as good as any one on skys . " While Mawson was intending to recruit only British subjects ( chiefly Australians and New Zealanders ) , Mertz 's qualifications prompted him to make an exception , and hire the Swiss as a ski instructor . First , however , he was given responsibility for the expedition 's 49 Greenland Huskies , aboard the expedition ship SY Aurora , bound for Hobart .
On the Aurora , Mertz met Belgrave Edward Sutton Ninnis , a lieutenant in the Royal Fusiliers . Like Mertz , Ninnis was responsible for the expedition 's dogs ; Aurora 's captain , John King Davis , regarded the pair as " idlers " . " I wish we had some one on board who could look after [ the dogs ] , " he wrote in his diary , " it is a great shame that they should suffer from neglect . " On 2 December 1911 , after final preparations and loading were completed in Hobart , the Aurora sailed south ; she stopped briefly at Macquarie Island , where a wireless relay base was established , and reached the site of the expedition 's main base at Cape Denison in AdΓ©lie Land , on the Antarctic continent , in early January .
= = = AdΓ©lie Land = = =
Over the following winter , preparations were made for the summer sledging . Because the conditions β constant , strong winds and an excessive slope by the hut β prevented Mertz from conducting skiing lessons as regularly as intended , he focussed instead on helping Ninnis to care for the dogs . On days when the weather was good they drove the dogs around outside the hut , teaching them to run in teams ; when the winds returned the pair fitted and sewed harnesses for each dog , and prepared their sledging food . By this time Mertz and Ninnis developed a close friendship , as the expedition 's taxidermist Charles Laseron later wrote :
The two [ Mertz and Ninnis ] had joined the Expedition together in London , and had been associated longer and in a more intimate manner than any other members of the Expedition . During the winter months we had all been drawn together , but between Mertz and Ninnis there existed a very deep bond . Mertz , in his warm @-@ hearted impulsive way , had practically adopted Ninnis , and his affection was almost maternal . Ninnis , less demonstrative , reciprocated this to the full , and indeed it was hard to dissociate them in our thoughts . It was always ' Mertz and Ninnis ' or ' Ninnis and Mertz ' , a composite entity , each the complement of the other .
In August , the preparations extended to laying depots ; an early party established a depot 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) to the south of the main hut β a grotto in the ice known as Aladdin 's Cave β but returned without the dogs . Mertz and two others set off to rescue the dogs , but in heavy winds covered less than a mile in two hours , and returned to the hut . " If it depended only on me , " Mertz wrote in his diary , after four days ' more wind confined them to the hut , " we would be in our sleeping bags outside in the snow , and we would at least try to find the dogs . Mawson is definitely too cautious , and I wonder if he would show enough gumption during the sledging expedition . " The following day Mertz was part of a party of three that made it to Aladdin 's Cave to rescue the dogs ; when strong winds confined them to the depot for three days they spent the time expanding the cave .
In September , Mertz , Ninnis and Herbert Murphy formed a survey party , man @-@ hauling to the south @-@ east of Aladdin 's cave . In strong winds , they travelled just 12 @.@ 5 miles ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) in three days , before the temperature dropped to β 34 Β° C ( β 29 Β° F ) and the wind speed increased to 90 miles per hour ( 78 kn ) , confining them to the tent . When a gap in the wind allowed , they hurried back to the hut .
= = = Death during the Far Eastern Party = = =
On 27 October 1912 , Mawson outlined the summer sledging program . Mertz and Ninnis were assigned to Mawson 's own party , which would use the dogs to push quickly to the east of the expedition 's base in Commonwealth Bay , towards Victoria Land . The party departed Cape Denison on 10 November , heading first to Aladdin 's Cave , and from there south @-@ east towards a massive glacier encountered by Aurora on the outward journey . Mertz skied ahead , scouting and providing a lead for the dogs to chase ; Mawson and Ninnis manoeuvred the two dog teams behind . They reached the glacier on 19 November ; negotiating fields of crevasses , it was crossed in five days . The party made quick progress once on the plateau again , but they soon encountered another glacier , far larger than the first . Despite strong winds and poor light , Mertz , Mawson and Ninnis reached the far side on 30 November .
On 14 December , the party were more than 311 miles ( 501 km ) from the Cape Denison hut . As Mertz skied ahead , singing songs from his student days , Ninnis , the largest sledge and the strongest dog team were lost when they broke through the snow lid of a crevasse . Together with the death of their companion , Mawson and Mertz were now severely compromised ; on the remaining sledge they had just ten days ' worth of food , and no food for the dogs . They immediately turned back west , gradually using the six remaining dogs to supplement their food supply ; they ate all parts of the animals , including their livers . They initially made good progress , but as they cleared the largest glacier Mertz began to feel ill ; he had lost his waterproof overpants on Ninnis ' sledge , and in the cold his wet clothes were unable to dry . On 30 December , a day Mawson recorded that the companion was " off colour " , Mertz wrote that he was " really tired [ and ] shall write no more . " Mertz 's condition deteriorated over the following days β Mawson recorded he was " generally in a very bad condition . Skin coming off legs , etc " β and his illness severely slowed their progress . On 8 January , the pair about 100 miles ( 160 km ) from the hut , Mawson recorded :
He [ Mertz ] is very weak , becomes more and more delirious , rarely being able to speak coherently . He will eat or drink nothing . At 8 pm he raves & breaks a tent pole . Continues to rave & call ' Oh Veh , Oh Veh ' [ O weh ! , ' Oh dear ! ' ] for hours . I hold him down , then he becomes more peaceful & I put him quietly in the bag . He dies peacefully at about 2 am on morning of 8th .
Mawson buried Mertz in his sleeping bag under rough @-@ hewn blocks of snow , along with the remaining photographic plates and an explanatory note . Mawson staggered back into the Cape Denison hut a month later , missing the Aurora by a matter of hours ; she had waited for Mertz , Mawson and Ninnis for three weeks until β concerned by the encroaching winter ice β Davis had sailed her out of Commonwealth Bay and back to Australia .
= = Legacy = =
In November 1913 , a month before the Aurora returned for the final time , Mawson and the six men remaining at Cape Denison erected a memorial cross for Mertz and Ninnis on Azimuth Hill to the north @-@ west of the main hut . The cross , constructed from pieces of a broken radio mast , was accompanied by a plaque cut from wood from Mertz 's bunk . The cross still stands , although the crossbar has required reattaching several times , and the plaque was replaced with a replica in 1986 . The first glacier the Far Eastern Party crossed on the outward journey β previously unnamed β was named by Mawson after Mertz , becoming the Mertz Glacier . At a speaking engagement upon his return to Australia , Mawson praised his dead comrades : " The survivors might have an opportunity of doing something more , but these men had done their all . " At another , Mawson said that " Dr. Mertz was a Swiss by birth , but he was a man every Englishman would have liked to have called an Englishman ... He was a man of great feelings , generous β one of Nature 's gentlemen . " A telegram was sent on behalf of the Australian people to Emile Mertz , condoling him on his " great loss , but congratulating you on your son 's imperishable fame . "
The cause of Mertz 's death is not certain ; at the time , it was believed Mertz may have died of colitis . A 1969 study by Sir John Cleland and R. V. Southcott of the University of Adelaide concluded that the symptoms Mawson described β hair , skin and weight loss , depression , dysentery and persistent skin infections β indicated the men had suffered hypervitaminosis A , an excessive intake of vitamin A. Vitamin A is found in unusually high quantities in the livers of Greenland Dogs , of which both Mertz and Mawson consumed large amounts ; indeed , as Mertz 's condition deteriorated , Mawson may have given him more of the liver to eat , believing it to be more easily digested . This theory is the most widely accepted , but there have been other theories . Phillip Law , former director of Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions ( ANARE ) , believed cold exposure could account for Mertz 's symptoms . A 2005 article in The Medical Journal of Australia by Denise Carrington @-@ Smith , noting certain sources indicating that Mertz was essentially a vegetarian , suggested that general malnutrition and the sudden change to a predominantly meat diet could have triggered Mertz 's illness . Carrington @-@ Smith adds a more hypothetical reason : " the psychological stresses related to the death of a close friend [ Ninnis ] and the deaths of the dogs he had cared for , as well as the need to kill and eat his remaining dogs " .
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= Washington State Route 162 =
State Route 162 ( SR 162 ) is a 17 @.@ 37 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 @.@ 95 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving rural Pierce County . The highway travels from an interchange with SR 410 in Sumner and travels south along the Puyallup River to Orting and northeast to South Prairie , ending at an intersection with SR 165 near Buckley . SR 162 was established in 1964 as the successor to Secondary State Highway 5E ( SSH 5E ) , which was codified in 1937 . The highway crosses the Puyallup River northwest of Orting on the McMillin Bridge , which opened in 1934 and is scheduled to be replaced with a newer bridge that will begin construction in 2014 .
= = Route description = =
SR 162 begins at a diamond interchange with the SR 410 freeway in Sumner and travels south as a continuation of Valley Avenue , crossing the Puyallup River . The highway continues south through rural Pierce County , following a Ballard Terminal Railroad line and the Puyallup River . It serves the community of Alderton and joins the Pierce County Foothills Trail , traveling southeast from Puyallup . SR 162 crosses the Puyallup River on the McMillin Bridge , listed on the National Register of Historical Places , west of its confluence with the Carbon River . It becomes Washington Avenue as it travels southeast through Orting , serving Orting High School . The highway turns southwest onto Bridge Street and crosses the Foothills Trail before turning back southeast onto Herman Way , later Pioneer Way outside of Orting , towards South Prairie . SR 162 continues northeast , crossing the Foothills Trail and the Carbon River before passing through South Prairie . The highway travels east , crossing South Prairie Creek and passing White River High School , before ending at an intersection with SR 165 southwest of Buckley .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that between 4 @,@ 100 and 21 @,@ 000 vehicles per day used the highway , mostly between Sumner and Orting .
= = History = =
SR 162 was codified as SSH 5E during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 , beginning at Primary State Highway 5 ( PSH 5 ) and U.S. Route 410 in Puyallup , traveling through Orting and South Prairie to end at an intersection with a branch of PSH 5 southwest of Buckley . SSH 5E had a branch that traveled south from Orting to Electron that was removed from the state highway system in 1955 . The highway traveled across the Puyallup River into Orting on the McMillin Bridge , which opened in 1934 as a concrete half @-@ through truss bridge to save the Department of Highways a total of $ 826 . SR 165 was established during the 1964 highway renumbering and was codified in 1970 as the replacement to SSH 5E . The western terminus , now at SR 410 , was moved east to an interchange in Sumner after the completion of the Sumner Freeway in 1972 . The McMillin Bridge was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 as an example of a half @-@ through truss bridge built with concrete instead of steel . The route of the highway has not seen a major revision since 1972 ; however , WSDOT repaved the roadway and added guardrails between Orting and Buckley in 2008 . The deteriorating McMillin Bridge is being replaced by WSDOT with a newer , wider span over the Puyallup River scheduled to begin construction in 2014 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Pierce County .
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= No Mercy ( 2004 ) =
No Mercy ( 2004 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on October 3 , 2004 , at the Continental Airlines Arena in East Rutherford , New Jersey . It was the seventh annual No Mercy event , and featured eight professional wrestling matches on the event 's card . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the SmackDown ! brand : a storyline expansion of the promotion where employees are assigned to a wrestling brand under the WWE banner .
The main event was a Last Ride match , where the objective was to place an opponent in a hearse located on the entrance stage and drive them out of the arena . WWE Champion John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) defeated The Undertaker in this match to retain his title . Two predominant bouts were featured on the undercard ; in respective singles matches , John Cena defeated Booker T to win the WWE United States Championship , and The Big Show defeated Kurt Angle .
Presented by THQ 's WWE Day of Reckoning , No Mercy grossed over $ 700 @,@ 000 ticket sales from an attendance of 10 @,@ 000 , and received 240 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . This event helped WWE increase its pay @-@ per @-@ view revenue by $ 6 @.@ 2 compared to the previous year .
= = Background = =
The event featured eight professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick as they followed a series of events which generally built tension , leading to a wrestling match . All wrestlers were from the SmackDown ! brand β a storyline division in which WWE assigned its employees to a different program , the other being Raw .
The main event featured WWE Champion John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) defending the title against The Undertaker in a match where the objective is to place an opponent in a hearse located on the entrance stage and drive them out of the arena , dubbed a Last Ride match . The buildup to the match began after SummerSlam , Smackdown 's previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , where JBL defeated the Undertaker in a standard wrestling match , also called a singles match , via disqualification to retain his championship . During that week on an episode of SmackDown ! , JBL wore a neck brace , to signify that he was recuperating from a chokeslam that the Undertaker gave him on top of his limo . On the August 26 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , Orlando Jordan , one of JBL 's associates , defended the WWE Championship for JBL against the Undertaker . Undertaker won the match via disqualification following interference from JBL ; as a result , JBL retained the title . Two weeks later , General Manager Theodore Long , a fictitious match maker and rules enforcer , announced that Undertaker would get another opportunity for JBL 's title at No Mercy in a Last Ride match .
One of the featured matches was contested for the WWE United States Championship , in which Booker T defended the title against John Cena . At SummerSlam , Cena defeated Booker in the first series of " best of five " match . On the August 26 episode of SmackDown ! , the second match was won by Booker , to even the series one @-@ to @-@ one . The following night at a SmackDown ! live event , Booker defeated Cena to win the third match . On the September 16 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena defeated Booker in the fourth match , making the series even at two wins apiece . The following week it was announced that the final series title match would be scheduled at No Mercy .
The other featured preliminary match was Kurt Angle versus The Big Show in a singles match . The buildup to the match began on September 9 , 2004 during an episode of SmackDown ! , where a Lumberjack match ( a standard match where non @-@ participating wrestlers prevent contestants from fleeing the ring ) was scheduled between Kurt Angle and Eddie Guerrero . The match ended in a no contest when The Big Show marked his return to SmackDown ! by interfering in the match , chokeslamming both Angle and Guerrero in the process . The following week , Big Show was given two contracts to choose from ; one contract to face Guerrero and one contract to face Angle . Big Show signed the contract with Guerrero 's name on it . After signing it , Angle and his associate Luther Reigns , threw Guerrero out of the ring and offered Big Show a handshake . Big Show , however , tore up Guerrero 's contract and signed the one with Angle 's name on it to face him at No Mercy .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Mark Jindrak defeated Scotty 2 Hotty in a match taped for Heat , one of WWE 's secondary television programs .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first televised match was a standard wrestling match between Eddie Guerrero and Luther Reigns accompanied with Mark Jindrak . In the early stages both competitors took the advantage over one another . Reigns controlled most of the match , as Guerrero tried to avoid Luther 's assaults . Reigns began to work on Guerrero 's lower back , suplexing him down and bending him over his knee following a backbreaker . The match saw Guerrero take the advantage , as he was able to counter a swinging neckbreaker . The match concluded when Guerrero won the match by striking Reigns with a baton taken from a security guard .
The next match was for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship , in which champion Spike Dudley accompanied by The Dudleys ( D @-@ Von and Bubba Ray ) defended the title against Nunzio with Johhny Stamboli . The match began with Nunzio performing a pescado , a slingshot crossbody where the wrestler goes from the inside of the ring over the top ring rope to the outside , on Spike . The match saw interference from Devon as he pushed Nunzio off the top ropes . Spike took control of the match , as he was able to slip both arms underneath Nunzio 's armpits and locked his hands behind his neck and pushing Nunzio 's head forward against his chest . Back and forth action saw both competitors take the advantage over one another . The match ended when Stamboli tried to prevent interference from D @-@ Von , allowing Bubba to trip up Nunzio and crotched him on the ring post and giving Spike the win and retention of his title .
The next match that followed was between Billy Kidman and Paul London . The start of the match saw London toss Kidman out of the ring and perform a running springboard moonsault , a move in which a wrestler springboards and executes a backflip to land on the opponent , from the top ropes to the outside onto Kidman . Kidman , however , took control once back in the ring , as he performed various stiff kicks on London 's midsection and focusing on his lower back . London attempted to perform a powerbomb , but was not successful in doing so as Kidman reversed it into a sitout facebuster for a near @-@ fall . The match concluded with Kidman as he executed a Shooting star press on London to get the pinfall victory over London .
The fourth match was for the WWE Tag Team Championship , in which champions RenΓ© DuprΓ©e and Kenzo Suzuki defended the title against Rob Van Dam and Rey Mysterio . The match began with Van Dam and DuprΓ©e gaining the upper hand over each other . DuprΓ©e tagged Kenzo into the match , which led him to take offense over Van Dam . Mysterio was tagged in the match and performed a flying headbutt on Kenzo , followed by a tornado DDT onto Kenzo . Mysterio followed this by knocking DuprΓ©e off the apron and launching himself back into the ring , onto Kenzo in a seated senton , a move performed by jumping forward off a raised platform or springboarding on to the shoulders of a standing opponent forcing them to the ground . Mysterio tried to perform the 619 on Kenzo , however , DuprΓ©e stopped Mysterio from doing so . Mysterio then performed the 619 on Kenzo . As he prepared to perform the West Coast Pop , DuprΓ©e pulled Mysterio off the ropes . This led to Kenzo pinning Mysterio , as he held onto the ropes for leverage to pick up the win and retain the tag team title .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The first main match was between Kurt Angle and The Big Show . A stipulation in the match was placed that anyone who tried to interfere would get fired . For the duration of the match , The Big Show , who stood at 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) and weighed 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) , used his body size to his advantage as he squashed , or easily and quickly performed moves on , Angle . Angle , who had enough , began to walk away from the match . Angle ran back to the ring and counted along with the referee for the 10 count . General Manager Theodore Long ordered Angle to return to the match with a no count out stipulation or else Angle would never wrestle on SmackDown ! again . Angle returned to the ring , in which Big Show dominated once more , even standing on Angle . A frustrated Angle brought a steel chair , but backfired when Big Show punched the chair onto Angle 's face . As Big Show prepared to perform a chokeslam , Angle countered into an ankle lock hold . Big Show managed to get a hold of the ropes to force Angle to break the hold and he was scripted to knock the referee down . Angle began targeting Big Show 's knee and even hitting his knee with the steel chair , to take advantage of the referee 's state . The match ended with Big Show chokeslamming Angle from the top of the ring . During this time , the referee regained consciousness and gave Big Show the pinfall victory .
The second main match was a singles match , in which United States Champion Booker T defended the title against John Cena in the final " best of five " match . In the early stages of the match , Cena and Booker fought at ringside . During this tussle Booker pounded Cena 's head into the ring steps before being reversed into them himself . The match then returned to the ring , which saw Booker and Cena getting the upper hand over one another . Cena took control as he performed several of his signature moves ; he ran up from behind Booker , grabbed his head with one hand and leaped forward to drive Booker 's face into the mat . He then followed with hitting a fist drop with theatrics , which Cena calls the Five Knuckle Shuffle . Cena tried to follow up with lifting Booker onto his shoulder , but Booker countered it into a Book End . Booker went for the pin on Cena , but he kicked out . Cena was able to dodge a kick to the back of the head that would force him to hit his face first into the mat , with lifting Booker over his shoulders and throwing him down to execute the FU . He pinned Booker to be declared the new United States Champion .
Another match on the undercard was a mixed tag team match between the team of the Dudley Boyz ( D @-@ Von and Bubba Ray ) and Dawn Marie versus Charlie Haas , Rico Constantino , and Miss Jackie . The start of the match saw Haas get back body dropped by the Dudley 's . Dawn was tagged in to the match , as was Jackie who tagged herself in , if a man tags her female partner , both men leave the ring and both women enter the match . The two women began to beat one another . Bubba Ray tagged himself in and demanded Jackie give him a kiss , and closed his eyes . Rico came in and kissed Bubba Ray , prompting Bubba Ray to run away and gag audibly . Rico wrestled against D @-@ Von , and was in control until Bubba Ray and D @-@ Von double teamed him . Bubba Ray called for the flying head butt to the crotch , but D @-@ Von was hesitant in performing the move on Rico . This caused Dawn and Jackie to continue their fight , as both entered the ring . The match ended when Haas performed a flying axe handle setting up the legal tag to Rico to perform a moonsault and get the win .
The main event was the Last Ride match for the WWE Championship , in which John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) defended the title against The Undertaker . During the beginning of the match , the Undertaker began hitting JBL in the corner , before twisting his arm around and dropping JBL 's arm on the top rope . Following this , the Undertaker chokeslammed JBL in the ring , and performed a leg drop off the ring apron . Outside the ring , the Undertaker threw JBL towards the steel ring steps . The Undertaker continued to uphold the upper hand over JBL , as he began to remove the television set from the Spanish announce table , but JBL managed to hit Undertaker upside the head with the steel ring steps . JBL tried to put the Undertaker in the hearse , but the Undertaker fought back . A frustrated JBL took the Undertaker back to the ring and hit a shoulder block from the top rope . The Undertaker managed to get the upper hand once more , as he applied a triangle choke hold on JBL , leading JBL to tap out , but submissions do not count prior in this match . The Undertaker backdropped out of a piledriver attempt on the steel ring steps and grabbed JBL , turned him upside @-@ down and dropped into a kneeling position , driving JBL 's head into the steel steps , making JBL bleed from the head . Minutes later , the Undertaker chokeslammed JBL off the announce table through the Spanish table . The Undertaker carried JBL to the hearse , and Jon Heidenreich came out of the hearse . Heidenreich began to attack the Undertaker , covered his mouth with a soaked rag filled with chloroform . Heidenreich placed the Undertaker into the hearse and drove off . Inside the hearse , a camera was inside the hearse to show the Undertaker wake up and jump out and attack Heidenreich . JBL recovered , and swung his arm forward while running towards the Undertaker , a move JBL calls Clothesline from Hell , and helped Heidenreich place the Undertaker back into the hearse to be driven away . Backstage , Paul Heyman drove the hearse to the parking lot , where Heidenreich drove his car into it at high speed , causing an inexplicable explosion . As a result , JBL won the match and retained his title .
= = Aftermath = =
Following No Mercy , the storyline between JBL and The Undertaker ended . JBL was then placed in a new angle against Booker T. On an episode of SmackDown ! , a six man tag team match involving Booker T , Rob Van Dam , and Rey Mysterio taking on JBL , Kenzo Suzuki , and RenΓ© DuprΓ©e was scheduled . At the time , Booker T being a villain , congratulated JBL with the success that he has accomplished within the company in a segment backstage . The tag team match got underway , and JBL was led to believe that Booker was going to betray his tag partners , as Booker warned both Van Dam and Mysterio not to interfere with him during the match . The match concluded with Booker pinning JBL for the win , thus turning Booker into a crowd favorite . The following week on SmackDown ! , Booker defeated Orlando Jordan , JBL 's associate , to earn the right to face JBL for the WWE Championship at Survivor Series . At Survivor Series , JBL defeated Booker to retain the WWE title .
On the October 21 episode of SmackDown ! , Paul Heyman requested that Theodore Long schedule a match between Heidenreich and the Undertaker at Survivor Series . Long agreed to the match , but informed Heyman that in order for the match to take place , he had to get the Undertaker to sign the contract personally . The following week , Heyman met the Undertaker at an undisclosed location where he pleaded his case about Heidenreich wanting to face the Undertaker in a match . The Undertaker signed the contract and warned Heyman he would defeat Heidenreich at Survivor Series . At the November event , the Undertaker was successful in defeating Heidenreich .
Following his win at No Mercy , John Cena lost the WWE United States Championship to Carlito Caribbean Cool , who debuted on SmackDown ! . As part of the storyline , Carlito was given a bodyguard , JesΓΊs , who stabbed Cena in the kidney while at a Boston @-@ area nightclub . On the November 18 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena captured the United States Championship after defeating Carlito for it . Cena also debuted a " custom made " spinner @-@ style title belt .
= = = Reception = = =
The Continental Airlines Arena usually can accommodate 20 @,@ 000 , but the capacity was reduced for the event . This event grossed over $ 700 @,@ 000 from an approximate attendance of 10 @,@ 000 β the maximum allowed . It also received 240 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . No Mercy helped WWE earn $ 24 @.@ 7 million in revenue from pay @-@ per @-@ view events versus $ 18 @.@ 5 million the previous year , which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon , the CEO of WWE , on November 23 , 2004 in a quarterly result . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event 5 out of 10 . The rating was the same as the No Mercy 2005 event , which was marked as an " absolutely terrible " pay @-@ per @-@ view from WWE . The standard match between Billy Kidman and Paul London was rated a 7 out of 10 . Additionally , the matches of Eddie Guerrero versus Luther Reigns , Spike Dudley versus Nunzio , Booker T versus John Cena , and the Last Ride match were all rated a 4 out of 10 .
The event was released on DVD on November 9 , 2004 . The DVD was distributed by the label , Sony Music Entertainment .
= = Results = =
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= Sir John Brunner , 1st Baronet =
Sir John Tomlinson Brunner , 1st Baronet , PC DL ( 8 February 1842 β 1 July 1919 ) was a British chemical industrialist and Liberal Party politician . At Hutchinson 's alkali works in Widnes he rose to the position of general manager . There he met Ludwig Mond , whom he later formed a partnership with to create the chemical company Brunner Mond & Co . , initially making alkali by the Solvay process . As a Member of Parliament he represented Northwich , Cheshire , in 1885 β 1886 and then from 1887 β 1910 . He was a paternalistic employer and as a politician supported Irish Home Rule , trade unions , free trade , welfare reforms and , leading up to the First World War , a more sympathetic stance towards Germany . Brunner was a prominent Freemason , and a generous benefactor to the towns in his constituency and to the University of Liverpool . He is the great grandfather of the Duchess of Kent .
= = Early life and career = =
John Tomlinson Brunner was born in Everton , Liverpool , the fourth child and second son of John Brunner ( b . 20 June 1800 ) , a Swiss Unitarian and schoolmaster , and Margaret Catherine Curphey ( d . 8 September 1847 ) , who originated from the Isle of Man , daughter of Thomas Curphey and wife Margaret Leece . His father established a school in Netherfield Road , Everton , known as St George 's House , to teach children along the lines advocated by Pestalozzi . Brunner 's mother died in 1847 , when he was aged five ; his father married Nancy Inman in 1851 . She had a shrewd business sense and Brunner gave credit to her for teaching him skills in practical matters . Brunner was educated at his father 's school and then , at the age of 15 , he decided to follow a career in commerce . He spent four years in a shipping house in Liverpool , but found it neither exciting nor lucrative , and so decided on a change of career . In 1861 , Brunner took a clerical post at Hutchinson 's alkali works in Widnes , where his older brother Henry was already working as technical manager . There , he rose to the position of general manager . Shortly after starting work at Hutchinson 's , Brunner met the German @-@ born chemist Ludwig Mond .
= = Brunner Mond and Company = =
In 1873 Brunner formed a partnership with Mond and together they founded Brunner Mond & Company . Their initial capital was less than Β£ 20 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 1 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) , most of which was borrowed . In April 1872 Mond had been to Belgium to meet Ernest Solvay to negotiate terms to manufacture alkali by the process Solvay had developed . The Solvay process produced soda ash more cheaply than the established Leblanc process , from raw materials which were more easily obtainable , and produced fewer waste products . Mond made a gentlemen 's agreement with Solvay to apportion the global markets , with Mond 's company having exclusive rights to the United States and to the British Isles .
Brunner and Mond decided to build their factory at Winnington , near Northwich , Cheshire on land owned by Lord Stanley of Alderley . This was sited on the River Weaver which allowed for the transport of the raw materials and finished products to and from the works . Lord Stanley insisted on selling the house , Winnington Hall , as well as the surrounding land , as part of the deal . The purchase was completed in 1873 , and for a time both Mond and Brunner lived separately in the wings of the hall . The early years were extremely difficult , initially in getting the plant to work efficiently and then in selling the soda ash . It was not until 1878 that success was achieved when they outsold their competitors and were producing their products more cheaply . In 1881 , the partnership was converted into a limited company with capital assets listed at Β£ 600 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 5 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) and the founders became managing directors for life . In 1891 , Brunner became the chairman and retained that position until April 1918 , 14 months before his death . However , by then his duties were being increasingly performed by his son , Roscoe .
After its slow start , Brunner Mond & Company became the wealthiest British chemical company of the late 19th century . On its merger with three other British chemical companies to form Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) in 1926 , it had a market capitalization of over Β£ 18 million ( Β£ 940 million in 2016 ) . Brunner 's sobriquet , " Chemical Croesus " , was given to him by The Times . He was a paternalistic employer and went to great lengths to improve the situation of his employees . Measures introduced by Brunner and Mond were shorter working hours , sickness and injury insurance , and holidays with pay .
= = Politics = =
During the years he was working at Hutchinson 's in Widnes , Brunner was developing his political interests . He joined the Widnes chapter of the National Education League and became its secretary in 1872 . This gave him the opportunity to come into contact with Liberals from Liverpool and other parts of the country . Soon after moving to Northwich Brunner became more practically involved with education locally , in particular with the British School in the town . He later served on its board of governors and also on the local sanitary authority . As a result of the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 the parliamentary constituency of Northwich was created and Brunner offered himself as a candidate for the Liberal Party . In his speech for the position he expressed support for the disestablishment of the Church of England , for reform of property laws , for Irish Home Rule and for compensation for those whose properties had been damaged by the pumping of brine from the salt mines in the area . During the campaign he was heckled because he had a foreign @-@ sounding name . He responded " My father was a Swiss , my mother was a Manx woman , I was born in Liverpool , my nurse was Welsh : is that Cheshire enough for you ? " At the general election on 1 December 1885 Brunner beat William Henry Verdin , his Conservative rival , with a majority of 1 @,@ 028 .
The Liberal Party won more seats than any other party in the election , but insufficient to form a majority government , leaving the Irish Parliamentary Party holding the balance of power . It proved impossible to form a stable government , and so another general election was called in June 1886 . In the meantime , the Liberal Party had split , and the Liberal Unionist Party had been formed . Brunner 's opponent at the 1886 election was William Henry Verdin 's brother , Robert , standing as a Liberal Unionist . The election was held on 13 July 1886 , and Brunner was defeated by 458 votes . In November 1886 , Brunner embarked on a world tour , accompanied by his wife and his son Stephen . His return to Northwich on 2 July 1887 was greeted with great celebration , as he was extremely popular in the town , regarded as a kind and sympathetic employer and a generous benefactor . Within three weeks of Brunner 's return , Robert Verdin died and a by @-@ election was called . Brunner 's opponent was Lord Henry Grosvenor , who was standing as a Liberal Unionist . This time , at the election on 13 August , Brunner won with a majority of 1 @,@ 129 . At the 1892 general election , Brunner 's opponent was not a Liberal Unionist , but a Conservative , George Whiteley , who was a cotton manufacturer from Blackburn . Brunner was returned with an increased majority of 1 @,@ 255 . In the 1895 election he beat Thomas Ward , another Conservative , by 1 @,@ 638 votes . The 1900 general election was held during the Boer War , to which Brunner was opposed . He retained his seat , but with a reduced majority of 699 . In the 1906 general election , Brunner 's opponent was the Conservative Colonel B.N. North who had fought in the Boer War . Brunner increased his majority to 1 @,@ 792 . He continued to be the Member of Parliament for Northwich until the general election in January 1910 , when he decided not to stand again , partly because of his own health and also because of concern for his wife 's health . Subsequently he moved to Surrey , but continued to play a part in politics when he was elected to the Chertsey division of Surrey County Council .
As a Liberal MP he supported Irish Home Rule , trade unions , free trade and welfare reforms . Leading up to the First World War he argued that Britain should adopt a more sympathetic approach towards Germany , including naval disarmament . When war did break out , Brunner was resolute in the opinion that it should be fought and won . In addition to the production of alkali , his factories were making other chemicals for use as explosives . He also built a new factory to purify trinitrotoluene .
= = Benefactions = =
Brunner was a generous benefactor whose gifts included the provision of schools , guildhalls and social clubs . In Northwich he provided a free library and re @-@ endowed Sir John Deane 's Grammar School . In Runcorn he purchased a disused chapel and presented it to the town to be used by the trades unions and the Friendly Societies , and in nearby Weston village he bought a disused school and gave it to the local community to serve as its village hall . He also endowed the chairs of economics , physical chemistry and Egyptology at the University of Liverpool .
Abroad he gave gifts to the Landesmuseum in ZΓΌrich and provided a hospital , also in Switzerland . In 1885 he became a Freemason and in 1900 founded the John Brunner Lodge at Over Winsford . The following year he was honoured with the brevet rank of Past Grand Deacon of England .
In 1899 Brunner ( who had by then been created a baronet ) became chairman of the Runcorn and Widnes Transporter Bridge Company . He subscribed Β£ 25 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 2 @.@ 5 million in 2016 ) towards its construction plus a loan of Β£ 12 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) together with a personal guarantee on a bank loan of Β£ 31 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 3 @.@ 1 million in 2016 ) . When the building of the bridge was complete in 1905 it was due to be opened by Edward VII , but the king was unable to attend , and so Brunner performed the ceremony himself . By 1911 it had become apparent that the bridge would always operate at a loss , and Brunner assigned his interest in it to Widnes Corporation . The Times stated that this action amounted to a " virtual gift of Β£ 68 @,@ 000 " ( Β£ 6 @.@ 2 million in 2016 ) .
= = Personal life = =
On 14 June 1864 Brunner married Salome Davies , the daughter of a Liverpool merchant with whom he had six children . Salome died on 29 January 1874 and the following year he married Jane Wyman , the daughter of a Kettering physician and the governess to his children . From this marriage three more children , all daughters , were born . In 1891 the Brunners moved from Winnington Hall to Wavertree , a suburb of Liverpool .
Amongst other offices held , he was Vice @-@ President of the British Science Guild , Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Lancashire ( from 1904 ) and Pro @-@ Chancellor of the University of Liverpool . In 1909 the University of Liverpool awarded him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws . In 1895 he was made the Baronet of Druids Cross in the County of Lancashire and in 1906 he became a member of the privy council , but he declined offers of a peerage . He died in 1919 at his home in Chertsey , Surrey . His estate amounted to over Β£ 906 @,@ 000 ( Β£ 38 million in 2016 ) . In addition , he had given generously to his five married daughters , and had transferred investments to his sons .
The baronetcy passed to his eldest son , John Fowler Leece Brunner . His descendants include , through his elder son 's daughter ( Joyce Brunner Worsley ) , Katharine , Duchess of Kent ( born 1933 ) , married since 1961 to a grandson of Britain 's King George V , and Shelagh Brunner ( 1902 @-@ 1983 ) , daughter of his younger son ( Harold Roscoe Brunner ) , who morganatically married Prince Ferdinand of Liechtenstein ( 1901 @-@ 1981 ) in 1925 , a member of that principality 's still reigning dynasty .
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= Battle of Quebec ( 1690 ) =
The Battle of Quebec was fought in October 1690 between the colonies of New France and Massachusetts Bay , then ruled by the kingdoms of France and England , respectively . It was the first time Quebec 's defences were tested .
Following the capture of Port Royal in Acadia , during King William 's War , the New Englanders hoped to seize Montreal and Quebec itself , the capital of New France . The loss of the Acadian fort shocked the Canadians , and Governor @-@ General Louis de Buade de Frontenac ordered the immediate preparation of the city for siege .
When the envoys delivered the terms of surrender , the Governor @-@ General famously declared that his only reply would be by " the mouth of my cannons . " Major John Walley led the invading army , which landed at Beauport in the Basin of Quebec . However , the militia on the shore were constantly harassed by Canadian militia until their retreat , while the expedition 's ships , commanded by Sir William Phips , were nearly destroyed by cannon volleys from the top of the city .
Both sides learned from the battle : the French improved the city 's defences , while the New Englanders realized they needed more artillery and better support from England to take the city .
= = Background = =
The colony of New France claimed the largest area of North America , although by population it was numerically inferior to the neighbouring colonies of New England and New York . By 1689 , there were only about 14 @,@ 000 settlers in New France , but most of the population lived in towns protected by elaborate forts .
In 1690 , Sir William Phips was appointed major @-@ general by Massachusetts to command an expedition against French Acadia . He sailed with seven vessels carrying a 450 @-@ strong militia " Foot Regiment " , and Port Royal surrendered on 21 May . Its governor , Louis @-@ Alexandre des Friches de Menneval , had only about 70 men , and no guns mounted , and would have been unable to resist . On 22 May , Phips recorded " We cut down the cross , rifled the Church , pulled down the High @-@ Altar , breaking their images " ; and on 23 May , " kept gathering Plunder both by land and water , and also under ground in their Gardens " .
This shocked the French colonists , who feared that their capital city would be the next target . Quebec did not have extensive fortifications in 1690 , and the whole landward side of the city to the north and west was exposed , particularly at the Plains of Abraham . Count Frontenac returned to Canada for a second term as Governor @-@ General , and ordered the construction of a wooden palisade to enclose the city from the fort at the ChΓ’teau Saint @-@ Louis to the Saint @-@ Charles River . Town Major Provost oversaw the construction of eleven small stone redoubts in this enceinte , which would have protected against cannon . Facing the plains on the west side was the strong point of the landward defences β a windmill called Mont @-@ Carmel where a three @-@ gun battery was in place . The palisade line ended on the east side of the city , near the hospital . The batteries facing the river were also improved , with eight guns mounted beside the ChΓ’teau and six 18 @-@ pounders at the docksides . Temporary obstacles had also been put in place on the street leading up to the upper city .
Meanwhile , a mobile war party of 150 Albany militia and Iroquois warriors under Captain John Schuyler marched and canoed overland to Montreal , imitating the petite guerre tactics ( long @-@ range expeditions into enemy territory ) perfected by the French colonists . Schuyler 's expedition was designed to seize Montreal and pin French forces south of Quebec , allowing the Boston fleet to sail against the capital unopposed . Smallpox , lack of supplies , and disagreements among the officers caused most of the militia and Iroquois to turn back in disgust , leaving Schuyler with a fraction of the 855 men promised by the New England authorities . On 4 September the English raiders attacked settlements south of Montreal , killing some 50 habitants in the middle of their harvests . Too weak to risk a battle with the town 's garrison , Schuyler wrapped up the New England invasion and turned home . Thus , when Phips was sighted off Tadoussac , Frontenac ordered the garrisons of Montreal and Trois @-@ RiviΓ¨res to make for the threatened capital with all haste . Four days later the Governor arrived in Quebec with 200 β 300 troops freed @-@ up by the failure of Schuyler 's invasion , considerably lifting the capital 's spirit of resistance .
= = Arrival of Phips = =
While the New England colonies and New York dispatched a force overland against Montreal , which accomplished virtually nothing , Massachusetts launched a separate expedition against Quebec . The whole operation had been financed by issuing paper bonds set against the expected booty to be taken from the city . The expedition consisted of about 32 ships ( only four of which were of any size ) and over 2 @,@ 300 Massachusetts militiamen , and was under the overall command of Phips , the victor at Port Royal . Its departure was delayed until quite late in the summer because it was waiting ( in vain ) for the arrival of additional munitions from England . Consequently , when Phips ' expedition set out from Hull on 20 August , it was inadequately supplied with ammunition . Bad weather , contrary winds , and lack of pilots familiar with the Saint Lawrence River hampered progress , and Phips did not anchor in the Quebec basin until 16 October .
Frontenac , a shrewd and experienced officer , reached Quebec from Montreal on 14 October . When all the militia whom he had summoned arrived , he had nearly 3 @,@ 000 men to defend the place . The New Englanders had been " quite confident that the cowardly and effete French would be no match for their hardy men " , but in fact the opposite was the case . Frontenac had reason for confidence , as he possessed a force of three battalions of colonial regulars that were certainly superior to Phips 's amateur companies β in the event the regulars were not needed as the Canadien militia succeeded in repulsing Phips ' landing parties . Furthermore , the city was " sited on the strongest natural position they [ the English officers ] had likely ever seen . " Not only did it have impressive cliffs and Cape Diamond , but the eastern shore was so shallow that ships could not approach and landing craft would be needed .
On 16 October , Phips sent Major Thomas Savage as an envoy to deliver a summons of surrender to Frontenac . The encounter has been described as an application of psychological warfare . Before the fighting Frontenac led Phips ' envoys blindfolded through roaring mobs in the streets of Quebec in order to mask his numerical inferiority . Then , in the ChΓ’teau Saint @-@ Louis , Frontenac and many of his officers in their best dress listened to the envoy as he demanded the city 's surrender . Overawed by this " stately Hall full of Brave Martiall men , " Savage did his best to deliver Phip 's ultimatum . Drafted by Massachusetts Puritans , the document began severely :
The New Englander told them they had one hour to comply , and then pulled out his watch . The proud and temperamental Frontenac was so enraged that he wanted to have the envoy hanged before the full view of the English fleet , and it was only because of the Bishop of Quebec , François de Laval , that he was calmed . Asked for a written response , Frontenac shot back :
Savage accepted his blindfold with relief and was led back to his ship . Phips ' council of war was extremely vexed by the reply , having expected to fall upon a defenseless and panicked city . That evening drums and fifes were heard approaching Quebec , followed by heavy cheering from the town : Louis @-@ Hector de Callière had arrived with the remaining Montreal militia , giving Frontenac a numerical advantage over the New Englanders .
= = Battle = =
The New Englanders saw that the only possible place to crack the defences was on the city 's northeastern side , where the walls were weakest . Their plan was to land their main force on the Beauport shore east of the Saint Charles River , and have it cross the river in the fleet 's boats , along with the field guns . When the landing force was on the heights west of Quebec , the fleet would attack the city and land a second force there . Frontenac had expected the land attack to come from Beauport , and the banks of the river had already been built up with field fortifications on the southwestern side . He proposed to fight only a skirmishing action there , holding his regulars in reserve for a European @-@ style battle on the open ground west of Quebec .
However , the open battle never took place . The 1 @,@ 200 @-@ strong English landing force under Major John Walley , Phips ' second @-@ in @-@ command , never got across the Saint Charles . Frontenac had sent strong detachments of Canadian militiamen under Jacques Le Moyne de Sainte @-@ Hélène , along with some Indians , into the wooded areas east of the river . When the English landed on 18 October , they were immediately harassed by Canadian militia , while the ships ' boats mistakenly landed the field guns on the wrong side of the Saint Charles . Meanwhile , Phips 's four large ships , quite contrary to the plan , anchored before Quebec and began bombarding the city until 19 October , at which point the English had shot away most of their ammunition . The French shore batteries had also proved to be much more than a match , and the ships were pounded until the rigging and hulls were badly damaged ; the ensign of Phips ' flagship the Six Friends was cut down and fell into the river , and under a hail of musket shots , a daring group of Canadians paddled a canoe up to the ships to capture it . They triumphantly brought the ensign back to the Governor unscathed .
During the bombardment , the land force under Walley remained inactive , suffering from cold and complaining of shortage of rum . After a couple of miserable days , they decided to carry the shore positions and try to overcome the French earthworks . They set out on 20 October " in the best European tradition , with drums beating and colors unfurled , " but there was a skirmish at the edge of the woods . The New Englanders could not cope with the maintained heavy Canadian fire , and the brass field guns fired into the woods had no effect . Although Sainte @-@ Hélène was mortally wounded , 150 of the attackers had been killed in action , and were utterly discouraged . They made a retreat in a state of near panic on 22 October , even abandoning five field guns on the shore .
= = Aftermath = =
On 23 and 24 October , an exchange of prisoners was negotiated and effected , and the ships set sail for Boston . Although Phips ' own account of the expedition admitted only 30 dead in combat , smallpox and marine accident claimed about 1 @,@ 000 more . James Lloyd of Boston wrote in the following January , " 7 vessels yet wanting 3 more cast away & burnt . " Cotton Mather tells how one brigantine was wrecked on Anticosti ; her crew maintained themselves on the island through the winter and were apparently rescued the following summer by a ship from Boston . Phips ' defeat was complete and disastrous ; fortunately for the French , since food was lacking to feed the large force assembled to defend Quebec in case of a prolonged siege . Phips himself had displayed no natural military talents to offset his lack of experience . It can be argued however that the absence of trained soldiers and adequate supplies had doomed the enterprise from the start . Governor of New York Henry Sloughter captured the mood in the English colonies when he wrote :
Canada exulted in its victory and survival ; on 5 November the Te Deum was sung in Quebec in a chapel renamed Notre Dame de la Victoire , Our Lady of Victory . When news of the expedition reached Versailles , Louis XIV ordered a medal struck bearing the inscription : Kebeca liberata M.DC.XC β Francia in novo orbe victrix , or " Deliverance of Quebec 1690 β France victorious in the New World . "
Jacques Le Moyne , who died soon after the battle , was mourned by the whole colony for his courtesy and valour . The Onondaga Iroquois sent a wampum collar as a token of sympathy , and released two captives to honour his memory . His brother , Charles Le Moyne , won fame for his part in the battle , and he later received an additional grant of land for his services and became the first Baron de Longueuil .
Both sides learned from the battle . The French victory showed that to take Quebec , the cannon of " Old England would have to be brought in " . Similarly , Frontenac realised the defences needed significant improvement , and in 1692 , he gave IngΓ©nieur du Roi JosuΓ© Berthelot de Beaucours the task of designing a fortress that could withstand a European @-@ style siege . This was delayed by the Canadian winter , and work commenced in the summer of 1693 on an earth rampart with large bastions to enclose the city , and pointed wooden stakes to top the walls . A complete shore battery , known as the " Royal battery " , was built immediately after the siege . It was shaped like a small bastion , and featured 14 gun embrasures to cover both sides of the Saint Laurence and the river itself .
Although another expedition was launched against Quebec during Queen Anne 's War , it failed to reach its target when transports wrecked with great loss of life in the Gulf of St. Lawrence . The city 's improved defences would not be tested until the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759 .
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= 1992 Cape Mendocino earthquakes =
The 1992 Cape Mendocino earthquakes ( or 1992 Petrolia earthquakes ) occurred along the Lost Coast of Northern California on April 25 and 26 . The three largest events were the M7.2 thrust mainshock that struck near the unincorporated community of Petrolia midday on April 25 and two primary strike @-@ slip aftershocks measuring 6 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 6 that followed early the next morning . The sequence encompassed both interplate and intraplate activity that was associated with the Mendocino Triple Junction , a complex system of three major faults ( including the Cascadia subduction zone , San Andreas Fault , and Mendocino Fracture Zone ) that converge near Cape Mendocino . The total number of aftershocks that followed the events exceeded 2 @,@ 000 .
The three shocks damaged and destroyed homes and businesses in Humboldt County and injured 356 people , but the single largest loss was due to a post @-@ earthquake fire that consumed a business center in Scotia . Accelerometers that had been in place in the Cape Mendocino area since the late 1970s recorded the event and the readings were moderate to strong , with the exception of the instruments closest to the epicenter , which went off scale a few seconds into the recording . No surface ruptures were present in the epicentral area , but landslides closed roads and railroad tracks for at least a week while cleanup took place . Also discovered was about 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) of coastal uplift near Cape Mendocino and Punta Gorda .
As the largest earthquake in California since the 1989 Loma Prieta event several years earlier , the mainshock caused a non @-@ destructive tsunami that quickly reached the coast , and eventually Alaska and Hawaii several hours later . The tsunami was significant not because of its run @-@ up , but because of the speed with which it reached the coast and for how long the waves persisted . Other strong earthquakes have affected the same area , with some that were clearly associated with the ( interplate ) Mendocino Fracture Zone , and others ( like the two shocks on April 26 ) were intraplate earthquakes that ruptured within the Gorda Plate , but events that are unequivocally associated with the Cascadia subduction zone are very infrequent .
= = Tectonic setting = =
The northernmost coastal area is one of California 's most seismically active regions and , in a 50 @-@ year period , the area including the Mendocino Fracture Zone at the southern flank of the Gorda Plate generated about 25 percent of all seismic energy unleashed in the state . The Mendocino Triple Junction ( strike @-@ slip / strike @-@ slip / trench ) formed 29 β 30 mya at 31 Β° N ( west of present @-@ day Baja California ) when the Pacific @-@ Farallon spreading center initially approached the subduction zone off the coast of western North America . Simultaneously , the Rivera Triple Junction shifted to the southeast to its current position at 23 Β° N. Once the Pacific Plate and North American Plate connected the boundary became that of a transform fault ( San Andreas ) due to the northwestward motion of the Pacific Plate relative to the North American Plate . The San Andreas Fault continues to lengthen to the northwest and the southeast as the two triple junctions continue their transient motion .
North of the Mendocino Triple Junction , the Gorda plate is subducting beneath the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone , with a convergence rate of 2 @.@ 5 β 3 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 β 1 @.@ 18 in ) per year , but comparisons with other subduction zones have led to a belief that the convergence may be taking place aseismically . The distinct lack of interplate events there has generated contention regarding the zone 's seismic hazard , though there are strong indications that substantial historic events have occurred in the Pacific Northwest . Submerged wetlands and raised marine terraces both illustrate the presence of past events , and radiocarbon dating of rock layers has revealed that three seismic events took place in the last 2 @,@ 000 years , with the most recent event being the 1700 Cascadia earthquake . The Gorda Plate is undergoing a process of intraplate deformation and experiences large intraplate earthquakes that may be the result of north @-@ south compression of the oceanic crust along the Mendocino Fracture Zone .
= = Earthquakes = =
The region near the triple junction experiences high seismicity , with more than 60 earthquakes of intensity VI ( Strong ) or greater or magnitudes β₯ 5 @.@ 5 since 1853 . The mainshock in the sequence ( 11 : 06 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time ) occurred onshore , 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) west of Petrolia at a depth of 10 @.@ 5 kilometers , and was among an infrequent number of earthquakes with fault @-@ plane solutions that conveyed evidence of slip at the Cascadia subduction zone . While the focal mechanism indicated slip on a thrust fault striking N.10 Β° W with a shallow dip of 13 Β° to the east @-@ northeast , the rupture most likely propagated to the west , based on the mainshock location at the southeastern boundary of the aftershock zone . Investigation of more than 1 @,@ 200 surveys from the North Coast area led to the assignment of an intensity rating of IX ( Violent ) on the Modified Mercalli scale for the region near Petrolia .
In opposition to the mainshock that was located onshore , the two large strike @-@ slip aftershocks occurred the following morning ( 12 : 41 a.m. and 4 : 18 a.m. PDT ) and were located offshore , 30 km ( 19 mi ) to the west of the main shock within the Gorda Plate . Both shocks ( M6.5 and 6 @.@ 6 ) were of intensity VIII ( Severe ) , occurred at a depth of 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) , and exhibited right @-@ lateral motion . Of the several thousand aftershocks in the sequence , none were found to have occurred on the Mendocino Fracture Zone , but numerous events were located on the eastward projection of that fault . The mainshock 's rupture duration was described as a smooth nine seconds , while the two aftershocks had more complex and slightly longer ruptures of 14 β 15 seconds . That the two strike @-@ slip events followed a thrust event indicated a strong coupling of stresses at the North American and Gorda plate boundaries , and underscored the convoluted nature of the interconnected faults in that area .
= = = Damage = = =
The initial event caused a number of wood framed homes in Scotia to come off their foundations while the porches of some other homes became detached . The 25 mW cogeneration plant there that used wood waste products to power both the lumber company and the town suffered damage and both lumber mills were shut down for several weeks . In Rio Dell , across the Eel River from Scotia , glass store fronts along the main street were shattered and numerous buildings slipped into a culvert along Monument Road . In Petrolia ( the small community closest to the epicenter ) the general store ( combined with a post office and gas station ) was destroyed by fire , and in Fortuna , damage totaled $ 4 million . A six figure portion of that figure was due to losses at the high school 's gymnasium .
The two aftershocks the following morning were separated by less than four hours and both caused at least as much damage as the mainshock . A large fire was triggered following the first aftershock at a shopping center in Scotia that destroyed four businesses , with the resulting damage at that site alone estimated at $ 15 million , and was the largest individual financial misfortune of the sequence of earthquakes . The water supply in Rio Dell was terminated when the water main was severed at the abutment to the Eel River bridge and power outages were widespread throughout Humboldt County . Some were mere seconds while others lasted for hours , but the hydroelectric plant 's performance at Ruth Reservoir was deemed acceptable , and power that was not generated locally was unaffected .
Damage estimates were as high as $ 75 million , one third of which was due to bridges and roads , and the remainder of the costs were structure @-@ related . The American Red Cross compiled damage statistics in the county and the totals included 906 damaged homes and apartments . Almost half of those were severely damaged and an additional 200 homes were destroyed . In Petrolia , the post office , three businesses , and 44 homes were destroyed , and another 68 residences were damaged . In Ferndale , 29 homes were destroyed and 126 were damaged , along with 51 businesses . In Rio Dell , 127 buildings were damaged or destroyed . With 98 homes and 41 businesses experiencing some form of damage , the city of Fortuna experienced losses totaling $ 3 @.@ 8 million . Eureka and Arcata ( 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of the Eel River valley ) saw light damage and no injuries , while the unincorporated communities of Weott and Carlotta reported damage of less than $ 2 million combined .
= = = Strong motion = = =
As the largest earthquake in California since the October 1989 event in the Santa Cruz Mountains , the mainshock near Petrolia produced some of the highest ground motions ever recorded ( at that time ) by the California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program ( CSMIP ) . Fourteen existing CSMIP stations comprising 84 strong motion sensors recorded the event , ten of which were ground response stations . The remaining four were located on structures , including a Highway 101 overpass in Rio Dell , a dam , a one @-@ story supermarket in Fortuna , and a 5 @-@ story residential building in Eureka . The supermarket , residential building , and dam were 28 , 50 , and 75 kilometers distant from the epicenter respectively , and recorded peak accelerations of .46g , .34g , and .15g. An accelerograph at the Painter Street overpass ( a concrete bridge , 24 km ( 15 mi ) from the epicenter ) recorded a free field acceleration of .55g and an instrument on the structure saw an amplified peak of 1.23g during the mainshock .
The CSMIP Cape Mendocino station was installed in 1978 and was located just 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the epicenter on the slope of a ridge in the coast ranges . The instruments there had been mounted on a concrete platform adjacent to a roadway and remained firmly secured to the rock platform following the shocks . A landslide came within 50 meters ( 160 ft ) of the device and left debris on the road , but a lack of large rocks close to the instrument and no cracking of the rocks near the platform left geologists with no clear explanation for the extraordinarily high vertical component reading of 1.85g. The tri @-@ axial analog accelerometer that was in use was physically limited to that value and all three traces had uniformly significant values at three seconds into the recording . A post @-@ earthquake lab test of the seismometer and an inspection of the photographically enlarged accelerogram revealed that the limit was hit twice , with a maximum deflection of 31 mm , as the needle bounced off the unit 's mass . An extrapolation of the vertical record led to a maximum acceleration estimate of 2.2g for that site , and the unit was eventually replaced with a higher capacity digital device .
= = = Ground effects = = =
The sequence of earthquakes caused widespread landslides from the coast to east of Scotia and from the northern extent of the Eel River basin near Thompson Hill to south of Petrolia . Most of these were existing landslides that had been re @-@ initiated and the largest of the slides were either slumps or bedding plane failures along the coastal bluffs . Several slump failures between Guthrie Creek and Oil Creek stretched from the bluffs out towards the shore for a distance of 150 meters ( 490 ft ) , leaving some of the slide to be eroded by the surf . The road between Ferndale and Petrolia was closed for more than a week where about six mostly minor landslides blocked the passage , with the roadway itself sustaining light damage due to sliding or settlement of the road fill in a few instances . One of the largest slides occurred along the railroad tracks at the Scotia bluffs where previous slides had taken place . That slide also took about a week to clear .
During a survey following the earthquake , evidence of coastal uplift was detected when dead and decomposing intertidal organisms were discovered along the beaches in the epicentral region . Further investigation revealed that a 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) portion of the shoreline between Cape Mendocino and near Punta Gorda had been uplifted by as much as 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) near the middle portion , and decreasing amounts near the outer portions of the affected area . Evidence of previous events has been found in the form of sequential marine terraces along the coast , with periodic events creating shelves at 300 , 1 @,@ 700 , 3 @,@ 000 , and 5 @,@ 000 years before present . No surface ruptures were found during aerial surveillance , but lateral spreading features were observed on a channel near the mouth of the Eel River .
= = Tsunami = =
The mainshock generated a small tsunami that was recorded by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's sea level gauge stations on the coasts of northern California , Oregon , and Hawaii . The series of waves first came ashore at the North Spit station in Eureka after a 26 @-@ minute travel time , but the largest surges were seen just to the north at Crescent City and arrived close to low tide , a condition that would have lowered the risk had the surges had a destructive capacity . The first packet of energy reached that location in 47 minutes and had a maximum wave height of 35 cm ( 14 in ) , and a second , larger packet arrived later with a maximum amplitude of 53 cm ( 21 in ) . The waves were also detected to the south in the interior of San Francisco Bay at Alameda , but with a considerable delay ( 135 minutes after the mainshock ) , due to the shallow waters of the bay and the shelf surrounding the bay 's entrance . The speed a tsunami travels is directly related to the depth of the water in which it is traversing . The tsunami was detected farther to the south in Monterey , for example , after just a 64 @-@ minute travel time , due to the deeper offshore waters and those in the Monterey Bay .
At 3 @,@ 720 kilometers ( 2 @,@ 310 mi ) distant , the tsunami was perceptible on the Hawaiian island of Maui at Kahului . The location of the islands lay on a great circle route that is also perpendicular to the region of ( presumed ) uplifted land at the coast near Cape Mendocino and any energy distributed would be the strongest in that direction . No tsunami was detected at Johnston Atoll , 5 @,@ 050 kilometers ( 3 @,@ 140 mi ) from Cape Mendocino in the north Pacific Ocean , but bottom pressure recorders registered a maximum amplitude of .4 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) in 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) of water in the Gulf of Alaska , with 3 @.@ 75 hours of travel time . While the waves generated by the earthquake were limited , the event demonstrated the rapid onset of tsunami hazards , giving little time for coastal residents to prepare . And in this case , the strongest waves came ashore in Crescent City three to four hours after the initial surge , but it is possible to be just the opposite where the first waves could be the strongest . Also detailed from this event was that the wave hazard can be of long duration , with wave action lingering for more than eight hours .
= = Other events = =
The Mendocino Fault is seismically active with mostly small and moderate earthquakes , but the largest event that was unequivocally associated with the fault was the M6.9 earthquake on September 1 , 1994 at 125 @.@ 8 W longitude . Aftershocks of that event with corresponding dextral strike @-@ slip focal mechanisms occurred farther to the east and close to the Mendocino Triple Junction . Another large event ( 7 @.@ 3 β 7 @.@ 6 ) occurred on January 31 , 1922 ( with an aftershock of M7 + the next day ) but the sources of these shocks could not be determined with any precision as the first seismographs did not arrive in the area until 1932 . Due to their offshore epicenters all of these events caused little damage though were felt across a broad area . Previous Gorda plate events include the July 13 and August 17 , 1991 shocks of 6 @.@ 8 and 7 @.@ 1 and the M7.3 event on November 10 , 1980 west of Arcata .
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= Orion ( mythology ) =
In Greek mythology , Orion ( Ancient Greek : ὨΟΞ―ΟΞ½ or ὨαΟΞ―ΟΞ½ , Latin : Orion ) was a giant huntsman whom Zeus placed among the stars as the constellation of Orion .
Ancient sources tell several different stories about Orion ; there are two major versions of his birth and several versions of his death . The most important recorded episodes are his birth somewhere in Boeotia , his visit to Chios where he met Merope and was blinded by her father , Oenopion , the recovery of his sight at Lemnos , his hunting with Artemis on Crete , his death by the bow of Artemis or the sting of the giant scorpion which became Scorpio , and his elevation to the heavens . Most ancient sources omit some of these episodes and several tell only one . These various incidents may originally have been independent , unrelated stories and it is impossible to tell whether omissions are simple brevity or represent a real disagreement .
In Greek literature he first appears as a great hunter in Homer 's epic the Odyssey , where Odysseus sees his shade in the underworld . The bare bones of his story are told by the Hellenistic and Roman collectors of myths , but there is no extant literary version of his adventures comparable , for example , to that of Jason in Apollonius of Rhodes ' Argonautica or Euripides ' Medea ; the entry in Ovid 's Fasti for May 11 is a poem on the birth of Orion , but that is one version of a single story . The surviving fragments of legend have provided a fertile field for speculation about Greek prehistory and myth .
Orion served several roles in ancient Greek culture . The story of the adventures of Orion , the hunter , is the one on which we have the most evidence ( and even on that not very much ) ; he is also the personification of the constellation of the same name ; he was venerated as a hero , in the Greek sense , in the region of Boeotia ; and there is one etiological passage which says that Orion was responsible for the present shape of the Strait of Sicily .
= = Legends = =
= = = Homer and Hesiod = = =
Orion is mentioned in the oldest surviving works of Greek literature , which probably date back to the 7th or 8th century BC , but which are the products of an oral tradition with origins several centuries earlier . In Homer 's Iliad Orion is described as a constellation , and the star Sirius is mentioned as his dog . In the Odyssey , Odysseus sees him hunting in the underworld with a bronze club , a great slayer of animals ; he is also mentioned as a constellation , as the lover of the Goddess Dawn , as slain by Artemis , and as the most handsome of the earthborn . In the Works and Days of Hesiod , Orion is also a constellation , one whose rising and setting with the sun is used to reckon the year .
The legend of Orion was first told in full in a lost work by Hesiod , probably the Astronomia ; simple references to Hesiod will refer to this , unless otherwise stated . This version is known through the work of a Hellenistic author on the constellations ; he gives a fairly long summary of Hesiod 's discourse on Orion . According to this version , Orion was likely the son of the sea @-@ god Poseidon and Euryale , daughter of Minos , King of Crete . Orion could walk on the waves because of his father ; he walked to the island of Chios where he got drunk and attacked Merope , daughter of Oenopion , the ruler there . In vengeance , Oenopion blinded Orion and drove him away . Orion stumbled to Lemnos where Hephaestus β the lame smith @-@ god β had his forge . Hephaestus told his servant , Cedalion , to guide Orion to the uttermost East where Helios , the Sun , healed him ; Orion carried Cedalion around on his shoulders . Orion returned to Chios to punish Oenopion , but the king hid away underground and escaped Orion 's wrath . Orion 's next journey took him to Crete where he hunted with the goddess Artemis and her mother Leto , and in the course of the hunt , threatened to kill every beast on Earth . Mother Earth objected and sent a giant scorpion to kill Orion . The creature succeeded , and after his death , the goddesses asked Zeus to place Orion among the constellations . Zeus consented and , as a memorial to the hero 's death , added the Scorpion to the heavens as well .
= = = Other sources = = =
Although Orion has a few lines in both Homeric poems and in the Works and Days , most of the stories about him are recorded in incidental allusions and in fairly obscure later writings . No great poet standardized the legend . The ancient sources for Orion 's legend are mostly notes in the margins of ancient poets ( scholia ) or compilations by later scholars , the equivalent of modern reference works or encyclopedias ; even the legend from Hesiod 's Astronomy survives only in one such compilation . In several cases , including the summary of the Astronomy , although the surviving work bears the name of a famous scholar , such as Apollodorus of Athens , Eratosthenes , or Gaius Julius Hyginus , what survives is either an ancient forgery or an abridgement of the original compilation by a later writer of dubious competence ; editors of these texts suggest that they may have borne the names of great scholars because they were abridgments , or even pupil 's notes , based on the works of the scholars .
The margin of the Empress Eudocia 's copy of the Iliad has a note summarizing a Hellenistic poet who tells a different story of Orion 's birth . Here the gods Zeus , Hermes and Poseidon come to visit Hyrieus of Tanagra , who roasts a whole bull for them . When they offer him a favor , he asks for the birth of sons . The gods take the bull 's hide and ejaculate or urinate into it and bury it in the earth , then tell him to dig it up ten months later . When he does , he finds Orion ; this explains why Orion is earthborn .
A second full telling ( even shorter than the summary of Hesiod ) is in a Roman @-@ era collection of myths ; the account of Orion is based largely on the mythologist and poet Pherecydes of Leros . Here Orion is described as earthborn and enormous in stature . This version also mentions Poseidon and Euryale as his parents . It adds a first marriage to Side before his marriage to Merope . All that is known about Side is that Hera threw her into Hades for rivalling her in beauty . It also gives a different version of Orion 's death than the Iliad : Eos , the Dawn , fell in love with Orion and took him to Delos where Artemis killed him .
Another narrative on the constellations , three paragraphs long , is from a Latin writer whose brief notes have come down to us under the name of Hyginus . It begins with the oxhide story of Orion 's birth , which this source ascribes to Callimachus and Aristomachus , and sets the location at Thebes or Chios . Hyginus has two versions . In one of them he omits Poseidon ; a modern critic suggests this is the original version .
The same source tells two stories of the death of Orion . The first says that because of his " living joined in too great a friendship " with Oenopion , he boasted to Artemis and Leto that he could kill anything which came from Earth . Earth objected and created the Scorpion . In the second story , Apollo objected to his sister Artemis 's love for Orion , and , seeing Orion swimming with just his head visible , challenged her to shoot at that mark , which she hit , killing him . He connects Orion with several constellations , not just Scorpio . Orion chased Pleione , the mother of the Pleiades , for seven years , until Zeus intervened and raised all of them to the stars . In Works and Days , Orion chases the Pleiades themselves . Canis Minor and Canis Major are his dogs , the one in front is called Procyon . They chase Lepus , the hare , although Hyginus says some critics thought this too base a prey for the noble Orion and have him pursuing Taurus , the bull , instead . A Renaissance mythographer adds other names for Orion 's dogs : Leucomelaena , Maera , Dromis , Cisseta , Lampuris , Lycoctonus , Ptoophagus , Arctophonus .
= = = Variants = = =
There are numerous variants in other authors . Most of these are incidental references in poems and scholiasts . The Roman poet Vergil shows Orion as a giant wading through the Aegean Sea with the waves breaking against his shoulders ; rather than , as the mythographers have it , walking on the water . There are several references to Hyrieus as the father of Orion that connect him to various places in Boeotia , including Hyria ; this may well be the original story ( although not the first attested ) , since Hyrieus is presumably the eponym of Hyria . He is also called Oeneus , although he is not the Calydonian Oeneus . Other ancient scholia say , as Hesiod does , that Orion was the son of Poseidon and his mother was a daughter of Minos ; but they call the daughter Brylle or Hyeles . There are two versions where Artemis killed Orion , either with her arrows or by producing the Scorpion . In the second variant , Orion died of the Scorpion 's sting as he does in Hesiod . Although Orion does not defeat the Scorpion in any version , several variants have it die from its wounds . Artemis is given various motives . One is that Orion boasted of his beast @-@ killing and challenged her to a contest with the discus . Another is that he assaulted either Artemis or the Hyperborean maiden Opis in her band of huntresses . Aratus 's brief description , in his Astronomy , conflates the elements of the myth : according to Aratus , Orion attacks Artemis while hunting on Chios , and the Scorpion kills him there . Nicander , in his Theriaca , has the scorpion of ordinary size and hiding under a small ( oligos ) stone . Most versions of the story that continue after Orion 's death tell of the gods raising Orion and the Scorpion to the stars , but even here a variant exists : Ancient poets differed greatly as to who Aesculapius brought back from the dead ; the Argive epic poet Telesarchus is quoted as saying in a scholion that Aesculapius resurrected Orion . Other ancient authorities are quoted anonymously that Aesculapius healed Orion after he was blinded by Oenopion .
The story of Orion and Oenopion also varies . One source refers to Merope as the wife of Oenopion and not his daughter . Another refers to Merope as the daughter of Minos and not of Oenopion . The longest version ( a page in the Loeb ) is from a collection of melodramatic plots drawn up by an Alexandrian poet for the Roman Cornelius Gallus to make into Latin verse . It describes Orion as slaying the wild beasts of Chios and looting the other inhabitants to make a bride @-@ price for Oenopion 's daughter , who is called AΓ«ro or Leiro . Oenopion does not want to marry her to someone like Orion , and eventually Orion , in frustration , breaks into her bedchamber and rapes her . The text implies that Oenopion blinds him on the spot .
Lucian includes a picture with Orion in a rhetorical description of an ideal building , in which Orion is walking into the rising sun with Lemnos nearby , Cedalion on his shoulder . He recovers his sight there with Hephaestus still watching in the background .
The next picture deals with the ancient story of Orion . He is blind , and on his shoulder carries Cedalion , who directs the sightless eyes towards the East . The rising Sun heals his infirmity ; and there stands Hephaestus on Lemnos , watching the cure .
Latin sources add that Oenopion was the son of Dionysus . Dionysus sent satyrs to put Orion into a deep sleep so he could be blinded . One source tells the same story but converts Oenopion into Minos of Crete . It adds that an oracle told Orion that his sight could be restored by walking eastward and that he found his way by hearing the Cyclops ' hammer , placing a Cyclops as a guide on his shoulder ; it does not mention Cabeiri or Lemnos β this is presumably the story of Cedalion recast . Both Hephaestus and the Cyclopes were said to make thunderbolts ; they are combined in other sources . One scholion , on a Latin poem , explains that Hephaestus gave Orion a horse .
Giovanni Boccaccio cites a lost Latin writer for the story that Orion and Candiope were son and daughter of Oenopion , king of Sicily . While the virgin huntsman Orion was sleeping in a cave , Venus seduced him ; as he left the cave , he saw his sister shining as she crossed in front of it . He ravished her ; when his father heard of this , he banished Orion . Orion consulted an oracle , which told him that if he went east , he would regain the glory of kingship . Orion , Candiope , and their son Hippologus sailed to Thrace , " a province eastward from Sicily " . There he conquered the inhabitants , and became known as the son of Neptune . His son begat the Dryas mentioned in Statius .
= = Cult and popular appreciation = =
In Ancient Greece , Orion had a hero cult in the region of Boeotia . The number of places associated with his birth suggest that it was widespread . Hyria , the most frequently mentioned , was in the territory of Tanagra . A feast of Orion was held at Tanagra as late as the Roman Empire . They had a tomb of Orion most likely at the foot of Mount Cerycius ( now Mount Tanagra ) . Maurice Bowra argues that Orion was a national hero of the Boeotians , much as Castor and Pollux were for the Dorians . He bases this claim on the Athenian epigram on the Battle of Coronea in which a hero gave the Boeotian army an oracle , then fought on their side and defeated the Athenians .
The Boeotian school of epic poetry was chiefly concerned with the genealogies of the gods and heroes ; later writers elaborated this web . Several other myths are attached to Orion in this way : A papyrus fragment of the Boeotian poet Corinna gives Orion fifty sons ( a traditional number ) . This included the oracular hero Acraephen , who , she sings , gave a response to Asopus regarding Asopus ' daughters who were abducted by the gods . Corinna sang of Orion conquering and naming all the land of the dawn . Bowra argues that Orion was believed to have delivered oracles as well , probably at a different shrine . Hyginus says that Hylas 's mother was Menodice , daughter of Orion . Another mythographer , Liberalis , tells of Menippe and Metioche , daughters of Orion , who sacrificed themselves for their country 's good and were transformed into comets .
Orion also has etiological connection to the city of Messina in Sicily . Diodorus of Sicily wrote a history of the world up to his own time ( the beginning of the reign of Augustus ) . He starts with the gods and the heroes . At the end of this part of the work , he tells the story of Orion and two wonder @-@ stories of his mighty earth @-@ works in Sicily . One tells how he aided Zanclus , the founder of Zancle ( the former name for Messina ) , by building the promontory which forms the harbor . The other , which Diodorus ascribes to Hesiod , relates that there was once a broad sea between Sicily and the mainland . Orion built the whole Peloris , the Punta del Faro , and the temple to Poseidon at the tip , after which he settled in Euboea . He was then " numbered among the stars of heaven and thus won for himself immortal remembrance " . The Renaissance historian and mathematician Francesco Maurolico , who came from Messina , identified the remains of a temple of Orion near the present Messina Cathedral . Maurolico also designed an ornate fountain , built by the sculptor Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli in 1547 , in which Orion is a central figure , symbolizing the Emperor Charles V , also a master of the sea and restorer of Messina ; Orion is still a popular symbol of the city .
Images of Orion in classical art are difficult to recognize , and clear examples are rare . There are several ancient Greek images of club @-@ carrying hunters that could represent Orion , but such generic examples could equally represent an archetypal " hunter " , or indeed Heracles . Some claims have been made that other Greek art represents specific aspects of the Orion myth . A tradition of this type has been discerned in 5th century BC Greek pottery β John Beazley identified a scene of Apollo , Delian palm in hand , revenging Orion for the attempted rape of Artemis , while another scholar has identified a scene of Orion attacking Artemis as she is revenged by a snake ( a counterpart to the scorpion ) in a funerary group β supposedly symbolizing the hope that even the criminal Orion could be made immortal , as well as an astronomical scene in which Cephalus is thought to stand in for Orion and his constellation , also reflecting this system of iconography . Also , a tomb frieze in Taranto ( ca . 300 BC ) may show Orion attacking Opis . But the earliest surviving clear depiction of Orion in classical art is Roman , from the depictions of the Underworld scenes of the Odyssey discovered at the Esquiline Hill ( 50 β 40 BC ) . Orion is also seen on a 4th @-@ century bas @-@ relief , currently affixed to a wall in the Porto neighborhood of Naples . The constellation Orion rises in November , the end of the sailing season , and was associated with stormy weather , and this characterization extended to the mythical Orion β the bas @-@ relief may be associated with the sailors of the city .
= = Interpretations = =
= = = Renaissance = = =
Mythographers have discussed Orion at least since the Renaissance of classical learning ; the Renaissance interpretations were allegorical . In the 14th century , Boccaccio interpreted the oxhide story as representing human conception ; the hide is the womb , Neptune the moisture of semen , Jupiter its heat , and Mercury the female coldness ; he also explained Orion 's death at the hands of the moon @-@ goddess as the Moon producing winter storms . The 16th @-@ century Italian mythographer Natalis Comes interpreted the whole story of Orion as an allegory of the evolution of a storm cloud : Begotten by air ( Zeus ) , water ( Poseidon ) , and the sun ( Apollo ) , a storm cloud is diffused ( Chios , which Comes derives from ΟΞΟ , " pour out " ) , rises though the upper air ( AΓ«rope , as Comes spells Merope ) , chills ( is blinded ) , and is turned into rain by the moon ( Artemis ) . He also explains how Orion walked on the sea : " Since the subtler part of the water which is rarefied rests on the surface , it is said that Orion learned from his father how to walk on water . " Similarly , Orion 's conception made him a symbol of the philosophical child , an allegory of philosophy springing from multiple sources , in the Renaissance as in alchemical works , with some variations . The 16th @-@ century German alchemist Michael Maier lists the fathers as Apollo , Vulcan and Mercury , and the 18th @-@ century French alchemist Antoine @-@ Joseph Pernety gave them as Jupiter , Neptune and Mercury .
= = = Modern = = =
Modern mythographers have seen the story of Orion as a way to access local folk tales and cultic practices directly without the interference of ancient high culture ; several of them have explained Orion , each through his own interpretation of Greek prehistory and of how Greek mythology represents it . There are some points of general agreement between them : for example , that the attack on Opis is an attack on Artemis , for Opis is one of the names of Artemis .
There was a movement in the late nineteenth century to interpret all the Boeotian heroes as merely personifications of the constellations ; there has since come to be wide agreement that the myth of Orion existed before there was a constellation named for him . Homer , for example , mentions Orion , the Hunter , and Orion , the constellation , but never confuses the two . Once Orion was recognized as a constellation , astronomy in turn affected the myth . The story of Side may well be a piece of astronomical mythology . The Greek word side means pomegranate , which bears fruit while Orion , the constellation , can be seen in the night sky . Rose suggests she is connected with Sidae in Boeotia , and that the pomegranate , as a sign of the Underworld , is connected with her descent there .
The 19th @-@ century German classical scholar Erwin Rohde viewed Orion as an example of the Greeks erasing the line between the gods and mankind . That is , if Orion was in the heavens , other mortals could hope to be also .
The Hungarian mythographer Karl KerΓ©nyi , one of the founders of the modern study of Greek mythology , wrote about Orion in Gods of the Greeks ( 1951 ) . KerΓ©nyi portrays Orion as a giant of Titanic vigor and criminality , born outside his mother as were Tityos or Dionysus . KerΓ©nyi places great stress on the variant in which Merope is the wife of Oenopion . He sees this as the remnant of a lost form of the myth in which Merope was Orion 's mother ( converted by later generations to his stepmother and then to the present forms ) . Orion 's blinding is therefore parallel to that of Aegypius and Oedipus .
In Dionysus ( 1976 ) , KerΓ©nyi portrays Orion as a shamanic hunting hero , surviving from Minoan times ( hence his association with Crete ) . KerΓ©nyi derives Hyrieus ( and Hyria ) from the Cretan dialect word α½ΟΞΏΞ½ - hyron , meaning " beehive " , which survives only in ancient dictionaries . From this association he turns Orion into a representative of the old mead @-@ drinking cultures , overcome by the wine masters Oenopion and Oeneus . ( The Greek for " wine " is oinos . ) Fontenrose cites a source stating that Oenopion taught the Chians how to make wine before anybody else knew how .
Joseph Fontenrose wrote Orion : the Myth of the Hunter and the Huntress ( 1981 ) to show Orion as the type specimen of a variety of grotesque hero . Fontenrose views him as similar to CΓΊchulainn , that is , stronger , larger , and more potent than ordinary men and the violent lover of the Divine Huntress ; other heroes of the same type are Actaeon , Leucippus ( son of Oenomaus ) , Cephalus , Teiresias , and Zeus as the lover of Callisto . Fontenrose also sees Eastern parallels in the figures of Aqhat , Attis , Dumuzi , Gilgamesh , Dushyanta , and Prajapati ( as pursuer of Ushas ) .
In The Greek Myths ( 1955 ) , Robert Graves views Oenopion as his perennial Year @-@ King , at the stage where the king pretends to die at the end of his term and appoints a substitute , in this case Orion , who actually dies in his place . His blindness is iconotropy from a picture of Odysseus blinding the Cyclops , mixed with a purely Hellenic solar legend : the Sun @-@ hero is captured and blinded by his enemies at dusk , but escapes and regains his sight at dawn , when all beasts flee him . Graves sees the rest of the myth as a syncretism of diverse stories . These include Gilgamesh and the Scorpion @-@ Men , Set becoming a scorpion to kill Horus and the story of Aqhat and Yatpan from Ras Shamra , as well as a conjectural story of how the priestesses of Artemis Opis killed a visitor to their island of Ortygia . He compares Orion 's birth from the bull 's hide to a West African rainmaking charm and claims that the son of Poseidon should be a rainmaker .
= = Cultural references = =
The ancient Greek and Roman sources which tell more about Orion than his being a gigantic huntsman are mostly both dry and obscure , but poets do write of him : The brief passages in Aratus and Vergil are mentioned above . Pindar celebrates the pancratist Melissus of Thebes " who was not granted the build of an Orion " , but whose strength was still great .
Cicero translated Aratus in his youth ; he made the Orion episode half again longer than it was in the Greek , adding the traditional Latin topos of madness to Aratus 's text . Cicero 's Aratea is one of the oldest Latin poems to come down to us as more than isolated lines ; this episode may have established the technique of including epyllia in non @-@ epic poems .
Orion is used by Horace , who tells of his death at the hands of Diana / Artemis , and by Ovid , in his Fasti for May 11 , the middle day of the Lemuria , when ( in Ovid 's time ) the constellation Orion set with the sun . Ovid 's episode tells the story of Hyrieus and the three gods , although Ovid is bashful about the climax ; Ovid makes Hyrieus a poor man , which means the sacrifice of an entire ox is more generous . There is also a single mention of Orion in his Art of Love , as a sufferer from unrequited love : " Pale Orion wandered in the forest for Side . "
Statius mentions Orion four times in his ThebaΓ―d ; twice as the constellation , a personification of storm , but twice as the ancestor of Dryas of Tanagra , one of the defenders of Thebes . The very late Greek epic poet Nonnus mentions the oxhide story in brief , while listing the Hyrians in his Catalogue of the Boeotian army of Dionysius .
References since antiquity are fairly rare . At the beginning of the 17th century , French sculptor BarthΓ©lemy Prieur cast a bronze statue Orion et CΓ©dalion , some time between 1600 and 1611 . This featured Orion with Cedalion on his shoulder , in a depiction of the ancient legend of Orion recovering his sight ; the sculpture is now displayed at the Louvre .
Nicolas Poussin painted Paysage avec Orion aveugle cherchant le soleil ( 1658 ) ( " Landscape with blind Orion seeking the sun " ) , after learning of the description by the 2nd @-@ century Greek author Lucian , of a picture of Orion recovering his sight ; Poussin included a storm @-@ cloud , which both suggests the transient nature of Orion 's blindness , soon to be removed like a cloud exposing the sun , and includes Natalis Comes ' esoteric interpretation of Orion as a storm @-@ cloud . Poussin need not have consulted Lucian directly ; the passage is in the notes of the illustrated French translation of Philostratus ' Imagines which Poussin is known to have consulted . The Austrian Daniel Seiter ( active in Turin , Italy ) , painted Diane auprès du cadavre d 'Orion ( c.1685 ) ( " Diana next to Orion 's corpse " ) , pictured above .
In Endymion ( 1818 ) , John Keats includes the line " Or blind Orion hungry for the morn " , thought to be inspired by Poussin . William Hazlitt may have introduced Keats to the painting β he later wrote the essay " On Landscape of Nicholas Poussin " , published in Table Talk , Essays on Men and Manners ( 1821 @-@ 2 ) . Richard Henry Horne , writing in the generation after Keats and Hazlitt , penned the three volume epic poem Orion in 1843 . It went into at least ten editions and was reprinted by the Scholartis Press in 1928 .
Science fiction author Ben Bova re @-@ invented Orion as a time @-@ traveling servant of various gods in a series of five novels . In The Blood of Olympus , the final volume of a series , Rick Riordan depicts Orion as one of the giant sons of the Earth Goddess Gaea .
Italian composer Francesco Cavalli wrote the opera , L 'Orione in 1653 . The story is set on the Greek island of Delos and focuses on Diana 's love for Orion as well as on her rival , Aurora . Diana shoots Orion only after being tricked by Apollo into thinking him a sea monster β she then laments his death and searches for Orion in the underworld until he is elevated to the heavens . Johann Christian Bach ( ' the English Bach ' ) wrote an opera , Orion , or Diana Reveng 'd , first presented at London 's Haymarket Theatre in 1763 . Orion , sung by a castrato , is in love with Candiope , the daughter of Oenopion , King of Arcadia but his arrogance has offended Diana . Diana 's oracle forbids him to marry Candiope and foretells his glory and death . He bids a touching farewell to Candiope and marches off to his destiny . Diana allows him his victory and then kills him , offstage , with her arrow . In another aria , his mother Retrea ( Queen of Thebes ) , laments his death but ultimately sees his elevation to the heavens . The 2002 opera Galileo Galilei by American composer Philip Glass includes an opera within an opera piece between Orion and Merope . The sunlight , which heals Orion 's blindness , is an allegory of modern science . Philip Glass has also written a shorter work on Orion , as have TΕru Takemitsu , Kaija Saariaho , and John Casken . David Bedford 's late @-@ twentieth @-@ century works are about the constellation rather than the mythical figure ; he is an amateur astronomer .
The twentieth @-@ century French poet RenΓ© Char found the blind , lustful huntsman , both pursuer and pursued , a central symbol , as James Lawler has explained at some length in his 1978 work RenΓ© Char : the Myth and the Poem . French novelist Claude Simon likewise found Orion an apt symbol , in this case of the writer , as he explained in his Orion aveugle of 1970 . Marion Perret argues that Orion is a silent link in T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land ( 1922 ) , connecting the lustful Actaeon / Sweeney to the blind Teiresias and , through Sirius , to the Dog " that 's friend to men " .
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= Yours Truly ( Ariana Grande album ) =
Yours Truly is the debut studio album by American singer Ariana Grande . It was released on August 30 , 2013 , by Republic Records . Incorporating R & B , Yours Truly was influenced by Whitney Houston , Amy Winehouse , Christina Aguilera and Mariah Carey , amongst other of Grande 's greatest idols . Grande describes the album 's first half as a " throwback " to the R & B music of the 1990s , and the second half being " very unique and very special that I 've sort of written " which is completely original . On the album , Grande co @-@ wrote six out of the twelve tracks . Contribution by Harmony Samuels , Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , Patrick " J. Que " Smith and Victorious co @-@ star Leon Thomas III , as well as others , handling the production on the album . Grande recorded a number of songs on this album over a three @-@ year period . The collaborations with Big Sean , Mika and Mac Miller , in addition to Mary J. Blige , who is featured on the song " Lovin ' It " ( which sampled her song " Real Love " ) , and The Wanted 's Nathan Sykes , who features on the song " Almost is Never Enough " which was also included on the The Mortal Instruments : City of Bones soundtrack . Occasionally , the album dips into other genres such as adult contemporary music and dance music .
Yours Truly was promoted with live renditions of the album 's songs during The Listening Sessions Tour . The album was preceded by the release of the lead single , " The Way " , featuring American rapper Mac Miller . It became a top @-@ ten hit on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart , peaking at number nine . The second single , " Baby I " , was released a month before the album and peaked just outside the top @-@ twenty of the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number twenty @-@ one . The third and final single " Right There " featuring Big Sean was released on August 6 , 2013 and peaked at number 84 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
Yours Truly debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 selling 138 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week . Grande became the first female artist in three and a half years to have her debut record in the peak position since Animal by Kesha in January 2010 , and the fifteenth female artist overall . Internationally , the album reached the top @-@ ten position in Australia , Canada , Denmark , Ireland , Japan , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom .
= = Background and conception = =
Yours Truly is the result of three years of work . The project underwent significant conceptual and sonic changes throughout that time . Grande began working on the album in August 2010 while she was filming Victorious and formally started to work on it with a record label after she was signed to Republic Records on August 10 , 2011 . By September 10 of that year , Grande already had twenty songs prepared and was going through the process of narrowing it down to thirteen . The first single , a bubblegum pop song called " Put Your Hearts Up " , was released on December 12 , 2011 . The single was aimed at young audiences , perhaps intending to cater to Grande 's core audience , which at that time was almost entirely made up by kids who knew her from Victorious . During an interview in June 2012 , Grande described everything on the album as being " 50s , 60s doo @-@ wop @-@ inspired " and revealed that two new singles were going to be released before the album , one of which was called " Do You Love Me ? " and featured SkyBlu . Other songs that Grande had named ( and later leaked ) as being part of the album included " Honeymoon Avenue " , " Voodoo Love " , " Pink Champagne " , " Boyfriend Material " , " Tattooed Heart " , " Daydreamin ' " and " You 're My Only Shorty " . The latter one was eventually recorded by Demi Lovato who included it on her 2011 R & B @-@ infused album Unbroken .
In 2013 , Grande met up with her label and expressed dissatisfaction with the direction the album was taking . In several interviews during 2013 , she admitted to having completely disliked her debut single " Put Your Hearts Up " and not having an interest in pursuing music of that genre . She expressed a desire to make the type of music she grew up listening to , which was , " urban pop , 90s music . " Rapper Iggy Azalea turned down working on the album ; she however did collaborate with Grande on her second album My Everything . The album was originally titled Daydreamin and set to be released during August 2013 .
The album is inspired by a variety of different artists , ranging from Amy Winehouse and Christina Aguilera to Mariah Carey and Whitney Houston . Grande describes the album 's first half is a " throwback " to the R & B music of the 1990s , and the second half is she describes as " something that is very unique and very special that I 've sort of written " which is completely original . In summation of the record she stated : " So half of it is a throwback and like very familiar feeling , feel @-@ good , and then half of it is something that I 've created that 's sort of special and unique and refreshing and wonderful and I love it " .
= = Release and promotion = =
To promote her debut single " The Way " , Grande visited various radio stations , including : Y @-@ 100 Miami , 93 @.@ 3 FM , Z100 , KIIS @-@ FM , and 99 β 7 Now . Grande performed " The Way " at several concerts produced for Top 40 radio stations , including KIIS @-@ FM 's Wango Tango concert on May 11 , 2013 in Los Angeles , 101 @.@ 3 KDWB 's Star Party concert on May 17 in Minneapolis , Kiss 108 's Kiss Concert 2013 event on May 18 in Boston , 103 @.@ 3 AMP Radio 's Birthday Bash concert on June 30 also in Boston , and Mix 93 @.@ 3 's Red White & Boom concert on July 5 in Kansas City . Her first televised performance of the song was aired on May 29 , 2013 on The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
On August 1 , 2013 , Grande revealed the official artwork for Yours Truly , which features her kneeling on a bed of roses in front of a pink background . Due to fan criticism , she quickly unveiled a new cover , which simply featured the singer standing beneath a spotlight in a black @-@ and @-@ white image . On August 7 , 2013 , Grande revealed the official track listing via iTunes , and Republic Records made pre @-@ orders for the album available . A music video for " Almost is Never Enough " a duet with The Wanted 's Nathan Sykes premiered online on Vevo on August 19 to promote the film The Mortal Instruments : City of Bones . The track is featured on the film 's official soundtrack . The album version of the track is two minutes longer and has been slightly altered . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 84 . " Popular Song " featuring Grande was released on 21 December 2012 as a single from Mika 's third studio album , The Origin of Love . The album version of the song features vocals from the original songwriter , Priscilla Renea , and contains expletives . However , the single version removes Renea and replaces her with Grande , removing the expletives .
Grande performed " The Way " and " Baby I " at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards ' Preshow on August 25 , 2013 . During the album 's release week Grande also performed " The Way " with Mac Miller on the Today Show along with " Tattooed Heart " on September 3 , 2013 , she also performed the latter at the 2013 Style Awards on September 4 , 2013 . Grande also made several other appearances throughout the week appearing on Live ! with Kelly and Michael , The Today Show and Late Night With Jimmy Fallon , where she performing an acoustic version of " The Way " .
= = = The Listening Sessions = = =
Grande embarked on her first solo concert tour titled The Listening Sessions in support of Yours Truly . Pre @-@ sale tickets went on sale on July 18 , 2013 . Regular tickets went on sale on July 19 . Pre @-@ sale tickets had to be taken down early , as they were selling at such a fast rate that the tour was almost sold before regular tickets were available . Grande also was the opening act for the last three US dates of Justin Bieber 's Believe Tour . The performances took place in Jacksonville , Tampa , and Atlanta on August 7 , August 8 , and August 10 , in support of the album . It was at these Listening Sessions that Grande discovered the album reached number one on US iTunes .
= = Singles = =
" The Way " was released to digital retailers through Republic Records in the United States on March 26 , 2013 as the album 's official lead single . It was written by the song 's producer Harmony Samuels , alongside Amber Streeter , Al Sherrod Lambert , Jordin Sparks , Brenda Russell and Mac Miller , who is also featured in the song . Seven hours after its release on the iTunes Store , " The Way " topped its " Top Singles " chart . It debuted at number ten on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Grande and Miller 's first top ten song on the chart . This made Ariana the first top 10 arrival for a lead female artist making her first Hot 100 appearance since Yael Naim , who launched with " New Soul " back in 2008 . The song peaked at number 9 on the Billboard Hot 100 . " The Way " sold over 120 @,@ 000 units in the first 48 hours . Having sold over 219 @,@ 000 units in its opening week , " The Way " holds the third best @-@ selling first @-@ week sales figure of 2013 behind Justin Timberlake 's " Suit & Tie " and One Direction 's " Best Song Ever " . The song received a triple platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
" Baby I " was released to digital retailers by Republic Records on July 22 , 2013 , as the second single from the album . It was written and produced by Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds , Antonio Dixon and Patrick " J. Que " Smith . The song sold 141 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , her second top 40 hit . It also debuted at number 6 on the Hot Digital Songs chart , making Grande the only woman to debut two songs in the top ten on the Digital Songs chart during the year 2013 . Filming for the song 's music video took place July 28 β 29 , 2013 . Grande hinted that the video would " travel " back to the 1990s and that there would be " lots of color " and " lots of baggy clothes . "
" Right There " featuring Big Sean , was released to digital retailers by Republic Records on August 6 , 2013 , as the third and final single from the album . It was written by Grande , Carmen Reece , Lonny Bereal , James " J @-@ Doe " Smith , Trey Starxx , Al Sherrod Lambert , Sean Anderson , Jeff Lorber , and Harmony Samuels , who also handled the song 's production . " Right There " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 84 . It was then serviced to rhythmic contemporary radio on September 10 , 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 based on ratings and reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average of 81 , based on 9 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . At AllMusic , Matt Collar rated the album four stars out of five , saying that Yours Truly was " surprisingly sophisticated and unique " which showcases Grande 's soulful R & B vocals . He stated that the album often " brings to mind the intonations of Mariah Carey which are most likely intentional . " Collar closed the statement saying that Yours Truly " makes the most of her talent . " Nick Catucci of Entertainment Weekly graded the album an A- , calling the album " pure pop bliss " and " one of the most purely enjoyable albums of the year " that is powered by her " lithe , Broadway @-@ honed voice " . At The New York Times , Jon Caramanica gave a positive review of the album , writing that television shows such as American Idol and Glee " have been responsible for an intense surge of interest in music on television , but they haven 't left much of a mark on the shape of pop . That 's because both shows are fundamentally conservative institutions , privileging the familiar and the unchallenging . They 're about emulating , not innovating . " Caramanica commended Grande for becoming the first " identifiable pop star " who takes the " rules of those enterprises , uses them as a foundation , and innovates atop them ... She uses the " Glee " / " Idol " template as a jumping @-@ off point to make modern pop @-@ R & B with a sturdy vintage backbone . "
Writing in his track @-@ by @-@ track review Jason Lipshutz from Billboard rated the album an eighty @-@ six out of 100 , saying that " Yours Truly carries the expectations of a young singer who has already proven herself on the pop charts , and even if the songs on her debut could not equal the quality of " The Way , " Grande had the fan base and powerful pipes to survive a misfire . " At PopMatters , Scott Interrante rated the album eight discs out of ten , writing that " Minor missteps aside , Yours Truly is ultimately an impressive debut for Grande . " Ryan Dennehy of AbsolutePunk rated the album a 70 @-@ percent , stating that " Yours Truly is more tempered and less likely to put you in a beaming state of catatonia " that is " a missive containing some of her most personal thoughts and her oft @-@ regrettable youthful impulses . " At Pitchfork , Andrew Ryce rated the album a 6 @.@ 5 out of ten , calling it " a very safe record . " Lewis Conner of Digital Spy rated the album four stars out of five , writing how " The production feels fresh , the lyrics are relatable and the melodies are as cool and sweet as a dollop of raspberry ripple " , and where he also states that " The tone and pace of the album rarely changes , but the songs feel accomplished , polished and vibrant " . Corner concluded by calling " Yours Truly " a " little less than a triumph . " At The Michigan Daily , Gregory Hicks graded the album a B , saying " most tracks are of quality composition , lyrically and melodically , but beat usage becomes excessive at times . " Jim Farber of The New York Daily News rated the album three stars out of five , stating that because the " armies of song doctors " that the release is " far more tuneful than Mariah 's interchangeable hits . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On September 4 , 2013 , Billboard reported that Yours Truly would most likely sell between 110 @,@ 000 and 120 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the United States by the end of September 11 , 2013 . After Yours Truly was released , the album went to number one on the iTunes Store charts in over 30 countries , including the United States , where it reached number 1 in 19 minutes . Yours Truly officially debuted atop the US Billboard 200 chart , with 138 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week , becoming Grande 's first number @-@ one album as a solo artist . This made Grande the fifteenth female artist ever and the first female artist to have their first album debut atop of the charts since January 2010 , when Kesha 's Animal opened at number one . Grande 's sales were especially strong digitally , as 108 @,@ 000 of her first @-@ week sales were from digital downloads , while the album sold 30 @,@ 000 copies through physical sales . In its second week , the album dropped eight places to number 9 selling 31 @,@ 000 more copies , bringing its total sales in the United States to 169 @,@ 000 . As of March 2016 , the album has sold 572 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
Yours Truly also debuted in the top ten in several other countries , including Australia , where it debuted at number 6 , the United Kingdom , where it debuted at number 7 , Ireland , where it debuted at number 6 , and the Netherlands , where it debuted at number 5 . It also debuted just outside the top ten on New Zealand 's top 40 chart at number 11 .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] denotes a co @-@ producer
^ [ b ] denotes a vocal producer
^ [ c ] denotes an additional producer
^ [ d ] denotes a remixer
" Right There " features a prominent sample of the 1979 jazz instrumental song " Rain Dance " by The Jeff Lorber Fusion
" Lovin ' It " embodies portions of " Real Love " performed by Mary J. Blige , written by Mark Morales , Mark C. Rooney , Kirk Robinson , Nat Robinson Jr . , and Roy Hammond .
" The Way " interpolates the piano melody from Russell 's " A Little Bit of Love " and lyrics from Big Pun 's " Still Not a Player " .
" Popular Song " is a cover , based on the song " Popular " from the Broadway musical Wicked .
= = Credits = =
Adapted from AllMusic and album liner notes .
= = = Recording locations = = =
= = = Personnel = = =
Technical credits
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Russian battleship Sevastopol ( 1911 ) =
Sevastopol ( Russian : Π‘Π΅Π²Π°ΡΡΠΎΠΏΠΎΠ»Ρ ) was the first ship completed of the Gangut @-@ class battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy , built before World War I. The Ganguts were the first class of Russian dreadnoughts . She was named after the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War . She was completed during the winter of 1914 β 15 , but was not ready for combat until mid @-@ 1915 . Her role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so she spent her time training and providing cover for minelaying operations . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet after the February Revolution and joined the Bolsheviks later that year . She was laid up in 1918 for lack of manpower , but her crew joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of 1921 . She was renamed Parizhskaya Kommuna after the rebellion was crushed to commemorate the Paris Commune and to erase the ship 's ' betrayal ' of the Communist Party .
She was recommissioned in 1925 , and refitted in 1928 in preparation for her transfer to the Black Sea the following year . Parizhskaya Kommuna and the cruiser Profintern ran into a severe storm in the Bay of Biscay that severely damaged Parizhskaya Kommuna 's false bow . They had to put into Brest for repairs , but reached Sevastopol in January 1930 . Parizhskaya Kommuna was comprehensively reconstructed in two stages during the 1930s that replaced her boilers , upgraded her guns , augmented her anti @-@ aircraft armament , modernized her fire @-@ control systems and gave her anti @-@ torpedo bulges . During World War II she provided gunfire support during the Siege of Sevastopol and related operations until she was withdrawn from combat in April 1942 when the risk from German aerial attack became too great . She was retained on active duty after the war until she became a training ship in 1954 . She was broken up in 1956 β 57 .
= = Design = =
Sevastopol was 180 meters ( 590 ft ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft 6 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 ft 6 in ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 ft 7 in ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 400 long tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ) .
Sevastopol 's machinery was built by the Baltic Works . Ten Parsons @-@ type steam turbines drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three transverse compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two each low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving the two center shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during her sister Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 @.@ 1 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 710 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that superfiring turrets offered any advantage as they discounted the value of axial fire and believed that superfiring turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She completed with two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns mounted on the quarterdeck . Other AA guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking , although Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube .
= = Service = =
Sevastopol was built by the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . Her keel was laid down on 16 June 1909 and she was launched on 10 July 1911 . She was commissioned on 30 November 1914 and reached Helsingfors late the next month where she was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . Sevastopol and her sister Gangut provided distant cover for minelaying operations south of LiepΔja on 27 August , the furthest that any Russian dreadnought ventured out of the Gulf of Finland during World War I. She ran aground on 10 September and was under repair for two months . On 17 October a half @-@ charge of powder was dropped and ignited when it impacted the floor of the forward magazine . Flooding the magazine prevented an explosion , but the fire killed two men and burned a number of others . She saw no action of any kind during 1916 , but hit underwater rocks twice that year , suffering minor damage each time . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917 , after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland , even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Sevastopol and her sisters led the first group of ships out on 12 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' .
The crew of the Sevastopol joined the Kronstadt Rebellion of March 1921 . She returned fire when the Bolsheviks began to bombard Kronstadt Island and was hit by three 12 @-@ inch shells that killed or wounded 102 sailors . After the rebellion was bloodily crushed , she was renamed Parizhskaya Kommuna after the Paris Commune on 31 March 1921 . She was refitted several times before she was recommissioned on 17 September 1925 . She was refitted again in 1928 at the Baltic Shipyard , in preparation for her transfer to the Black Sea Fleet . Her forward funnel was raised and the upper part was angled aft in an attempt to keep the exhaust gases out of the control and gunnery spaces , while three 3 @-@ inch ' Lender ' AA guns were added to the roofs of the fore and aft turrets . She received some additional rangefinders and she was given a false bow to improve her sea @-@ keeping ability . She sailed for the Black Sea on 22 November 1929 , in company of the cruiser Profintern , encountering a bad storm in the Bay of Biscay . The open @-@ topped bow lacked enough drainage and tended to trap a lot of water which badly damaged both the false bow and the supporting structure . Parizhskaya Kommuna was forced to put into Brest for repairs , which included the removal of the bulwark that retained so much water . Both ships arrived at Sevastopol on 18 January 1930 and Parizhskaya Kommuna became the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
She temporarily mounted an imported Heinkel aircraft catapult atop the third turret between 1930 and 1933 . It was transferred to the cruiser Krasnyi Kavkaz when Sevastopol began the first stage of her reconstruction in November 1933 . This was based on that done for her sister Oktyabrskaya Revolyutsiya , but was even more extensive . Her rear superstructure was enlarged and a new structure was built just forward of it which required the repositioning of the mainmast forward . This did not leave enough room for a derrick , as was fitted in Marat , and two large booms were fitted to handle aircraft while the existing boat cranes remained in place . The mast had to be reinforced by two short legs to handle the weight of the booms and their loads . Her false bow was reworked into a real forecastle like those fitted to her sisters . All twenty @-@ five of her old boilers were replaced by a dozen oil @-@ fired boilers originally intended for the Borodino @-@ class battlecruisers . The space saved was used to add another inboard longitudinal watertight bulkhead that greatly improved her underwater protection .
Her turrets were modified to use a fixed loading angle of 6 Β° and fitted with more powerful elevating motors which increased their rate of fire to two rounds per minute . Their maximum elevation was increased to 40 Β° which extended their range to 32 @,@ 320 yards ( 29 @,@ 550 m ) and they were redesignated as MK @-@ 3 @-@ 12 Mod . She landed her old ' Lender ' AA guns and replaced them with six semi @-@ automatic 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K AA guns , three atop the fore and aft turrets . Three 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K each were mounted on platforms on the fore and aft superstructures as well as a total of twelve 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) DShKM machine guns . Her fire @-@ control system was completely revised with a pair of KDP @-@ 6 fire control director , equipped with two 6 @-@ meter ( 20 ft ) Zeiss rangefinders positioned atop both superstructures . Her original Pollen Argo Clock mechanical fire @-@ control computer was replaced with a copy of a Vickers Ltd fire @-@ control computer , designated AKUR by the Soviets , as well as a copy of a Sperry stable vertical gyroscope . She also received the first stabilized anti @-@ aircraft directors in the Soviet fleet , SVP @-@ 1s that were fitted on each side of the forward superstructure . They were manually stabilized and less than satisfactory as the men manning them had difficulties keeping their sights on the horizon while the ship 's motions were violent .
Parizhskaya Kommuna finished the first stage of her reconstruction in January 1938 with unresolved stability issues derived from all of the additional topweight . The options to cure this were discussed at length until Marshal Voroshilov , the People 's Commissar for Defense approved the addition of anti @-@ torpedo bulges in 1939 which would increase the ship 's underwater protection and rectify her stability problem . The second part of the reconstruction was carried out between December 1939 and July 1940 . A pair of bulges were fitted that extended from the forward magazine to the rear magazine that increased the ship 's beam by 5 @.@ 62 meters ( 18 @.@ 4 ft ) . They had an unusual form that consisted of an outer void compartment intended to weaken the explosive force of the torpedo backed by a relatively narrow section immediately adjacent to the original hull that extended from above the waterline to the bottom of the bilge . This was divided into two compartments ; the lower of which was kept full of either fuel oil or water to absorb splinters and fragments from the explosion while the upper compartment was filled with small watertight tubes intended to preserve the ship 's waterplane area and minimize flooding from gunfire hits around the waterline . The underwater torpedo tubes were incompatible with the bulges and were removed at this time . The bulges increased her standard displacement to 30 @,@ 395 tonnes ( 29 @,@ 915 long tons ; 33 @,@ 505 short tons ) , increased her metacentric height to 2 @.@ 03 meters ( 6 ft 8 in ) and reduced her speed to 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The Soviets took advantage of her extra stability to reinforce her deck armor by completely replacing her middle deck armor with 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) cemented armor plates originally intended for Admiral Nakhimov @-@ class cruisers . These were not ideal as they were harder than desirable for deck plates , but they did have the prime virtue of being free . At some point , the exact date is unknown , her 45 @-@ mm guns were removed and sixteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K automatic AA guns were added , three each on the fore and aft turret tops and twelve in the superstructures .
= = = World War II = = =
Four of Parizhskaya Kommuna 's 120 @-@ mm guns were landed shortly before 22 June 1941 . When the Germans invaded she was in Sevastopol , but she was evacuated to Novorossiysk 30 October after the Germans had breached Soviet defensive lines near the Perekop Isthmus . During 28 β 29 November she bombarded German and Romanian troops south of Sevastopol with 146 12 @-@ inch and 299 120 @-@ mm shells . She steamed into Sevastopol 's South Bay on 29 December and fired 179 and 265 120 @-@ mm shells at German troops before embarking 1025 wounded and departing in company with the cruiser Molotov on the 31st . She bombarded German positions south of Feodosiya on the evening of 4 β 5 January 1942 and on 12 January . Parizhskaya Kommuna provided gunfire support during Soviet landings behind German lines along the southern coast of the Crimea three days later . She bombarded German positions west and north of Feodosiya on the nights of 26 β 28 February in support of an offensive by the 44th Army . She fired her last shots of the war at targets near Feodosiya during the nights of 20 β 22 March 1942 before returning to Poti , Georgia , to have her worn @-@ out 12 @-@ inch guns relined . By the time this was finished the Soviets were unwilling to expose such a prominent ship to German air attacks , which had already sunk a number of cruisers and destroyers . She returned to her original name on 31 May 1943 , but remained in Poti until late 1944 when she led the surviving major units of the Black Sea Fleet back to Sevastopol on 5 November . Lend @-@ Lease British Type 290 and 291 air @-@ warning radars were fitted during the war . She was awarded the Order of the Red Banner on 8 July 1945 .
She was reclassified as a ' school battleship ' on 24 July 1954 and stricken on 17 February 1956 . She was scrapped at Sevastopol in 1956 β 57 .
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= Sherlock ( TV series ) =
Sherlock is a British @-@ American crime drama television series based on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes detective stories . Created by Steven Moffat and Mark Gatiss , it stars Benedict Cumberbatch as Sherlock Holmes and Martin Freeman as Doctor John Watson . Ten episodes have been produced , with three @-@ part series airing in 2010 , 2012 and 2014 , and a special episode airing on 1 January 2016 . A fourth series has been commissioned , which began filming in April 2016 for an intended 2017 release . The series is set in the present day , while the one @-@ off special partly features a Victorian period fantasy resembling the original Holmes stories . Sherlock is a co @-@ production between the BBC and WGBH Boston for its Masterpiece anthology series on PBS , with Sue Vertue and Elaine Cameron of Hartswood Films serving as producers . The series is primarily filmed in Cardiff , Wales , with North Gower Street in London used for exterior shots of Holmes and Watson 's 221B Baker Street residence .
Critical reception has been highly positive , with many reviews praising the quality of the writing , performances , and direction . Sherlock has been nominated for numerous awards including : BAFTAs , Emmys , and a Golden Globe , winning several awards across a variety of categories . The show won in three categories at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards including Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries , Movie or a Dramatic Special for Moffat , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for Cumberbatch , and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for Freeman . In addition , the show was also honoured with a Peabody Award in 2011 . The third series has become the UK 's most watched drama series since 2001 . Sherlock has been sold to over 200 territories .
All of the series have been released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , alongside tie @-@ in editions of selected original Conan Doyle stories and original soundtrack composed by David Arnold and Michael Price . In January 2014 , the show launched its official mobile app called Sherlock : The Network .
= = Premise = =
Sherlock depicts " consulting detective " Sherlock Holmes ( Benedict Cumberbatch ) solving various mysteries in modern @-@ day London . Holmes is assisted by his flatmate and friend , Dr John Watson ( Martin Freeman ) , who has returned from military service in Afghanistan with the Royal Army Medical Corps . Although Metropolitan Police Service Detective Inspector Greg Lestrade ( Rupert Graves ) and others are at first suspicious of Holmes , over time his exceptional intellect and bold powers of observation persuade them of his value . In part through Watson 's blog documenting their adventures , Holmes becomes a reluctant celebrity with the press reporting on his cases and eccentric personal life . Both ordinary people and the British government ask for his help .
Although the series depicts a variety of crimes and perpetrators , Holmes ' conflict with archnemesis Jim Moriarty ( Andrew Scott ) is a recurring feature . Molly Hooper ( Louise Brealey ) , a pathologist at St. Bart 's Hospital , occasionally assists Holmes in his cases . Other recurring roles include Una Stubbs as Mrs Hudson , Holmes and Watson 's landlady , and series co @-@ creator Mark Gatiss as Holmes ' elder brother Mycroft .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
Steven Moffat and Mark Gatiss , Sherlock Holmes fans with experience of adapting or using Victorian literature for television , devised the concept of the series . Moffat had previously adapted the Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde for the 2007 series Jekyll , while Gatiss had written the Dickensian Doctor Who episode " The Unquiet Dead " . Moffat and Gatiss , both Doctor Who writers , discussed plans for a Holmes adaptation during their numerous train journeys to Cardiff where Doctor Who production is based . While they were in Monte Carlo for an awards ceremony , producer Sue Vertue , who is married to Moffat , encouraged Moffat and Gatiss to develop the project themselves before another creative team had the same idea . Moffat and Gatiss invited Stephen Thompson to write for the series in September 2008 .
Gatiss has criticized recent television adaptations of the Conan Doyle stories as " too reverential and too slow " , aiming instead to be as irreverent to the canon as the 1930s and 1940s films starring Basil Rathbone and Nigel Bruce , which were mostly set in the then @-@ modern interwar era . Benedict Cumberbatch 's Sherlock uses modern technology , such as texting , the internet , and GPS , to solve crimes . Paul McGuigan , who directed two episodes of Sherlock , says that this is in keeping with Conan Doyle 's character , pointing out that " [ i ] n the books he would use any device possible and he was always in the lab doing experiments . It 's just a modern @-@ day version of it . He will use the tools that are available to him today in order to find things out . "
The update maintains some traditional elements of the stories , such as the Baker Street address and Holmes 's adversary Moriarty . Although the events of the books are transferred to the present day , some elements are incorporated into the story . For example , Martin Freeman 's Watson has returned from military service in Afghanistan . While discussing the fact that the original Watson was invalided home after serving in the Second Anglo @-@ Afghan War ( 1878 β 80 ) , Gatiss realised that " [ i ] t is the same war now , I thought . The same unwinnable war . "
Sherlock was announced as a single 60 @-@ minute drama production at the Edinburgh International Television Festival in August 2008 , with broadcast set for mid to late 2009 . The intention was to produce a series of six 60 @-@ minute episodes should the pilot prove to be successful . The first version of the pilot β reported by The Guardian to have cost Β£ 800 @,@ 000 β led to rumours within the BBC and wider media that Sherlock was a potential disaster . The BBC decided not to transmit the pilot , requesting a reshoot and a total of three 90 @-@ minute episodes . The original pilot was included on the DVD of the first series . During the audio commentary , the creative team said that the BBC were " very happy " with the pilot but asked them to change the format . The pilot , observes critic Mark Lawson when it was released on DVD , was " substantially expanded and rewritten , and completely reimagined in look , pace and sound " . In July 2009 , the BBC drama department announced plans for three 90 @-@ minute episodes , to be broadcast in 2010 . Moffat had previously announced that if a series of Sherlock was commissioned , Gatiss would take over the duties of executive producer so that he could concentrate on producing Doctor Who .
= = = Cast and characters = = =
Moffat and Vertue became interested in casting Cumberbatch as the title character after watching his performance in the 2007 film Atonement . The actor was cast after reading the script for the creative team . " Cumberbatch " , says The Guardian , " has a reputation for playing odd , brilliant men very well , and his Holmes is cold , techie , slightly Aspergerish " . Cumberbatch said , " There 's a great charge you get from playing him , because of the volume of words in your head and the speed of thought β you really have to make your connections incredibly fast . He is one step ahead of the audience and of anyone around him with normal intellect . They can 't quite fathom where his leaps are taking him . " Piers Wenger , Head of Drama at BBC Wales , described the series ' rendering of Sherlock as " a dynamic superhero in a modern world , an arrogant , genius sleuth driven by a desire to prove himself cleverer than the perpetrator and the police β everyone in fact " . Addressing changing social attitudes and broadcasting regulations , Cumberbatch 's Holmes replaced the pipe with multiple nicotine patches . The writers believed that Sherlock should not talk like " a completely modern person " , says Moffat , but were initially intent that " he never sounded like he 's giving a lecture " . Moffat turned the character " more Victorian " in the second series , capitalising more on Cumberbatch 's " beautiful voice " to make it sound like " he 's giving a lecture " .
In an interview with The Observer , co @-@ creator Mark Gatiss says that they experienced more difficulty finding the right actor to play Dr John Watson than they had for the title character . Producer Sue Vertue said , " Benedict was the only person we actually saw for [ the part of ] Sherlock ... Once Benedict was there it was really just making sure we got the chemistry for John [ Watson ] β and I think you get it as soon as they come into the room , you can see that they work together " . Several actors auditioned for the part of Watson , and Martin Freeman eventually took the role . Steven Moffat said that Matt Smith was the first to audition unsuccessfully . He was rejected for being too " barmy " , as the producers required someone " straighter " for Watson . Shortly after , Moffat cast Smith as the Eleventh Doctor in Doctor Who .
The writers said that Freeman 's casting developed the way in which Cumberbatch played Holmes . The theme of friendship appealed to both Gatiss and Moffat . Gatiss asserted the importance of achieving the correct tone for the character . " Watson is not an idiot , although it 's true that Conan Doyle always took the piss out of him , " said Gatiss . " But only an idiot would surround himself with idiots . " Moffat said that Freeman is " the sort of opposite of Benedict in everything except the amount of talent ... Martin finds a sort of poetry in the ordinary man . I love the fastidious realism of everything he does . " Freeman describes his character as a " moral compass " for Sherlock , who does not always consider the morality and ethics of his actions .
Rupert Graves was cast as DI Greg Lestrade . The writers referred to the character as " Inspector Lestrade " during development until Gatiss realised that in contemporary England the character would have the title " Detective Inspector " . Moffat and Gatiss pointed out that Lestrade does not appear often in the stories and is quite inconsistently portrayed in them . They decided to go with the version that appeared in " The Six Napoleons " : a man who is frustrated by Holmes but admires him , and whom Holmes considers as the best person at Scotland Yard . Several candidates took a comedic tack in their auditions , but the creative team preferred the gravitas that Graves brought to the role . His first name is revealed to be Greg in " The Hounds of Baskerville " .
Andrew Scott made his first appearance as Jim Moriarty in " The Great Game " . Moffat said , " We knew what we wanted to do with Moriarty from the very beginning . Moriarty is usually a rather dull , rather posh villain so we thought someone who was genuinely properly frightening . Someone who 's an absolute psycho . " Moffat and Gatiss were originally not going to put a confrontation between Moriarty and Holmes into these three episodes , but realised that they " just had to do a confrontation scene . We had to do a version of the scene in ' The Final Problem ' in which the two archenemies meet each other . "
The remainder of the regular cast includes Una Stubbs ( who has known Cumberbatch since he was four years old , as she had worked with his mother Wanda Ventham ) as Mrs Hudson and co @-@ creator Mark Gatiss as Mycroft Holmes . Vinette Robinson , Jonathan Aris and Louise Brealey play the recurring roles of Sergeant Sally Donovan , Philip Anderson and Molly Hooper , respectively .
Amanda Abbington , Freeman 's real @-@ life partner , plays Mary Morstan , Watson 's girlfriend and eventual wife . In Series 3 , Wanda Ventham and Timothy Carlton , Cumberbatch 's real @-@ life parents , are introduced as Sherlock and Mycroft 's parents .
Guest appearances included Phil Davis as Jefferson Hope , Paul Chequer as DI Dimmock , Zoe Telford as Sarah , Gemma Chan as Soo Lin Yao , John Sessions as Kenny Prince , Haydn Gwynne as Miss Wenceslas , Deborah Moore as one of Moriarty 's victims and Peter Davison as the voice @-@ over in the planetarium . Series two 's " A Scandal in Belgravia " featured Lara Pulver as Irene Adler , while " The Hounds of Baskerville " featured Russell Tovey as Henry Knight . In the final episode of series 2 , the role of Rufus Bruhl was played by Edward Holtom , while Katherine Parkinson played journalist Kitty Riley . The first episode of series 3 featured Derren Brown .
= = = Production design and filming = = =
The show was produced by Hartswood Films for BBC Wales , while BBC Worldwide also provided co @-@ production funding . Production was also co @-@ produced by PBS , a network of public @-@ service broadcasters in the United States , for WGBH @-@ TV 's Masterpiece Mystery ! strand . Filming of the pilot episode , written by Moffat and directed by Coky Giedroyc , commenced in January 2009 . The following January ( 2010 ) , the first set of three episodes entered production . Paul McGuigan directed the first and third episodes and Euros Lyn directed the second . The three episodes were filmed in reverse order of their broadcast .
Gatiss says that they wanted to " fetishise modern London in the way that the period versions fetishise Victorian London " . Production was based at Hartswood Films ' Cardiff production unit , Hartswood Films West , which was opened in late 2009 to take advantage of the BBC 's planned Cardiff Bay " drama village " . Production of the first two series was based at Upper Boat Studios , where Doctor Who had been produced . Cardiff was more economical than in London , with some good matches for parts of London . Some architecture could not be faked , so location shooting in the English capital was necessary . The location shots for 221B Baker Street were filmed at 187 North Gower Street β Baker Street was impractical because of heavy traffic , and the number of things labelled " Sherlock Holmes " , which would need to be disguised . Executive producer Beryl Vertue explains how it was important to design the entirety of Sherlock 's flat as a contemporary set , yet still convey his eccentricity . He would not , she says , live somewhere " too suburban " or " too modern " .
Costumes for the pilot were designed by BAFTA Cymru award @-@ winning costume designer Ray Holman . Cumberbatch wore a Β£ 1 @,@ 000 Belstaff coat in the series . Sarah Arthur , the series ' costume designer , explained how she achieved the detective 's look . " Holmes wouldn 't have any interest in fashion so I went for classic suits with a modern twist : narrow @-@ leg trousers and a two @-@ button , slim @-@ cut jacket . I also went for slim @-@ cut shirts and a sweeping coat for all the action scenes β it looks great against the London skyline . "
The writers say that they did not want to force modernity onto the story . There were some creative challenges , such as the decision to include the sign " 221B " on Holmes ' front door . Gatiss and Moffat reflect that in the modern world the door would only display the number of the house , and there would be doorbells for each flat . The full house number is so iconic that they felt unable to change it . The writers also decided that the lead characters would address each other by their first names , rather than the traditional Holmes and Watson . This was also reflected in the title of the series . Director Paul McGuigan came up with the idea of putting text messages on the screen instead of having cut @-@ away shots of a hand holding the phone .
The producers found it difficult to coordinate the schedules of the principal players and Moffat and Gatiss for a second series . Cumberbatch and Freeman both worked on the 2012 film The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey , and Moffat continued as Doctor Who 's showrunner and head writer . In response to the time pressure , The Guardian asserted , the series " features reworkings of three of Conan Doyle 's most recognised tales " . Gatiss says that there had been an argument for producing these tales over three years , but Moffat explained that they rejected " deferred pleasure " . The relationship between Holmes and Watson developed during the second series , with Watson being less amazed by Sherlock 's deductive abilities ; Watson acted as the primary detective in the second episode , " The Hounds of Baskerville " . The cast and production team were more confident during the second series ' production following the positive audience and critical reaction to the first series .
= = = Music = = =
The theme and incidental music were composed by David Arnold and Michael Price . Arnold explains that he and Price worked with the producers to " come up with a central theme and character " for the series , then found what was " going to be the defining sound of this show " . Pieces were often constructed using synthesizers , but the tracks used for the show were recorded using real musicians , Arnold says , to bring the music " to life " . Similarly , Price comments that the musicians can adapt their performance of a score by responding to footage from the show .
= = Episodes = =
Three series , each consisting of three episodes , have been produced . The first series was initially broadcast in July and August 2010 on the BBC , later premiering on Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) in the United States in October 2010 . A second series of three episodes was first broadcast in the UK in January 2012 , and then in the U.S. during May 2012 . The third series premiered in the UK on 1 January 2014 and in the US on 19 January 2014 . The series has been sold to over 200 territories . A special episode premiered on 1 January 2016 , on BBC One and PBS , marking the first time the series has aired on the same day in the UK and U.S.
= = = Series 1 ( 2010 ) = = =
The first episode , " A Study in Pink " , loosely based upon the first Sherlock Holmes novel A Study in Scarlet , was written by Moffat and directed by Paul McGuigan . The story depicts the introduction of Sherlock to John , and them entering a flatshare at Baker Street in London , and then their investigation into a series of deaths , initially believed to be suicides . Mycroft Holmes , Sherlock 's older brother , played by Mark Gatiss also appears for the first time . The episode was first broadcast simultaneously on BBC One and BBC HD on 25 July 2010 .
The second episode , " The Blind Banker " , was first broadcast on 1 August 2010 . Written by Stephen Thompson and directed by Euros Lyn , the episode depicts Holmes being hired by an old university acquaintance to investigate a mysterious break @-@ in at a bank in the City .
The first series concluded with " The Great Game " , first broadcast on 8 August 2010 . The episode introduces the character of archenemy James Moriarty ( played by Andrew Scott ) to the series , who sets Holmes deadlines to solve a series of apparently unrelated cases . Written by Mark Gatiss and directed by McGuigan , " The Great Game " ends with a cliffhanger in which Sherlock and Moriarty reach a standoff involving a bomb attached to a vest removed moments earlier from Watson .
= = = Series 2 ( 2012 ) = = =
After the high ratings for " A Study in Pink " , the BBC were reportedly eager to produce more episodes . On 10 August 2010 , it was confirmed that Sherlock had been renewed for a second series . At the 2011 convention , Gatiss confirmed which stories would be adapted , and that the writers of the first series would each write an episode for series two . Acknowledging that " A Scandal in Bohemia " , " The Hound of the Baskervilles " and " The Final Problem " are amongst the best @-@ known Holmes stories , Gatiss explained , " We knew after having a successful first run that the natural order would be to do three of the most famous [ stories ] . " " There 's the question of how to go out on a cliffhanger and then the thematic things of the three stories , where we were trying to get to and what Sherlock and John 's relationship is a little further on . You can 't just go back to : ' You have no emotions . ' ' I don 't care . ' You 've got to move on somewhere and make sure the other characters have something of a journey too . " Paul McGuigan directed the first two episodes , and Doctor Who director Toby Haynes handled the last one . The second series of three 90 @-@ minute episodes was initially planned to air in late 2011 , but was delayed until early January 2012 .
" A Scandal in Belgravia " , written by Steven Moffat and directed by Paul McGuigan , was first broadcast on 1 January 2012 . Loosely based on " A Scandal in Bohemia " , the episode depicts Holmes 's quest to retrieve compromising photos of a minor royal held on the camera phone of Irene Adler ( Lara Pulver ) , a ruthless and brilliant dominatrix who also trades in classified information extracted from her rich and powerful clients .
Mark Gatiss wrote " The Hounds of Baskerville " , which investigates the strange activities at a military base . Aware that The Hound of the Baskervilles , first published in 1902 , was one of the most famous of Conan Doyle 's original stories , Gatiss felt a greater responsibility to include familiar elements of the story than he does when adapting the lesser @-@ known stories . Russell Tovey appeared as Henry Knight , a man whose father was ripped apart by a gigantic hound on Dartmoor twenty years earlier . Directed by McGuigan , the episode was first broadcast on 8 January 2012 .
The second series concluded with " The Reichenbach Fall " . Steve Thompson wrote the episode , which was directed by Toby Haynes , who had previously directed many of Moffat 's Doctor Who episodes . First broadcast on 15 January 2012 , the episode follows Moriarty 's plot to discredit and kill Sherlock Holmes , concluding with Holmes faking his suicide . It was based upon Conan Doyle 's story " The Final Problem " , in which Sherlock and Moriarty are presumed to have fallen to their deaths from the Reichenbach Falls in Switzerland . Moffat felt that he and co @-@ creator Gatiss had outdone Conan Doyle in their version of Holmes ' fall and Moffat added that , in that much @-@ discussed sequence , there was still " a clue everybody 's missed " .
= = = Christmas mini @-@ episode ( 2013 ) = = =
BBC One premiered a seven @-@ minute Sherlock mini @-@ episode over the 2013 Christmas period entitled " Many Happy Returns " . The episode is available via BBC iPlayer , BBC Red Button service , and BBCs YouTube channel , and acts as a prequel to the third series .
The synopsis for the episode reads " Sherlock has been gone for two years . But someone isn 't quite convinced that he 's dead . " The ' someone ' turns out to be Anderson , the forensics technician from series 1 and 2 ( who has now lost his job due to his obsessive conviction that the detective still lives ) . He had a long @-@ standing mistrust of Sherlock , yet is now one of the few people who believes Sherlock is alive , and throughout the episode is trying to convince Lestrade . Anderson tracks him via various mysterious events from Tibet to New Delhi to Germany in which he seems to be involved and points out that the incidents are getting progressively closer to London .
= = = Series 3 ( 2014 ) = = =
After the end of the final episode of the second series , Moffat and Gatiss both announced on Twitter that a third series had been commissioned at the same time as series two , and a part of the resolution to " The Reichenbach Fall " was filmed concurrently with series two . Without revealing whether Moriarty also faked his own death at the end of series two , Moffat suggested that Moriarty will not feature heavily in future series of Sherlock .
" The Empty Hearse " , written by Mark Gatiss and directed by Jeremy Lovering , is the first episode of Series 3 and was first broadcast on 1 January 2014 . Inspired by " The Adventure of the Empty House " by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , the episode follows Sherlock Holmes ' return to London and reunion with John Watson , and their subsequent solving of an underground terrorist network . The episode achieved an official rating of 12 @.@ 72 million viewers , making it the highest rated drama episode shown on UK television in 2014 .
In " The Sign of Three " , written by Stephen Thompson , Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat , Watson and Mary Morstan get married . The episode takes place during the wedding reception and the story is told through flashbacks . The episode title is inspired by The Sign of the Four and was first broadcast on 5 January 2014 .
The final episode " His Last Vow " was first broadcast on 12 January 2014 , on BBC One , and written by Steven Moffat , directed by Nick Hurran and is based on Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's " The Adventure of Charles Augustus Milverton " . This case leads Sherlock into conflict with Charles Augustus Magnussen ( Lars Mikkelsen ) , a " terrifying " villain who was introduced as an unnamed villain in episode one . Holmes and Watson try to get Magnussen arrested , but their attempt fails , and Holmes shoots Magnussen to stop him from blackmailing Mary Watson . Mycroft arranges that Sherlock will be exiled from the United Kingdom instead of being tried for murder . As Sherlock 's plane takes off , every video screen in London broadcasts the image of Moriarty , and Sherlock is recalled to deal with the crisis associated with Moriarty 's potential return .
The third series aired in the United States on PBS over a period of three weeks , airing late January to early February 2014 .
= = = Special ( 2016 ) = = =
On 2 July 2014 , it was announced there would be a special episode broadcast between the third and fourth series . Filming began on 5 January 2015 and wrapped on 10 February 2015 . Moffat confirmed the episode is set in Victorian London saying , " The special is its own thing . We wouldn β t have done the story we β re doing , and the way we β re doing it , if we didn β t have this special . It β s not part of the run of three episodes . So we had this to do it β¦ It β s kind of in its own little bubble . "
In October 2015 , the title of the episode was announced as " The Abominable Bride " . It was broadcast on 1 January 2016 at 9 : 00 pm local time on BBC One in the UK , and on PBS in the US . The episode was simulcast in British cinemas on 1 January , and was shown on 5 and 6 January 2016 in selected cinemas throughout the US . Exclusive bonus material in the cinema presentation included a guided tour of 221B Baker Street from Steven Moffat and a look behind the scenes at how the special episode was made featuring all the lead cast and crew .
= = = Series 4 = = =
A fourth series has been commissioned , with scripts planned . Moffat told The Telegraph , " we 're all keen to continue , " but it has been difficult to co @-@ ordinate the lead actors ' schedules . Moffat continued , " And obviously Mark [ Gatiss ] and I have our other commitments too , but it 's just a matter of scheduling . " In July 2014 the BBC announced that filming for the series would take place in late 2015 , but Moffat announced in May 2015 that filming would not begin until April 2016 , with the series not expected to air until 2017 . Filming began on 4 April 2016 , scheduled to last until early August . In May 2016 it was announced that Toby Jones had been cast as a villain from Sherlock Holmes lore .
= = = Series 5 = = =
Moffat confirmed in January 2014 that Sherlock will return for a fifth series , with Cumberbatch confirming he was signed for a fifth series .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The show met with critical acclaim , sustaining positive reviews across its three series . Series one holds a Metacritic score of 85 / 100 , based on 17 reviews , and series two scored 91 / 100 , based on 24 reviews , while series three holds a score of 88 / 100 , based on 22 reviews . The first two series hold 100 % rating at critical aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes , and series three has a 97 % approval rating . The first episode rated highly on the Appreciation Index . The Observer said the show was " a cross between Withnail and I and The Bourne Ultimatum , there is also a hint of Doctor Who about the drama ; hardly surprising , since it has been written and created by Doctor Who writers Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat . " The Guardian 's Dan Martin said , " It 's early days , but the first of three 90 @-@ minute movies , ' A Study In Pink ' , is brilliantly promising . It has the finesse of Spooks but is indisputably Sherlock Holmes . The deduction sequences are ingenious , and the plot is classic Moffat intricacy . " Tom Sutcliffe for The Independent wrote , " Sherlock is a triumph , witty and knowing , without ever undercutting the flair and dazzle of the original . It understands that Holmes isn 't really about plot but about charisma ... Flagrantly unfaithful to the original in some respects , Sherlock is wonderfully loyal to it in every way that matters . " The lead actors were commended . Critic Victoria Thorpe said , " Freeman 's dependable , capable Watson unlocks this modern Holmes , a man who now describes himself as ' a high @-@ functioning sociopath ' . " Following the second series ' opening episode , Sarah Crompton , for The Telegraph , asserts that " Cumberbatch is utterly credible as a man who lives entirely in his cerebellum with little regard for the world outside , mak [ ing ] Sherlock the perfect depiction of Holmes for our times " .
Conan Doyle fans were generally appreciative . Gwilym Mumford , for The Guardian , suggested that " this has to do with the fact that Moffat and Gatiss are enormously knowledgeable about Conan Doyle 's work , and their reimagining incorporates big- and small @-@ screen adaptations of Holmes , as well as the original stories . As Gatiss puts it : ' Everything is canonical . ' " Sarah Crompton , for The Telegraph , identifies some of the jokes and allusions intended for fans . Commenting specifically on the second series ' finale " The Reichenbach Fall " , The Guardian 's Sam Wollaston praised the show 's faithfulness to Conan Doyle , but also how " it will wander , taking in mobile phone technology and computer hacking ... But it doesn 't feel like cheating ; more like an open relationship , agreed by both parties . "
= = = Ratings = = =
According to overnight data provided by the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board ( BARB ) , the highest overnight figure from the first series of Sherlock was 7 @.@ 5 million for the opening episode , " A Study in Pink " , whereas the second series averaged over 8 million viewers . The three episodes of series two were the three most watched programmes on iPlayer , the BBC 's video @-@ on @-@ demand service , between January and April 2012 . Its opening episode , " A Scandal in Belgravia " , attracted controversy from the tabloid newspaper Daily Mail , which reported that Irene Adler 's nude scene early in the episode had been met with disapproval from some viewers who were concerned that it had been shown before the 9 : 00 pm watershed hour , before which adult @-@ orientated content is not supposed to air . Some critics also took exception to Moffat 's treatment of Irene Adler , arguing that she was sexualised , an argument rejected by others , including Moffat . The series ' conclusion , " The Reichenbach Fall " , in which Sherlock fakes his suicide by jumping from St Bartholomew 's Hospital , led to speculation on forums , social networking sites and in newspaper articles about its resolution .
The third series became the UK 's most watched drama series since 2001 . An average 11 @.@ 82 million people watched the series , with about 12 @.@ 72 million tuning in for the first episode .
= = = Accolades = = =
In the 2011 BAFTA awards , the show as a whole won the award for Best Drama Series , while Freeman ( as Dr Watson ) won the award for the Best Supporting Actor . Cumberbatch was nominated for Best Actor . The show was also nominated for the YouTube Audience Award .
Andrew Scott won 2012 's Best Supporting Actor , beating Freeman , for his work in the second series , which was nominated in other categories .
The first series also won the Arqiva award for the " best terrestrial show " at the 2011 Edinburgh International Television Festival . " A Study in Pink " and " A Scandal in Belgravia " were nominated for Emmy Awards in a variety of categories . The series won several BAFTA Cymru awards : television drama , Director : Fiction ( Euros Lyn ) , Director of Photography : Fiction ( Steve Lawes ) , Production Design ( Arwel Wyn Jones ) , and Make Up & Hair ( Claire Pritchard @-@ Jones ) . Charlie Phillips won the ' Editing : Fiction ' category at the British Academy Television Craft Awards .
The show received the most prizes at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards including Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for Cumberbatch , Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or a Movie for Freeman and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries , Movie or a Dramatic Special for Moffat .
= = Home release and merchandise = =
The first series was released on disc by 2entertain in the United Kingdom on 30 August 2010 , in Australia on 4 November , and the United States on 9 November 2010 . The release included the three episodes and several special features . " A Study in Pink " featured audio commentaries by Steven Moffat , Mark Gatiss and Sue Vertue , while Benedict Cumberbatch , Martin Freeman and Mark Gatiss comment on " The Great Game " . The release included the pilot episode , a 60 @-@ minute version of " A Study in Pink " directed by Coky Giedroyc . Critic Mark Lawson called the decision to include the pilot " commendable and brave " . The British Board of Film Classification rated the pilot and the three episodes as a 12 certificate for video and online exhibition . The release also contained a 32 @-@ minute documentary about the production called " Unlocking Sherlock " . " Unlocking Sherlock " is also the name of a different , but related , documentary ( 2014 , 56 @-@ minute ) which premiered on PBS @-@ TV on 12 January 2014 as a prelude to the third series episodes .
The second series disc was released in the United Kingdom on 23 January 2012 . The release included an audio commentary for " A Scandal in Belgravia " and " The Hounds of Baskerville " and a documentary called " Sherlock Uncovered " . The soundtrack album for the first series was released by Silva Screen on 30 January 2012 , and for the second series on 27 February 2012 .
BBC Books published some of Conan Doyle 's original collections and novels as tie @-@ in editions , with cover art featuring Cumberbatch and Freeman . A Study in Scarlet and The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes were released in Autumn 2011 , with introductions by Moffat and Gatiss respectively . The Hound of the Baskervilles , The Sign of Four and The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes were released in March 2012 , with introductions by Cumberbatch , Freeman and Thompson respectively . Two more books , The Return of Sherlock Holmes and His Last Bow , were released in December 2013 , ahead of the premiere of the third series . They featured introductions by Gatiss and Moffat respectively . According to Radio Times , the popularity of Sherlock has led to a resurgence in the sales of the original Conan Doyle stories .
Sherlock : The Casebook , a companion book to the series written by Guy Adams , was published by BBC Books in the United Kingdom in October 2012 . The book was republished in the United States under the title The Sherlock Files : The Official Companion to the Hit Television Series in July 2013 .
In Japan , a manga adaptation of the series illustrated by Jay was serialised in Kadokawa 's Young Ace magazine from 4 October 2012 . The English translation of this manga series will be released by Titan Comics in the UK and US beginning on 8 June 2016 . In October 2012 , Winning Moves sold a Sherlock @-@ themed edition of Cluedo .
Publishers and retailers reported a 180 % rise in sales of Sherlock Holmes books during the first series ' broadcast .
The show 's popularity resulted in enquiries for coats similar to Sherlock 's , reported retailer Debenhams . Garment manufacturer Belstaff put the wool trench coat worn by Benedict Cumberbatch back into production before the series had ended . The Independent reported , " designer Paul Costelloe moved to meet the demand , offering tailored coats and scarves based on the series , while Savile Row bespoke tailor John Pearse said many of his clients were inquiring about the actors ' clothes . " Journalist Alexis Petridis commented , " [ Y ] ou can see why men wanted to get the look . Perhaps they noted the effect Cumberbatch , by no means your standard telly hunk , had on lady viewers β¦ and decided it must have something to do with the clobber . So it is that Britain 's latest men 's style icon is a fictional asexual sociopath first seen onscreen hitting a corpse with a horse whip . Surely not even the great detective himself could have deduced that was going to happen . "
Speedy 's , the sandwich shop below the flat used as Holmes ' residence , reported a sharp rise in new customers who recognised it from the show .
BBC Online published several tie @-@ in websites relating to the show 's fictional world . These were written by Joseph Lidster , who had also contributed to the Doctor Who tie @-@ in websites .
Two websites β thescienceofdeduction.co.uk and johnwatsonblog.co.uk β feature the events from the show in the form of puzzles and case @-@ summaries , often with comments ( for example , by John Watson 's sister , " Harry " ) . There are also several blogs about " unseen " cases that do not feature on television . Similar to the broadcast cases , these retain familiar elements from classic Arthur Conan Doyle stories : " The Geek Interpreter " instead of " The Greek Interpreter " , and " The Six Thatchers " instead of " The Six Napoleons " . On the websites , links can be found to Molly Hooper 's diary and the official website of Connie Prince .
In January 2014 , the show launched its official mobile app called Sherlock : The Network , which was created by The Project Factory in association with Hartswood Films . Benedict Cumberbatch and Martin Freeman appear in cameo roles as Holmes and Dr Watson , respectively .
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= By the Way =
By the Way is the eighth studio album by American rock band Red Hot Chili Peppers . The album was released on July 9 , 2002 on Warner Bros. Records . It sold over 286 @,@ 000 copies in the first week , and peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 . ( Their next album would peak at number one ) The singles from the album included " By the Way " , " The Zephyr Song " , " Can 't Stop " , " Dosed " and " Universally Speaking " . The lyrical subject matter vocalist Anthony Kiedis addresses in By the Way is a divergence from previous Chili Peppers albums , with Kiedis taking a more candid and reflective approach to his lyrics .
By the Way was lauded by critics as a departure from the band 's previous styles , and is recognized for the melodic and subdued emotions given by the Chili Peppers . Guitarist John Frusciante is credited with writing most of the album 's melodies , bass lines , and guitar progressions , therefore changing the direction of the recording dramatically : " his warm , understated guitar work and his doo @-@ wop style vocal harmonies are king this time around . " By the Way contained very little of the signature punk @-@ funk fusion the band had become known for playing . Frusciante has stated that writing " By the Way [ was ] one of the happiest times in my life . " The album went on to sell over 8 million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
Following a life @-@ threatening drug addiction that developed after leaving the Chili Peppers in 1992 , Frusciante made a full recovery after a month of drug rehabilitation in the early months of 1998 . Shortly thereafter he was asked to rejoin the Red Hot Chili Peppers . After several months of writing and recording , the Chili Peppers ' next album , Californication was released . The album went on to sell over 15 million copies worldwide , becoming the Chili Peppers ' most successful recording to date . Frusciante 's return generated much response from critics , who recognized the album as a commercial revitalization from their previous record , One Hot Minute . A two @-@ year @-@ long , international tour followed , which included several festival appearances , including Woodstock 1999 and Rock in Rio .
The writing and formation of By the Way began immediately following the culmination of Californication 's world tour , in the spring of 2001 . As with Californication , much of the creation took place in the band members ' homes , and other locations of practice , such as a recording studio stage . Kiedis recalled of the situation : " We started finding some magic and some music and some riffs and some rhythms and some jams and some grooves , and we added to it and subtracted from it and pushed it around and put melodies to it . " Frusciante and Kiedis would collaborate for days straight , discussing guitar progressions and sharing lyrics . For Kiedis , " writing By the Way ... was a whole different experience from Californication . John was back to himself and brimming with confidence . " Prior to recording By the Way , the Chili Peppers decided that they would again have Rick Rubin produce the album . Rubin had , in the past , granted the Chili Peppers creative freedom on their recording material ; this was something they thought essential for the album to be unique , and could only occur with his return .
= = Writing and composition = =
According to the 2010 book , The Red Hot Chili Peppers : An Oral / Visual History , Frusciante had originally intended for the album to be very different from how it was eventually completed . Frusciante wanted an album of two different types of songs : songs that were more " English @-@ sounding " and melodic , and songs that were more punk rock sounding . Frusciante 's punk inspiration came from listening to music by The Damned and Discharge , among others . Rick Rubin was not familiar with the latter bands and sound and thought that the melodic songs were original and more exciting , causing the band to focus mostly on the melodic material . However , one punk rock influenced song was recorded during these sessions , " Body of Water " but did not make the final cut and was instead included on " The Zephyr Song " single . Many of the more melodic inspired songs came from Frusciante being heavily into music by The Beach Boys and The Beatles along with doo @-@ wop groups and their harmonies . These new styles as well as Frusciante being especially prolific during this era came to alienate Flea , who had wanted the band to return to its earlier funk @-@ influenced sound . Frusciante felt the band had already thoroughly explored funk and was more interested in creating something new for the band . According to Kiedis , Flea felt his voice wasn 't being heard , and there was a point where he considered leaving the band . While speaking to Swedish paper Aftonbladet , Frusciante mentioned that he listened to guitarists such as John McGeoch for his work on the Magazine 's albums and Siouxsie and the Banshees ' Juju , Ron Mael of Sparks for Kimono My House , Johnny Marr of the Smiths , Vini Reilly of The Durutti Column and Keith Levine of PiL . He also credits XTC singer / guitarist Andy Partridge in the 2002 issue of Total Guitar magazine for being an influence on his guitar work for the album .
The album 's guitar and bass ensemble was primarily dictated by Frusciante , rather than a collaborative effort between him and bassist Flea . Therefore , the record took different direction than any previous Chili Peppers ' album . Frusciante sought to create an emotional and poignant soundscape throughout the recording . Drawing influences from musicians such as Vini Reilly of The Durutti Column and John McGeoch , Frusciante made use of textured and multilayered guitar progressions on By the Way , using tools such as the mellotron and various effects pedals throughout . In 2006 , while promoting the band 's subsequent studio album , Stadium Arcadium , Flea reflected on the composition of By the Way , stating : " John went to this whole level of artistry . But he made me feel like I had nothing to offer , like I knew shit . "
Kiedis was lyrically influenced by love , his girlfriend , and the emotions expressed when one fell in love . Songs written for the album such as " By the Way " , " I Could Die for You " , " Dosed " , " Warm Tape " , and the non @-@ album tracks " Someone " and " Body of Water " all digressed into the many sides of love . Drugs also played an integral part in Kiedis ' writings , as he had only been sober since December 2000 . Tracks like " This Is the Place " and " Don 't Forget Me " expressed his intense relationship with narcotics , the harmful physical and emotional effects they caused him and the ever @-@ present danger of relapse ( as Kiedis has suffered chronic relapse into drug @-@ dependency ) . He referenced early Chili Peppers guitarist Hillel Slovak in " This Is the Place " , and describes how drug use forced him to miss the funeral : " On the day my best friend died / I could not get my copper clean " . " Venice Queen " was composed lyrically as an ode to Kiedis ' drug rehabilitation therapist , Gloria Scott , who died shortly after he purchased her a home on California 's Venice Beach . It mourned her death as a painful loss : " We all want to tell her / Tell her that we love her / Venice gets a queen / Best I 've ever seen . "
By the Way diverged from the band 's previous styles , containing few funk @-@ driven songs . " Can 't Stop " and the title track were the only songs which revisited the Chili Peppers ' once trademark style of short , rapped verses . " Throw Away Your Television " , while not having any rapidly sung lyrics , also contained a funk @-@ oriented bass line , though hinted at experimental rock due to the heavy use of distortion throughout the verse and chorus . Other " experimental " tracks include the melodica @-@ based " On Mercury " . " Cabron " , the only track to be played entirely on acoustic guitar , has distinctive Latin influences . " Tear " and " Warm Tape " were keyboard based more so than guitar or bass , the latter being completely written on the instrument . Technically , By the Way saw the Chili Peppers employing several devices to distort and alter guitar and vocal sequences . " Don 't Forget Me " utilizes a mellotron , wah pedal , and echoing techniques to convey an emotive atmosphere , while Frusciante uses a Big Muff for the solos on " Minor Thing " .
= = Release = =
Feeling extremely confident in their album , the Chili Peppers issued the statement , " Greetings from the dimensions of invisible shapes and colors . The music on this record has expanded our space and made us bigger . Thank you for listening and being exactly where and who you are , " in a press release . Chad Smith commented that By the Way is " very honest , raw , emotional music . It 's a very dynamic , rich and lush album . Probably the best collection of Chili Peppers songs we 've ever put out . " Warner Bros. Records promoted the album heavily in the months prior to the record 's 2002 release , especially targeting the online market in order to steer customers away from illegal downloads . The record label implemented a campaign they colloquially title " A Song A Day " . This program , initiated on June 21 , was aimed at leaking one song per day until the album was released . Over 150 radio stations participated in broadcasting the band 's new daily material , along with MTV , VH1 , and digital music retailers like iTunes , as well as Cell phone companies . AOL featured the Chili Peppers as their " Artist of the Month " in June , streaming interviews and live performances of the band free of charge ; they also sold an MP3 of " By the Way " , the record 's first single , for ninety @-@ nine cents and raffled off tickets that gave fans a chance to see the band in Japan in November .
By the Way was released on CD and LP on July 9 , 2002 , under the Warner Bros. label , selling 281 @,@ 948 copies in the United States in its first week and 1 @.@ 8 million worldwide . It was certified gold just a few months later on October 26 , 2002 . Five singles were released from it ; of these , the title track " By the Way " was the most successful , peaking at No. 2 on the UK charts and No. 1 on the Billboard rock charts . Although the album sold fewer copies than Californication , By the Way managed to peak at No. 2 on the Billboard 200 , one spot higher than Californication . Around the world , the album debuted at number one in the UK , Switzerland , New Zealand , Austria , and Sweden ; and number two in France . In March 2006 , the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' albums were made available for download from the iTunes Music Store and other online retailers . By the Way included two previously unreleased tracks ( " Runaway " , and " Bicycle Song " ) , recorded during the 2004 Greatest Hits sessions .
= = Critical reception = =
The album received a positive reaction from critics , who praised By the Way for its melodic , multilayer and textured styles . AllMusic 's Zac Johnson said that the album was " sophisticated ... the Peppers have not sacrificed any of their trademark energy or passions for life , universal love , and ( of course ) lust " . Rolling Stone called the album " insanely melodic " and a " near @-@ perfect balance of gutter grime and high @-@ art aspiration " , comparing it to other works , such as The Beach Boys ' album Pet Sounds . Mojo applauded the recording , and considered it to be " the strongest Chili 's album since 1991 's Blood Sugar Sex Magik " . Giving the album 5 stars out of 5 , Q called By the Way " A fantastic record ; full of wonder . " Kimberly Mack of PopMatters commented on how the album " ... showcases a more sophisticated , lush sound that only today 's Peppers could have conceived " , and that " Anthony Kiedis ' lyrics are more personal than ever . " Frusciante was , in his eyes , " a musical talent to be reckoned with and is the undeniable X factor in the Red Hot Chili Peppers ' sound . "
However , the praise was balanced by certain critics . Blender considered By the Way to be an indistinguishable sequel to Californication , calling it " Californication 2 " . It further condemned the Chili Peppers for not varying their style and remaining extremely similar in sound . Jaime Lowe of The Village Voice panned Kiedis 's lyrics as " absolutely baffling " and commented that " it 's as if he picked up a rhyming dictionary and arbitrarily strung some phrases together . " The newspaper 's Robert Christgau was also critical of his songwriting , writing that " it 's not enough for Anthony Kiedis to get all mature β he 's supposed to say something interesting about maturity . " Entertainment Weekly praised By the Way for being well refined and a superb collaboration , but criticized the Chili Peppers for playing it safe and keeping the album 's energy mild ; for being " more fascinating for what it symbolizes than what it is . "
Allmusic considered the song " By the Way " to combine " fiery Hollywood funk , gentle harmonies , a little bit of singing about girls , [ and ] a little bit of hanging out in the streets in the summertime . " Rolling Stone commented on " how close this band has come to conjuring pure California sunshine " in " The Zephyr Song " . " Midnight " was highly regarded by several sources . It was chosen as one of By the Way 's " Allmusic Track Picks " . Kimberly Mack of Pop Matters considered it to have " hippie @-@ friendly lyrics " and to " evoke images of tie @-@ dyed T @-@ shirts and AM radio . " Mack also regarded " Venice Queen " as " a masterpiece ... Frusciante 's backing vocals are hauntingly beautiful . " In 2005 , By the Way was ranked number 375 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time .
= = By the Way tour = =
Flea was still upset over the problems he had with John during the making of the album . Flea felt that John was trying to take over the band and that he could no longer express himself in the context of the band . Flea decided that he would finish the album but quit prior to their tour . According to Chad Smith , Flea and Frusciante eventually had a sit @-@ down meeting with each other to air out their differences . Frusciante had no idea how Flea was feeling and had no intentions of taking over the band . Flea also credited practicing VipassanΔ meditation along with Frusciante for helping the two repair their musical relationship . With their problems worked out , the band launched their promo tour to support the album on New York City 's Ellis Island . Sponsored by the rock radio station K @-@ Rock , the event was titled the " Pep Rally " . The band performed eight songs from By the Way , as well as tracks from Californication and Blood Sugar Sex Magik in front of 900 contest winners . The New York Post declared the show " one of the top concerts of the year . " The location was chosen in order to reinvigorate lower Manhattan after the September 11 , 2001 attacks and all proceeds were donated to pertinent charity organizations . Immediately following this , the Chili Peppers embarked on a world tour to support the album . Beginning in Europe , they also played at events such as the Fuji Rock Festival and Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in between . The band eventually culminated their Europe leg of the tour in February 2003 , and commenced the United States leg on May 1 . The Chili Peppers played at Madison Square Garden in New York City on June 3 , 2003 to a sold @-@ out crowd and an enthusiastic response from critics . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times reported that " on Tuesday night , the [ Red Hot Chili Peppers ] came to Madison Square Garden for an extraordinary two @-@ hour performance ... On ' Don 't Forget Me ' , [ Flea ] strummed chords , while Mr. Frusciante contributed a gorgeous guitar line that bubbled and hissed like some sort of chemical reaction . " The US leg ended on June 21 ; the band took a small hiatus before performing at Slane Castle on August 23 , to a crowd of over 80 @,@ 000 . Live at Slane Castle , the result of the concert , would become the Chili Peppers ' second live DVD , after Off the Map .
Following several Japanese and Australian performances , the Red Hot Chili Peppers planned three nights at London 's Hyde Park . Over 240 @,@ 000 tickets were sold within hours , with roughly 80 @,@ 000 people attending each show on June 19 , 20 and 25 , respectively . It became the highest grossing concert at a single venue in history , accumulating an estimated $ 17 million gross revenue . Due to the success of the three shows , the band released their first live album Live in Hyde Park in Europe , Australia , Japan and New Zealand , excluding the United States . Later that year , the Chili Peppers played for the 2004 Democratic National Convention in support of their political beliefs , with Kiedis saying " Do what you gotta do " at the end of the band 's set . Finally , they played at the Rock am Ring festival as one of the final performances of the By the Way tour .
In 2006 , Flea revealed that he once again considered leaving the band whilst touring in support of the album , stating that " throughout the By the Way tour I would play a show and then go and sit on the end of my bed staring into space . " He planned to teach full @-@ time at the Silverlake Conservatory of Music , but ultimately decided to remain within the band . Flea later stated that " the most painful part of quitting , and the thing that stopped me , was the idea of telling Anthony . "
= = Artwork = =
All paintings , photography and art direction is credited to Julian Schnabel and the Red Hot Chili Peppers . The woman featured on the cover of By the Way is Stella Schnabel , Julian Schnabel 's daughter and Frusciante 's then @-@ girlfriend . Regarding the artwork , Frusciante noted : " My girlfriend 's father offered to do the album art , so we sent him rough mixes of eight songs , and he just got the vibe of the album from that . He said that he wouldn 't be offended if we didn 't like it , but we loved what he did . He 's also given us great covers for all the singles . He 's a true artist . "
Several pages of the album 's booklet , and single for " By the Way " contain paintings of a goat head . A somewhat blurry , black and white photograph of the band in a desolate field , and each band member individually , is also present .
The majority of the booklet 's artwork are various scenes of replica grass and plants , stars and indistinguishable objects , which appears to be a miniature pole , placed in dirt . Single covers for " The Zephyr Song " and " Can 't Stop " both feature this same background , although angled slightly differently . The lyrics for By the Way are placed on top of the landscape , hand written by Kiedis in pink lettering .
= = Accolades = =
The information regarding accolades attributed to By the Way is adapted from AcclaimedMusic.net.
( * ) designates unordered lists .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Red Hot Chili Peppers .
= = Album outtakes = =
Many outtakes from the album have been released or exist . " Time " and a cover version of Dion and the Belmonts ' " Teenager in Love " were released on the " By the Way " single . " Body of Water " , " Out of Range " , " Someone " and " Rivers of Avalon " were all released on " The Zephyr Song " single . " Slowly Deeply " , which was featured on the " Universally Speaking " single , is an outtake from the Californication sessions . " Fortune Faded " , a song originally recorded during the album sessions was later re @-@ recorded in 2003 and released as a single along with the b @-@ side , " Eskimo " , another By the Way outtake . A cover version of the Ramones ' " Havana Affair " was also recorded and later released in 2003 on ' We 're A Happy Family : A Tribute to The Ramones . The single for " Can 't Stop " also features an alternate mix of the song with higher harmonies and a clearer bass line . In 2003 , the band re @-@ entered the studio to work on their Greatest Hits album . The sessions produced enough songs for a new album , many which have gone unreleased . Of the songs released , " Bicycle Song " and " Runaway " were released in 2006 as bonus tracks on the iTunes release of By the Way .
In August 2014 , unreleased tracks from the album 's recording sessions were leaked to the internet . Many of the album 's released songs and outtakes are in their earliest forms and feature improvised lyrics by Kiedis . The leak included three songs never heard before including " Goldmine " , " Fall Water " and " Rock & Roll " along with the original version of " Fortune Faded " . Many of the songs are featured under their working titles ( which prior to release were also mentioned in various interviews ) : Soul Train ( " By the Way " ) , Coltraine ( " The Zephyr Song " ) , I Would Die ( " I Could Die For You " ) , Drone ( " This is the Place " ) , Throw Away ( " Throw Away Your Television " ) , Epic ( " Venice Queen " ) and New Wave ( " Rivers of Avalon ) " To date , " Strumming on D and J " , a song assumed to be an instrumental jam and that Frusciante mentioned during pre @-@ album release interviews , has never been released .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Michael " Flea " Balzary β bass , trumpet , harmonica and backing vocals
John Frusciante β guitars , backing vocals , piano , keyboards and modular synthesizer
Anthony Kiedis β lead vocals
Chad Smith β drums , percussion
Recording personnel
Ryan Hewitt β Engineer
Marc Mann β Arranger
Ethan Mates β Recording engineer
Vlado Meller β mastering
Rick Rubin β production and engineering
Jim Scott β Mix engineer , recording engineer
Jason Wormer β Recording engineer
Additional personnel
Julian Schnabel and Red Hot Chili Peppers β art direction
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= Cutbacks ( 30 Rock ) =
" Cutbacks " is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 53rd episode of the series overall . It was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Gail Mancuso . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on April 9 , 2009 . Guest stars in this episode include Roger Bart , Todd Buonopane , and Don Pardo .
In the episode , joy about the fiftieth episode for the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) turns to worry when word spreads about imminent budget cuts at the 30 Rock workplace . Before long , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) must fire several employees to save money , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) takes on new responsibilities , and Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) wheels and deals to spare her staffers from layoffs . Meanwhile , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) suspect that Kenneth is masking a deep dark secret . This episode of 30 Rock featured a number of cultural references to the legal crime thriller film The Pelican Brief ( 1993 ) , and Liz Lemon parodying Steve Jobs 's attire while giving a presentation .
" Cutbacks " has received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 8 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 β 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
The TGS with Tracy Jordan crew have finished taping their fiftieth episode and decide to celebrate . Their boss , Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , goes to the writers ' room and tells the show 's head writer , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , about how the whole company is undergoing cutbacks . After an unsuccessful presentation about TGS , Brad Halster ( Roger Bart ) β one of the consultants in charge of the cutbacks β informs Liz that she needs to cut her annual budget by 25 percent . Liz , anxious about her employees losing their jobs , decides to use sexual bartering to solve the problem and asks Brad on a date , which he accepts . Liz dresses in the trashiest outfit she can find , and goes on her date . The next day , she discovers that cutbacks are still taking place at TGS , and confronts Brad . Realizing that he was being used , Brad charges Liz with sexual harassment and she is suspended from work for two weeks . Jack tells Liz that the budget review process will start over again , this time under his supervision .
Meanwhile , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) becomes Jack 's office assistant , replacing his former assistant Jonathan ( Maulik Pancholy ) . Kenneth asks Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) to feed his bird , as he is busy with two jobs now . Kenneth asks Tracy not to enter his bedroom , a request that makes Tracy curious . Believing Kenneth might be a serial killer , he tells Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) and they decide to investigate Kenneth 's bedroom . At Kenneth 's apartment , they discover a bug bomb in his room , and reaching the conclusion that Kenneth is trying to poison them and they run out of his apartment . They forget to close the door and the bug bomb ends up killing the bird . When they tell Kenneth about his bird , he is more upset by the fact that Tracy and Jenna did not trust him , than the death of his bird . Tracy and Jenna , feeling horrible about what they have done , arrange a surprise for Kenneth at his apartment . When Kenneth goes home , he finds an entire collection of birds .
= = Production = =
" Cutbacks " was written by series supervising producer Matt Hubbard , making it his seventh writing credit after " The Rural Juror " , " Hard Ball " , " The Collection " , " MILF Island " , " Reunion " , and " Larry King " . The episode was directed by Gail Mancuso , making it her sixth for the series . " Cutbacks " originally aired in the United States on April 9 , 2009 , on NBC as the seventeenth episode of the show 's third season and the 53rd overall episode of the series .
This episode of 30 Rock featured a guest appearance from actor Roger Bart , who played a man from a consulting firm in charge of the cutbacks in the 30 Rock workplace . Television announcer Don Pardo guest starred as Sid , the TGS announcer . Pardo was the announcer on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . Fey and Tracy Morgan have both been part of the main cast of SNL . This was actor Todd Buonopane 's second appearance as the character Jeffrey Weinerslav , an NBC Human Resource mediator . In this episode , Jeffrey informs Liz that a sexual harassment lawsuit has been filed against her for sexual bartering . Buonopane appeared in " Believe in the Stars " and later in " Jackie Jormp @-@ Jomp " .
One filmed scene from " Cutbacks " was cut out from the airing . The scene was included on 30 Rock β s season three DVD as part of the deleted scenes bonus feature . In the scene , Kenneth is instructed by Jack to only interrupt his firing meetings if something important comes up . Kenneth believes that getting Showtime for three months from Time Warner Cable is something he should bring up to Jack , but Jack informs him that getting Showtime does not qualify as something important .
= = Cultural references = =
Throughout the episode , references are made to the 1993 legal crime thriller film The Pelican Brief . Kenneth tells Jack " I feel like I 'm in The Pelican Brief . Do I already know too much ? " after Jack explains to Kenneth what to do as his assistant . Later , Jack tells Liz to make her budget cuts , with Liz replying " What ? That 's it ? I thought you 'd tell me to cook the numbers or shred something or do some Pelican Brief stuff . " Finally , Tracy and Jenna decide to investigate Kenneth 's apartment , which leads them to compare themselves to actors Denzel Washington and Julia Roberts , the two leads from the movie .
In one scene of " Cutbacks " , Liz parodies business magnate Steve Jobs 's clothing attire while giving her presentation about TGS to Brad . Later , Tracy goes to Jenna with his suspicions that Kenneth might be a murderer . Jenna tells Tracy that she has knowledge when it comes to serial killers after playing a criminal profiler β named Jill St. Ferrari β in an original Lifetime miniseries Hushed Rapings . When Tracy and Jenna go to Kenneth 's apartment , they go to his bedroom and see a bug bomb in his room , which prompts Tracy to say " Oh no , Kenneth 's a killer , and the Riddler is coming ! " , the latter is a reference to the comic book villain who leaves behind riddles , puzzles , and word games so that they can be solved .
Star Wars is frequently referenced in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens , and while trying to get out of jury duty in Chicago and New York . Star Wars is also referenced when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In this episode , the TGS crew tells Liz " Do something Liz , you 're our only hope " , in regards to the cutbacks . This line was said by Princess Leia in the Star Wars movies , in which she was played by actress Carrie Fisher , who guest @-@ starred in the season two episode " Rosemary 's Baby " . Tina Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to executive producer and writer Robert Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " . At the end of the episode , when Kenneth enters his apartment and sees all the birds given to him by Jenna and Tracy , he declares he has some naming to do . The last two birds he names " Lorne " and " Michael " , a reference to the executive producer of Saturday Night Live , Lorne Michaels , who is credited on the screen during the line .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Cutbacks " was watched by 6 @.@ 8 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 3 @.@ 1 rating / 8 share among viewers in the 18 β 49 demographic , meaning that 3 @.@ 1 percent of all people in that group , and 8 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Apollo , Apollo " , which was watched by 7 @.@ 2 million American viewers .
IGN contributor Robert Canning opined that " Cutbacks " was " solid " , as it " included all the major players in familiar roles and provided some great laughs . " Canning complimented Roger Bart 's performance noting that he played the part " very straight until the very end . " In regards to the Tracy , Jenna , and Kenneth plot , he said that the overall ending was " a bit weak " but " the majority of the story worked well . " In conclusion , Canning gave the episode an 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 rating . Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club noted that this episode was " broad as hell , with three incredibly whoopsie plot threads all driven by one of the most venerable office sitcom tropes ( budget cuts ) , but it was redeemed not only by being funny as hell at its best , but by letting the unlikability of some of the main characters β sometimes inadvertent , sometimes not , provide some of the strongest laughs in ' Cutbacks ' . " Entertainment Weekly β s Margaret Lyons said that despite this episode not being " one of the show 's most sophisticated [ ones ] " she still enjoyed it , citing that it had " some pretty fantastic lines β and some really cute moments between Liz and Jack . "
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad said that " Cutbacks " was a " funny episode " , but stated that he disliked Liz 's actions , explaining that what she did was " creepy . " Sassone did not enjoy Tracy and Jenna believing that Kenneth was a murder " because of a wacky series of misunderstandings and assumptions " observing that this scenario has been played out " in every other sitcom since 1989 . " Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger reported that he was " very unsatisfied " with this episode , though , noted that he preferred Liz 's plot over Tracy , Jenna , and Kenneth 's . Overall , Sepinwall said that the episode was " meh " .
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= Grand Forks , North Dakota =
Grand Forks is the third @-@ largest city in the State of North Dakota ( after Fargo and Bismarck ) and the county seat of Grand Forks County . According to the 2010 census , the city 's population was 52 @,@ 838 , while that of the city and surrounding metropolitan area was 98 @,@ 461 . Grand Forks , along with its twin city of East Grand Forks , Minnesota , forms the center of the Grand Forks , ND @-@ MN Metropolitan Statistical Area , which is often called Greater Grand Forks or The Grand Cities .
Located on the western banks of the Red River of the North in a flat region known as the Red River Valley , the city is prone to flooding and was struck by the devastating Red River Flood of 1997 . Originally called Les Grandes Fourches by French fur traders , Grand Forks was founded in 1870 by steamboat captain Alexander Griggs and incorporated on February 22 , 1881 . Its location at the fork of the Red River and the Red Lake River gives the city its name .
Historically dependent on local agriculture , the city 's economy now encompasses higher education , defense , health care , manufacturing , food processing , and scientific research . Grand Forks is served by Grand Forks International Airport and Grand Forks Air Force Base . The city 's University of North Dakota is the oldest institution of higher education in the state . The Alerus Center and Ralph Engelstad Arena host athletic and other events , while the North Dakota Museum of Art and Chester Fritz Auditorium are the city 's largest cultural venues .
= = History = =
Prior to settlement by Europeans or Americans , the area where the city now sits β at the forks of the Red River and Red Lake River β had been an important meeting and trading point for Native Americans . Early French explorers , fur trappers , and traders called the area Les Grandes Fourches meaning " The Grand Forks " . By the 1740s , Les Grandes Fourches was an important trading post for French fur trappers . A U.S. post office was established on the site on June 15 , 1870 , and the name was changed to " Grand Forks " . Alexander Griggs , a steamboat captain , is regarded as " The Father of Grand Forks " . Griggs ' steamboat froze in the Red River on a voyage in late 1870 , forcing the captain and his crew to spend the winter camping at Grand Forks . Griggs platted the community in 1875 and Grand Forks was officially incorporated on February 22 , 1881 . The city quickly grew after the arrival of the Great Northern Railway in 1880 and the Northern Pacific Railway in 1887 . In 1883 , the University of North Dakota was established , six years before North Dakota was formally recognized as an independent state born from the Dakota Territory . The first half of the 20th century saw steady growth and the development of new neighborhoods farther south and west of Downtown Grand Forks . The 1920s saw the construction of the state @-@ owned North Dakota Mill and Elevator on the north side of the city . In 1954 , Grand Forks was chosen as the site for an Air Force base . Grand Forks Air Force Base brought thousands of new jobs and residents to the community . The military base and the University of North Dakota would become integral pieces of the city 's economy . The second half of the 20th century saw Grand Forks spreading further away from the older part of town . Interstate 29 was built on the western side of the city and two enclosed shopping malls β South Forks Plaza and Columbia Mall β were built on the south side .
The city was struck by a severe flood in 1997 , causing extensive damage . With Fargo upstream from the bulk of the waters and Winnipeg with its flood control structures , Grand Forks became the hardest hit city in the Red River Valley . During the height of the flooding , a major fire also destroyed eleven buildings in the downtown area . Many neighborhoods had to be demolished to make way for a new levee system , which was ultimately completed ten years later . The land bordering the Red River was turned into a massive park known as the Greater Grand Forks Greenway . Since the flood , Grand Forks has seen both public and private developments throughout town . Two new , large sports venues opened in 2001 , including the Alerus Center and the Ralph Engelstad Arena . In 2007 , the Winnipeg @-@ based Canad Inns hotel chain opened a 13 @-@ story hotel and waterpark adjacent to the Alerus Center . By 2007 Grand Forks had a larger population than it did before the 1997 flood , and area employment and taxable sales had also surpassed pre @-@ flood levels .
= = Geography = =
Grand Forks is located 74 miles ( 119 km ) north of the Fargo @-@ Moorhead area and 145 miles ( 233 km ) south of Winnipeg , Manitoba . Grand Forks is situated on the western bank of the Red River of the North in an area known as the Red River Valley . The term " forks " refers to the forking of the Red River with the Red Lake River located near downtown Grand Forks . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 20 @.@ 09 square miles ( 52 @.@ 03 km2 ) , of which , 19 @.@ 91 square miles ( 51 @.@ 57 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 18 square miles ( 0 @.@ 47 km2 ) is water . Since it is in one of the flattest parts of the world , the city has few differences in elevation . There are no lakes in the city limits of Grand Forks , but the meandering Red River and the English Coulee flow through the community and provide some break in the terrain . The Red River Valley is the result of an ancient glacier carving its way south during the last Ice Age . Once the glacier receded , it formed a glacial lake called Lake Agassiz . The ancient beaches can still be seen as rolling hills west of the city .
= = = Cityscape = = =
Grand Forks has several distinct neighborhoods . The area adjacent to the Red River developed first so this is where some of the oldest neighborhoods , including the downtown area , can be found . The area between downtown and the University of North Dakota campus was another early growth area and historic properties can be found here as well .
Downtown Grand Forks is the oldest part of the city and thus contains many historic buildings . It is the governmental center of the city and county . It is used as a gathering place for large events and festivals . Also , a farmer 's market is held every Saturday ( 9AM to 2PM ) from mid @-@ June to mid @-@ September in the Town Square on the corner of 3rd Street S. and DeMers Avenue .
Recently , city leaders and developers have announced plans to convert older buildings into high @-@ end condos and apartments , and to construct new buildings for the same purpose . Located directly south of downtown , the streets of the Near Southside Historic District are lined with classic houses . Reeves Drive was once one of the most fashionable neighborhoods in the city and , to this day , it is still the home of many old mansions exhibiting several unique architectural styles . Also in this neighborhood are areas of original granitoid paving , several historic churches , and the Lincoln Drive Park . The Near Southside neighborhood was granted the historic district designation by the National Register of Historic Places .
In general , the newer neighborhoods of Grand Forks are in the southern and western parts of town . The 32nd Avenue South corridor has been the commercial center of the city since the Columbia Mall opened in 1978 . Many big box stores and restaurants are now located along the avenue . A large strip mall , called the Grand Forks Marketplace , opened in 2001 near the Columbia Mall . University Village is a new commercial district that was built on vacant lands owned by the University of North Dakota . The centerpiece of the Village is the Ralph Engelstad Arena , which is used by the University 's North Dakota men 's ice hockey team . All the buildings in the Village have been built in a similar style to buildings on the nearby UND campus . The area now includes restaurants and stores , as well as the University bookstore . In 2006 , a new Wellness Center for UND students opened on the Village 's west side .
= = = Climate = = =
Due to its location in the Great Plains and its distance from both mountains and oceans , the city has a humid continental climate ( KΓΆppen ( Dfb ) ) , USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 4a . This type of climate is distinguished by four very distinct seasons and great variation in temperatures over very short periods of time . As there are no nearby mountain ranges or bodies of water to ameliorate the climatic conditions , Grand Forks lies exposed to numerous weather systems including bitterly cold Arctic high pressure systems . The city experiences long , cold , and snowy winters . In sharp contrast , summers are often warm to hot and often quite humid with frequent thunderstorms . Although warm weather normally ends soon after Labor Day , a few warm days can , on rare occasions , be seen as late as October . Spring and autumn are short and highly variable seasons . Record temperature extremes range from β 43 Β° F ( β 42 Β° C ) on January 11 , 1912 to 109 Β° F ( 43 Β° C ) on July 12 , 1936 . The daily mean temperatures of the Grand Forks winters are associated with subarctic climates with frequent subzero temperatures , but due to the extended warm period of daily means above 50 Β° F ( 10 Β° C ) from May to September it stays within the humid continental temperature range .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2006 @-@ 2008 American Community Survey , the racial composition was as follows :
White : 91 @.@ 6 % ( Non @-@ Hispanic Whites : 90 @.@ 4 % )
Black or African American : 1 @.@ 6 %
American Indian : 3 @.@ 2 %
Asian : 1 @.@ 0 %
Pacific Islander : 0 @.@ 0 %
Some other race : 1 @.@ 1 %
Two or more races : 1 @.@ 5 %
Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) : 2 @.@ 4 %
The top five European ancestry groups were the following :
Norwegian : 35 @.@ 7 %
German : 34 @.@ 3 %
Irish : 9 @.@ 5 %
Polish : 7 @.@ 4 %
French : 5 @.@ 4 %
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 52 @,@ 838 people , 22 @,@ 260 households , and 11 @,@ 275 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 653 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 024 @.@ 6 / km2 ) . There were 23 @,@ 449 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 177 @.@ 7 per square mile ( 454 @.@ 7 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 89 @.@ 7 % White , 2 @.@ 0 % African American , 2 @.@ 9 % Native American , 2 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 5 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 @.@ 8 % of the population .
There were 22 @,@ 260 households of which 24 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 37 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 9 @.@ 7 % had a female householder with no husband present , 3 @.@ 7 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 49 @.@ 3 % were non @-@ families . 34 @.@ 8 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8 @.@ 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 21 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 87 .
The median age in the city was 28 @.@ 4 years . 18 @.@ 4 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 24 @.@ 6 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 25 @.@ 1 % were from 25 to 44 ; 21 @.@ 7 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 10 @.@ 1 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 51 @.@ 2 % male and 48 @.@ 8 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the 2000 Census , there were 49 @,@ 321 people , 19 @,@ 677 households , and 11 @,@ 058 families residing in the city . The population density was 2 @,@ 563 @.@ 0 per square mile ( 989 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . There were 20 @,@ 838 housing units at an average density of 1 @,@ 082 @.@ 8 per square mile ( 418 @.@ 2 / km2 ) .
The racial makeup of the city was 93 @.@ 4 % White , 0 @.@ 9 % African American , 2 @.@ 8 % Native American , 1 @.@ 0 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 0 @.@ 6 % from other races , and 1 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1 @.@ 9 % of the population . The top six ancestry groups in the city were Norwegian ( 36 @.@ 4 % ) , German ( 34 @.@ 7 % ) , Irish ( 10 @.@ 6 % ) , French ( 6 @.@ 5 % ) , Polish ( 6 @.@ 2 % ) , English ( 6 @.@ 1 % ) . There were 21 @.@ 4 % of the population under the age of 18 , 22 @.@ 9 % from 18 to 24 , 27 @.@ 7 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 3 % from 45 to 64 , and 9 @.@ 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 28 years . For every 100 females there were 102 @.@ 0 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 100 @.@ 2 males .
Of the 19 @,@ 677 households , 28 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 43 @.@ 2 % were married couples living together , 10 @.@ 0 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 43 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 31 @.@ 4 % of all households were made up of individuals and 8 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 3 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 0 . The median income for a household in the city was $ 34 @,@ 194 , and the median income for a family was $ 47 @,@ 491 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 703 versus $ 21 @,@ 573 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 395 . About 9 @.@ 3 % of families and 14 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 14 @.@ 6 % of those under age 18 and 7 @.@ 7 % of those age 65 or over .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 34 @,@ 194 , and the median income for a family was $ 47 @,@ 491 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 703 versus $ 21 @,@ 573 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 395 . About 9 @.@ 3 % of families and 14 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 14 @.@ 6 % of those under age 18 and 7 @.@ 7 % of those age 65 or over .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Grand Forks is not dominated by any one industry or sector . While agriculture continues to play a role in the area 's economy , the city of Grand Forks now has a relatively diverse economy that includes public and private employers in sectors such as education , defense , health care , manufacturing , and food processing . The state and federal governments are two of the largest employers in the Grand Forks area . The University of North Dakota , located in the heart of the city , is the largest employer in the metropolitan area . Grand Forks Air Force Base , just west of the city , employs a large number of civilian workers in addition to its military personnel . Altru Health System is the largest private employer in Grand Forks .
= = = Largest employers = = =
According to the City 's 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the largest employers in the city are :
Major manufacturers in Grand Forks include wind turbine manufacturer LM Glasfiber and small aircraft manufacturer Cirrus Design . Major food producers include potato processor J. R. Simplot Company and the state @-@ owned North Dakota Mill and Elevator which is the largest flour mill in the United States . Amazon.com and SEI Information Technologies both operate call centers in Grand Forks . Other large private employers in the city include the locally owned Alerus Financial branch of banks , Home of Economy , and the locally owned Hugo 's chain of supermarkets .
The retail and service sector is also an important part of the economy . The historic center of shopping in Grand Forks was the downtown area . Today , downtown is home to small shops and restaurants and south Grand Forks has become the major retail district in the city . Grand Forks has three large shopping centers . The oldest , Grand Cities Mall , is located on South Washington Street and contains mainly small , locally owned stores as well as a Kmart . With about 80 stores , the area 's largest indoor mall is Columbia Mall which is anchored by Macy 's , Sears , J.C. Penney , and a small food court . The newest major shopping center in the city is the Grand Forks Marketplace power center mall which features SuperTarget , Best Buy , Lowe 's , Gordmans , and several smaller stores . Depending on the relative strength of the Canadian dollar versus the American dollar , the Greater Grand Forks area attracts large numbers of tourist shoppers from Manitoba and especially from Winnipeg .
= = = Economic development = = =
The city government is actively involved in the economic development process , helping existing firms grow and attracting new ones . A portion of sales tax revenues is set aside for this , some of it going into the Grand Forks Growth Fund . Companies can request low @-@ interest loans or grants from this fund provided they meet certain criteria , such as paying a relatively high wage and doing most of their business outside the city 's trade region . The city also contributes to the Grand Forks Region Economic Development Corporation ( EDC ) , a public @-@ private organization that also receives funding from banks and other major businesses . The EDC plays a consulting role for businesses , such as identifying suitable sites for expansion or assembling public funding packages . Its other key role is to vet businesses to see if they are suitable for funding by the Growth Fund .
Community leaders have long seen UND as an " economic engine " for the city . Besides its regular faculty , it also has business @-@ like components such as the Energy and Environmental Research Center . UND hosts a technology incubator called the Center for Innovation . More recently , the University has been working to commercialize its research . A major thrust in that direction is the construction of a research park on the western fringes of the campus . Another potential economic opportunity for the city is the addition of the unmanned aerial vehicle ( UAV ) mission to Grand Forks Air Force Base . The base currently hosts KC @-@ 135 Stratotankers , which will gradually be transferred to other bases around the country .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts and theatre = = =
Due at least in part to the presence of the University of North Dakota , Grand Forks offers a variety of arts and cultural events . The North Dakota Museum of Art , located on the UND campus , brings many nationally touring exhibits to Grand Forks as well as the work of regional artists . In addition to the Museum of Art , UND offers other gallery space for student art . UND also has active Theater Arts and Music departments . Students stage theater productions each year at the Burtness Theater on campus . UND 's Chester Fritz Auditorium also brings music and theater events to Grand Forks including national touring companies of Broadway musicals .
The Greater Grand Forks Symphony Orchestra has been performing since 1905 and the Grand Forks Master Chorale was formed in 1983 . Both groups stage productions each year at various locations in the community . The North Dakota Ballet Company is headquartered in Grand Forks and often performs at the Chester Fritz Auditorium . The Grand Forks City Band was formed in 1886 and still stages shows year round .
The Empire Arts Center , in downtown Grand Forks , is home to several cultural events throughout the year . The Empire , a 1919 movie theater , was restored after the Flood of 1997 and now includes performance space , a large movie screen , a gallery , and space for artists . The Fire Hall Theatre , also located downtown , is used by community members to put on several theater productions each year . The Summer Performing Arts Company ( SPA ) is a popular summer arts program for area K @-@ 12 students . SPA stages three major musicals mid @-@ July . The Myra Museum , on Belmont Road near the Greater Grand Forks Greenway , is a small history museum with exhibits that trace local history from the Ice Age , through settlement , and into the modern age . Other buildings on the Myra Museum grounds include the original 1868 Grand Forks Post Office , a 1917 one room school , and the historic Campbell House .
= = = Sports = = =
College sports are popular in Grand Forks , with an intense following for the University of North Dakota . The UND men 's ice hockey team competes in the NCAA Division I level and has been the Frozen Four championship team eight times and the runner @-@ up five times . The UND football team was the 2001 NCAA Division II champion and the 2003 runner @-@ up . In 2006 , the university announced that it would be moving its entire athletic program to Division I.
Grand Forks is home to two major indoor athletic arenas . The city @-@ owned Alerus Center opened in 2001 . The Alerus Center is home to the University of North Dakota football team and also plays host to a variety of other events including major concerts . The Alerus Center is the largest arena and convention center complex in the upper Midwest area . The University of North Dakota hockey teams compete in the Ralph Engelstad Arena , located in the University Village district of the UND campus . " The Ralph " , as it is commonly called , was funded by UND benefactor Ralph Engelstad and opened in 2001 at a cost of over $ 100 million . Adjacent to the Ralph Engelstad Arena is the smaller Betty Engelstad Sioux Center . " The Betty " is the home of the University of North Dakota basketball and volleyball teams .
= = = Recreation = = =
The Grand Forks Park District , established in 1905 , operates 14 neighborhood parks , 28 tennis courts , and a swimming pool . The parks include features such as playgrounds , baseball fields , softball fields , soccer fields , basketball courts , and picnic areas . Sertoma Park includes a Japanese garden . The Park District also operates eleven outdoor skating rinks and indoor ice arenas : Purpur Arena , Eagles Arena , Blueline Club Arena , and Gambucci Arena . The district also owns the Center Court Fitness Club .
There are several golf courses in the city and the surrounding area . The Park District operates the 18 @-@ hole , Arnold Palmer @-@ designed , links style King 's Walk Golf Course and the historic , 9 @-@ hole Lincoln Golf Course . The University of North Dakota operates the 9 @-@ hole Ray Richards Golf Course . The 18 @-@ hole Grand Forks Country Club is located directly south of the city . There are also golf courses in nearby East Grand Forks , Minnesota and Manvel , North Dakota .
The Greater Grand Forks Greenway is a large park that runs the length of the Red River in the city . It includes an extensive path system , large festival grounds , ski trails , and wildflower gardens . Including the Greenway , the Andrew Hampsten Bikeway System in Grand Forks is over 43 miles ( 69 km ) long . These paths are located in The Greenway , adjacent to major streets , and on the banks of the English Coulee . There are also two pedestrian / bicycle bridges that span the Red River .
= = Notable people = =
= = Media = =
The Grand Forks Herald is the major daily newspaper serving Grand Forks and is also the second most widely circulated newspaper in North Dakota with a daily circulation of around 31 @,@ 000 . The Exponent is a weekly newspaper published in East Grand Forks , Minnesota . The University of North Dakota also has its own student @-@ published newspaper called The Dakota Student , which is published twice weekly during the school year .
The major AM radio station in Grand Forks is KNOX 1310 , which is a news and talk station . The city 's FM stations include NPR affiliates KUND @-@ FM 89 @.@ 3 , KFJM 90 @.@ 7 , KQMN 91 @.@ 5 and KNTN 102 @.@ 7 . Commercial FM stations include rock station KJKJ 107 @.@ 5 ; top 40 stations KKXL @-@ FM 92 @.@ 9 and KZGF 94 @.@ 7 ; and country stations KSNR 100 @.@ 3 and KYCK 97 @.@ 1 .
WDAZ @-@ TV channel 8 , an ABC affiliate , is the only broadcast television station in Grand Forks that provides local news . All other major U.S. television networks are broadcast from Fargo .
= = Government = =
Grand Forks uses the mayor @-@ council model of municipal government . The mayor , who is elected every four years , has the power to oversee the daily administration of city government and to work directly with department heads to ensure the proper provision of services . The mayor of Grand Forks is obstetrician Dr. Michael Brown . He was first elected in 2000 and was re @-@ elected in 2004 and again in 2008 .
The city is divided into seven wards with each ward electing a single city council representative for a four @-@ year term . The council meets twice a month as the council proper and its two main committees , the Finance / Development Committee and Service / Safety Committee , each meets twice a month . All these meetings are broadcast on a local cable channel .
= = Education = =
= = = Higher education = = =
The University of North Dakota ( UND ) , the oldest university and home of the only schools of medicine and law in the state , is located at Grand Forks . Enrollment is about 15 @,@ 000 . UND is known for its John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences which includes an Air Traffic Control Training program that in October 2009 was ranked No.1 in the nation for the second consecutive year by the FAA . UND and North Dakota State University make up the Red River Valley Research Corridor .
Northland Community and Technical College , a two @-@ year school , is located across the Red River in East Grand Forks . The University of Minnesota Crookston is in nearby Crookston , Minnesota .
= = = Primary and secondary schools = = =
The Grand Forks Public Schools system includes the Grand Forks and Grand Forks Air Force Base school districts . Enrollment is about 7 @,@ 600 . There are twelve elementary schools , four middle schools , and two high schools ( Central High and Red River High ) , an alternative high school , and an adult education program . Grand Forks Public Schools is governed by a nine @-@ member board of elected representatives , separate from the city and county governments .
There are several primary schools that are not part of the public school system including the state @-@ operated North Dakota School for the Blind . There are two Catholic schools offering classes from kindergarten through sixth grade . The only private high school in the metropolitan area is Sacred Heart High School , a Catholic school , in East Grand Forks . There is a non @-@ denominational Christian elementary and middle school operating in East Grand Forks .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Air = = = =
Grand Forks International Airport ( GFK , KGFK ) is served by Delta Air Lines with several daily round trips to Minneapolis @-@ St. Paul International Airport ; and Allegiant Air , which operates flights a few times a week to Mesa , Arizona ( Phoenix @-@ Gateway ) , Sanford , Florida ( Orlando @-@ Sanford ) and Las Vegas , Nevada . A new passenger terminal was completed in early 2011 , adding additional space to allow more passengers to come through the airport as well as providing the airport with better circulation , a new baggage claim as well as addressing additional security and safety concerns necessary to complete the new terminal project . The airport is a major distribution center for FedEx , which conducts flights daily within the state and northern Minnesota . The airport is one of the busiest airports in the country , due in large measure to the presence of the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences of the University of North Dakota .
= = = = Rail = = = =
The BNSF Railway runs track in several directions in and around the city . Amtrak passenger service on the Empire Builder line heads westbound daily at 4 : 52 am and eastbound daily at 12 : 57 am . The Empire Builder stops at the Grand Forks Amtrak station .
= = = = Road = = = =
Three federal highways pass through Grand Forks : U.S. Route 2 , Interstate 29 , and U.S. Highway 81 . U.S. Highway 2 , known as Gateway Drive in the city , runs east to west through the northern part of town and is a four @-@ lane highway . The highway is the primary connection between Grand Forks , East Grand Forks , the Grand Forks Air Force Base , Grand Forks International Airport , and nearby Crookston , Minnesota . Interstate 29 runs north to south along the western part of the city , officially multiplexed with U.S. Highway 81 in the Grand Forks area . The U.S. Highway 81 business route , Washington Street and 32nd Avenue , runs through many of the city 's major commercial districts .
= = = = Local transportation = = = =
Within the city , roads that run from north to south are traditionally called " streets " and roads that run from east to west are traditionally called " avenues " . Streets are numbered in blocks west of the Red River . Avenues are numbered in blocks north or south of DeMers Avenue β the city 's historic dividing route adjacent to the rail yards . The city maintains a bus system called Cities Area Transit , also known by the acronym CAT . The system has operated since 1926 when it was introduced to replace an earlier trolley system . There are twelve bus routes including night service and service in the community of East Grand Forks .
= = = Health care = = =
With over 4 @,@ 100 employees and nearly 300 physicians and mid @-@ levels ( nurse practitioners and physician assistants ) , Altru Health System is the main provider of health care in Greater Grand Forks and the surrounding region . Serving more than 220 @,@ 000 residents in northeast North Dakota and northwest Minnesota , Altru provides an array of services to meet the needs of patients of all ages and levels of health . As the first member of the Mayo Clinic Care Network , Altru 's providers have access to clinically integrated tools extending Mayo Clinic 's knowledge and expertise to patients . Altru Health System is also the largest private employer in Grand Forks . Offering all private patient rooms , Altru 's Columbia Road Campus includes Altru Hospital ( 257 beds ) , Altru Rehabilitation Center ( 20 beds ) and multiple clinics . Altru 's South Washington Medical Park features Altru Specialty Center ( 45 beds ) , Altru Professional Center and Yorhom Medical Essentials . The Sanny and Jerry Ryan Center for Prevention and Genetics , housed in Choice Health & Fitness , encourages individuals to think about their health through preventive measures before it becomes medically necessary to seek care . The first of its kind in the region , the Center provides a unique opportunity for individuals to take an active approach to a healthier life . Truyu Aesthetic Center , with multiple locations in Grand Forks , East Grand Forks and across the region , offers a variety of surgical and non @-@ surgical procedures , services and products to rejuvenate your look , provided under the support of Altru . Altru Health System is the result of a 1997 merger of United Hospital ( formerly Deaconess and St. Michael 's Hospitals ) and the Grand Forks Clinic .
= = Sister cities = =
Grand Forks has an active sister city program designed to encourage cultural and economic exchanges . Grand Forks ' first sister city was Ishim in the Soviet Union . The relationship with the Siberian city formally began in 1984 during the Cold War . Sometime in the late 1990s , however , political and economic turmoil in Russia ended the relationship . While the relationship with Ishim faded , Grand Forks found a new sister in Awano , Japan . An informal relationship began in 1994 when the school districts of both cities began exchanging students . In 1998 , the two formally proclaimed themselves sister cities . The most concrete evidence of the relationship between the two is a Japanese rock garden in Grand Forks ' Sertoma Park and a sculpture of an American bison in an Awano park . However , the annexation of Awano by the larger city of Kanuma has led to the end of the sister city relationship . Grand Forks ' relationship with Dickinson , North Dakota , began in 2002 , when delegations from each city visited the other . Grand Forks Mayor Michael Brown has said he thinks having friends in western North Dakota , which typically has diverging interests from eastern cities , could help at the state legislature . Sarpsborg , Norway , became a sister city in 2005 following several exchanges among leaders from both cities . The city became interested in building a relationship with Sarpsborg because many Grand Forks residents have Norwegian heritage .
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= HMS Empress of India =
HMS Empress of India was one of seven Royal Sovereign @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Royal Navy during the 1890s . The ship was commissioned in 1893 and served as the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Channel Fleet for two years . She was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1897 , during which time Empress of India was assigned to the International Squadron blockading Crete during the uprising there . She returned home in 1901 and was briefly assigned as a coast guard ship in Ireland before she became the second flagship of the Home Fleet . The ship was reduced to reserve in 1905 and accidentally collided with the submarine HMS A10 the following year . Empress of India was taken out of service in early 1912 and accidentally struck a German sailing ship while under tow . She was sunk as a target ship in 1913 .
= = Design and description = =
The design of the Royal Sovereign @-@ class ships was derived from that of the Admiral @-@ class ironclad battleships , greatly enlarged to improve seakeeping and to provide space for a secondary armament as in the preceding Trafalgar @-@ class ironclad battleships . The ships displaced 14 @,@ 150 long tons ( 14 @,@ 380 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 580 long tons ( 15 @,@ 830 t ) at deep load . They had a length between perpendiculars of 380 feet ( 115 @.@ 8 m ) and an overall length of 410 feet 6 inches ( 125 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) , and a draught of 27 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 4 m ) . As a flagship , Empress of India 's crew consisted of 692 officers and ratings in 1903 .
The Royal Sovereigns were powered by a pair of three @-@ cylinder , vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft . Their Humphrys & Tennant engines were designed to produce a total of 11 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) and a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) using steam provided by eight cylindrical boilers with forced draught . The ships carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 420 long tons ( 1 @,@ 443 t ) of coal which gave them a range of 4 @,@ 720 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 740 km ; 5 @,@ 430 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Their main armament consisted of four breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun barbettes , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each gun was provided with 80 rounds . Their secondary armament consisted of ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns . 200 rounds per gun were carried by the ships . Sixteen QF 6 @-@ pounder ( 2 @.@ 2 in ( 57 mm ) ) and a dozen QF 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . The two 3 @-@ pounders in the upper fighting top were removed in 1903 β 04 and all of the remaining light guns from the lower fighting tops and main deck followed in 1905 β 09 . The Royal Sovereign @-@ class ships mounted seven 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes , although Empress of India had four of hers removed in 1902 .
The Royal Sovereigns ' armour scheme was similar to that of the Trafalgars , as the waterline belt of compound armour only protected the area between the barbettes . The 14 β 18 @-@ inch ( 356 β 457 mm ) belt and transverse bulkheads 14 β 16 inches ( 356 β 406 mm ) thick closed off the ends of the belt . Above the belt was a strake of 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) nickel @-@ steel armour closed off by 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The barbettes were protected by compound armour , ranging in thickness from 11 to 17 inches ( 279 to 432 mm ) and the casemates for the 6 @-@ inch guns had a thickness equal to their diameter . The thicknesses of the armour deck ranged from 2 @.@ 5 to 3 inches ( 64 to 76 mm ) . The walls of the forward conning tower were 12 β 14 inches ( 305 β 356 mm ) thick and the aft conning tower was protected by 3 @-@ inch plates .
= = Construction and career = =
HMS Empress of India , named after a regnal title of Queen Victoria , was the first ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy . She was ordered under the Naval Defence Act Programme of 1889 with the name of Renown and was laid down on 9 July 1889 at Pembroke Dockyard . The ship was renamed before she was launched on 7 May 1891 by Louise Margaret , Duchess of Connaught and Strathearn . One man was killed when a cable snapped the following day . The ship was then transferred to Chatham Dockyard , where she was completed in August 1893 , at a cost of Β£ 912 @,@ 612 .
Empress of India was commissioned at Chatham on 11 September 1893 to relieve the ironclad battleship Anson as the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Channel Fleet . She participated in annual manoeuvres in the Irish Sea and English Channel as a unit of the " Blue Fleet " , 2 β 5 August 1894 . Sometime during the year , the ship was fitted with bilge keels to reduce her rolling . In June 1895 , Empress of India was among the ships representing the Royal Navy at the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal in Germany . That summer , the ship again took part in annual manoeuvres , held from 24 July to 30 August 1895 . She became a private ship in December 1895 and was paid off at Chatham on 7 June 1897 . The following day , Empress of India recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . Before departing , she took part in the Fleet Review for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria at Spithead on 26 June .
The ship arrived at Malta to begin her Mediterranean service in August . In August and September 1898 , she was part of the International Squadron blockading Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish uprising there . The ship was relieved by the battleship Implacable on 14 September 1901 and departed Gibraltar homebound on 3 October . On 12 October , Empress of India paid off at Devonport , but she recommissioned the next day under the command of Captain Henry Louis Fleet , to relieve the ironclad battleship Howe at Queenstown , Ireland , as both the coast guard ship there and as flagship to Rear @-@ Admiral Edmund Jeffreys , Senior Naval Officer , Coast of Ireland Station . The ship began an extensive refit at Plymouth in early March 1902 . During this refit her upper deck six @-@ inch guns received casemates to improve their protection .
Empress of India was assigned to the Home Fleet on 7 May 1902 , in which she served as flagship in port and as flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command when the fleet was at sea . The ship participated in the Coronation Fleet Review of King Edward VII in August . Empress of India served as flagship of " B Fleet " during combined manoeuvres of the Home Fleet , Mediterranean Fleet , and Channel Fleets off Portugal from 5 August to 9 August 1903 , but her port engine broke down for 14 hours and the fleet had to leave her behind . Her sister ship Royal Oak relieved her as flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the Home Fleet on 1 June 1904 , and she became a private ship . The battleship Hannibal relieved her on 22 February 1905 , and the ship paid off the next day .
That same day , Empress of India recommissioned in reserve at Devonport and relieved the battleship Barfleur as flagship of the new Fleet in Commission in Reserve at Home . In July 1905 she participated in Reserve Fleet manoeuvres . In September 1905 , the protected cruiser Aeolus relieved her of her duties , but she recommissioned on 31 October 1905 with a new nucleus crew to resume her Reserve Fleet duties . She then underwent a refit that lasted into 1906 . Empress of India collided with the submarine A10 in Plymouth Sound on 30 April 1906 .
When the Reserve Fleet was abolished in February 1907 and became the Home Fleet , Empress of India continued her service as flagship , but now for the Rear @-@ Admiral , Devonport Division . On 25 May she was relieved as flagship by the protected cruiser Niobe . Three days later , the ship recommissioned as a special service vessel . Empress of India relieved her sister ship Royal Oak as parent ship of the special service vessels in November 1911 . On 2 March , the ship left Portsmouth under tow by the armoured cruiser Warrior , en route to the Motherbank , where she was to be laid up , but she collided with the German barque Winderhudder en route and had to return to Portsmouth for repairs . She finally arrived at the Motherbank two months later and was laid up , awaiting disposal .
= = Sinking = =
On 4 November 1913 , Empress of India was used as a target ship in firing trials in Lyme Bay that were primarily intended to give officers and men an idea of the effect of live shell against a real target . A secondary objective was to look at the problems caused by several ships firing at the same target at the same time . The first ship to engage the stationary Empress of India was the light cruiser Liverpool , this was followed by two dreadnought battleships ( Thunderer and Orion ) and the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship King Edward VII , and finally four dreadnought battleships ( Neptune , King George V , Thunderer , and Vanguard ) . By 16 : 45 , " Empress of India was blazing furiously and down by the stern , sinking at " 18 : 30 . She had received forty @-@ four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 @-@ mm ) and 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 @-@ mm ) hits and " it is not surprising that an elderly ship sank , " though the intention had been to repeat the firing at longer range before she did .
When Empress of India sank , she settled upside @-@ down on the seabed , and some salvage was soon carried out by a Jersey company which owned the rights to the vessel . A big hole in her side was made not by a shell , but by salvage divers removing a condenser . " The wreck is accessible and is a deep dive for recreational divers .
Details of the firing are given in the table below .
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= No. 77 Wing RAAF =
No. 77 Wing was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) wing of World War II . It formed part of No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) at its establishment in November 1943 , when it comprised three squadrons equipped with Vultee Vengeance dive bombers . No. 77 Wing commenced operations in early 1944 , flying out of Nadzab , Papua New Guinea . Soon afterwards , however , the Vengeance units were withdrawn from combat and replaced with squadrons flying Douglas Bostons , Bristol Beaufighters and Bristol Beauforts . The wing saw action in the assaults on Noemfoor , Tarakan , and North Borneo , by which time it was an all @-@ Beaufighter formation made up of Nos. 22 , 30 and 31 Squadrons . It was to have taken part in the Battle of Balikpapan in June 1945 , but unsuitable landing grounds meant that the Beaufighter units were withdrawn to Morotai , sitting out the remainder of the war before returning to Australia , where they disbanded , along with the wing headquarters , in 1946 .
= = History = =
No. 77 Wing formed the attack component of No. 10 Operational Group ( No. 10 OG ) , which was established on 13 November 1943 . The group was to act as a mobile strike force capable of supporting Allied ground and naval units while they advanced against the Japanese in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , as distinct from the RAAF 's area commands in Northern Australia , which had a geographically based static defence function . Led by Wing Commander E.G. Fyfe , No. 77 Wing consisted of three flying squadrons operating Vultee Vengeance dive bombers , and various ancillary units . The Vengeances , which had only recently been acquired by Australia , equipped Nos. 21 , 23 and 24 Squadrons . They were to be protected on their attack missions by No. 10 OG 's fighter component , No. 78 Wing , operating Curtiss Kittyhawks .
Headquartered at Nadzab , Papua New Guinea , No. 77 Wing only became fully operational on 18 February 1944 , following the arrival of Nos. 21 and 23 Squadrons from Lowood , Queensland . However No. 24 Squadron , which was already based in the theatre of operations , was able to carry out its first sortie on 17 January , bombing targets along Shaggy Ridge in support of the Australian 7th Division . Throughout February the Vengeances , escorted by No. 78 Wing Kittyhawks , concentrated on harassing the retreating Japanese 20th Division , and attacking enemy airfields in the Madang Province . In March , a decision was made to withdraw the dive bombers from operations due to their inferiority to newer equipment . Three RAAF squadrons β No. 22 flying Douglas Bostons , No. 30 flying Bristol Beaufighters , and one other from No. 9 Operational Group flying Bristol Beauforts β were assigned to the wing as replacements .
Operating with its new squadrons and aircraft , No. 77 Wing took part in the Battle of Noemfoor , commencing in June 1944 . Wing headquarters relocated to Noemfoor Island in July , followed by Nos. 22 and 30 Squadrons the next month . This was No. 77 Wing 's composition on 25 October 1944 , when No. 10 OG 's name was changed to the Australian First Tactical Air Force , ostensibly to emphasise " the formation 's impressive size and ambitious purpose " . That month , the wing 's aircraft were credited with sinking 24 enemy transport ships and barges in support of the Allied landings during the Battle of Leyte . In November , the wing advanced to the island of Morotai , where it attacked Japanese airfields , shipping , and infrastructure on Celebes . By the end of the year , Wing Commander Charles Read had taken over command of No. 77 Wing , and the formation 's complement had been augmented by No. 31 Squadron , a Beaufighter unit previously based in Darwin , Northern Territory , as part of North @-@ Western Area Command . No. 22 Squadron was withdrawn to Noemfoor in December to re @-@ equip with Beaufighters ; upon its return No. 77 Wing became an all @-@ Beaufighter formation , operating three squadrons of the type .
During the first week of January 1945 , No. 77 Wing 's aircraft undertook 142 missions against targets in Halmahera , Celebes , and Morotai . In May , the Beaufighters provided air cover during Operation Oboe One , the Battle of Tarakan . In the days leading up to Operation Oboe Six , the Battle of North Borneo , No. 77 Wing surgically attacked enemy targets at Labuan , sometimes within only 100 metres of Allied demolition teams laying charges to breach obstacles on the beach prior to the landings . Read personally led No. 31 Squadron into action during the battle on 10 June 1945 . He became the first RAAF pilot to land at the newly operational Tarakan airfield on 28 June . The following month , No. 77 Wing was to have taken part in the final Allied offensive of the Borneo Campaign , Operation Oboe Two , the Battle of Balikpapan . However Tarakan proved to be unsuitable for the Beaufighters to operate from , and they were withdrawn to Morotai , where they largely sat out the rest of the Pacific War . No. 71 Wing headquarters transferred to Deniliquin , New South Wales , in December 1945 , and was joined there by Nos. 22 and 30 Squadrons , both of which disbanded in August 1946 . No. 31 Squadron transferred from Morotai to Williamtown , where it disbanded in July 1946 . No. 71 Wing headquarters disbanded at Deniliquin in November .
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= Panic of 1907 =
The Panic of 1907 β also known as the 1907 Bankers ' Panic or Knickerbocker Crisis β was a United States financial crisis that took place over a three @-@ week period starting in mid @-@ October , when the New York Stock Exchange fell almost 50 % from its peak the previous year . Panic occurred , as this was during a time of economic recession , and there were numerous runs on banks and trust companies . The 1907 panic eventually spread throughout the nation when many state and local banks and businesses entered bankruptcy . Primary causes of the run included a retraction of market liquidity by a number of New York City banks and a loss of confidence among depositors , exacerbated by unregulated side bets at bucket shops . The panic was triggered by the failed attempt in October 1907 to corner the market on stock of the United Copper Company . When this bid failed , banks that had lent money to the cornering scheme suffered runs that later spread to affiliated banks and trusts , leading a week later to the downfall of the Knickerbocker Trust Company β New York City 's third @-@ largest trust . The collapse of the Knickerbocker spread fear throughout the city 's trusts as regional banks withdrew reserves from New York City banks . Panic extended across the nation as vast numbers of people withdrew deposits from their regional banks .
The panic might have deepened if not for the intervention of financier J. P. Morgan , who pledged large sums of his own money , and convinced other New York bankers to do the same , to shore up the banking system . At the time , the United States did not have a central bank to inject liquidity back into the market . By November , the financial contagion had largely ended , only to be replaced by a further crisis . This was due to the heavy borrowing of a large brokerage firm that used the stock of Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company ( TC & I ) as collateral . Collapse of TC & I 's stock price was averted by an emergency takeover by Morgan 's U.S. Steel Corporation β a move approved by anti @-@ monopolist president Theodore Roosevelt . The following year , Senator Nelson W. Aldrich , father @-@ in @-@ law of John D. Rockefeller , Jr . , established and chaired a commission to investigate the crisis and propose future solutions , leading to the creation of the Federal Reserve System .
= = Economic conditions = =
When U.S. President Andrew Jackson allowed the charter of the Second Bank of the United States to expire in 1836 , the U.S. was without any sort of central bank , and the money supply in New York City fluctuated with the country 's annual agricultural cycle . Each autumn money flowed out of the city as harvests were purchased and β in an effort to attract money back β interest rates were raised . Foreign investors then sent their money to New York to take advantage of the higher rates . From the January 1906 Dow Jones Industrial Average high of 103 , the market began a modest correction that would continue throughout the year . The April 1906 earthquake that devastated San Francisco contributed to the market instability , prompting an even greater flood of money from New York to San Francisco to aid reconstruction . A further stress on the money supply occurred in late 1906 , when the Bank of England raised its interest rates , partly in response to UK insurance companies paying out so much to US policyholders , and more funds remained in London than expected . From their peak in January , stock prices declined 18 % by July 1906 . By late September , stocks had recovered about half of their losses .
The Hepburn Act , which gave the Interstate Commerce Commission ( ICC ) the power to set maximum railroad rates , became law in July 1906 . This depreciated the value of railroad securities . Between September 1906 and March 1907 , the stock market slid , losing 7 @.@ 7 % of its capitalization . Between March 9 and 26 , stocks fell a further 9 @.@ 8 % . ( This March collapse is sometimes referred to as a " rich man 's panic " . ) The economy remained volatile through the summer . A number of shocks hit the system : the stock of Union Pacific β among the most common stocks used as collateral β fell 50 points ; that June an offering of New York City bonds failed ; in July the copper market collapsed ; in August the Standard Oil Company was fined $ 29 million for antitrust violations . In the first nine months of 1907 , stocks were lower by 24 @.@ 4 % .
On July 27 , The Commercial & Financial Chronicle noted that " the market keeps unstable ... no sooner are these signs of new life in evidence than something like a suggestion of a new outflow of gold to Paris sends a tremble all through the list , and the gain in values and hope is gone " . Several bank runs occurred outside the US in 1907 : in Egypt in April and May ; in Japan in May and June ; in Hamburg and Chile in early October . The fall season was always a vulnerable time for the banking system β combined with the roiled stock market , even a small shock could have grave repercussions .
= = Panic = =
= = = Cornering copper = = =
The 1907 panic began with a stock manipulation scheme to corner the market in F. Augustus Heinze 's United Copper Company . Heinze had made a fortune as a copper magnate in Butte , Montana . In 1906 he moved to New York City , where he formed a close relationship with notorious Wall Street banker Charles W. Morse . Morse had once successfully cornered New York City 's ice market , and together with Heinze gained control of many banks β the pair served on at least six national banks , ten state banks , five trust companies and four insurance firms .
Augustus ' brother , Otto , devised the scheme to corner United Copper , believing that the Heinze family already controlled a majority of the company . He also believed that a significant number of the Heinze 's shares had been borrowed , and sold short , by speculators betting that the stock price would drop , and that they could thus repurchase the borrowed shares cheaply , pocketing the difference . Otto proposed a short squeeze , whereby the Heinzes would aggressively purchase as many remaining shares as possible , and then force the short sellers to pay for their borrowed shares . The aggressive purchasing would drive up the share price , and , being unable to find shares elsewhere , the short sellers would have no option but to turn to the Heinzes , who could then name their price .
To finance the scheme , Otto , Augustus and Charles Morse met with Charles T. Barney , president of the city 's third @-@ largest trust , the Knickerbocker Trust Company . Barney had provided financing for previous Morse schemes . Morse , however , cautioned Otto that he needed much more money than he had to attempt the squeeze and Barney declined to provide funding . Otto decided to attempt the corner anyway . On Monday , October 14 , he began aggressively purchasing shares of United Copper , which rose in one day from $ 39 to $ 52 per share . On Tuesday ( Oct. 15 ) , he issued the call for short sellers to return the borrowed stock . The share price rose to nearly $ 60 , but the short sellers were able to find plenty of United Copper shares from sources other than the Heinzes . Otto had misread the market , and the share price of United Copper began to collapse .
The stock closed at $ 30 on Tuesday and fell to $ 10 by Wednesday ( Oct. 16 ) . Otto Heinze was ruined . The stock of United Copper was traded outside the hall of the New York Stock Exchange , literally an outdoor market " on the curb " ( this curb market would later become the American Stock Exchange ) . After the crash , The Wall Street Journal reported , " Never has there been such wild scenes on the Curb , so say the oldest veterans of the outside market " .
= = = Contagion spreads = = =
The failure of the corner left Otto unable to meet his obligations and sent his brokerage house , Gross & Kleeberg , into bankruptcy . On Thursday , October 17 , the New York Stock Exchange suspended Otto 's trading privileges . As a result of United Copper 's collapse , the State Savings Bank of Butte Montana ( owned by F. Augustus Heinze ) announced its insolvency . The Montana bank had held United Copper stock as collateral against some of its lending and had been a correspondent bank for the Mercantile National Bank in New York City , of which F. Augustus Heinze was then president .
F. Augustus Heinze 's association with the corner and the insolvent State Savings Bank proved too much for the board of the Mercantile to accept . Although they forced him to resign before lunch time , by then it was too late . As news of the collapse spread , depositors rushed en masse to withdraw money from the Mercantile National Bank . The Mercantile had enough capital to withstand a few days of withdrawals , but depositors began to pull cash from the banks of the Heinzes ' associate Charles W. Morse . Runs occurred at Morse 's National Bank of North America and the New Amsterdam National . Afraid of the impact the tainted reputations of Augustus Heinze and Morse could have on the banking system , the New York Clearing House ( a consortium of the city 's banks ) forced Morse and Heinze to resign all banking interests . By the weekend after the failed corner , there was not yet systemic panic . Funds were withdrawn from Heinze @-@ associated banks , only to be deposited with other banks in the city .
A week later many regional stock exchanges throughout the nation were closing or limiting trading . For example , the Pittsburgh city 's stock exchange closed for three months starting on October 23 , 1907 .
= = = Panic hits the trusts = = =
In the early 1900s , trust companies were booming ; in the decade before 1907 , their assets had grown by 244 % . During the same period , national bank assets grew by 97 % , while state banks in New York increased by 82 % . The leaders of the high @-@ flying trusts were mainly prominent members of New York 's financial and social circles . One of the most respected was Charles T. Barney , whose late father @-@ in @-@ law William Collins Whitney was a famous financier . Barney 's Knickerbocker Trust Company was the third @-@ largest trust in New York .
Because of past association with Charles W. Morse and F. Augustus Heinze , on Monday , October 21 , the board of the Knickerbocker asked that Barney resign ( depositors may have first begun to pull deposits from the Knickerbocker on October 18 , prompting the concern ) . That day , the National Bank of Commerce where J.P. Morgan was a dominant factor , announced it would not serve as clearing house for the Knickerbocker . On October 22 , the Knickerbocker faced a classic bank run . From the bank 's opening , the crowd grew . As The New York Times reported , " as fast as a depositor went out of the place ten people and more came asking for their money [ and the police ] were asked to send some men to keep order " . Two van loads of notes were quickly unloaded , yet even this failed to calm the panic stricken depositors . Directors and other officials of the Trust forced their way through the crowd , assuring them that everyone would be paid . In less than three hours , $ 8 million was withdrawn from the Knickerbocker . Shortly after noon it was forced to suspend operations .
As news spread , other banks and trust companies were reluctant to lend any money . The interest rates on loans to brokers at the stock exchange soared to 70 % and , with brokers unable to get money , stock prices fell to a low not seen since December 1900 . The panic quickly spread to two other large trusts , Trust Company of America and Lincoln Trust Company . By Thursday , October 24 , a chain of failures littered the street : Twelfth Ward Bank , Empire City Savings Bank , Hamilton Bank of New York , First National Bank of Brooklyn , International Trust Company of New York , Williamsburg Trust Company of Brooklyn , Borough Bank of Brooklyn , Jenkins Trust Company of Brooklyn and the Union Trust Company of Providence .
= = = J.P. Morgan = = =
When the chaos began to shake the confidence of New York 's banks , the city 's most famous banker was out of town . J.P. Morgan , the eponymous president of J.P. Morgan & Co . , was attending a church convention in Richmond , Virginia . Morgan was not only the city 's wealthiest and most well @-@ connected banker , but he had experience with other similar financial crises β he had helped rescue the U.S. Treasury during the Panic of 1893 . As news of the crisis gathered , Morgan returned to Wall Street from his convention late on the night of Saturday , October 19 . The following morning , the library of Morgan 's brownstone at Madison Avenue and 36th St. had become a revolving door of New York City bank and trust company presidents arriving to share information about ( and seek help surviving ) the impending crisis .
Morgan and his associates examined the books of the Knickerbocker Trust , and decided it was insolvent so did not intervene to stop the run . Its failure , however , triggered runs on even healthy trusts , prompting Morgan to take charge of the rescue operation . On the afternoon of Tuesday , October 22 , the president of the Trust Company of America asked Morgan for assistance . That evening Morgan conferred with George F. Baker , the president of First National Bank , James Stillman of the National City Bank of New York ( the ancestor of Citibank ) , and the United States Secretary of the Treasury , George B. Cortelyou . Cortelyou said that he was ready to deposit government money in the banks to help shore up their deposits . After an overnight audit of the Trust Company of America showed the institution to be sound , on Wednesday afternoon Morgan declared , " This is the place to stop the trouble , then . "
As a run began on the Trust Company of America , Morgan worked with Stillman and Baker to liquidate the company 's assets to allow the bank to pay depositors . The bank survived to the close of business , but Morgan knew that additional money would be needed to keep it solvent through the following day . That night he assembled the presidents of the other trust companies and held them in a meeting until midnight when they agreed to provide loans of $ 8 @.@ 25 million to allow the Trust Company of America to stay open the next day . On Thursday morning Cortelyou deposited around $ 25 million into a number of New York banks . John D. Rockefeller , the wealthiest man in America , deposited a further $ 10 million in Stillman 's National City Bank . Rockefeller 's massive deposit left the National City Bank with the deepest reserves of any bank in the city . To instill public confidence , Rockefeller phoned Melville Stone , the manager of the Associated Press , and told him that he would pledge half of his wealth to maintain America 's credit .
= = = Stock exchange nears collapse = = =
Despite the infusion of cash , the banks of New York were reluctant to make the short @-@ term loans they typically provided to facilitate daily stock trades . Prices on the exchange began to crash , owing to the lack of funds to finance purchases . At 1 : 30 p.m. Thursday , October 24 , Ransom Thomas , the president of the New York Stock Exchange , rushed to Morgan 's offices to tell him that he would have to close the exchange early . Morgan was emphatic that an early close of the exchange would be catastrophic .
Morgan summoned the presidents of the city 's banks to his office . They started to arrive at 2 p.m. ; Morgan informed them that as many as 50 stock exchange houses would fail unless $ 25 million was raised in 10 minutes . By 2 : 16 p.m. , 14 bank presidents had pledged $ 23 @.@ 6 million to keep the stock exchange afloat . The money reached the market at 2 : 30 p.m. , in time to finish the day 's trading , and by the 3 o 'clock market close , $ 19 million had been loaned out . Disaster was averted . Morgan usually eschewed the press , but as he left his offices that night he made a statement to reporters : " If people will keep their money in the banks , everything will be all right " .
Friday , however , saw more panic on the exchange . Morgan again approached the bank presidents , but this time was only able to convince them to pledge $ 9 @.@ 7 million . In order for this money to keep the exchange open , Morgan decided the money could not be used for margin sales . The volume of trading on Friday was 2 / 3 that of Thursday . The markets again narrowly made it to the closing bell .
= = = Crisis of confidence = = =
Morgan , Stillman , Baker and the other city bankers were unable to pool money indefinitely . Even the U.S. Treasury was low on funds . Public confidence needed to be restored , and on Friday evening the bankers formed two committees β one to persuade the clergy to calm their congregations on Sunday , and second to explain to the press the various aspects of the financial rescue package . Europe 's most famous banker , Lord Rothschild , sent word of his " admiration and respect " for Morgan . In an attempt to gather confidence , the Treasury Secretary Cortelyou agreed that if he returned to Washington it would send a signal to Wall Street that the worst had passed .
To ensure a free flow of funds on Monday , the New York Clearing House issued $ 100 million in loan certificates to be traded between banks to settle balances , allowing them to retain cash reserves for depositors . Reassured both by the clergy and the newspapers , and with bank balance sheets flush with cash , a sense of order returned to New York that Monday .
Unbeknownst to Wall Street , a new crisis was being averted in the background . On Sunday , Morgan 's associate , George Perkins , was informed that the City of New York required at least $ 20 million by November 1 or it would go bankrupt . The city tried to raise money through a standard bond issue , but failed to gather enough financing . On Monday and again on Tuesday , New York Mayor George McClellan approached Morgan for assistance . In an effort to avoid the disastrous signal that a New York City bankruptcy would send , Morgan contracted to purchase $ 30 million worth of city bonds .
= = = Drama at the library = = =
Although calm was largely restored in New York by Saturday , November 2 , yet another crisis loomed . One of the exchange 's largest brokerage firms , Moore & Schley , was heavily in debt and in danger of collapse . The firm had borrowed heavily , using shares of the Tennessee Coal , Iron and Railroad Company ( TC & I ) as collateral . With the value of the thinly traded stock under pressure , many banks would likely call the loans of Moore & Schley on Monday and force an en masse liquidation of the firm 's stock . If that occurred it would send TC & I shares plummeting , devastating Moore and Schley and triggering further panic in the market .
To avert the collapse of Moore & Schley , Morgan called an emergency conference at his library Saturday morning . A proposal was made that the U.S. Steel Corporation , a company Morgan had helped form through the merger of the steel companies of Andrew Carnegie and Elbert Gary , would acquire TC & I. This would effectively save Moore & Schley and avert the crisis . The executives and board of U.S. Steel studied the situation and offered to either loan Moore & Schley $ 5 million , or buy TC & I for $ 90 a share . By 7 p.m. an agreement had not been reached and the meeting adjourned .
By then , John Pierpont Morgan was drawn into another situation . There was deep concern that the Trust Company of America and the Lincoln Trust might fail to open on Monday due to continuing runs by depositors . On Saturday evening 40 β 50 bankers had gathered at the library to discuss the crisis , with the clearing @-@ house bank presidents in the East room and the trust company executives in the West room . Morgan and those dealing with the Moore & Schley situation had moved to the librarian β s office . There Morgan told his counselors that he would agree to help shore up Moore & Schley only if the trust companies would work together to bail out their weakest brethren . The discussion among the bankers continued late into Saturday night but without much progress . Around midnight , J.P. Morgan informed a leader of the trust company presidents that keeping Moore & Schley afloat would require $ 25 million , and he would not commit those funds unless the problems with the trust companies could also be resolved . The trust company executives understood they would not receive further help from Morgan ; they would have to finance any bailout of the two struggling trust companies .
At 3 a.m. about 120 bank and trust company officials assembled to hear a full report on the status of the failing trust companies . While the Trust Company of America was barely solvent , the Lincoln Trust Company was probably $ 1 million short of what it needed to cover depositor accounts . As discussion ensued , the bankers realized that Morgan had locked them in the library and pocketed the key to force a solution , the sort of strong @-@ arm tactic he had been known to use in the past . Morgan then entered the talks and advised the trust companies they must provide a loan of $ 25 million to save the weaker institutions . The trust presidents were still reluctant to act , but Morgan informed them that if they did not it would lead to a complete collapse of the banking system . Through his considerable influence , at about 4 : 45 a.m. he persuaded the unofficial leader of the trust companies to sign the agreement , and the remainder of the bankers followed . Having received these commitments , Morgan allowed the bankers to go home .
On Sunday afternoon and into the evening , Morgan , Perkins , Baker and Stillman , along with U.S. Steel 's Gary and Henry Clay Frick , worked at the library to finalize the deal for U.S. Steel to buy TC & I and by Sunday night had a plan for acquisition . But one obstacle remained : the anti @-@ trust crusading President Theodore Roosevelt , who had made breaking up monopolies a focus of his presidency .
Frick and Gary traveled overnight by train to the White House to implore Roosevelt to set aside the application of the Sherman Antitrust Act and allow β before the market opened β a company that already held a 60 % share of the steel market to make a large acquisition . Roosevelt 's secretary refused to see them , but Frick and Gary convinced James Rudolph Garfield , the Secretary of the Interior , to bypass the secretary and arrange a meeting with the president . With less than an hour before the Stock Exchange opened , Roosevelt and Secretary of State Elihu Root began to review the proposed takeover and appreciate the crash likely to ensue if the merger was not approved . Roosevelt relented ; he later recalled of the meeting , " It was necessary for me to decide on the instant before the Stock Exchange opened , for the situation in New York was such that any hour might be vital . I do not believe that anyone could justly criticize me for saying that I would not feel like objecting to the purchase under those circumstances " . When news reached New York , confidence soared . The Commercial & Financial Chronicle reported that " the relief furnished by this transaction was instant and far @-@ reaching " . The final crisis of the panic had been averted .
= = Aftermath = =
The panic of 1907 occurred during a lengthy economic contraction β measured by the National Bureau of Economic Research as occurring between May 1907 and June 1908 . The interrelated contraction , bank panic and falling stock market resulted in significant economic disruption . Industrial production dropped further than after any previous bank run , while 1907 saw the second @-@ highest volume of bankruptcies to that date . Production fell by 11 % , imports by 26 % , while unemployment rose to 8 % from under 3 % . Immigration dropped to 750 @,@ 000 people in 1909 , from 1 @.@ 2 million two years earlier .
Since the end of the Civil War , the United States had experienced panics of varying severity . Economists Charles Calomiris and Gary Gorton rate the worst panics as those leading to widespread bank suspensions β the panics of 1873 , 1893 , and 1907 , and a suspension in 1914 . Widespread suspensions were forestalled through coordinated actions during both the 1884 and the 1890 panics . A bank crisis in 1896 , in which there was a perceived need for coordination , is also sometimes classified as a panic .
The frequency of crises and the severity of the 1907 panic added to concern about the outsized role of J.P. Morgan which led to renewed impetus toward a national debate on reform . In May 1908 , Congress passed the Aldrich β Vreeland Act that established the National Monetary Commission to investigate the panic and to propose legislation to regulate banking . Senator Nelson Aldrich ( R β RI ) , the chairman of the National Monetary Commission , went to Europe for almost two years to study that continent 's banking systems .
= = = Central bank = = =
A significant difference between the European and U.S. banking systems was the absence of a central bank in the United States . European states were able to extend the supply of money during periods of low cash reserves . The belief that the U.S. economy was vulnerable without a central bank was not new . Early in 1907 , banker Jacob Schiff of Kuhn , Loeb & Co. warned in a speech to the New York Chamber of Commerce that " unless we have a central bank with adequate control of credit resources , this country is going to undergo the most severe and far reaching money panic in its history " .
Aldrich convened a secret conference with a number of the nation 's leading financiers at the Jekyll Island Club , off the coast of Georgia , to discuss monetary policy and the banking system in November 1910 . Aldrich and A. P. Andrew ( Assistant Secretary of the Treasury Department ) , Paul Warburg ( representing Kuhn , Loeb & Co . ) , Frank A. Vanderlip ( James Stillman 's successor as president of the National City Bank of New York ) , Henry P. Davison ( senior partner of J. P. Morgan Company ) , Charles D. Norton ( president of the Morgan @-@ dominated First National Bank of New York ) , and Benjamin Strong ( representing J. P. Morgan ) , produced a design for a " National Reserve Bank " .
The final report of the National Monetary Commission was published on January 11 , 1911 . For nearly two years legislators debated the proposal and it was not until December 23 , 1913 , that Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act . President Woodrow Wilson signed the legislation immediately and the legislation was enacted on the same day , December 23 , 1913 , creating the Federal Reserve System . Charles Hamlin became the Fed 's first chairman , and none other than Morgan 's deputy Benjamin Strong became president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York , the most important regional bank with a permanent seat on the Federal Open Market Committee .
= = = Pujo Committee = = =
Although Morgan was briefly seen as a hero , widespread fears concerning plutocracy and concentrated wealth soon eroded this view . Morgan 's bank had survived , but the trust companies that were a growing rival to traditional banks were badly damaged . Some analysts believed that the panic had been engineered to damage confidence in trust companies so that banks would benefit . Others believed Morgan took advantage of the panic to allow his U.S. Steel company to acquire TC & I. Although Morgan lost $ 21 million in the panic , and the significance of the role he played in staving off worse disaster is undisputed , he also became the focus of intense scrutiny and criticism .
The chair of the House Committee on Banking and Currency , Representative ArsΓ¨ne Pujo , ( D β La . 7th ) convened a special committee to investigate a " money trust " , the de facto monopoly of Morgan and New York 's other most powerful bankers . The committee issued a scathing report on the banking trade , and found that the officers of J. P. Morgan & Co. also sat on the boards of directors of 112 corporations with a market capitalization of $ 22 @.@ 5 billion ( the total capitalization of the New York Stock Exchange was then estimated at $ 26 @.@ 5 billion ) .
Although suffering ill health , J. P. Morgan testified before the Pujo Committee and faced several days of questioning from Samuel Untermyer . Untermyer and Morgan 's famous exchange on the fundamentally psychological nature of banking β that it is an industry built on trust β is often quoted in business articles :
Associates of Morgan blamed his continued physical decline on the hearings . In February he became very ill and died on March 31 , 1913 β nine months before the " money trust " would be officially replaced as lender of last resort by the Federal Reserve .
= = Timeline = =
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= Jurassic Park ( song ) =
" Jurassic Park " is a parody of Jimmy Webb 's single " MacArthur Park " written and performed by " Weird Al " Yankovic ; it was released both as a single and as part of Yankovic 's Alapalooza album in October 1993 . " Jurassic Park " was penned by Yankovic after he remembered the enjoyment he had when he combined a classic rock track with a recent movie topic with his 1985 song " Yoda " . Yankovic decided to combine the plot of the recent movie Jurassic Park β a film about a park on a fictional island where geneticists have succeeded in cloning dinosaurs .
The song was paired with an elaborately animated music video , which was created by Mark Osborne and Scott Nordlund almost entirely via claymation . The video did not receive extensive play on MTV , although it was popular on The Box , VH1 , and in Canada , where it was played on MuchMusic . The video , due to its animation , also later went on to be praised at various animation festivals worldwide .
" Jurassic Park " was met with mixed to positive reviews ; while many reviewers enjoyed Yankovic 's humor , others felt that the song did not satirize the source material , but instead merely recounted the plot to the movie . Webb himself was very pleased with the final result and has been known to sing the parody lyrics in concert . Although the single did not chart in the United States , it peaked at number 5 on the Canadian magazine The Record 's single chart . The video was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards , although it did not win .
= = Writing = =
Yankovic was inspired to write the song after he heard The Kinks ' song " Lola " while driving in his car one day . He noted , " I was driving a rent @-@ a @-@ car through Florida when the song ' Lola ' came on the radio , and it got me thinking about how much fun I had doing ' Yoda ' [ a song from 1985 's Dare to Be Stupid ] where I took a then @-@ current topic and combined it with a classic rock tune . " He soon turned his attention to the film Jurassic Park β about a park on a fictional island , where geneticists have succeeded in cloning dinosaurs . The film is based on the 1990 novel of the same name by Michael Crichton β which had just come out and was already a blockbuster success . Yankovic decided to write a parody about the movie , and considered various songs that he could spoof . Eventually , he decided to parody the 1968 hit single " MacArthur Park " , which was performed by Richard Harris . Yankovic approached the original song 's writer , Jimmy Webb , who agreed to the idea . In fact , Webb was so amused by the parody that he penned a letter to Yankovic stating " Well , this [ the parody ] oughta [ sic ] bury that song once and for all ! " In addition , Yankovic received permission from Crichton and director Steven Spielberg to produce the track .
= = Recording and lyrics = =
Yankovic entered the studio to record " Jurassic Park " on July 16 , 1993 . Backing Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . " MacArthur Park " contained an actual orchestra complete with a strings section . " Jurassic Park " , however , features synth strings courtesy of keyboardist Brad Buxer , who programmed the section himself . Intermixed during the interlude are various dinosaur sound effects courtesy of Sandy Berman ; Berman had previously created dinosaur yells for a major theme park attraction , and loaned Yankovic the sound effects . At 3 : 53 in length , the song is considerably shorter than the original , which clocks in at 7 : 21 . Largely , this is due to the fact that the middle section featured in the original β the so called " After the Loves of My Life " section β is omitted from Yankovic 's parody .
The song itself recounts both the plot of the movie , and contains various in @-@ jokes and references therein . One line about lawyers β " A huge tyrannosaurus ate our lawyer / Well , I suppose that proves they 're really not all bad " β was deliberately placed in the song to be ambiguous , as it could either be referring to lawyers or dinosaurs as being " not all bad " . The song also makes various pop culture references , alluding to the idea of an E ticket and Barney .
= = Music video = =
When it came time for a video for " Jurassic Park " , Yankovic opted to use stop @-@ motion and claymation ; he joked during a Q & A that this was because " it 's just too hard to find real live dinosaurs these days . " " Jurassic Park " was Yankovic 's first video that was entirely animated β previous videos , such as " Money for Nothing / Beverly Hillbillies " and " Dare to Be Stupid " had featured elements of animation . The video was directed by Mark Osborne and Scott Nordlund . Yankovic initially heard of the duo from Bill Manspeaker , the leader singer of the comedy rock band Green JellΓΏ . After being hired for the project , the two " basically turned a private residence in Los Angeles into a clay animation studio . " The two worked between July and August 1993 , and slept in shifts , so that the final project would be ready for its release in October 1993 . One critic noted that the music video seems to have been done in the style of Will Vinton 's Dinosaurs ! β A Fun @-@ Filled Trip Back in Time ! The video parodies scenes from , as well as the general plot of the 1993 movie , and contains a myriad of sight @-@ gags β as is usual for Yankovic 's videos β such as a claymation version of Steven Spielberg running from dinosaurs , Barney having his head ripped off , and a Velociraptor attempting to break down a door , only to realize it has a key .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
" Jurassic Park " was released as the lead single from Yankovic 's 1993 album Alapalooza . The single did not chart in the United States . However , the song was a sales success in Canada , and peaked at number 5 on the Canadian magazine The Record 's single chart . The video for " Jurassic Park " received light rotation on MTV . Yankovic later explained in an interview that " [ MTV ] played it a few times , and then just yanked it , because it wasn 't really part of their sound . " In contrast , the single was a success on The Box and they played it " incessantly " . Furthermore , in Canada , the song was a massive success on MuchMusic . Due to this , Alapalooza is Yankovic 's best selling album in Canada , with over 200 @,@ 000 units sold , according to Music Canada . However , the video was played and remained popular on VH1 well after its release ; it ranked within the Top 50 Most @-@ Played Clips during the months of August and September 1999 , according to Billboard magazine . The video for " Jurassic Park " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video at the 37th Grammy Awards , but lost to the video for " Love Is Strong " by The Rolling Stones . Nonetheless , it received attention in animation festivals worldwide for its use of claymation effects .
Jimmy Webb was particularly pleased with the finished product . According to Yankovic , several times during different concerts in New York and Los Angeles that Yankovic was in attendance , Webb would start to perform the original , feign forgetting the words , and then invite Yankovic on stage to help him sing " Jurassic Park " instead . For a Christmas present one year , Webb even sent Yankovic a rubber dinosaur mask as a joke . Yankovic later noted that Webb " was the coolest " .
= = = Reviews = = =
Chris Hicks of the Deseret News called the single " absolutely hilarious " , and rhetorically asked " who else would think of adapting that ridiculously popular movie 's themes to new lyrics for Jimmy Webb 's classic ditty ' MacArthur Park ' ? " Hicks ' felt that the song 's funniest moments involved the jokes revolving around lawyers and the mention of Barney . Amanda Cohen of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that it combined " the schlock of the original song with schtick about the dinosaur movie " and proved that " Yankovic is as funny as ever " . Furthermore , she noted that it was evidence that " his voice improves with every new release " . In a review of the Spike and Mike 's Festival of Animation , Arthur Salm called the piece a " knockout " and praised the humor , specifically highlighting the claymation cameo of Steve Spielberg and the " goofy velociraptor " from the opening of the video .
Some critics felt that the song did not satirize the source material , but instead merely recounted the plot to Jurassic Park . Entertainment Weekly referred to the claymation video for the " Jurassic Park " as " clever but toothless " . The magazine argued that Yankovic 's parody did not satirize the original material , but instead transposed new elements on top of them . Rob Owen of Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch wrote that the song " does nothing but recount the plot of the hit movie " and that " dinosaurs don 't lend themselves to music " .
= = Track listing = =
CD single
" Jurassic Park " β 3 : 53
" Frank 's 2000 " TV " β 4 : 04
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
" Weird " Al Yankovic β vocals , background vocals , production , arrangement
Jim West β guitar
Steve Jay β bass guitar
Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz β drums
Brad Buxer β keyboards , synthetic orchestration
Sandy Berman β dinosaur growls
Tony Papa β engineering
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= Foster @-@ Payne House =
Foster @-@ Payne House is a historic house at 25 Belmont Street in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Built in 1878 , the two @-@ story multi @-@ gabled house is distinguished by its clapboarded and exterior woodwork and opulent parlors in the interior . The property also has a matching carriagehouse with gable roof and copula . The house was originally constructed and owned by Theodore Waters Foster , but it was sold to George W. Payne in 1882 . The Foster @-@ Payne House is architecturally significant as a well @-@ designed and well @-@ preserved late 19th century suburban residence . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
= = History = =
The house was built in 1878 for Theodore Waters Foster , born on May 19 , 1847 , to Chauncey Foster and Ophelia Remington . He was educated in Pawtucket and joined the Rhode Island Cavalry in 1863 . He served in the American Civil War under Nathaniel P. Banks in the Red River Campaign . In 1873 , he formed a jewelry @-@ manufacturing partnership with Walter E. White and Samuel H. Baily , named White , Foster & Company . After White retired in 1878 , the company was renamed Foster & Bailey . During this time , Foster constructed the house and lived in it for a period of four years , commuting to his place of business in Providence , Rhode Island . Foster would continue to be successful in his jewelry manufacturing business and his son , Theodore Clyde Foster , would succeed him upon his death in 1928 . In 1882 , Theodore Foster sold the home to George W. Payne , the owner of the G. W. Payne & Company .
= = Design = =
Constructed in 1878 , the Foster @-@ Payne House is a two @-@ story home with a low @-@ pitched multi @-@ gabled roof . The house has a single story open porch on the western side , a kitchen ell that projects from the rear and a single @-@ story bay window that projects from the western bay of the front facade . The house is distinguished by its clapboard exterior and wooden trim under the gable peaks , the window trim and the porch brackets . There are three types of windows used on the house , single and paired one @-@ over @-@ one windows and two @-@ over @-@ two windows .
The small foyer on the western entry porch leads to the main stairhall that features a gently curving staircase with turned balusters and a curving rail . The first floor rooms are arranged in an " L " pattern on the southern and eastern sides with the kitchen placed on the northern ell . The interior of one room , not specified in the NRHP nomination , has been altered with a pressed tin ceiling . The second floor of the home was not described in the NRHP nomination . The interior of the rooms display late Victorian details , with the front parlor having a carved marble mantlepiece , a molded central ceiling medallion and a painted ceiling with scroll @-@ work . The back parlor has a marbleized slate mantlepiece with an over @-@ mounted mirror in a Renaissance Revival frame . On the back edge of the lot is a two @-@ story clapboarded carriagehouse with a Victorian cupola . This structure was not described in the NRHP nomination , but a photo from 2013 shows the cupola has been damaged .
= = Significance = =
The Foster @-@ Payne House is architecturally significant as a well @-@ designed and well @-@ preserved late 19th century suburban residence , with excellent interior detail and a matching carriagehouse . The area in which it is located was situated in an upper @-@ class suburban area , but since the late 19th @-@ century commercial and industrial buildings have entered the area . The property was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983 .
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