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= Tropical Storm Marco ( 1990 ) =
Tropical Storm Marco was the only tropical cyclone to make landfall on the United States during the 1990 Atlantic hurricane season . The 13th named storm of the season , Marco formed from a cold @-@ core low pressure area along the northern coast of Cuba on October 9 , and tracked northwestward through the eastern Gulf of Mexico . With most of its circulation over the western portion of Florida , Tropical Storm Marco produced 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds over land . However , it weakened to a tropical depression before moving ashore near Cedar Key . The cyclone combined with a cold front and the remnants of Hurricane Klaus to produce heavy rainfall in Georgia and the Carolinas . After interacting with the nearby Hurricane Lili , Marco continued northward until being absorbed by a cold front on October 13 .
In Florida , the cyclone triggered flooding of some houses and roadways . Rainfall across its path peaked at 19 @.@ 89 inches ( 505 mm ) in Louisville , Georgia , though several locations received over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation . The flooding caused a total of 12 deaths , mostly due to drowning , as well as $ 57 million in damage ( 1990 USD , $ 103 million 2016 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
By early on October 6 , a low pressure area and circulation persisted over eastern Cuba in the middle levels of the atmosphere . The low drifted westward , and interacted with Hurricane Klaus to its east . Initially cold @-@ core in nature , the system gradually built downward to the surface , and on October 9 , the low developed a low @-@ level circulation ; at 1200 UTC the National Hurricane Center classified it as Tropical Depression Fifteen while located near the Cuban city of Caibarién , though the cyclone was initially subtropical in character . To its east , Tropical Storm Klaus continued to weaken ; the depression absorbed most of Klaus and became the dominant system . The storm tracked parallel to the coast of Cuba before veering northward and crossing the Florida Keys , where it intensified into Tropical Storm Marco about 35 mi ( 55 km ) south @-@ southeast of Key West , Florida .
After passing midway between Key West and the Dry Tortugas , Tropical Storm Marco adopted a steady northward track and quickly intensified , reaching peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on October 11 , while still southwest of Englewood , Florida . The center of the storm continued on its off @-@ shore parallel for another six hours after reaching its peak intensity , until it reached a position about six mi ( 10 km ) west of Bradenton Beach ; although the center of the storm remained offshore , much of its circulation was over land . Initially the storm still was forecast to move ashore between Fort Myers and Sarasota . However , the cyclone continued its northward trajectory , the center remaining offshore , and it weakened to a tropical depression prior to making landfall near Cedar Key early on October 12 .
After landfall , the cyclone accelerated in forward speed northward , weakening in intensity , and , by 1200 UTC on October 12 , Marco became an extra @-@ tropical cyclone . It turned to the northeast and east through South Carolina , following behind Hurricane Lili to its northeast . For a time , the system 's proximity to Lili resulted in hints of the Fujiwhara effect , in which two tropical cyclone appear to rotate around each other . The cold front that absorbed the weakening low was to the storm 's north on October 13 , though moisture from the remnants of Marco dropped heavy rainfall across the southeast United States for another day .
= = Preparations = =
A tropical storm warning was issued at some point during the existence of the cyclone for the west coast of Florida from Key West to Apalachicola . Additionally , a tropical storm warning was put in place for the east coast from Vero Beach northward to Fernandina Beach . Before the arrival of Marco , elementary schools were closed on the three barrier islands in Lee County . Florida governor Bob Martinez ordered the closure of state offices in the Tampa Bay area , and also decided not to open the University of South Florida and nearby community colleges . Public schools were not opened on the day of the storm 's passage in Manatee and Sarasota counties , though most other schools remained open . As the storm tracked northward , the National Weather Service issued a flood watch for much of Georgia . A flood watch was later issued for western portions of the Carolinas and for high elevations in Virginia and West Virginia .
= = Impact = =
= = = Florida = = =
With most of its circulation over the western portion of Florida during its existence , Tropical Storm Marco produced 39 – 74 mph winds across western Florida . As it brushed the coastline , the storm developed strong convective rain bands , leading to peak sustained winds of 69 mph ( 112 km / h ) with gusts to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) on the Sunshine Skyway Bridge ; the bridge was closed after gusts reached 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Squalls from the storm spawned four tornadoes in the state , one of which struck the city of Crystal River , destroying a mobile home and left 2 @,@ 000 people without power for about an hour . Storm damage left about 25 @,@ 000 customers across the state without power and about 40 families temporarily homeless .
Paralleling the coastline , the storm produced a light storm surge that peaked at 2 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) above normal on Sanibel Island . In some locations , the surge rose rapidly , and , despite the unusual geography of the area , the levels varied only by as much as 9 @.@ 8 inches ( 250 mm ) than the predicted levels from the SLOSH model . The surge and waves caused minor beach erosion . Moderate to heavy rainfall fell across western Florida , peaking at 6 @.@ 14 inches ( 156 mm ) near Bradenton ; the rainfall was beneficial after a very dry summer , though , because it fell quickly , even this amount of precipitation failed to relieve water restrictions across the area . The storm resulted in some flooding in its path , including some several homes in Manatee County , roadways , and two U.S. highways . Statewide damage totalled $ 3 million ( 1990 USD , $ 5 @.@ 43 million 2016 USD ) , of which $ 1 million ( 1990 USD , $ 1 @.@ 81 million 2016 USD ) occurred in Manatee County .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
As the remnants of Marco entered Georgia , they combined with the remnant moisture from Hurricane Klaus and a slow @-@ moving cold front , which caused large amounts of precipitation to fall across the eastern portion of the state . Rainfall peaked at 19 @.@ 89 inches ( 505 mm ) at a weather station near Louisville , Georgia where over 16 inches ( 400 mm ) fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . In Augusta , 2 @.@ 79 inches ( 71 mm ) of rainfall fell in one hour , which forced the evacuation of about 300 people . Some roads in eastern Georgia were flooded up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep , and police officers in Augusta rescued people in flooded cars . The flooding resulted in some power outages . In the deluge , five people drowned , and 450 were left homeless . The remnants of the storm spawned a tornado in Brantley County , which destroyed 25 unoccupied homes . Damage in Georgia totaled $ 42 million ( 1990 USD , $ 76 @.@ 1 million 2016 USD ) . On October 19 , 1990 , President George H. W. Bush declared several counties in Georgia as federal disaster areas , which permitted the use of emergency funds for victims .
Heavy rainfall continued northward into the Carolinas . Much of South Carolina experienced over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) of precipitation ; statewide , the rainfall peaked at 13 @.@ 96 inches ( 355 mm ) in Pageland . The highest totals in 100 years in some locations also ended a severe drought . In the flooding , 80 bridges in the state failed ; in total , more than 120 bridges were either closed , damaged , or destroyed . In South Carolina , the system caused three drowning deaths ; damage totaled $ 12 million ( 1990 , $ 21 @.@ 7 million 2016 USD ) . In North Carolina , rainfall reached 10 @.@ 74 inches ( 273 mm ) in Albemarle . The storm directly caused two deaths in North Carolina , and indirectly caused two traffic deaths .
Rainfall from the combined remnants of Marco and Klaus extended into the Ohio Valley , with 3 @.@ 67 inches ( 93 mm ) recorded near Mountain City , Tennessee . Totals of 2 – 5 inches ( 50 – 125 mm ) spread across northwest Virginia , western Maryland , eastern West Virginia , and the Susquehanna Valley of Pennsylvania . In New York , the rainfall combined with moisture from Hurricane Lili , which triggered flooding that closed a portion of a railway line and a highway .
Tropical Storm Marco was the only storm to strike the United States during the 1990 hurricane season ; without Marco , the season would have been the first to have no tropical storm or hurricane make landfall in the US since the 1890 season .
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= Django Unchained =
Django Unchained is a 2012 American Western film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino , starring Jamie Foxx , Christoph Waltz , Leonardo DiCaprio , Kerry Washington , and Samuel L. Jackson . Set in the Old West and antebellum South , it is a highly stylized variation of Spaghetti Westerns , and a tribute to the 1966 Italian film Django by Sergio Corbucci , whose star Franco Nero has a cameo appearance .
Development of Django Unchained began in 2007 when Tarantino was writing a book on Sergio Corbucci . By April 2011 , Tarantino sent his final draft of the script to The Weinstein Company . Casting began in the summer of 2011 , with Michael K. Williams and Will Smith being considered for the role of the title character before Foxx was cast . Principal photography took place from November 2011 to March 2012 in California , Wyoming and Louisiana .
Django Unchained premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 11 , 2012 , and was released on December 25 , 2012 in the United States . The film was nominated for several film industry awards , including five Academy Awards . Waltz won several awards for his performance , among them Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globes , BAFTAs , and Academy Awards . Tarantino won an Academy Award , a Golden Globe , and a BAFTA award for writing the film 's original screenplay . The film grossed over $ 425 million worldwide in theaters against its $ 100 million budget , making it Tarantino 's highest @-@ grossing theatrical release .
= = Plot = =
In 1858 Texas , the Speck brothers , Ace and Dicky , drive a group of black slaves on foot . Among the shackled slaves is Django , sold off and separated from his wife , Broomhilda von Shaft . The Speck brothers are stopped by Dr. King Schultz , a German dentist @-@ turned @-@ bounty hunter from Düsseldorf , who asks to buy one of the slaves . When he questions Django about his knowledge of the Brittle brothers , a group of outlaws for whom Schultz is carrying a warrant , Ace becomes irritated and threateningly aims his shotgun at Schultz . Schultz , a superior gunslinger , immediately kills Ace with a Fast draw . King insists on honourably paying Dicky a fair price for Django before leaving him at the mercy of the newly @-@ freed slaves , who kill him and follow the North Star to freedom .
As Django can identify the Brittle brothers , Schultz offers him his freedom in exchange for help tracking them down . King first takes Django to a small town where he immediately murders the sheriff . Before a Marshall can arrest them King explains that the sheriff was actually a wanted cattle rustler with a $ 200 bounty on him that the furious Marshall is now required to pay . After tracking and killing the Brittles , the liberated Django ( adopting the surname " Freeman " ) partners with Schultz through the winter and becomes his apprentice ; Schultz discovers that Django has a natural talent for gunslinging . Schultz explains that he feels responsible for Django since Django is the first person he has ever freed , and felt morally obliged to help Django ( whom he described as a " real @-@ life Siegfried " ) reunite with Broomhilda . Django , now fully trained , collects his first bounty , keeping the handbill for good luck .
In 1859 , Django and Schultz travel to Mississippi , where they learn the identity of Broomhilda 's owner : Calvin J. Candie , the charming but cruel owner of the Candyland plantation , where slaves are forced to fight to the death in brutal wrestling matches called Mandingo fights . Schultz , expecting Candie will not sell Broomhilda if they ask for her directly , feigns interest in purchasing one of Candie 's prized fighters for far more than the normal price . Schultz and Django meet Candie at his gentleman 's club in Greenville and submit their offer . Intrigued , Candie invites them to his ranch at Candyland . After secretly briefing the German @-@ speaking Broomhilda , Schultz claims to be charmed by her and offers to buy her as well .
During dinner , Candie 's staunchly loyal house slave , Stephen ( Samuel L. Jackson ) , becomes suspicious of Schultz and Django 's motives . Deducing that Django and Broomhilda know each other and that the sale of the Mandingo fighter is a ruse , Stephen alerts Candie and admonishes him for his greed . Candie is angered at being fooled and having his time wasted , but contains his anger long enough to theatrically display his knowledge of phrenology , which he uses to theorize why slaves frequently fail to kill their owners , despite ample opportunity .
Candie 's bodyguard , Butch Pooch , bursts into the room with his shotgun trained on the two bounty hunters , and Candie explodes in anger . He offers an alteration of the original deal , with Broomhilda taking the Mandingo fighter 's place at the same price , and threatens her death should the deal be rejected . Schultz agrees , and the papers for her freedom are drawn up and signed . Candie smugly insists that the deal be sealed through a handshake , which Schultz initially refuses . When Candie threatens again to kill Broomhilda , Schultz snaps and kills Candie with a concealed derringer . Butch kills Schultz and Django kills him in turn , and an extensive gunfight begins . Django guns down a great number of his opponents , but surrenders when Broomhilda is taken hostage .
The next morning , Stephen tells Django that he will be sold to a mine and worked to death . En route to the mine , Django proves to his escorts that he is a bounty hunter by showing them the handbill that Schultz said was good luck from his first kill . He convinces them that there is a large bounty for criminals hiding at Candyland , and promises that they would receive the majority of the money if they free him . The escorts release him and give him a pistol , which he uses to kill them before stealing a horse and returning to Candyland with a bag of dynamite .
At the plantation , Django kills more of Candie 's henchmen , takes Broomhilda 's freedom papers from the dead Schultz 's pocket , bids goodbye to his late friend and frees his wife from a nearby cabin . When Candie 's mourners return from his burial , Django kills the remaining henchmen and Candie 's sister Lara Lee Candie @-@ Fitzwilly , releases the two remaining house slaves , and kneecaps Stephen . Django then ignites the dynamite that he has planted throughout the mansion , and he and Broomhilda watch from a distance as the mansion explodes with the incapacitated Stephen inside , before riding off together .
= = Cast = =
Other roles include Russ Tamblyn as Son of a Gunfighter , Amber Tamblyn as Daughter of a Son of a Gunfighter , Don Stroud as Sheriff Bill Sharp , Bruce Dern as Old Man Carrucan , M. C. Gainey as Big John Brittle , Cooper Huckabee as Lil Raj Brittle , Doc Duhame as Ellis Brittle , Jonah Hill as Bag Head # 2 , a member of a Ku Klux Klan @-@ like group ; Lee Horsley as Sheriff Gus ( Snowy Snow ) , Rex Linn as Tennessee Harry , Misty Upham as Minnie , Danièle Watts as Coco and Clay Donahue Fontenot as Luigi , Big Fred 's opponent in a Mandingo fight . Zoë Bell , Michael Bowen , Robert Carradine , Jake Garber , Ted Neeley , James Parks , and Tom Savini play Candyland trackers , while Michael Parks and John Jarratt , alongside Tarantino himself in a cameo appearance as Robert , play the LeQuint Dickey Mining Company employees .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 2007 , Tarantino discussed an idea for a type of Spaghetti Western set in the United States ' pre @-@ Civil War Deep South . He called this type of film " a southern " , stating that he wanted " to do movies that deal with America 's horrible past with slavery and stuff but do them like spaghetti westerns , not like big issue movies . I want to do them like they 're genre films , but they deal with everything that America has never dealt with because it 's ashamed of it , and other countries don 't really deal with because they don 't feel they have the right to . " Tarantino later explained the genesis of the idea : " I was writing a book about Sergio Corbucci when I came up with a way to tell the story . ... I was writing about how his movies have this evil Wild West , a horrible Wild West . It was surreal , it dealt a lot with fascism . So I 'm writing this whole piece on this , and I 'm thinking : ' I don 't really know if Sergio was thinking [ this ] while he was doing this . But I know I 'm thinking it now . And I can do it ! ' "
Tarantino finished the script on April 26 , 2011 , and handed in the final draft to The Weinstein Company . In October 2012 , frequent Tarantino collaborator RZA said that he and Tarantino had intended to cross over Django Unchained with RZA 's Tarantino @-@ presented martial @-@ arts film The Man with the Iron Fists . The crossover would have seen a younger version of the blacksmith character from RZA 's film appear as a slave in an auction . However , scheduling conflicts prevented RZA 's participation .
One inspiration for the film is Corbucci 's 1966 spaghetti western Django , whose star Franco Nero has a cameo appearance in Django Unchained . Another inspiration is the 1975 film Mandingo , about a slave trained to fight other slaves . Tarantino included scenes in the snow as a homage to The Great Silence . " Silenzio takes place in the snow . I liked the action in the snow so much , Django Unchained has a big snow section in the middle , " Tarantino said in an interview .
The title Django Unchained alludes to the titles of the 1966 Corbucci film Django ; Hercules Unchained , the American title for the 1959 Italian epic fantasy film Ercole e la regina di Lidia , about the mythical hero 's escape from enslavement to a wicked master ; and to Angel Unchained , the 1970 American biker film about a biker exacting revenge on a large group of rednecks .
= = = Casting = = =
Among those considered for the title role of Django , Michael K. Williams and Will Smith were mentioned as possibilities , but in the end Jamie Foxx was cast in the role . Smith later said he turned down the role because it " wasn 't the lead " . Tyrese Gibson sent in an audition tape as the character . Franco Nero , the original Django from the 1966 Italian film , was rumored for the role of Calvin Candie , but instead was given a cameo appearance as a minor character . Nero suggested that he play a mysterious horseman who haunts Django in visions and is revealed in an ending flashback to be Django 's father ; Tarantino opted not to use the idea . Kevin Costner was in negotiations to join as Ace Woody , a Mandingo trainer and Candie 's right @-@ hand man , but Costner dropped out due to scheduling conflicts . Kurt Russell was cast instead but also later left the role . When Kurt Russell dropped out , the role of Ace Woody was not recast ; instead , the character was merged with Walton Goggins 's character , Billy Crash .
Jonah Hill was offered the role of Scotty Harmony , a gambler who loses Broomhilda to Candie in a poker game , but turned it down due to scheduling conflicts with The Watch . Sacha Baron Cohen was also offered the role , but declined in order to appear in Les Misérables . Neither Scotty nor the poker game appear in the final cut of the film . Hill later appeared in the film in a different role . Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt said that he " would have loved , loved to have " been in the film but would be unable to appear because of a prior commitment to direct his first film , Don Jon . DiCaprio played his first role as a villain as the cruel plantation owner Calvin Candie .
= = = Costume design = = =
In a January 2013 interview with Vanity Fair , costume designer Sharen Davis said much of the film 's wardrobe was inspired by spaghetti westerns and other works of art . For Django 's wardrobe , Davis and Tarantino watched the television series Bonanza and referred to it frequently . The pair even hired the hatmaker who designed the hat worn by the Bonanza character Little Joe , played by Michael Landon . Davis described Django 's look as a " rock @-@ n @-@ roll take on the character " . Django 's sunglasses were inspired by Charles Bronson 's character in The White Buffalo ( 1977 ) . Davis used Thomas Gainsborough 's 1770 oil painting The Blue Boy as a reference for Django 's valet outfit .
In the final scene , Broomhilda wears a dress similar to that of Ida Galli 's character in Blood for a Silver Dollar ( 1965 ) . Davis said the idea of Calvin Candie 's costume came partly from Rhett Butler , and that Don Johnson 's signature Miami Vice look inspired Big Daddy 's cream @-@ colored linen suit in the film . King Schultz 's faux chinchilla coat was inspired by Telly Savalas in Kojak . Davis also revealed that many of her costume ideas did not make the final cut of the film , leaving some unexplained characters such as Zoë Bell 's tracker , who was intended to drop her bandana to reveal an absent jaw .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for Django Unchained started in California in November 2011 continuing in Wyoming in February 2012 and at the National Historic Landmark Evergreen Plantation in Wallace , Louisiana , outside of New Orleans , in March 2012 . The film was shot in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film . Although originally scripted , a sub @-@ plot centering on Zoë Bell 's masked tracker was cut , and remained unfilmed , due to time constraints . After 130 shooting days , the film wrapped up principal photography in July 2012 .
Django Unchained was the first Tarantino film not edited by Sally Menke , who died in 2010 . Editing duties were instead handled by Fred Raskin , who had worked as an assistant editor on Tarantino 's Kill Bill . Raskin was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Editing but lost to William Goldenberg for his work on Argo .
= = Music = =
The film features both original and existing music tracks . Tracks composed specifically for the film include " 100 Black Coffins " by Rick Ross and produced by and featuring Jamie Foxx , " Who Did That To You ? " by John Legend , " Ancora Qui " by Ennio Morricone and Elisa , and " Freedom " by Anthony Hamilton and Elayna Boynton . The theme , " Django " , was also the theme song of the 1966 film . Musician Frank Ocean wrote an original song for the film 's soundtrack , but it was rejected by Tarantino , who explained that " Ocean wrote a fantastic ballad that was truly lovely and poetic in every way , there just wasn 't a scene for it . " Frank Ocean later published the song , entitled " Wiseman " , on his Tumblr blog . The film also features a few famous pieces of western classical music , including Beethoven 's " Für Elise " and " Dies Irae " from Verdi 's Requiem . Tarantino has stated that he avoids using full scores of original music : " I just don 't like the idea of giving that much power to anybody on one of my movies . " The film 's soundtrack album was released on December 18 , 2012 . Ennio Morricone made statements criticizing Tarantino 's use of his music in Django Unchained and stated that he would " never work " with the director after this film , but later agreed to compose an original film score for Tarantino 's The Hateful Eight in 2015 . In a scholarly essay on the film 's music , Hollis Robbins notes that the vast majority of film music borrowings come from films made between 1966 and 1974 and argues that the political and musical resonances of these allusions situate Django Unchained squarely in the Vietnam and Watergate era , during the rise and decline of Black Power cinema . Jim Croce 's hit I Got A Name was featured in the soundtrack .
= = Release = =
The first teaser poster was inspired by a fan @-@ art poster by Italian artist Federico Mancosu . His artwork was published in May 2011 , a few days after the synopsis and the official title were released to the public . In August 2011 , at Tarantino 's request , the production companies bought the concept artwork from Mancosu to use for promotional purposes as well as on the crew passes and clothing for staff during filming .
Django Unchained was released on December 25 , 2012 , in the United States by The Weinstein Company and released on January 18 , 2013 , by Sony Pictures Releasing in the United Kingdom . The film was screened for the first time at the Directors Guild of America on December 1 , 2012 , with additional screening events having been held for critics leading up to the film 's wide release . The premiere of Django Unchained was delayed by one week following the shooting at an elementary school in Newtown , Connecticut , on December 14 , 2012 .
The film was released on March 22 , 2013 , by Sony Pictures in India . In March 2013 , Django Unchained was announced to be the first Tarantino film approved for official distribution in China 's strictly controlled film market . Lily Kuo , writing for Quartz , wrote that " the film depicts one of America 's darker periods , when slavery was legal , which Chinese officials like to use to push back against criticism from the United States . " The film was released in China on May 12 , 2013 .
= = = Box office = = =
After a total of 143 days , the film ended its American theatrical run on May 16 , 2013 with a gross of $ 162 @,@ 805 @,@ 434 in North America . It grossed $ 262 @,@ 562 @,@ 804 in foreign countries including $ 51 @,@ 597 @,@ 323 of Germany , $ 37 @,@ 297 @,@ 979 of France , and $ 24 @,@ 893 @,@ 462 of the United Kingdom , making a worldwide total gross of $ 425 @,@ 368 @,@ 238 . As of 2013 , Django Unchained became Tarantino 's highest @-@ grossing film , surpassing his 2009 film Inglourious Basterds , which grossed $ 321 @.@ 4 million worldwide .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray , and Digital Download on April 16 , 2013 . In the United States , the film has grossed $ 31 @,@ 939 @,@ 733 from DVD sales and $ 30 @,@ 286 @,@ 838 from Blu @-@ ray sales , making a total of $ 62 @,@ 226 @,@ 571 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical and scholarly response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 88 % based on 247 reviews and an average rating is 8 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Bold , bloody , and stylistically daring , Django Unchained is another incendiary masterpiece from Quentin Tarantino . " Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score to reviews from mainstream critics , gives the film a score of 81 out of 100 based on 42 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film four stars out of four and said : " The film offers one sensational sequence after another , all set around these two intriguing characters who seem opposites but share pragmatic , financial and personal issues . " Ebert also added , " had I not been prevented from seeing it sooner because of an injury , this would have been on my year 's best films list . " Peter Bradshaw , film critic for The Guardian , awarded the film five stars , writing : " I can only say Django delivers , wholesale , that particular narcotic and delirious pleasure that Tarantino still knows how to confect in the cinema , something to do with the manipulation of surfaces . It 's as unwholesome , deplorable and delicious as a forbidden cigarette . " Writing in The New York Times , critic A. O. Scott compared Django to Tarantino 's earlier Inglourious Basterds : " Like Inglourious Basterds , Django Unchained is crazily entertaining , brazenly irresponsible and also ethically serious in a way that is entirely consistent with its playfulness . " Designating the film a Times ' critics ' pick , Scott said Django is " a troubling and important movie about slavery and racism . " Filmmaker Michael Moore praised Django , tweeting that the movie " is one of the best film satires ever . A rare American movie on slavery and the origins of our sick racist history . "
To the contrary , Owen Gleiberman , film critic for the Entertainment Weekly , wrote that " Django isn 't nearly the film that Inglourious was . It 's less clever , and it doesn 't have enough major characters – or enough of Tarantino 's trademark structural ingenuity – to earn its two @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ 45 @-@ minute running time . " In his review for the Indy Week , David Fellerath wrote : " Django Unchained shows signs that Tarantino did little research beyond repeated viewings of Sergio Corbucci 's 1966 spaghetti Western Django and a blaxploitation from 1975 called Boss Nigger , written by and starring Fred Williamson . " New Yorker 's Anthony Lane was " disturbed by their [ Tarantino 's fans ' ] yelps of triumphant laughter , at the screening I attended , as a white woman was blown away by Django 's guns . "
According to Bob Hoose , critic with Plugged in : " This flick is far more concerned with foul @-@ mouthed Grindhouse chatter , revenge @-@ filled rage , skin @-@ tearing bullwhips and bullets , and slow @-@ motion geysers of meat and blood than in communicating anything truthful and enlightening . "
An entire issue of the academic journal Safundi was devoted to Django Unchained : " Django Unchained and the Global Western , " featuring scholars who contextualize Tarantino 's film as a classic " western . " Dana Phillips writes : " Tarantino ’ s film is immensely entertaining , not despite but because it is so very audacious — even , at times , downright lurid , thanks to its treatment of slavery , race relations , and that staple of the Western , violence . No doubt these are matters that another director would have handled more delicately , and with less stylistic excess , than Tarantino , who has never been bashful . Another director also would have been less willing to proclaim his film the first in a new genre , the “ Southern . ”
= = = Top ten lists = = =
Django Unchained was listed on many critics ' top ten lists .
= = = Objections to specific elements of the film = = =
= = = = Portrayal and descriptions of African @-@ Americans and slavery = = = =
Some commentators have felt that the film 's heavy usage of the word " nigger " is inappropriate , affecting them to an even greater extent than the depicted violence against the slaves . Other reviewers have defended the usage of the language in the historic context of race and slavery in the United States .
Filmmaker Spike Lee , in an interview with Vibe , said he would not see the film , explaining " All I 'm going to say is that it 's disrespectful to my ancestors . That 's just me .... I 'm not speaking on behalf of anybody else . " Lee later wrote , " American slavery was not a Sergio Leone Spaghetti Western . It was a Holocaust . My ancestors are slaves stolen from Africa . I will honor them . " Louis Farrakhan , the leader of the Nation of Islam , interpreted the movie as " preparation for race war . "
Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe compared Samuel L. Jackson 's Stephen character to black Republicans like Clarence Thomas or Herman Cain . Samuel L. Jackson said that he believed his character to have " the same moral compass as Clarence Thomas does . " Jackson defended heavy use of the word " nigger " : " Saying Tarantino said ' nigger ' too many times is like complaining they said ' kyke ' [ sic ] too many times in a movie about Nazis . "
Marc Lamont Hill , a professor at Columbia University , compared the fugitive ex – Los Angeles police officer Christopher Dorner to a real @-@ life Django , saying " It 's almost like watching ' Django Unchained ' in real life . It 's kind of exciting . " Writing in the Los Angeles Times , journalist Erin Aubry Kaplan noted the difference between Tarantino 's Jackie Brown and Django Unchained : " It is an institution whose horrors need no exaggerating , yet Django does exactly that , either to enlighten or entertain . A white director slinging around the n @-@ word in a homage to ' 70s blaxploitation à la Jackie Brown is one thing , but the same director turning the savageness of slavery into pulp fiction is quite another . "
While hosting NBC 's Saturday Night Live , Jamie Foxx joked about being excited " to kill all the white people in the movie " . Columnist Jeff Kuhner wrote a reaction to the SNL skit for The Washington Times , saying : " Anti @-@ white bigotry has become embedded in our postmodern culture . Take Django Unchained . The movie boils down to one central theme : the white man as devil — a moral scourge who must be eradicated like a lethal virus . "
= = = = Use of violence = = = =
Some reviews criticized the film for being too violent . The originally planned premiere of Django was postponed following the Sandy Hook school shooting on December 14 , 2012 . Thomas Frank criticized the film 's use of violence as follows :
Not surprisingly , Quentin Tarantino has lately become the focus for this sort of criticism ( about the relationship between the movies and acts of violence ) . The fact that Django Unchained arrived in theaters right around the time of the Sandy Hook massacre didn 't help . Yet he has refused to give an inch in discussing the link between movie violence and real life . Obviously I don 't think one has to do with the other . Movies are about make @-@ believe . It 's about imagination . Part of the thing is trying to create a realistic experience , but we are faking it . Is it possible that anyone in our cynical world credits a self @-@ serving sophistry like this ? Of course an industry under fire will claim that its hands are clean , just as the NRA has done – and of course a favorite son , be it Tarantino or LaPierre , can be counted on to make the claim louder than anyone else . But do they really believe that imaginative expression is without consequence ?
The Independent said the movie was part of " the new sadism in cinema " and added , " There is something disconcerting about sitting in a crowded cinema as an audience guffaws at the latest garroting or falls about in hysterics as someone is beheaded or has a limb lopped off " .
Adam Serwer from Mother Jones provided a more nuanced view , saying that " Django , like many Tarantino films , also has been criticized as cartoonishly violent , but it is only so when Django is killing slave owners and overseers . The violence against slaves is always appropriately terrifying . This , if nothing else , puts Django in the running for Tarantino 's best film , the first one in which he discovers violence as horror rather than just spectacle . When Schultz turns his head away from a slave being torn apart by dogs , Django explains to Calvin Candie — the plantation owner played by Leo DiCaprio — that Schultz just isn 't used to Americans . "
= = = = Historical inaccuracies = = = =
Tarantino has said about Mandingo fighting , " I was always aware those things existed " , there is no definitive historical evidence that slave owners ever staged gladiator @-@ like fights to the death between male slaves like the fight depicted in the movie . Historian Edna Greene Medford notes that there are only undocumented rumors that such fights took place . David Blight , the director of Yale 's center for the study of slavery , said it was not a matter of moral or ethical reservations that prevented slave owners from pitting slaves against each other in combat , but rather economic self @-@ interest : slave owners would not have wanted to put their substantial financial investments at risk in gladiatorial battles .
The non @-@ historical term " Mandingo " for a fine fighting or breeding slave comes not from Tarantino , but the earlier film Mandingo .
Writing in The New Yorker , William Jelani Cobb observed that Tarantino 's occasional historical elasticity sometimes worked to the film 's advantage . " There are moments , " Cobb wrote , " where this convex history works brilliantly , like when Tarantino depicts the Ku Klux Klan a decade prior to its actual formation in order to thoroughly ridicule its members ' veiled racism . " The marauding masked group depicted in the film were known as " The Regulators " and were depicted as spiritual forebears of the later post @-@ civil war KKK and not as the actual KKK .
On the matter of historical accuracy , Christopher Caldwell wrote in the Financial Times : " Of course , we must not mistake a feature film for a public television documentary " , pointing out that the film should be treated as entertainment , not as a historical account of the time period it is set in . " Django uses slavery the way a pornographic film might use a nurses ' convention : as a pretext for what is really meant to entertain us . What is really meant to entertain us in Django is violence . " Richard Brody , however , wrote in The New Yorker that Tarantino 's " vision of slavery 's monstrosity is historically accurate .... Tarantino rightly depicts slavery as no mere administrative ownership but a grievous and monstrous infliction of cruelty . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Django Unchained garnered several awards and nominations . The American Film Institute named it one of their Top Ten Movies of the Year in December 2012 . The film received five Golden Globe Award nominations , including Best Picture , and Best Director and Best Screenplay for Tarantino . Tarantino won an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay . Christoph Waltz received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor , and the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor , his second time receiving all three awards , having previously won for his role in Tarantino 's Inglourious Basterds . The NAACP Image Awards gave the film four nominations , while the National Board of Review named DiCaprio their Best Supporting Actor . Django Unchained earned a nomination for Best Theatrical Motion Picture from the Producers Guild of America .
= = Potential future projects = =
= = = Miniseries = = =
Tarantino has said in an interview that he has 90 minutes of material of the film on the cutting room floor and considered re @-@ editing Django Unchained into a four @-@ hour , four @-@ night cable miniseries . Tarantino said that breaking the story into four parts would be more satisfying to audiences than a four @-@ hour movie : " ... it wouldn 't be an endurance test . It would be a mini @-@ series . And people love those . "
= = = Novels = = =
The story which became the director 's follow @-@ up film The Hateful Eight was first attempted as a paperback novel sequel to Django Unchained titled Django in White Hell . Tarantino decided , however , that the character 's established morals did not fit the tone of the developing story so he began re @-@ writing it as an original screenplay with no connection to the earlier film . He has expressed a desire to write a series of Django sequel novels .
= = = Crossover = = =
Sony is planning on a Django / Zorro crossover movie , which currently exists in the form of a comic book by Dynamite Entertainment .
In the 2014 film A Million Ways to Die in the West , Django is seen shooting the proprietor of a racially charged shooting game , saying ' people die at the fair ' .
= = Alleged copyright infringement = =
In December 2015 , a $ 100 million lawsuit was filed against Tarantino by filmmakers Oscar Colvin Jr. and Torrance J. Colvin , who claimed that the script for Django Unchained bears extensive similarities to their film , titled Freedom . The lawsuit was filed in a federal court in Washington , DC .
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= Battle of Cape St. Vincent ( 1780 ) =
The Battle of Cape St. Vincent was a naval battle took place off the southern coast of Portugal on 16 January 1780 during the Anglo @-@ Spanish War . A British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney defeated a Spanish squadron under Don Juan de Lángara . The battle is sometimes referred to as the Moonlight Battle because it was unusual for naval battles in the Age of Sail to take place at night . It was also the first major naval victory for the British over their European enemies in the war and proved the value of copper @-@ sheathing the hulls of warships .
Admiral Rodney was escorting a fleet of supply ships to relieve the Spanish siege of Gibraltar with a fleet of about twenty ships of the line when he encountered Lángara 's squadron south of Cape St. Vincent . When Lángara saw the size of the British fleet , he attempted to make for the safety of Cádiz , but the copper @-@ sheathed British ships chased his fleet down . In a running battle that lasted from mid @-@ afternoon until after midnight , the British captured four Spanish ships , including Lángara 's flagship . Two other ships were also captured , but their final disposition is unclear ; some Spanish sources indicate they were retaken by their Spanish crews , while Rodney 's report indicates the ships were grounded and destroyed .
After the battle Rodney successfully resupplied Gibraltar and Minorca before continuing on to the West Indies station . Lángara was released on parole , and was promoted to lieutenant general by King Carlos III .
= = Background = =
One of Spain 's principal goals upon its entry into the American War of Independence in 1779 was the recovery of Gibraltar , which had been lost to England in 1704 . The Spanish planned to retake Gibraltar by blockading and starving out its garrison , which included troops from Britain and the Electorate of Hanover . The siege formally began in June 1779 , with the Spanish establishing a land blockade around the Rock of Gibraltar . The matching naval blockade was comparatively weak , however , and the British discovered that small fast ships could evade the blockaders , while slower and larger supply ships generally could not . By late 1779 , however , supplies in Gibraltar had become seriously depleted , and its commander , General George Eliott , appealed to London for relief .
A supply convoy was organized , and in late December 1779 a large fleet sailed from England under the command of Admiral Sir George Brydges Rodney . Although Rodney 's ultimate orders were to command the West Indies fleet , he had secret instructions to first resupply Gibraltar and Minorca . On 4 January 1780 the fleet divided , with ships headed for the West Indies sailing westward . This left Rodney in command of 19 ships of the line , which were to accompany the supply ships to Gibraltar .
On 8 January 1780 ships from Rodney 's fleet spotted a group of sails . Giving chase with their faster copper @-@ clad ships , the British determined these to be a Spanish supply convoy that was protected by a single ship of the line and several frigates . The entire convoy was captured , with the lone ship of the line , Guipuzcoana , striking her colours after a perfunctory exchange of fire . Guipuzcoana was staffed with a small prize crew and renamed HMS Prince William , in honour of Prince William , the third son of the King , who was serving as midshipman in the fleet . Rodney then detached HMS America and the frigate HMS Pearl to escort most of the captured ships back to England ; the Prince William was added to his fleet , as were some of the supply ships that carried items likely to be of use to the Gibraltar garrison . On 12 January HMS Dublin , which had lost part of her topmast on 3 January , suffered additional damage and raised a distress flag . Assisted by HMS Shrewsbury , she limped into Lisbon on 16 January .
The Spanish had learnt of the British relief effort . From the blockading squadron a fleet comprising 11 ships of the line under Admiral Juan de Lángara was dispatched to intercept Rodney 's convoy , and the Atlantic fleet of Admiral Luis de Córdova at Cadiz was also alerted to try to catch him . Córdova learnt of the strength of Rodney 's fleet , and returned to Cadiz rather than giving chase . On 16 January the fleets of Lángara and Rodney spotted each other around 1 : 00 pm south of Cape St. Vincent , the southwestern point of Portugal and the Iberian Peninsula . The weather was hazy , with heavy swells and occasional squalls .
= = Battle = =
Rodney was ill , and spent the entire action in his bunk . His flag captain , Walter Young , urged Rodney to give orders to engage when the Spanish fleet was first spotted , but Rodney only gave orders to form a line abreast . Lángara started to establish a line of battle , but when he realised the size of Rodney 's fleet , he gave orders to make all sail for Cadiz . Around 2 : 00 pm , when Rodney felt certain that the ships seen were not the vanguard of a larger fleet , he issued commands for a general chase . Rodney 's instructions to his fleet were to chase at their best speed , and engage the Spanish ships from the rear as they came upon them . They were also instructed to sail to the lee side to interfere with Spanish attempts to gain the safety of a harbour , a tactic that also prevented the Spanish ships from opening their lowest gun ports . Because of their copper @-@ sheathed hulls ( which reduced marine growths and drag ) , the ships of the Royal Navy were faster and soon gained on the Spanish .
The chase lasted for about two hours , and the battle finally began around 4 : 00 pm . The Santo Domingo , trailing in the Spanish fleet , received broadsides from HMS Edgar , HMS Marlborough , and HMS Ajax before blowing up around 4 : 40 , with the loss of all but one of her crew . Marlborough and Ajax then passed Princessa to engage other Spanish ships . Princessa was eventually engaged in an hour @-@ long battle with HMS Bedford before striking her colours at about 5 : 30 . By 6 : 00 pm it was getting dark , and there was a discussion aboard HMS Sandwich , Rodney 's flagship , about whether to continue the pursuit . Although Captain Young is credited in some accounts with pushing Rodney to do so , Dr. Gilbert Blane , the fleet physician , reported it as a decision of the council .
The chase continued into the dark and squally night , leading it to later become known as the " Moonlight Battle " , since it was uncommon at the time for naval battles to continue after sunset . At 7 : 30 pm , HMS Defence came upon Lángara 's flagship Fenix , engaging her in a battle lasting over an hour . She was broadsided in passing by HMS Montagu and HMS Prince George , and Lángara was wounded in the battle . Fenix finally surrendered to HMS Bienfaisant , which arrived late in the battle and shot away her mainmast . Fenix 's takeover was complicated by an outbreak of smallpox aboard Bienfaisant . Captain John MacBride , rather than sending over a possibly infected prize crew , apprised Lángara of the situation and put him and his crew on parole .
At 9 : 15 the Montagu engaged the Diligente , which struck after her maintopmast was shot away . Around 11 : 00 pm San Eugenio surrendered after having all of her masts shot away by HMS Cumberland , but the difficult seas made it impossible to board a prize crew until morning . That duel was passed by HMS Culloden and Prince George , which engaged San Julián and compelled her to surrender around 1 : 00 am . The last ship to surrender was Monarca . She nearly escaped , shooting away HMS Alcide 's topmast , but was engaged in a running battle with the frigate HMS Apollo . Apollo managed to keep up the unequal engagement until about the time that Rodney 's flagship Sandwich came upon the scene around 2 : 00 am . Sandwich fired a broadside , unaware that Monarca had already hauled down her flag .
The British took six ships . Four Spanish ships of the line and the fleet 's two frigates escaped , although sources are unclear if two of the Spanish ships were even present with the fleet at the time of the battle . Lángara 's report states that San Justo and San Genaro were not in his line of battle ( although they are listed in Spanish records as part of his fleet ) . Rodney 's report states that San Justo escaped but was damaged in battle , and that San Genaro escaped without damage . According to one account two of Lángara 's ships ( unspecified which two ) were despatched to investigate other unidentified sails sometime before the action .
= = Aftermath = =
With the arrival of daylight , it was clear that the British fleet and their prize ships were dangerously close to a lee shore with an onshore breeze . One of the prizes , San Julián , was recorded by Rodney as too badly damaged to save , and was driven ashore . The fate of another prize , San Eugenio , is unclear . Some sources report that she too was grounded , but others report that she was retaken by her crew and managed to reach Cadiz . A Spanish history claims that the prize crews of both ships appealed to their Spanish captives for help escaping the lee shore . The Spanish captains retook control of their ships , imprisoned the British crews , and sailed to Cadiz .
The British reported their casualties in the battle as 32 killed and 102 wounded . The supply convoy sailed into Gibraltar on 19 January , driving the smaller blockading fleet to retreat to the safety of Algeciras . Rodney arrived several days later , after first stopping in Tangier . The wounded Spanish prisoners , who included Admiral Lángara , were offloaded there , and the British garrison was heartened by the arrival of the supplies and the presence of Prince William Henry . After also resupplying Minorca , Rodney sailed for the West Indies in February , detaching part of the fleet for service in the Channel . This homebound fleet intercepted a French fleet destined for the East Indies , capturing one warship and three supply ships . Gibraltar was resupplied twice more before the siege was lifted at the end of the war in 1783 .
Admiral Lángara and other Spanish officers were eventually released on parole , the admiral receiving a promotion to lieutenant general . He continued his distinguished career , becoming Spanish marine minister in the French Revolutionary Wars .
Admiral Rodney was lauded for his victory , the first major victory of the war by the Royal Navy over its European opponents . He distinguished himself for the remainder of the war , notably winning the 1782 Battle of the Saintes in which he captured the French Admiral Comte de Grasse . He was , however , criticised by Captain Young , who portrayed him as weak and indecisive in the battle with Lángara . ( He was also rebuked by the admiralty for leaving a ship of the line at Gibraltar , against his express orders . ) Rodney 's observations on the benefits of copper sheathing in the victory were influential in British Admiralty decisions to deploy the technology more widely .
= = Order of battle = =
None of the listed sources give an accurate accounting of the ships in Rodney 's fleet at the time of the action . Robert Beatson lists the composition of the fleet at its departure from England , and notes which ships separated to go to the West Indies , as well as those detached to return the prizes captured on 8 January to England . He does not list two ships ( Dublin and Shrewsbury , identified in despatches reprinted by Syrett ) that were separated from the fleet on 13 January . Furthermore , HMS Prince William is sometimes misunderstood to have been part of the prize escort back to England , but she was present at Gibraltar after the action . Beatson also fails to list a number of frigates , including HMS Apollo , which played a key role in the capture of the Monarca .
There are some discrepancies between the English and Spanish sources listing the Spanish fleet , principally in the number of guns most of the vessels are claimed to mount . The table below lists the Spanish records describing Lángara 's fleet . Beatson lists all of the Spanish ships of the line at 70 guns , except Fenix , which he lists at 80 guns . One frigate , the Santa Rosalia , is listed by Beatson at 28 guns . The identify of the second Spanish frigate is different in the two listings . Beatson records her as the Santa Gertrudie , 26 guns , with captain Don Annibal Cassoni , while Duro 's listing describes her as Santa Cecilia , 34 , captain Don Domingo Grandallana . Both frigates , whatever their identity , escaped the battle .
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= There Goes My Baby ( Usher song ) =
" There Goes My Baby " is a song by American recording artist Usher . It was written by James Scheffer , Frank Romano , Danny Morris and Rico Love , with the latter producing the song with Jim Jonsin . The song was first released as the second promo single for his sixth studio album , Raymond v. Raymond ( 2010 ) on February 9 , 2010 , and later released to rhythmic and urban airplay as the album 's fourth U.S. single from the album on June 15 , 2010 . It was later included the album 's follow @-@ up set , Versus . " There Goes My Baby " is a down @-@ tempo R & B piece , which makes use of Usher 's falsetto range .
Critics received the song positively , complimenting Usher 's falsetto . While reaching a peak of twenty @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 , it topped the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The charting gave Usher his eleventh number @-@ one on the chart , tying Ray Charles and R. Kelly for the fifth @-@ most number @-@ one 's since the chart 's inception . The song 's accompanying music video features Usher pursuing his love interest in risque scenes . Critics generally favored the video , calling it classic Usher , while some noted its theme was played @-@ out . Usher performed the song a number of times , including at the 2010 BET Awards . The song earned Usher a Grammy Award for Best Male R & B Vocal Performance , at the 53rd Grammy Awards in 2011 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" There Goes My Baby " is a , " slinky " down @-@ tempo R & B ballad , with infused hints of neo soul . It is composed in a " moderate groove " of eighty beats per minute , and is set in common time . It is written the key of A minor and Usher 's vocals span from the low note of E4 to high note of C6 . It follows the chord progression A – Fmaj7 – G. The song makes use of Usher 's falsetto range , which was warmly received by critics . Edna Gunderson of USA Today called Usher 's falsetto " charming . " Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music UK said that the song was a delight and that its falsetto tenderness was absent in the rest of the work . Tyler Lewis of PopMatters said the song featured " nice falsetto work " from the singer , while Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly coined the song a " falsetto @-@ laced plea . "
Andy Kellman of Allmusic noted the track as a standout from Raymond v. Raymond . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that the sweetness of Usher 's falsetto balanced out the album 's " boilerplate swagger . " Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music thought that the song recalled Usher 's past slow jams , coining it , " a sumptuous deep @-@ pile carpet of seductive song . " Ashante Infantry of the Toronto Star said the song was one of the best on the album , and said that it was a " steamy slow jam . " Calling the song " decent , " James Reed of the Boston Globe thought the lyrical content was hollow . Calling it a low @-@ point of the album , Matthew Cole of Slant Magazine said that the song was " sappy . "
= = Chart performance = =
As a promo single , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number seventy @-@ one solely from digital downloads . It fell off the next week , but upon its release as a single it re @-@ entered at number 100 , and eventually reached number twenty @-@ five . It topped the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop chart for four consecutive weeks , giving Usher his eleventh number @-@ one hit on that chart , and to date spent there the huge amount of 71 weeks . With eleven top singles on the chart , Usher tied with R. Kelly and Ray Charles on the Stevie Wonder @-@ led list of most number ones since the inception of the chart . As the fourth single from Raymond v. Raymond , the single was also Usher 's fourth consecutive top ten song on the R & B chart , a feat not matched by him since his Confessions era . " There Goes My Baby " was also Usher 's fourth consecutive top forty song on the Hot 100 , another feat not matched since Confessions .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for the song was filmed on June 16 , 2010 in Malibu , California , and directed by Anthony Mandler . It took fifteen hours for the shoot . Preparing his physique for the filming , the singer told People , " At 31 , when you take your shirt off , you must have it together ! " A preview of the video was released on July 12 , 2010 , and the full video premiered on 106 & Park and Vevo on July 13 , 2010 .
Containing a vague plot , the opening scene of the clip features Usher donning a black tank top and dark jeans , while he stands in a field with the sun rising in the background . While performing t 'ai chi @-@ inspired dance moves , he begins to pursue his love interest , and appears shirtless in front of a black backdrop .
Appearing alongside his interest in the backdrop scenes , Usher then sings propped on a concrete wall in a dark alley , while he and the woman tease each other , before moving outside on the balcony of a house on top of mountains . The singer performs acrobatic moves , including one in particular in which he does a pull @-@ up onto the roof to kiss his partner . All previous scenes are intercut before culminating with Usher seducing his partner in bed , in racy moments with Usher in nothing but briefs as he pulls off her stockings . The final scene sees the singer driving off in a convertible .
= = = Reception = = =
Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News positively reviewed the clip , stating , " with a new video for his single " There Goes My Baby , " the singer continues to push back at detractors who dare to suggest he 's slipped . " Megan Vick of Billboard said the clip was classic Usher , " from the stunning women to the architectural scenery and most importantly , the rippling abs . " Lining up points on why the video should be watched , AOL Boombox said that the singer " sexes it up " in the video as he " proudly proclaims " the song 's title . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly gave the video a mixed review , complimenting Usher 's trademark sexual videos , but at the same time said it was not " new territory " for the singer , preferring he would take a video route as he did in 2008 's " Trading Places . "
= = Live performances = =
While promoting Raymond v. Raymond , Usher performed the song along with others from the then @-@ upcoming set on Good Morning America . In promotion of the single , he sang the song on Lopez Tonight on June 2 , 2010 , and on The View on June 9 , 2010 . Furthermore , Usher performed the song on the 2010 BET Awards in June 2010 . In August 2010 he sang the song at his 2010 World Leadership Awards for his New Look Foundation , alongside other performers , friend Ciara and protege Justin Bieber . The same month , the singer later appeared on The Early Show as a part of their summer concert series . On September 17 , 2010 , he performed the song alongside " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" There Goes My Baby " - 4 : 44
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Rico Love , James Scheffer , Frank Romano , Danny Morris
Production - Jim Jonsin , Rico Love
Keyboards and programming – Jim Jonsin , Danny Morris
Guitars - Frank Romano
Additional vocals – Rico Love
Recording - Ian Cross and assisted by Thomas McCrea and Jason Wilkie
Mixing - Mark “ Spike " Stent , assisted by Matty Green
Source
= = Charts = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = Release history = =
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= John Wark =
John Wark ( born 4 August 1957 ) is a Scottish former footballer who spent most of his playing time with Ipswich Town . He won a record four Player of the Year awards before becoming one of the four inaugural members of the club 's Hall of Fame . Wark had long spells at the club , which bookended his career , and a third , brief interlude dividing his briefer periods at Liverpool and Middlesbrough . A versatile player , Wark played most of his professional games as a midfielder , although he sometimes played as a central defender and on occasion as a striker .
Born in Glasgow , Wark represented Scotland in international football , winning 29 caps and scoring seven goals . This included selection for Scotland in the 1982 FIFA World Cup in which he made three appearances and scored twice .
During his playing career , Wark appeared in the film Escape to Victory . Since retiring as a professional player in 1996 , he has continued to work for Ipswich Town — since April 2009 in the corporate hospitality department . His autobiography , Wark On , was published in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Wark was born on 4 August 1957 , in Glasgow Royal Maternity Hospital to parents Alex and Helen . The third of four children , he has an older sister Wilma , older brother Alex and younger brother Andrew . The family lived in a four @-@ storey tenement block in Partick . The family was impoverished : Wark 's parents could not afford a cot and as a small child , he slept in a drawer from a sideboard . Although christened John , Wark was soon referred to by his family as Johnny , a diminutive that stuck throughout his footballing career .
In the early 1960s , the family moved to another tenement block , this time in Scotstoun , and Wark 's father secured employment at nearby Albion Motors . The new home accommodated a back yard in which Wark played football from the age of six . He said " [ f ] ootball seemed to occupy 99 per cent of my time as a youngster " as he tried to emulate his brother Alex , who had become a professional at St Mirren . Wark attended Scotstoun Primary School , where he became captain of the football team . On moving to secondary school , he was selected for the Glasgow Schools representative team . He also played for Drumchapel Amateurs at the under @-@ 14 level , where he was , for a period , managed by David Moyes ' father , also named David .
During Wark 's time at Drumchapel , he attracted the attention of Celtic . He trained with the club at their Parkhead ground , before receiving an invitation to sign schoolboy forms for the club . As a lifelong Rangers fan ( with whom Celtic have a notable rivalry ) and with interest from " several English clubs " , including Bristol City , Manchester City and Ipswich Town , Wark stalled on the offer . He trialled with both Ipswich Town and Manchester City , and selected Ipswich when the latter remained non @-@ committal . On arrival at Portman Road , Town manager Bobby Robson , later described by Wark as the person in football " who had the single biggest influence on [ him ] " , personally welcomed him and Wark signed with the club as an apprentice .
= = Domestic playing career = =
= = = First spell at Ipswich = = =
Wark started his career at Ipswich in the youth team , initially playing at left back before moving to the centre of defence and occasionally occupying the right back position . He signed up as a professional for the club on his 17th birthday . Selected for the senior squad as a replacement for the injured Kevin Beattie , Wark made his first @-@ team debut on 27 March 1975 in the 3 – 2 FA Cup 6th round ( 3rd replay ) victory over Leeds United ; the game was played at Leicester City 's Filbert Street . A nervous and homesick Wark was reassured by manager Robson :
" My debut was in the quarter @-@ final of the FA Cup against the Leeds team of Giles and Bremner . He [ Robson ] said , ' I wouldn 't put you in the team if I didn 't think you were good enough ' . He was a father figure as well because I was homesick . If it hadn 't been for the boss I would have been straight back to Glasgow . "
Making four more first @-@ team appearances in place of injured regulars , Wark ended the season still on the youth team , and experienced success in the final of the FA Youth Cup , defeating West Ham United 5 – 1 . He spent much of the 1975 – 76 season playing for the reserves , and was presented with the club 's Young Player of the Year award , despite making just four appearances for the senior team . Moving into midfield , Wark made over 30 appearances in the 1976 – 77 season , scoring his first goals for the club , ( 10 , in all ) taking over penalty kicking duty ; he also received his first red card .
In the June 1977 , Wark was selected for the Scotland squad for the first time , for a friendly match against East Germany ; however , a torn hamstring sustained in pre @-@ season training ended any chance of an international debut . The injury also kept him out of first @-@ team football until January 1978 , when he returned for a match against Cardiff City in the third round of the 1977 – 78 FA Cup .
Indifferent league performances that season meant that Ipswich finished just three points above the relegation zone , but the season ended in success in the FA Cup . Wark scored in a 3 – 1 victory over West Bromwich Albion in the semi @-@ final , and appeared in the final at Wembley as part of a side that surprised favourites Arsenal , winning the game 1 – 0 . Wark remarked , " We were underdogs but on the day we hammered them . " Wark did not touch the ball for the first 18 minutes of the match , and as the players left the pitch at half @-@ time , David Geddis said to Wark , " Make sure you hit it between the posts in the second @-@ half . Avoid the white bits . " In the second half of the game , Wark " ignored Geddis ' advice and hit Pat Jennings ' right post twice with almost identical swerving right @-@ foot shots from outside the penalty area " .
Twice in the three seasons that followed , Ipswich came within one game of winning the League championship , but finished as runners @-@ up to Liverpool and Aston Villa , respectively . However , Ipswich did win the club 's only European trophy when they lifted the 1980 – 81 UEFA Cup . Wark set a competition record by scoring 14 goals — including two , one in each leg — in the final as Ipswich overcame Dutch side AZ 67 Alkmaar 5 – 4 on aggregate . Wark 's record equalled the long @-@ standing scoring record in a European competition , set by José Altafini of A.C. Milan in the 1962 – 63 European Cup . Wark 's personal triumph that year was to win a European accolade , Young Player of the Year , and gain the acclaim of his fellow professionals in England to earn the PFA Player of the Year award . He ended the 1980 – 81 season with 36 goals .
Wark continued to play for Ipswich , but after Robson left to become England manager in 1982 , the side was gradually broken up by new manager Bobby Ferguson . Following a rejected demand for a wage increase , Wark submitted a transfer request , which was accepted . He signed for Liverpool for £ 450 @,@ 000 on 10 March 1984 . At the time , Liverpool had won the league title six times , the European Cup three times and the League Cup three times in the preceding eight seasons .
Wark 's final full season at Portman Road , 1982 – 83 , had seen him record the highest league goals tally of his career . He scored 20 goals in 42 league games , though it was not enough to prevent Ipswich from slipping to ninth place in the final table – their lowest position since finishing 18th in 1978 .
= = = Liverpool = = =
The medical examination for Wark 's transfer somewhat surprised him :
" I was rather taken aback when the doctor entered the Anfield boot room " , Wark said . " He was small in stature and I could not help but detect the smell of alcohol on his breath as he introduced himself to me . I was even more surprised when he announced we would stay put to conduct the medical examination . " He took my blood pressure , looked at the reading and muttered ' that 's fine ' . Then something happened that to this day I still cannot get over . He asked me to bend down and touch my toes . " Trying not to show my surprise , I did exactly as he asked and as I lifted my head he spoke again , this time to announce ' you 've passed ' . That was it , my Liverpool medical . "
Wark made his debut for the club on 31 March 1984 in a 2 – 0 league win against Watford at Vicarage Road , and scored Liverpool 's opening goal in the 58th minute . Liverpool won the English league title that season , and Wark made sufficient appearances to earn himself a medal . His unusual ability as a goalscoring midfielder was on display when he finished the 1984 – 85 season as the club 's top goalscorer , ahead of prolific striker Ian Rush , with a tally of 27 goals in 62 appearances — a goal every 2 @.@ 3 games . Wark 's season included three hat @-@ tricks , one each in the League , the FA Cup and the European Cup . Liverpool qualified for the 1985 European Cup Final but the match was overshadowed by the Heysel Stadium Disaster , a tragedy Wark remembers as " a nightmare memory " .
In the 1985 – 86 season , Wark made 18 appearances , scoring six times , but missed out on the club 's run @-@ in to their League and FA Cup " double " , due to a broken ankle suffered just after the turn of 1986 , followed by an Achilles tendon injury . He eventually regained his fitness but struggled to regain his place in the Liverpool team until injury to Steve McMahon allowed him back in . Wark came on as a late substitute ( but according to him , never touched the ball ) when Liverpool lost the 1987 League Cup Final to Arsenal . No longer a part of manager Kenny Dalglish 's plans following the arrival of new midfielders including John Barnes , Wark was sold back to Ipswich on 4 January 1988 for £ 100 @,@ 000 . In spite of more financially lucrative offers from both Watford and Coventry City , he followed Bobby Robson 's advice : " Money isn 't everything — go where you will be happiest . " Wark left the Merseyside club with a record of 42 goals in 108 appearances , a goal every 2 @.@ 6 games .
= = = Second spell at Ipswich = = =
Ipswich had been relegated 18 months before Wark 's return to the club and were still playing in the second tier of English football . During this second spell at Ipswich , Wark was close to being an ever @-@ present in the side : he missed just two games in two seasons . He was the club 's equal top @-@ scorer in the 1988 – 89 season , sharing the achievement with forwards Dalian Atkinson and Jason Dozzell .
Following three seasons of mid @-@ table finishes , manager John Duncan was sacked and replaced by John Lyall . With his contract expiring , Wark received what he considered to be a " derisory " offer from Lyall , which he declined . Once he became a free agent , Wark signed on a free transfer for Second Division rivals Middlesbrough in August 1990 . In his two additional seasons with Ipswich , Wark had scored 20 goals , and won the club 's Player of the Year award in both seasons .
= = = Middlesbrough = = =
Wark signed for Middlesbrough , the first club to show " a definite interest " in him , on a two @-@ year contract , moving back to play in the centre of defence . He made regular appearances and helped the team to seventh place by the end of the season and qualification for the Second Division play @-@ offs . Following a 1 – 1 draw with Notts County at Ayresome Park , Wark was informed by manager Colin Todd that he would not be selected for the second leg . Wark was outraged ; Middlesbrough lost the second leg 1 – 0 . Todd departed from the club and was replaced by Lennie Lawrence , who insisted that all players live " within an hour of Ayresome Park " . Wark was still living in Ipswich at the time and following a " sensible agreement " with Lawrence , Wark 's contract was terminated and he became a free agent again .
= = = Third spell at Ipswich = = =
Remaining without a club before the start of the 1991 – 92 season , Wark trained with Ipswich to keep fit , and rejected interest in his services from Leyton Orient , Colchester United and Falkirk . When Ipswich suffered a succession of injuries among their defenders , they offered him a contract , initially on a week @-@ by @-@ week basis , before securing a year @-@ long deal . Wark made 43 appearances in the first season of his third spell with the club . Early results in the season were excellent ; the club won seven of their first 11 matches in the league . In the FA Cup , Ipswich progressed to a fifth round encounter against Liverpool ; when the tie went to a replay at Anfield , Wark received a standing ovation from both sets of fans . Ipswich lost the match 3 – 2 after extra time , having led 2 – 1 in the first period . Ipswich went on to finish strongly in their league campaign and were crowned Second Division champions and promoted into the newly formed Premier League . Wark ended the season as the club 's Player of the Year for the third time .
Wark agreed to a new one @-@ year contract for the 1992 – 93 season and was asked to feature in a Sky Sports advertisement to promote the inaugural Premier League competition . Ipswich were the only Premier League club to remain unbeaten after eight games ( a sequence that included Wark 's first Premier League goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Tottenham Hotspur ) . Ipswich went fourth in February and there was talk of finally winning that title that had eluded them more than once during Wark 's first spell there , but 13 consecutive games without a win resulted a 16th @-@ place finish in the table , just three points above the relegation zone , and only a win on the final day of the season made sure of their survival . Wark , now aged 37 , secured yet another one @-@ year contract shortly before the end of the 1993 – 94 season . Ipswich were saved from relegation in the last round of matches ( for the second season running , another good start had given way to a late season slump ) , courtesy of an injury time winning goal scored by Mark Stein of Chelsea at Stamford Bridge , which ensured that Ipswich 's fellow strugglers Sheffield United went down . Wark went on to be voted the club 's Player of the Year for a record fourth time .
Ipswich and Wark fared worse in the 1994 – 95 season . The club lost 9 – 0 to Manchester United during a season in which Ipswich " recorded fewer victories and suffered more defeats than in any campaign in the club 's history " . He was sent off in the away game at Norwich , where the team lost 3 – 0 . Wark made fewer than 20 appearances in the following season , primarily because of a persistent foot injury . Despite his appearance in three more matches in the 1996 – 97 season , and a testimonial against Arsenal at Portman Road , Wark played his last professional match against Tranmere Rovers on 30 November 1996 at the age of 39 . By this stage , he was the club 's oldest player . Of a total 826 league matches played by Wark as a professional , he made 679 appearances for Ipswich . As of 5 June 2009 , he is Ipswich Town 's third @-@ highest all @-@ time scorer , with 179 goals scored for the club , despite rarely appearing as a striker .
= = International playing career = =
From 1979 , Wark was selected to play for his country , usually as a defender , eventually winning 29 caps for Scotland and scoring seven goals . Jock Stein was the Scotland manager who gave him his debut , in a game held on 19 May 1979 , a British Home Championship match against Wales at Ninian Park ; Scotland lost 3 – 0 . Wark scored his first international goal a week later on 26 May , again in a British Home Championship game , this time against England at Wembley . Wark 's opening effort was not enough , as Scotland were defeated 3 – 1 . A week later Wark played for Scotland in a friendly against Argentina at Hampden Park . However , the game is best remembered for the performance of Diego Maradona who scored his first international goal and whose performance led Argentina to a comfortable 3 – 1 win over the Scots .
After a 3 – 1 home defeat by Belgium in December 1979 , Wark was not selected again for his country until February 1981 for the 1982 World Cup qualifying match away against Israel . Following a successful qualification campaign , Wark was included in the Scotland squad that went to the World Cup in Spain under Stein 's leadership . Wark played three games and scored two goals , both of which were Scotland 's opening match against New Zealand , a game Scotland won 5 – 2 . Scotland were knocked out in the group stage .
Wark 's final appearance for Scotland came in September 1984 , under Stein ; he was replaced in favour of Paul McStay at half @-@ time in a 6 – 1 victory over Yugoslavia .
= = Life outside football = =
= = = Personal life = = =
Wark has married twice — first to Toula , on 1 July 1981 , with whom he has a son , Andrew , born in June 1983 . He married Karen at Gretna Green in April 2009 . They live in Onehouse near Stowmarket in Suffolk .
= = = Film appearance = = =
In 1981 , Wark was one of several Ipswich players who appeared alongside stars including Bobby Moore and Pelé in the Second World War football film Escape to Victory , which starred Sylvester Stallone , Michael Caine and Max von Sydow . Wark played a character called Arthur Hayes , but his only line was dubbed due to his broad Glaswegian accent .
= = = Since retirement as a player = = =
Following his retirement from playing football professionally , Wark continued to live in Suffolk , like many other ex @-@ Ipswich players , including Allan Hunter , Mick Mills , Roger Osborne and Mick Lambert . Despite his retirement from the professional ranks , Wark continued playing football as an amateur , and signed for Woodbridge Town in 1999 alongside former Ipswich team @-@ mate Paul Mason . He also played veterans football for Windsor and Eton , played with Soccer AM 's Badgers team at the Millennium Stadium , and has represented the Liverpool veterans in the Sky Sports Masters series .
In 2005 , Wark was voted as the BBC television programme Football Focus " all @-@ time cult hero " by Ipswich Town fans . In 2008 Radio Suffolk announced that he would join their commentary team as a summariser , alongside former team @-@ mates Kevin Beattie and Bryan Hamilton . As of April 2009 , he works in the corporate hospitality department at Ipswich Town .
= = = Autobiography = = =
Wark 's autobiography Wark On was published on 9 April 2009 . The book contained material that gained media interest . Wark stated that he made " a small fortune by flogging tickets for the FA Cup Final to a shady underworld ticket tout " . " Wark used his share of the cash to help pay for his wedding while a team @-@ mate bankrolled a house extension . He added : " Other teams had done it , so why shouldn ’ t we ? Nowadays it 's illegal but in those days it was regarded as a perk . " The report also highlighted Wark 's " dig " at the current " crop of stars " at Anfield . He said : " None of that lot would have been good enough in my time at Anfield . "
= = Playing style and personality = =
Wark played as a central defender , midfielder and , occasionally , as a striker . Wark was an unusual player ; he was able to play as a defensive midfielder yet break forward to score . According to former team @-@ mate Terry Butcher , this was because his colleagues would drop back to cover for him : " I played with John Wark , who was a sitting midfielder but was one of the top scorers in England and Europe . If you see it , then do it , as long as the others spot it and cover for you . "
Wark was not a " supremely talented " player , but , according to football journalist Jim White , one who espoused team @-@ work and team spirit : " There is no question that the ' one @-@ for @-@ all , all @-@ for @-@ one ' mentality generated in the Anfield dressing room was the engine that drove the great team . With players such as Alan Kennedy , John Wark , Sammy Lee and Craig Johnston , nobody could claim this was a collection of top @-@ notch operators in the manner , say , of the current Real Madrid . Every week , they played as an entity greater than the sum of its parts . " He has been described as " a defensive midfielder with an astonishing goalscoring record " .
Over the years , Wark has become closely associated with his moustache . Owen Slot described the player as " Ipswich 's immortal moustache " , while Wark himself notes " ... it is something of a trademark , even if people are always calling me Bruce ... "
= = Honours = =
In 2006 Wark gained the final place in the poll 100 Players Who Shook the Kop , conducted by the liverpoolfc.tv website . The list was compiled as a result of a fan survey : " Over 110 @,@ 000 supporters all nominated their own personal Top 10 players in order of impact made " . In 2007 , the Professional Footballers ' Association polled fans of all Football League clubs , as to " their No 1 player " as part of the " centenary celebrations of the players ' union " ; Wark was the choice of Ipswich fans . In the same year , Wark was one of four Ipswich Town players to be inducted into the club 's Hall of Fame .
= = = Ipswich Town = = =
Winner
1977 – 78 FA Cup
1980 – 81 UEFA Cup
1981 PFA Players ' Player of the Year
1981 Young European Player of the Year
1991 – 92 Football League Second Division ( Level 2 )
Runner up
1978 – 79 Charity Shield
1980 – 81 Football League First Division ( Level 1 )
1981 – 82 Football League First Division ( Level 1 )
= = = Liverpool = = =
Winner
1983 – 84 Football League First Division ( Level 1 )
1985 – 86 Football League First Division ( Level 1 )
Runner up
1984 – 85 Charity Shield
1984 – 85 Intercontinental Cup
1984 – 85 European Super Cup
1984 – 85 Football League First Division ( Level 1 )
1984 – 85 European Cup
1986 – 87 Football League Cup
1986 – 87 Football League First Division ( Level 1 )
= = = Scotland national team = = =
1979 – 84 29 caps , 7 goals
All honours referenced by :
= = Career statistics = =
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= Bomis =
Bomis ( / ˈbɒmᵻs / to rhyme with " promise " ) was a dot @-@ com company best known for supporting the creations of free @-@ content online @-@ encyclopedia projects Nupedia and Wikipedia . It was founded in 1996 by Jimmy Wales , Tim Shell and Michael Davis . Davis became acquainted with Wales after hiring him at Chicago Options Associates in 1994 , and Wales became friends with Shell through mailing lists discussing philosophy . The primary business of Bomis was the sale of advertising on the Bomis.com search portal .
The company initially tried a number of ideas for content , including being a directory of information about Chicago . The site subsequently focused on content geared to a male audience , including information on sporting activities , automobiles and women . Bomis became successful after focusing on X @-@ rated media . " Bomis Babes " was devoted to erotic images ; the " Bomis Babe Report " featured adult pictures . Bomis Premium , available for an additional fee , provided explicit material . " The Babe Engine " helped users find erotic content through a web search engine . The advertising director for Bomis noted that 99 percent of queries on the site were for nude women .
Bomis created Nupedia as a free online encyclopedia ( with content submitted by experts ) but it had a tedious , slow review process . Wikipedia was initially launched by Bomis to provide content for Nupedia , and was a for @-@ profit venture ( a Bomis subsidiary ) through the end of 2002 . As the costs of Wikipedia rose with its popularity , Bomis ' revenues declined as result of the dot @-@ com crash . Since Wikipedia was a drain on Bomis ' resources , Wales and philosophy graduate student Larry Sanger decided to fund the project as a charity ; Sanger was laid off from Bomis in 2002 . Nupedia content was merged into Wikipedia , and it ceased in 2003 .
The non @-@ profit Wikimedia Foundation began in 2003 with a Board of Trustees composed of Bomis ' three founders ( Wales , Davis and Shell ) and was first headquartered in St. Petersburg , Florida , Bomis ' location . Wales used about US $ 100 @,@ 000 of revenue from Bomis to fund Wikipedia before the decision to shift the encyclopedia to non @-@ profit status . Wales stepped down from his role as CEO of Bomis in 2004 . Shell served as CEO of the company in 2005 , while on the Wikimedia Foundation board of trustees . Wales edited Wikipedia in 2005 to remove the characterizations of Bomis as providing softcore pornography , which attracted media attention ; Wales expressed regret for his actions . The Atlantic gave Bomis the nickname " Playboy of the Internet " , and the term caught on in other media outlets . Scholars have described Bomis as a provider of softcore pornography .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Jimmy Wales left a study track at Indiana University as a PhD candidate to work in finance before completing his doctoral dissertation . In 1994 Wales was hired by Michael Davis , CEO of finance company Chicago Options Associates , as a trader focusing on futures contracts and options . Wales was adept at determining future movements of foreign currencies and interest rates ; he was successful in Chicago , became independently wealthy , and was director of research at Chicago Options Associates from 1994 to 2000 . He became acquainted with Tim Shell from email lists discussing philosophy .
Wales wanted to participate in the online @-@ based entrepreneurial ventures which were increasingly popular and successful during the mid @-@ 1990s . His experience ( from gaming in his youth ) impressed on him the importance of networking . Wales was interested in computer science , experimenting with source code on the Internet and improving his skill at computer programming . In his spare time after work at Chicago Options Associates , Wales constructed his own web browser . While at the firm , he noted the successful 1995 initial public offering of Netscape Communications .
= = = Foundation = = =
Wales co @-@ founded Bomis in 1996 , with business associates Tim Shell , and his then @-@ manager Michael Davis , as a for @-@ profit corporation with joint ownership . Wales was its chief manager . In 1998 he moved from Chicago to San Diego to work for Bomis , and then to St. Petersburg , Florida ( where the company subsequently relocated ) .
The staff at Bomis was originally about five employees . Its 2000 staff included programmer Toan Vo and system administrator Jason Richey ; Wales employed his high @-@ school friend and best man in his second wedding , Terry Foote , as advertising director . In June 2000 , Bomis was one of five network partners of Ask Jeeves . The majority of the revenue that came in to Bomis was generated through advertising . The most successful time for Bomis was during its venture as a member of the NBC web portal NBCi ; this collapsed at the end of the dot @-@ com bubble .
Although Bomis is not an acronym , the name stemmed from " Bitter Old Men in Suits " ( as Wales and Shell called themselves in Chicago ) . The site began as a web portal , trying a number of ideas ( including serving as an access point for information about Chicago ) . It later focused on male @-@ oriented content , including information on sporting activities , automobiles and women .
= = = Hosted content = = =
Working from the Open Directory Project , Bomis created and maintained hundreds of webrings on topics related to lad culture . In 1999 the company introduced the Bomis Browser , which helped users block online pop @-@ up ads . Its webring on Star Wars was considered a useful resource for information on Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . Additional webrings included sections helping users find information on Casablanca , Hunter S. Thompson , Farah Fawcett , Geri Haliwell of the Spice Girls and Snake Eyes . " Bomis : The Buffy the Vampire Slayer Ring " , devoted to Buffy the Vampire Slayer , organized over 50 sites related to the program . Sheila Jeffreys noted in her Beauty and Misogyny that in 2004 Bomis maintained " The Lipstick Fetish Ring " , which helped users with a particular attraction to women in makeup .
Bomis became successful after it focused on X @-@ rated and erotic media . Advertising generated revenue which enabled the company to fund other websites , and the site published suggestive pictures of professional models . In addition to Bomis the company maintained nekkid.com and nekkid.info , which featured pictures of nude women . About ten percent of Bomis ' revenue was derived from pornographic films and blogs .
The website included a segment devoted to erotic images , " Bomis Babes " , and a feature enabled users to submit recommended links to other sites appealing to a male audience . Peer @-@ to @-@ peer services provided by the site helped users find other websites about female celebrities , including Anna Kournikova and Pamela Anderson . In the Bomis Babes section was the Bomis Babe Report , begun in 2000 , with pictures of porn stars in a blog format . The Bomis Babe Report produced original erotic material , including reports on pornographic film actors and celebrities who had posed nude . It was referred to as The Babe Report for short .
Wales referred to the site 's softcore pornography as " glamour photography " , and Bomis became familiar to Internet users for its erotic images . During this period Wales was photographed steering a yacht with a peaked cap , posing as a sea captain with a female professional model on either side of him . In the photograph , the women were wearing panties and T @-@ shirts advertising Bomis .
A subscription section , Bomis Premium , provided access to adult content and erotic material ; A three @-@ day trial was US $ 2 @.@ 95 . While Bomis Babes provided nude images of females to subscribers , Bomis Premium featured lesbian sexual practices and female anatomy . Bomis created the Babe Engine , which helped users find erotic material online through a web search engine . According to Bomis advertising director Terry Foote , 99 percent of searches on the site related to nude women .
= = = Nupedia and Wikipedia = = =
Bomis is best known for supporting the creation of free @-@ content online @-@ encyclopedia projects Nupedia and Wikipedia . Tim Shell and Michael David continued their partnership with Wales during the 2000 Nupedia venture . Larry Sanger met Jimmy Wales through an e @-@ mail communication group about philosophy and objectivism , and joined Bomis in May 1999 . Sanger was a graduate student working towards a PhD degree in philosophy , with research focused on epistemology ; he received his degree from Ohio State University , moving to San Diego to help Bomis with its encyclopedia venture . At the time Sanger joined Bomis the company had a total workforce of two employees with help from programmers .
Sanger and Wales began Nupedia with resources from Bomis ; at the beginning of 2000 , the company agreed to provide early financing for Nupedia from its profits . Nupedia went live in March , when Wales was CEO of Bomis ; Sanger was Nupedia 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Nupedia 's reading comprehension was intended for high @-@ school graduates , and Bomis set its goal : " To set a new standard for breadth , depth , timeliness and lack of bias , and in the fullness of time to become the most comprehensive encyclopedia in the history of humankind . "
Although Bomis began a search for experts to vet Nupedia articles , this proved tedious . In August 2000 Nupedia had more than 60 academics contributing to the peer @-@ review process on the site , most with doctor of philosophy or doctor of medicine degrees . Scholars wishing to contribute to Nupedia were required to submit their credentials via fax for verification . At that time , Bomis was attempting to obtain advertising revenue for Nupedia and the company was optimistic that it could fund the project with ad space on Nupedia.com.
Wikipedia began as a feature of Nupedia.com on January 15 , 2001 , later known as Wikipedia Day . It was originally intended only to generate draft articles for Nupedia , with finished articles moved to the latter . Wikipedia became a separate site days after the Nupedia advisory board opposed combining the two . In September 2001 , Wales was simultaneously CEO of Bomis and co @-@ founder of Wikipedia ; Sanger was chief organizer of Wikipedia and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Nupedia .
Nupedia was encumbered by its peer @-@ review system , a seven @-@ step process of review and copyediting , and Wikipedia grew at a faster rate . In November 2000 , Nupedia had 115 potential articles awaiting its peer @-@ review process . By September 2001 , after a total investment of US $ 250 @,@ 000 from Bomis , Nupedia produced 12 articles ; from 2000 through 2003 , Nupedia contributors produced a total of 24 finalized articles . Wikipedia had about 20 @,@ 000 articles and 18 language versions by the end of 2001 .
Bomis originally planned to make Wikipedia profitable , providing staffing and hardware for its initial structure ; Wikipedia would not have survived without this early support . Bomis provided web servers and bandwidth for the projects , owning key items such as domain names . Wales used checks from Bomis to maintain the Wikipedia servers in Tampa , Florida .
As the cost of Wikipedia rose with its popularity , Bomis ' revenues declined as a result of the dot @-@ com crash . In late 2000 Bomis had a staff of about 11 employees , but by early 2002 layoffs reduced the staff to its original size of about five . Sanger was laid off in February 2002 ; from January 15 , 2001 through March 1 , 2002 , he was the sole paid editor of Wikipedia . Sanger stepped down from his dual roles as chief organizer of Wikipedia and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Nupedia on March 1 , 2002 , feeling unable to commit to these areas on a volunteer basis and a dearth of " the habit or tradition of respect for expertise " from high @-@ ranking Wikipedia members . He continued contributing to community discussions , optimistic about Wikipedia 's future success .
After Sanger 's departure , Wikipedia was managed by Wales and a burgeoning online community ; although he thought advertising a possibility , the Wikipedia community was opposed to business development and Internet marketing was difficult at the end of 2002 . Wikipedia remained a for @-@ profit venture ( under the auspices of Bomis ) through the end of 2002 . By then it had moved from a .com domain name to .org , and Wales said that the site would not accept advertising . Material from Nupedia was folded into Wikipedia , and by 2003 the former was discontinued .
= = = Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees = = =
By 2003 Wikipedia had grown to 100 @,@ 000 articles in its English @-@ language version , and it became difficult for Bomis to continue financially supporting the project . With Wikipedia a drain on the company 's resources , Wales and Sanger decided to fund the project on a non @-@ profit basis . Bomis laid off most of its employees to continue operating , since Wikipedia was not generating revenue . The company owned Wikipedia from its creation through 2003 , and Wales used about $ 100 @,@ 000 of Bomis ' revenue to fund Wikipedia before the decision to shift the encyclopedia to non @-@ profit status .
In June 2003 Wikipedia was transferred to a nascent non @-@ profit organization , the Wikimedia Foundation , which was formed as a charitable institution to supervise Wikipedia and its associated wiki @-@ based sites . When the foundation was established , its staff began to solicit public funding and Bomis turned Wikipedia over to the non @-@ profit . All Bomis @-@ owned hardware used to run Wikipedia @-@ associated websites was donated to the Wikimedia Foundation , and Wales transferred Wikipedia @-@ related copyrights from Bomis to the foundation . It was first headquartered in St. Petersburg , Florida , where Bomis was located . The foundation shifted Wikipedia 's dependence away from Bomis , allowing it to purchase hardware for expansion .
The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees was initially composed of Bomis ' three founders : Jimmy Wales and his two business partners , Michael Davis and Tim Shell . Shell and Davis were appointed to the board by Wales , but after Wikipedia community members complained that the board was composed of appointed individuals , the first elections were held in 2004 . Two community members , Florence Devouard and Angela Beesley , were elected to the Board of Trustees .
In August 2004 Wales was chief executive officer of Bomis , and on September 20 Wikipedia reached the million @-@ article mark on an expenditure of $ 500 @,@ 000 ( most directly from Wales ) . In November 2004 he told the St. Petersburg Times he no longer controlled Bomis ' day @-@ to @-@ day operations , but retained ownership as a shareholder . In 2005 , Tim Shell was CEO of Bomis and one of the board members overseeing Wikipedia . Shell remained CEO of Bomis in 2006 , becoming vice @-@ president of the Wikimedia Foundation and continuing to serve on its board . Bomis co @-@ founder Michael Davis became treasurer of the Wikimedia Foundation that year . Wales told The Sydney Morning Herald in 2007 that although he retained partial ownership of Bomis , " It 's pretty much dead . " According to the Internet Archive , the Bomis website was last accessible with content in 2010 ; when accessed in 2013 by the archive , it had a welcome message for PetaBox .
= = Aftermath = =
In 2005 , Wales made 18 changes to his Wikipedia biography . He removed references to Bomis Babes as softcore pornography and erotica , and Larry Sanger as co @-@ founder of Wikipedia . Wales ' actions were publicized by author Rogers Cadenhead , attracting attention from US and UK media . In 2011 , Time listed Wales ' 2005 edits in its " Top 10 Wikipedia Moments " .
Wikipedia policy warned users not to edit their own biography pages , with its rules on autobiographical editing quoting Wales : " It is a social faux pas to write about yourself . " Larry Sanger said , " It does seem that Jimmy is attempting to rewrite history " , and began a discussion on the talk page of Wales ' biography about historical revisionism .
Wales called his actions fixing mistakes , but after Cadenhead publicized the edits to his biography he expressed regret for his actions . In The Times Wales said that individuals should not edit their own Wikipedia biographies , telling The New Yorker that the standard applied to himself as well . Wales warned that the activity should be discouraged because of the potential for bias : " I wish I hadn 't done it . It 's in poor taste . "
Bomis was called the " ' Playboy ' of the Internet " by The Atlantic , and the sobriquet was adopted by other media outlets . Wales considered the " ' Playboy ' of the Internet " nickname inappropriate , although he was asked in interviews if his time at Bomis made him a " porn king " . The 2010 documentary film about Wikipedia , Truth in Numbers ? , discussed this characterization of Wales by journalists . Wales , interviewed in the film , called the characterization inaccurate and explained that his company responded to content demand from customers . In later interviews , he responded to " porn king " questions by telling journalists to look at a page on Yahoo ! about pornography related to dwarfism . According to a 2007 article in Reason , " If he was a porn king , he suggests , so is the head of the biggest Web portal in the world . "
On December 14 , 2012 , academic and writer Judith Reisman stated in a piece for WorldNetDaily that in her view Wales had received revenue from a website which dealt in pornography . Relatively soon after the article was published , Wales wrote to WorldNetDaily to object to this characterization : " This is absolutely and categoricallly [ sic ] false . I have never made any ' fortune ' , as a pornography trafficker or otherwise , and I have never been a ' pornography trafficker ' at all . ... I demand an immediate edit to that story to remove the lie about me . " WorldNetDaily editor Joseph Farah personally replied to Wales to explain that Wikipedia 's coverage of the history of Bomis acknowledged at the time that : " Bomis ran a website called Bomis Premium at premium.bomis.com until 2005 , offering customers access to premium , X @-@ rated pornographic content . " Wales sent an email to Farah stating Wikipedia : " doesn 't say anything remotely like me making a ' fortune ' from ' pornography . " Wales inquired to Farah what he was going to do next about what Wales characterized as " libel " . Farah responded to Wales ' reply with a subsequent email asking : " Let me get this straight : You admit making money from pornography , but you feel defamed because you didn ’ t make enough for it to be considered a ' fortune ' ? " Wales then repeated his original request to Farah and again asserted the original article was " defamatory " , writing in an email : " This is a defamatory falsehood . I have never made any ' fortune ' as a ' porngraphy [ sic ] trafficker . ' Fix it . "
WorldNetDaily published a correction on December 17 , 2012 , in the form of a new full article by journalist Chelsea Schilling which presented an analysis of the history of Bomis . Schilling reported that WorldNetDaily had performed a search of archives of Bomis and found that the Bomis Premium feature had indeed advertised on its site that membership included access to naked pictures of models . Schilling 's article included historical screenshots of the appearance of the site when Bomis Premium was an active feature . She cited a Wired article , and noted the prior history from 2005 of Wales 's repeated attempts to remove references on Wikipedia to the term " pornography " in reference to Bomis . In its final determination , Schilling reported that WorldNetDaily had modified the original article from stating Wales " made his original fortune as a pornography trafficker " to : " originally made his living off a website that earned revenue from pornography traffickers " .
= = Analysis = =
The Chronicle of Philanthropy characterized Bomis as " an Internet marketing firm ... which also traded in erotic photographs for a while . " Jeff Howe wrote in his book , Crowdsourcing , about " one of Wales 's less altruistic ventures , a Web portal called Bomis.com that featured , among other items , soft @-@ core pornography . " In his book , The Future of the Internet — And How to Stop It , legal scholar Jonathan Zittrain wrote that " Bomis helped people find ' erotic photography ' , and earned money through advertising as well as subscription fees for premium content . " The Guardian described the site as on " the fringes of the adult entertainment industry " , and The Edge called Bomis.com an " explicit @-@ content search engine " . Business 2 @.@ 0 Magazine described it as " a search portal ... which created and hosted Web rings around popular search terms – including , not surprisingly , a lot of adult themes . "
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= Harrie Massey =
Sir Harrie Stewart Wilson Massey FRS ( 16 May 1908 – 27 November 1983 ) was an Australian mathematical physicist who worked primarily in the fields of atomic and atmospheric physics .
A graduate of the University of Melbourne and Cambridge University , where he earned his doctorate at the Cavendish Laboratory , Massey became an independent lecturer in Mathematical Physics at the Queen 's University of Belfast in 1933 . He was appointed Goldsmid Professor of Applied Mathematics at University College London , in 1938 . During the Second World War , Massey worked at the Admiralty Research Laboratory , where he helped devise countermeasures for German magnetic naval mines , and at the Admiralty Mining Establishment in Havant , where he helped develop British naval mines . In 1943 , Mark Oliphant persuaded the Admiralty to release Massey to work on the Manhattan Project . He joined Oliphant 's British Mission at the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California , where they worked on the electromagnetic isotope separation process . When Oliphant returned to Britain in 1945 , Massey took over the Berkeley Mission .
Massey returned to University College , London , in October 1945 to find it badly damaged by bombing , and the Mathematics Department in dingy temporary accommodation . In 1950 he was appointed Quain Professor of Physics and head of the University College , London , Physics Department . The department was merged with Astronomy in 1973 , but he remained its head until he retired in 1975 . Under his direction , the Physics Department was reoriented towards particle physics and upper atmosphere physics . He worked with the Woomera Rocket Range to develop British Skylark rocket , and was on the governing board of the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope . He was the chairman of the Committee on Space Research ( COSPAR ) from 1959 to 1978 , and of its British national chapter . He was also the first Chairman of the European Space Sciences Committee , and helped found the European Space Research Organization and the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College , London .
= = Early life = =
Harrie Stewart Wilson Massey was born in Invermay , Victoria , Australia , on 16 May 1908 , the only child of Harrie Stewart Massey , a miner , and his wife Eleanor Elizabeth née Wilson . He grew up in the rural community of Hoddles Creek , and enrolled in the local state school in 1913 . He received his Merit Certificate , normally awarded after completing the eighth grade , when he was nine , but due to his age he still had to stay there for another three years . He won a scholarship to University High School , and moved to Parkville with his mother in 1920 . At University High School he was president of the Science Club and vice captain of the cricket team .
= = Carrier = =
At the age of 16 , Massey won a scholarship to the University of Melbourne , which he entered in 1925 . He had thoughts of studying chemistry , but was impressed by the physics lectures given by Eric Hercus . This was a stroke of luck ; first year physics lectures were normally given by Thomas Laby . Massey recalled in 1980 that " in a fairly wide experience I would rate [ Laby ] the worst lecturer I have heard " . At the University he played cricket , billiards , tennis and baseball , which he played for the University . He was awarded his Bachelor of Arts ( BSc ) in physics with first class honours in 1928 , and a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) in mathematics in 1929 . At a meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science in Perth in August 1925 , he met a schoolteacher , Jessica Elizabeth Bruce . They were married on 11 January 1928 at the district registrar ’ s office in Perth . They had a daughter , Pamela Lois .
At that time , the university did not offer a Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) program so Massey undertook a Master of Science ( MSc ) course , with both experimental and theoretical components . The former , in cooperation with Courtney Mohr , dealt with soft X @-@ ray deflection from metal surfaces ; the latter with wave mechanics . This involved translating numerous articles from German journals such as Zeitschrift für Physik , Annalen der Physik and Physikalische Zeitschrift . His external examiner was Ralph Fowler from the University of Cambridge , who was Paul Dirac 's PhD supervisor .
In 1929 , with the benefit of an Aitchison travelling scholarship from the University of Melbourne , Massey went to Trinity College , Cambridge to perform research at the Cavendish Laboratory led by Ernest Rutherford . The scholarship expired after two years , but he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship in 1931 . At this time the Cavendish Laboratory was one of the leading centres of physics in the world . In 1932 Cavendish laboratory scientists John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split the atomic nucleus , James Chadwick discovered the neutron , and Patrick Blackett and Giuseppe Occhialini confirmed the existence of the positron .
Fowler was appointed as Massey 's supervisor although it was clear that he did not need any supervision per se . Massey obtained his PhD on the The Collisions of Material Particles in 1932 . Shortly afterwards , he co @-@ authored a book on atomic collision processes with Nevill Mott , Theory of Atomic Collisions ( 1933 ) . He also applied the theory of collisions to models of neutron structure . At the Cavendish laboratory , he also played hockey with Cockcroft , and cricket for the Cavendish Cricket Club , becoming team captain in his final year there .
In June 1933 Massey became an independent lecturer in Mathematical Physics at the Queen 's University of Belfast . He was the only member of the department until R. A. Buckingham arrived in 1934 . Despite having to give nine lectures a week , he found time to write his second book , Negative Ions ( 1938 ) , and began working on upper atmospheric physics . Frustrated with the tiresome and time @-@ consuming process of calculation , he had his physics workshop superintendent , John Wylie , build him a small @-@ scale differential analyzer , an analog computer that could solve differential equations , for just £ 50 . This was used to solve problems related to low temperature helium , and the photo @-@ ionisation of oxygen in the upper atmosphere .
Massey was appointed Goldsmid Professor of Applied Mathematics at University College London , in 1938 , following the death of L. N. G. Filon the previous year . He brought with him Buckingham , now an 1851 Exhibition Scholar himself , and David Bates , a promising graduate student . They brought the differential analyser with them to London , where it was destroyed by an air raid during the Second World War .
= = Second World War = =
Soon after the outbreak of war in September 1939 , the Germans began a naval mine campaign against Britain . The results were devastating . Nineteen ships totaling 59 @,@ 027 tons were sunk by mines in October , and 27 totaling 120 @,@ 958 tons in November , along with the destroyer HMS Blanche . Many more ships were damaged , including the cruiser HMS Belfast . The nature of the mines was initially unknown , but on 23 November 1939 , a bomb disposal team under Lieutenant Commander J. G. D. Ouvry recovered an intact aerial mine from a mudflat at Shoeburyness , and the threat was revealed to be a magnetic mine .
In December 1939 , Massey joined a group at the Admiralty Research Laboratory in Teddington led by Stephen Butterworth . They were soon joined by a number of other physicists , including Bates , Buckingham , Francis Crick and John Gunn . Together , they came up with a series of countermeasures that enable the Navy to successfully sweep the mines . With this in hand , Massey became Deputy Chief Scientist to the Scientific Section of Mine Design Department at the Admiralty Mining Establishment in Havant in early 1941 . This time , the job was to create mines as good as the German ones . Massey brought his team with him . While Bates worked on packaging to protect the mine when it was dropped from an aircraft , Buckingham and Gunn calculated its theoretical effectiveness , and Crick designed the circuitry . Their mine codenamed MX , was soon in service , and the group turned its attention to developing acoustic or pressure mines . On the retirement of A. B. Wood in 1943 , Massey became Chief Scientist at Havant .
After the August 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the British and American atomic bomb projects , Mark Oliphant persuaded the Admiralty to release Massey to work on the Manhattan Project . In November 1943 , Massey set out with Oliphant for the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California in Berkeley in a B @-@ 24 Liberator bomber . The Radiation Laboratory 's part was to develop an electromagnetic isotope separation process . Massey was in charge of its Theoretical Group , which included American David Bohm and Australian Eric Burhop . They studied the characteristics of electric discharges in magnetic fields , today known as Bohm diffusion , and studied the ionization of uranium compounds used as feed in the electromagnetic uranium enrichment process such as uranium tetrachloride ( UCl4 ) and uranium hexafluoride ( UF6 ) . Oliphant returned to Britain in March 1945 , and was replaced as head of the British mission in Berkeley by Massey . Wartime papers produced by the group were collected and published in The Characteristics of Electrical Discharges in Magnetic Fields ( 1949 ) .
= = Later life = =
Massey returned to University College , London , in October 1945 to find it badly damaged by bombing , and the Mathematics Department in dingy temporary accommodation . He was allowed to pick his own lecturers , so he chose Bats , Burhop , Buckingham and Gunn . While they had to teach mathematics , they were free to choose their own research topics , so they chose to research physics , carrying out physical experiments . This situation lasted until 1950 , when Edward Andrade retired , and Massey was appointed Quain Professor of Physics and head of the University College , London , Physics Department . The department was merged with Astronomy in 1973 , but he remained its head until he retired in 1975 . He also served as University College , London 's Vice @-@ Provost from 1969 to 1973 .
When Massey took over the Physics Department , most of his physicists , including Bates , Buckingham , Burhop and Robert Boyd , moved with him . Like the Mathematics Department , it was still in temporary accommodation owing to bomb damage during the war . A new building was under construction , but to develop the technical infrastructure , Massey hired Harry Tomlinson , who had worked for him in the British Mission in Berkeley . The Department acquired several accelerators , including a 20 MeV synchrotron from the Atomic Energy Authority . Dick Jennings and Franz Heymann built two microtrons . Under Massey , the Physics Department moved away from researching the physics of metals and liquids , and focused on particle physics and upper atmosphere physics . Massey saw the potential of computers . He arranged with Andrew Booth for a copy of his All Purpose Electronic Computer , and recruited two programmers , Joan Lawson and Jane Wallace . When the University of London established a computing unit , Buckingham left to head it .
Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1940 , Massey was awarded its Hughes Medal in 1955 , and its Royal Medal in 1958 . He was a member of the its council from 1949 to 1951 and again from 1959 to 1960 , before serving as its Physical Secretary and Vice @-@ President from 1969 to 1978 . He became a member of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 's Nuclear Physics Sub @-@ Committee in 1956 . When the National Institute for Research in Nuclear Science was founded in 1957 , he became one of the initial members of its governing board . He became a member of the Research Grants Committee in 1959 , and was chairman of the Council for Scientific Policy from 1965 to 1970 . He was knighted for his services in 1960 .
Rockets had seen enormous development for military purposes during the Second World War , and Massey saw their potential for studying the upper atmosphere . He became a major supporter of space science , and wrote a book on the subject , History of British Space Science ( 1984 ) . He was the chairman of the Committee on Space Research ( COSPAR ) , which was established by the International Council of Scientific Unions , from its founding in 1959 until 1978 , and also of the British National Committee for Space Research , its British national chapter . He was also the first Chairman of the European Space Sciences Committee , and helped found the European Space Research Organization and the Mullard Space Science Laboratory at University College , London .
Space science also gave Massey an excuse to visit Australia ; he made some twenty trips . He was involved in the testing of balloons for upper atmosphere research at the University of Melbourne 's site in Mildura , Victoria . As chairman of the Rocket Subcommittee of the Royal Society 's Gassiot Committee , he visited the Weapons Research Establishment near Adelaide and the Woomera Rocket Range to discuss collaboration on the British Skylark rocket , which was test fired from Woomera in 1957 . He sought to develop a UK space program in cooperation in space with Australia , the United States and European countries . He was successful in building international cooperation , although his Black Knight project was cancelled in favour of Black Arrow , which launched Prospero , only satellite launched with a British launch vehicle , from Woomera in 1971 . He was involved in the negotiations leading to the establishment of the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope at Siding Spring Mountain in New South Wales .
Massey received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot @-@ Watt University in 1975 .
He was a United Kingdom member and deputy chairman its governing board from 1975 to 1980 , and chairman from 1980 to 1983 .
= = Death and legacy = =
After a long illness , Massey died at his home in Esher , Surrey , which Jessica had named " Kalamunda " , from the Australian Aboriginal word for the area in Western Australia where she had once lived , on 27 November 1983 . He was survived by his wife and daughter . The Royal Society / COSPAR Massey Award is named after him , as is the Harrie Massey Lecture Theatre and Harrie Massey Prize at University College , London , and the Harrie Massey Medal and Prize , jointly awarded by the Australian Institute of Physics and British Institute of Physics . His papers are in the University College , London , archives .
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= Gorgosaurus =
Gorgosaurus ( / ˌɡɔːrɡəˈsɔːrəs / GOR @-@ gə @-@ SOR @-@ əs ; meaning " dreadful lizard " ) is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period , between about 76 @.@ 6 and 75 @.@ 1 million years ago . Fossil remains have been found in the Canadian province of Alberta and possibly the U.S. state of Montana . Paleontologists recognize only the type species , G. libratus , although other species have been erroneously referred to the genus .
Like most known tyrannosaurids , Gorgosaurus was a bipedal predator weighing more than two metric tons as an adult ; dozens of large , sharp teeth lined its jaws , while its two @-@ fingered forelimbs were comparatively small . Gorgosaurus was most closely related to Albertosaurus , and more distantly related to the larger Tyrannosaurus . Gorgosaurus and Albertosaurus are extremely similar , distinguished mainly by subtle differences in the teeth and skull bones . Some experts consider G. libratus to be a species of Albertosaurus ; this would make Gorgosaurus a junior synonym of that genus .
Gorgosaurus lived in a lush floodplain environment along the edge of an inland sea . It was an apex predator , preying upon abundant ceratopsids and hadrosaurs . In some areas , Gorgosaurus coexisted with another tyrannosaurid , Daspletosaurus . Although these animals were roughly the same size , there is some evidence of niche differentiation between the two . Gorgosaurus is the best @-@ represented tyrannosaurid in the fossil record , known from dozens of specimens . These plentiful remains have allowed scientists to investigate its ontogeny , life history and other aspects of its biology .
= = Description = =
Gorgosaurus was smaller than Tyrannosaurus or Tarbosaurus , closer in size to Albertosaurus and Daspletosaurus . Adults reached 8 to 9 m ( 26 to 30 ft ) from snout to tail . Paleontologists have estimated full @-@ grown adults to weigh about 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) , perhaps approaching 2 @.@ 8 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 1 short tons ) . The largest known skull measures 99 cm ( 39 in ) long , just slightly smaller than that of Daspletosaurus . As in other tyrannosaurids , the skull was large compared to its body size , although chambers within the skull bones and large openings ( fenestrae ) between bones reduced its weight . Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus share proportionally longer and lower skulls than Daspletosaurus and other tyrannosaurids . The end of the snout was blunt , and the nasal and parietal bones were fused along the midline of the skull , as in all other members of the family . The eye socket was circular rather than oval or keyhole @-@ shaped as in other tyrannosaurid genera . A tall crest rose from the lacrimal bone in front of each eye , similar to Albertosaurus and Daspletosaurus . Differences in the shape of bones surrounding the brain set Gorgosaurus apart from Albertosaurus .
Gorgosaurus teeth were typical of all known tyrannosaurids . The eight premaxillary teeth at the front of the snout were smaller than the rest , closely packed and D @-@ shaped in cross section . In Gorgosaurus , the first tooth in the maxilla was also shaped like the premaxillary teeth . The rest of the teeth were oval in cross section , rather than blade @-@ like as in most other theropods . Along with the eight premaxillary teeth , Gorgosaurus had 26 to 30 maxillary teeth and 30 to 34 teeth in the dentary bones of the lower jaw . This number of teeth is similar to Albertosaurus and Daspletosaurus but is fewer than those of Tarbosaurus or Tyrannosaurus .
Gorgosaurus shared its general body plan with all other tyrannosaurids . Its massive head was perched on the end of an S @-@ shaped neck . In contrast to its large head , its forelimbs were very small . The forelimbs had only two digits , although a third metacarpal is known in some specimens , the vestigial remains of the third digit seen in other theropods . Gorgosaurus had four digits on each hindlimb , including a small first toe ( hallux ) which did not contact the ground . Tyrannosaurid hindlimbs were long relative to overall body size compared with other theropods . The largest known Gorgosaurus femur measured 105 cm ( 41 in ) long . In several smaller specimens of Gorgosaurus , the tibia was longer than the femur , a proportion typical of fast @-@ running animals . The two bones were of equal length in the largest specimens . The long , heavy tail served as a counterweight to the head and torso and placed the center of gravity over the hips .
In 2001 , paleontologist Phil Currie reported skin impressions from the holotype specimen of G. libratus . He originally reported the skin as being essentially smooth and lacking the scales found in other dinosaurs , similar to the secondarily featherless skin found in large modern birds . Scales of some sort were present in this specimen , but they are reportedly widely dispersed from each other and very small . Other patches of isolated Gorgosaurus skin shows denser , and larger though still relatively fine scales ( smaller than hadrosaurid scales and approximately as fine as a Gila monster 's ) . Neither of these specimens was associated with any particular bone or specific body area . In the Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs Kenneth Carpenter pointed out that traces of skin impressions from the tail of Gorgosaurus showed similar small rounded or hexagonal scales .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Gorgosaurus is classified in the theropod subfamily Albertosaurinae within the family Tyrannosauridae . It is most closely related to the slightly younger Albertosaurus . These are the only two definite albertosaurine genera that have been described , although other undescribed species may exist . Appalachiosaurus was described as a basal tyrannosauroid just outside Tyrannosauridae , although American paleontologist Thomas Holtz published a phylogenetic analysis in 2004 which indicated it was an albertosaurine . More recent , unpublished work by Holtz agrees with the original assessment . All other tyrannosaurid genera , including Daspletosaurus , Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus , are classified in the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae . Compared to the tyrannosaurines , albertosaurines had slender builds , with proportionately smaller , lower skulls and longer bones of the lower leg ( tibia ) and feet ( metatarsals and phalanges ) .
The close similarities between Gorgosaurus libratus and Albertosaurus sarcophagus have led many experts to combine them into one genus over the years . Albertosaurus was named first , so by convention it is given priority over the name Gorgosaurus , which is sometimes considered its junior synonym . William Diller Matthew and Barnum Brown doubted the distinction of the two genera as early as 1922 . Gorgosaurus libratus was formally reassigned to Albertosaurus ( as Albertosaurus libratus ) by Dale Russell in 1970 , and many subsequent authors followed his lead . Combining the two greatly expands the geographical and chronological range of the genus Albertosaurus . Other experts maintain the two genera as separate . Canadian paleontologist Phil Currie claims there are as many anatomical differences between Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus as there are between Daspletosaurus and Tyrannosaurus , which are almost always kept separate . He also notes that undescribed tyrannosaurids discovered in Alaska , New Mexico and elsewhere in North America may help clarify the situation . Gregory S. Paul has suggested that Gorgosaurus libratus is ancestral to Albertosaurus sarcophagus .
Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen et al. in 2013 .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Gorgosaurus libratus was first described by Lawrence Lambe in 1914 . Its name is derived from the Greek γοργος / gorgos ( " fierce " or " terrible " ) and σαυρος / saurus ( " lizard " ) . The type species is G. libratus ; the specific epithet " balanced " is the past participle of the Latin verb librare , meaning " to balance " .
The holotype of Gorgosaurus libratus ( NMC 2120 ) is a nearly complete skeleton associated with a skull , discovered in 1913 by Charles M. Sternberg . This specimen was the first tyrannosaurid found with a complete hand . It was found in the Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta and is housed in the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa . Prospectors from the American Museum of Natural History in New York City were active along the Red Deer River in Alberta at the same time , collecting hundreds of spectacular dinosaur specimens , including four complete G. libratus skulls , three of which were associated with skeletons . Matthew and Brown described four of these specimens in 1923 .
Matthew and Brown also described a fifth skeleton ( AMNH 5664 ) , which Charles H. Sternberg had collected in 1917 and sold to their museum . It was smaller than other Gorgosaurus specimens , with a lower , lighter skull and more elongate limb proportions . Many sutures between bones were unfused in this specimen as well . Matthew and Brown noted that these features were characteristic of juvenile tyrannosaurids , but still described it as the holotype of a new species , G. sternbergi . Today 's paleontologists regard this specimen as a juvenile G. libratus . Dozens of other specimens have been excavated from the Dinosaur Park Formation and are housed in museums across the United States and Canada . G. libratus is the best @-@ represented tyrannosaurid in the fossil record , known from a virtually complete growth series .
In 1856 , Joseph Leidy described two tyrannosaurid premaxillary teeth from Montana . Although there was no indication of what the animal looked like , the teeth were large and robust , and Leidy gave them the name Deinodon . Matthew and Brown commented in 1922 that these teeth were indistinguishable from those of Gorgosaurus , but in the absence of skeletal remains of Deinodon , opted not to unequivocally synonymize the two genera , provisionally naming a ? Deinodon libratus . Although Deinodon teeth are very similar to those of Gorgosaurus , tyrannosaurid teeth are extremely uniform , so it cannot be said for certain which animal they belonged to . Deinodon is usually regarded as a nomen dubium today . Additional likely synonyms of G. libratus and / or D. horridus include Laelaps falculus , Laelaps hazenianus , Laelaps incrassatus , and Dryptosaurus kenabekides .
Several tyrannosaurid skeletons from the Two Medicine Formation and Judith River Formation of Montana probably belong to Gorgosaurus , although it remains uncertain whether they belong to G. libratus or a new species . One specimen from Montana ( TCMI 2001 @.@ 89 @.@ 1 ) , housed in the Children 's Museum of Indianapolis , shows evidence of severe pathologies , including healed leg , rib , and vertebral fractures , osteomyelitis ( infection ) at the tip of the lower jaw resulting in permanent tooth loss , and possibly a brain tumor .
= = = Misassigned species = = =
Several species were incorrectly assigned to Gorgosaurus in the twentieth century . A complete skull of a small tyrannosaurid ( CMNH 7541 ) , found in the younger , late Maastrichtian @-@ age Hell Creek Formation of Montana , was named Gorgosaurus lancensis by Charles Whitney Gilmore in 1946 . This specimen was renamed Nanotyrannus by Bob Bakker and colleagues in 1988 . Currently , many paleontologists regard Nanotyrannus as a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . Similarly , Evgeny Maleev created the names Gorgosaurus lancinator and Gorgosaurus novojilovi for two small tyrannosaurid specimens ( PIN 553 @-@ 1 and PIN 552 @-@ 2 ) from the Nemegt Formation of Mongolia in 1955 . Kenneth Carpenter renamed the smaller specimen Maleevosaurus novojilovi in 1992 , but both are now considered juveniles of Tarbosaurus bataar .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Coexistence with Daspletosaurus = = =
In the middle stages of the Dinosaur Park Formation , Gorgosaurus lived alongside a rarer species of the tyrannosaurine , Daspletosaurus . This is one of the few examples of two tyrannosaur genera coexisting . Similar @-@ sized predators in modern predator guilds are separated into different ecological niches by anatomical , behavioral or geographical differences that limit competition . Niche differentiation between the Dinosaur Park tyrannosaurids is not well understood . In 1970 , Dale Russell hypothesized that the more common Gorgosaurus actively hunted fleet @-@ footed hadrosaurs , while the rarer and more troublesome ceratopsians and ankylosaurians ( horned and heavily armoured dinosaurs ) were left to the more heavy built Daspletosaurus . However , a specimen of Daspletosaurus ( OTM 200 ) from the contemporaneous Two Medicine Formation of Montana preserves the digested remains of a juvenile hadrosaur in its gut region , and another bonebed contains the remains of three Daspletosaurus along with the remains of at least five hadrosaurs .
Unlike some other groups of dinosaurs , neither genus was more common at higher or lower elevations than the other . However , Gorgosaurus appears more common in northern formations like Dinosaur Park , with species of Daspletosaurus being more abundant to the south . The same pattern is seen in other groups of dinosaurs . Chasmosaurine ceratopsians and hadrosaurine hadrosaurs are also more common in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana and in southwestern North America during the Campanian , while centrosaurine and lambeosaurines dominate in northern latitudes . Holtz has suggested this pattern indicates shared ecological preferences between tyrannosaurines , chasmosaurines and hadrosaurines . At the end of the later Maastrichtian stage , tyrannosaurines like Tyrannosaurus rex , hadrosaurines like Edmontosaurus and Kritosaurus and chasmosaurines like Triceratops and Torosaurus were widespread throughout western North America , while lambeosaurines were rare , consisting of a few species like Hypacrosaurus , and albertosaurines and centrosaurines had gone extinct ; however , they had thrived in Asia with species like Sinoceratops and Alioramus .
= = = Life history = = =
Gregory Erickson and colleagues have studied the growth and life history of tyrannosaurids using bone histology , which can determine the age of a specimen when it died . A growth curve can be developed when the ages of various individuals are plotted against their sizes on a graph . Tyrannosaurids grew throughout their lives , but underwent tremendous growth spurts for about four years , after an extended juvenile phase . Sexual maturity may have ended this rapid growth phase , after which growth slowed down considerably in adult animals . Examining five Gorgosaurus specimens of various sizes , Erickson calculated a maximum growth rate of about 50 kg ( 110 lb ) per year during the rapid growth phase , slower than in tyrannosaurines like Daspletosaurus and Tyrannosaurus , but comparable to Albertosaurus .
Gorgosaurus spent as much as half its life in the juvenile phase before ballooning up to near @-@ maximum size in only a few years . This , along with the complete lack of predators intermediate in size between huge adult tyrannosaurids and other small theropods , suggests that these niches may have been filled by juvenile tyrannosaurids . This pattern is seen in modern Komodo dragons , whose hatchlings start off as tree @-@ dwelling insectivores and slowly mature into massive apex predators capable of taking down large vertebrates . Other tyrannosaurids , including Albertosaurus , have been found in aggregations that some have suggested to represent mixed @-@ age packs , but there is no evidence of gregarious behavior in Gorgosaurus .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
Several pathologies have been documented in the Gorgosaurus libratus holotype , NMC 2120 . These include the third right dorsal rib , as well as healed fractures on the 13th and 14th gastralia and left fibula . Its fourth left metatarsal bore roughened exostoses both in the middle and at the far end . The third phalanx of the third right toe is deformed , as the claw on that digit has been described as " quite small and amorphous " . The three pathologies may have been received in a single encounter with another dinosaur .
Another specimen cataloged as TMP94.12.602 bears multiple pathologies . A 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) longitudinal fracture is present in the middle of the right fibula 's shaft . Multiple ribs bear healed fractures and the specimen had a pseudoarthortic gastralium . Lesions from a bite received to the face were present and showed evidence that the wounds were healing before the animal died .
TMP91.36.500 is another Gorgosaurus with preserved face bite injuries but also has a thoroughly healed fracture in the right fibula . Also present was a healed fracture in the dentary and what the authors describing the specimen referred to as " a mushroom @-@ like hyperostosis of a right pedal phalanx . " Ralph Molnar has speculated that this may be the same kind of pathology afflicting an unidentified ornithomimid discovered with a similar mushroom shaped growth on a toe bone . TMP91.36.500 is also preserved in a characteristic death pose .
Another specimen has a poorly healed fracture of the right fibula , which left a large callus on the bone . In a 2001 study conducted by Bruce Rothschild and other paleontologists , 54 foot bones referred to Gorgosaurus were examined for signs of stress fracture , but none were found .
= = Paleoecology = =
Most specimens of Gorgosaurus libratus have been recovered from the Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta . This formation dates to the middle of the Campanian , between 76 @.@ 5 and 74 @.@ 8 million years ago , and Gorgosaurus libratus fossils are known specifically from the lower to middle section of the formation , between 76 @.@ 6 and 75 @.@ 1 million years ago . The Two Medicine Formation and Judith River Formation of Montana have also yielded possible Gorgosaurus remains . At this time , the area was a coastal plain along the western edge of the Western Interior Seaway , which divided North America in half . The Laramide Orogeny had begun uplifting the Rocky Mountains to the west , from which flowed great rivers that deposited eroded sediment in vast floodplains along the coast . The climate was subtropical with marked seasonality , and periodic droughts sometimes resulted in massive mortality among the great herds of dinosaurs , as represented in the numerous bonebed deposits preserved in the Dinosaur Park Formation . Conifers formed the forest canopy , while the understory plants consisted of ferns , tree ferns and angiosperms . Around 73 million years ago , the seaway began to expand , transgressing into areas formerly above sea level and drowning the Dinosaur Park ecosystem . This transgression , called the Bearpaw Sea , is recorded by the marine sediments of the massive Bearpaw Shale .
The Dinosaur Park Formation preserves a great wealth of vertebrate fossils . A wide variety of fish swam the rivers and estuaries , including gars , sturgeons , sharks and rays , among others . Frogs , salamanders , turtles , crocodilians and champsosaurs also dwelled in the aquatic habitats . Azhdarchid pterosaurs and neornithine birds like Apatornis flew overhead , while the enantiornithine bird Avisaurus lived on the ground alongside multituberculate , marsupial and placental mammals . A number of species of terrestrial lizards were also present , including whiptails , skinks , monitors and alligator lizards . Dinosaur fossils in particular are found with unrivaled abundance and diversity . Huge herds of ceratopsids roamed the floodplains alongside equally large groups of hadrosaurine and lambeosaurine hadrosaurs . Other herbivorous groups like ornithomimids , therizinosaurs , pachycephalosaurs , small ornithopods , nodosaurids and ankylosaurids were also represented . Small predatory dinosaurs like oviraptorosaurs , troodonts and dromaeosaurs hunted smaller prey than the huge tyrannosaurids ; Daspletosaurus and Gorgosaurus , which were two orders of magnitude larger in mass . Intervening predatory niches may have been filled by young tyrannosaurids . A Saurornitholestes dentary has been discovered in the Dinosaur Park Formation that bore tooth marks left by the bite of a young tyrannosaur , possibly Gorgosaurus .
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= James Constable =
James Ashley Constable ( born 4 October 1984 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for National League club Eastleigh .
Constable started his career with the Cirencester Town youth system , before breaking into the first team during the 2002 – 03 season . He moved to Chippenham Town in 2003 , before signing for Walsall in the Football League in 2005 . He moved out on loan to Kidderminster Harriers of the Conference National in 2006 , before signing permanently in 2007 . After a year at the club , during which he scored the first club goal at the new Wembley Stadium in the FA Trophy final , he returned to the League with Shrewsbury Town . After spending the 2008 – 09 season on loan at Oxford United , he signed for the club permanently in 2009 . Constable scored the second goal in Oxford 's 3 – 1 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final victory over York City in 2010 , which secured Oxford 's promotion into League Two . He was leading goalscorer in each of his six seasons at the club , and when he left after the 2013 – 14 season he had scored 106 goals , one short of the club record .
He has played for the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , making his debut in 2007 in a 2 – 0 victory over Finland in the International Challenge Trophy . He scored the goal in a 2 – 2 draw with Italy in 2008 that took England to the International Challenge Trophy Final , which Constable played in as England were defeated 1 – 0 by the Belgium under @-@ 21 team in 2009 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Malmesbury , Wiltshire , Constable grew up in the town as a Tottenham Hotspur supporter . He played for Malmesbury Youth before starting his career with Cirencester Town after progressing through their youth system , playing for the Academy and making several first team appearances as a substitute in the 2002 – 03 season . He progressed to being a regular in the team and signed for Southern League Premier Division team Chippenham Town in December 2003 . He made his debut in a 3 – 1 defeat to Tiverton Town on 1 January 2004 , scoring in the following game against Nuneaton Borough with the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw . He finished the 2003 – 04 season with 19 appearances and nine goals for Chippenham . He made 37 appearances and scored 13 goals during the 2004 – 05 season . He scored for Chippenham with the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw against Worcester City in the FA Cup first round in November 2005 . While playing as a semi @-@ professional at Chippenham , he worked in an undergarment lining factory .
= = = Walsall = = =
Football League sides Bristol City , Swansea City , Swindon Town and Walsall all made enquiries for Constable in November 2005 . He eventually signed for League One team Walsall on 21 November 2005 on loan until 1 January 2006 , when he would sign permanently for a fee of £ 4 @,@ 000 on a contract until June 2007 , having made 14 appearances and scored eight goals for Chippenham up to that point during the 2005 – 06 season . He made his debut as an 82nd @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 victory over Bournemouth in the Football League Trophy on 22 November . This was followed by his Football League debut four days later after being introduced as an 89th @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 1 victory over Rotherham United .
He scored his first goal for Walsall in a 3 – 2 victory over Wycombe Wanderers in the Trophy on 20 December with a " fine drive " , which drew the teams at 1 – 1 . Constable scored two goals in seven minutes to help Walsall to a 2 – 0 victory over Blackpool . His first appearance after signing permanently came in a 3 – 0 defeat to Bristol City on 2 January 2006 . He scored Walsall 's second equaliser in a 2 – 2 draw against Swansea City in the Trophy , which was lost 6 – 5 on a penalty shoot @-@ out . Chippenham failed in an attempt to re @-@ sign Constable on loan for the remainder of the 2005 – 06 season in February . He scored his last goal of the 2005 – 06 season with a shot from Dean Keates ' cross , which was the opening goal in a 1 – 1 draw with Port Vale in April . He finished the season with five goals in 20 appearances for Walsall .
= = = Kidderminster Harriers = = =
He joined Conference National team Kidderminster Harriers on a two @-@ month loan on 24 November , after having made nine appearances for Walsall up to that point during the 2006 – 07 season . After arriving at Kidderminster , he made " a mammoth impact " . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Stevenage Borough , and manager Mark Yates praised him , saying " I thought James was excellent , bar taking the couple of chances that fell his way he can be well pleased with himself . " He scored his first goal in the following game , a 3 – 1 victory over Gravesend & Northfleet , with a " clinical finish " from a Michael Blackwood cross . He scored two goals against Stafford Rangers after he " coolly slotted home " and scored with " ease into the bottom @-@ right corner " , which gave Kidderminster a 2 – 1 victory on 26 December . His hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 victory against Vauxhall Motors in the first round of the FA Trophy in January 2007 was the first for a Kidderminster player since Bo Henriksen in 2003 . After impressing during the loan , he moved to the club permanently on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 31 January . He scored Kidderminster 's equaliser in a 1 – 1 draw against St Albans City on 24 March , before being sent off for a " wild " challenge on Ahmed Deen . In the 2007 FA Trophy Final Constable scored the first and second goals for an English club at the new Wembley Stadium , although his efforts were in vain as Kidderminster lost 3 – 2 to Stevenage Borough . He finished the season as Kidderminster 's top scorer with 16 goals in 32 appearances .
He scored his first goals of the 2007 – 08 season with a hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 0 victory over Exeter City on 1 September . After two games without scoring , he scored a second hat @-@ trick for Kidderminster in a 5 – 4 defeat to Ebbsfleet United . He was substituted at half time in Kidderminster 's 2 – 1 defeat to Histon in October , after picking up a hamstring injury . He made his return in a 2 – 0 victory over Ware in the FA Cup in November , scoring the first goal from 18 yards . He was sent off in a 2 – 0 defeat against Oxford United for elbowing James Clarke , and after having an appeal rejected , he was given a three @-@ match suspension . He made his return in a 2 – 1 away win over Hinckley United in the Conference League Cup on 22 December .
= = = Shrewsbury Town = = =
Constable transferred to League Two club Shrewsbury Town on 31 January 2008 , transfer deadline day , along with Harriers teammate Scott Bevan , being billed as " the striker to help Shrewsbury Town push for the play @-@ offs . " He made his debut two days later , coming on as a 50th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 defeat to Lincoln City . A week later , Constable scored his first goal for Shrewsbury with an equaliser against Brentford on 79 minutes . He made his full debut in the next game on 12 February , scoring twice as his team came back from 3 – 0 down to draw 3 – 3 at home to Milton Keynes Dons . He scored one more goal before the end of the season , in a 3 – 0 victory over Wrexham , which he finished with 14 appearances and four goals . The signings of Grant Holt and Richard Walker during the summer resulted in Constable being moved further down the pecking order at Shrewsbury .
= = = Oxford United = = =
Constable returned to the Conference Premier after signing for Oxford United on a season @-@ long loan for the 2008 – 09 season on 8 July 2008 . He made his debut in a 3 – 0 defeat by Barrow on 8 August 2008 , scoring his first goals in a 6 – 3 victory over Eastbourne Borough a week later , netting twice and providing an assist . He scored both goals in a 2 – 1 victory over Northwich Victoria in September , which was Oxford 's first away victory of the season . He picked up a groin strain during a 1 – 1 draw with Kettering Town , and he was expected to be out of action for two to three weeks . He did not miss any matches through this injury , featuring in a 1 – 0 defeat to former club Kidderminster . He scored the winning goal in a 2 – 1 victory over Burton Albion on 18 October 2008 , which he said " was an absolutely massive result " . Manager Chris Wilder said in January 2009 he wanted to extend Constable 's stay the club , claiming he " epitomises what I am trying to build here at the club " . With regard to extending his stay at Oxford , Constable said he was " open to offers " . He gathered further praise from Wilder later in the month and there were calls from Oxford fans for Constable to be signed permanently .
Constable had a run of scoring five goals in as many games from 28 December 2008 to 20 January 2009 , which constituted four home victories for Oxford . Following this , he went seven games without a goal , before scoring two in a 3 – 3 draw with Forest Green Rovers on 7 March 2009 . Oxford announced he had agreed a permanent deal with the club in April 2009 , although this was denied by Shrewsbury , who stated the transfer was not yet complete . He scored the winning goal for Oxford in a 1 – 0 victory over Wrexham on 11 April 2009 with a header in the fourth minute of stoppage time , which was described as " one of the most dramatic late goals in Oxford United 's history " . He finished the season with 49 appearances and 26 goals , after which he claimed Oxford 's Supporters ' Player of the Year and the Players ' Player of the Year awards . Constable 's permanent transfer to Oxford eventually took place on 28 April 2009 , signing a three @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . After the end of the season , he won the Conference Premier 's Player of the Year and Fans ' Player of the Year awards .
He started the 2009 – 10 season with a " flood of goals " , scoring six times in his first 11 appearances , with his first goals of the season coming in a 4 – 3 victory over Histon on 15 August 2009 . In the following game , he scored his first hat @-@ trick for Oxford in a 4 – 0 victory over Chester City . However , following Chester 's expulsion from the Football Conference in March 2010 , these goals were discounted from the records as their results were expunged . He said in February 2010 that he was considering stepping aside as Oxford 's penalty kick taker after having missed three during the season . Constable suffered an ankle injury in March 2010 , meaning he missed three games , with manager Wilder saying " I wouldn ’ t put the long @-@ term health of James in jeopardy " . He made his return in a 0 – 0 draw with Tamworth on 21 March 2010 . Constable scored for Oxford in a 1 – 1 draw at Rushden & Diamonds in their play @-@ off semi @-@ final first leg on 29 April 2010 , giving them the lead on 29 minutes with a 12 yard volley before Mark Byrne equalised for Rushden . He scored the second goal in the 2 – 0 victory over Rushden in the second leg , meaning the tie was won 3 – 1 on aggregate . He scored Oxford 's second goal as they defeated York City 3 – 1 in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley to end their four @-@ year exile from the Football League . At the Football Conference 's Annual Presentation Dinner , he was named in the Conference Premier Team of the Year , having finished the season with 26 goals in 44 games .
Having acted as captain during the previous season following an injury to Adam Murray , he was appointed captain permanently ahead of the 2010 – 11 season . He played in Oxford 's first Football League game since promotion , a 0 – 0 draw with Burton on 7 August . His first goals of the season came after he scored two in a 6 – 1 victory over League One team Bristol Rovers on 10 August . Constable finished the season with 17 goals in 46 appearances .
Oxford accepted an improved offer for Constable from local rivals Swindon Town on 19 January 2012 . Oxford allowed Constable to talk to the club , although he refused the opportunity to discuss the move with Swindon manager Paolo Di Canio .
On 16 November 2013 Constable scored his 100th goal for Oxford in a 3 – 1 away victory at Mansfield Town .
= = = Eastleigh = = =
Having been one goal short of equalling Oxford 's club record for goals scored of 107 , Constable turned down a new contract with the club to sign for newly promoted Conference Premier team Eastleigh on a two @-@ year deal on 21 May 2014 . He made his debut in a 3 – 0 away victory over Nuneaton Town on the opening day of the 2014 – 15 season on 9 August 2014 .
= = International career = =
Constable was named in the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , in November 2007 , for a 2007 – 09 International Challenge Trophy game against Finland . He made his debut after starting the game and England won 2 – 0 . He was called up again in October 2008 for a game against Italy , scoring the goal that sent England to the International Challenge Trophy Final in a 2 – 2 draw at the Stadio Santa Colomba . Constable was called up to the team for this game against the Belgium under @-@ 21 team , saying " It 's an incredibly proud feeling to be representing my country at this level . " He started the game , which was played at Oxford 's Kassam Stadium , and England lost 1 – 0 , during which he had a frustrating performance . He earned three caps and scored one goal for England C from 2007 to 2009 .
= = Style of play = =
Constable plays as a striker and is " a big , powerful frontman with bags of pace " . He has been described as being a prolific goalscorer , leading to remarks of him being a " hot @-@ shot " and a " goal machine " . He was described as a " young , hungry player with bags of potential " by Kidderminster manager Mark Yates in 2007 . His strike partnership at Oxford United with Matt Green and Jamie Cook was described as " devastating " in 2009 .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 12 April 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Oxford United
Conference Premier play @-@ offs : 2009 – 10
Individual
Oxford United Player of the Year : 2008 – 09
Conference Premier Player of the Year : 2008 – 09
Conference Premier Team of the Year : 2009 – 10
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= Ruislip =
Ruislip ( / ˈraɪslɪp / RY @-@ slip ) is a town in west London , England , which is part of the London Borough of Hillingdon .
It was formerly a parish in the county of Middlesex covering the neighbouring areas of Eastcote , Northwood , Ruislip Manor and South Ruislip . The parish appears in the Domesday Book , and some of the earliest settlements still exist today , designated as local heritage sites . The parish church , St Martin 's , dates back to the 13th century and remains in use . The buildings at the northern end of Ruislip High Street form the core of the original village square and are now Grade II listed . It originally featured a central water pump which was moved out of the road in the 1970s as a result of increased traffic .
The expansion of the Metropolitan Railway in the early 20th century acted as a catalyst for development in the area . A station was opened in Ruislip in 1904 and the parish council created a new urban district to address the forthcoming population growth . The Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District continued until 1965 when Ruislip became part of the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon . Between 1911 and 1961 , Ruislip @-@ Northwood experienced a significant rise in population , from 6 @,@ 217 to 72 @,@ 791 , largely attributed to the extension of the railway .
Major landmarks in the area include Ruislip Lido , a former reservoir , now an area of public parkland with its own miniature railway and Manor Farm , a settlement dating from the 9th century which is now designated as a local heritage site . Ruislip is included within the Ruislip , Northwood and Pinner Parliament constituency and is covered by three electoral wards within the local council .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
At the time of Edward the Confessor , the parishes of Ruislip and Ickenham belonged to a Saxon named Wlward Wit , a thane of the king who owned land in 11 counties . Ruislip parish included what is now the modern Ruislip , Northwood , Eastcote , Ruislip Manor and South Ruislip . Wit lost much of his land during the Norman conquest of England ; Arnulf de Hesdin took control of Ruislip – his ownership is recorded within the 1086 Domesday Book .
Ruislip appears in the Domesday Book as Rislepe , thought to mean ' leaping place on the river where rushes grow ' , in reference to the River Pinn . It is formed from the Old English ' rysc ' and ' hlȳp ' . Translated from Latin , an entry reads :
M. Arnulf [ Ernulf ] of Hesdin holds Rislepe [ Ruislip ] . It is assessed for 30 hides . Land for 20 ploughs . In lordship 11 hides ; 3 ploughs there . There are 12 ploughs between the Frenchmen and the villagers ; a further 5 possible .
A priest , ½ hide ; 2 villagers with 1 hide ; 17 villagers , 1 virgate each ; 10 villagers , ½ virgate each ; 7 smallholders , 4 acres each ; 8 cottagers ; 4 slaves ; 4 Frenchmen with 3 hides and 1 virgate .
Pasture for the village livestock ; a park for woodland beasts ; woodland , 1500 pigs , and 20d too .
Total value £ 20 ; when acquired £ 12 ; before 1066 £ 30 .
Wulfward Wight , a thane of King Edward 's , held this manor ; he could sell it to whom he would .
Under Edward the Confessor , Ruislip had been valued at £ 30 , though the reduction to £ 12 by the time Ernulf de Hesdin took possession is believed to have been caused by a passing unit of the Norman Army taking crops . This led to the construction of buildings at Manor Farm to protect produce .
Before leaving England to fight in the Holy Lands , Ernulf de Hesdin gave ownership of Ruislip to the Benedictine Bec Abbey in 1087 . He died fighting and is commemorated in annual masses held in June at Sacred Heart Church and on the remains of the Motte @-@ and @-@ bailey at Manor Farm .
= = = Early developments = = =
The parish church , St Martin 's , has been dated to the mid @-@ 13th century . An earlier church is believed to have been built during the Norman period , as a stone was found within the grounds with markings from that time . The name St. Martin is believed to have been given to the church by the monks of the Bec Abbey , after Martin of Tours , a saint in Normandy . Before 1245 , references to the church only name it as " Ruislip church " .
The present church was believed to have been built upon the insistence of the Proctor @-@ General , William de Guineville , under the ownership of Bec Abbey , to serve the growing population . He used the priory at Manor Farm as his main residence The first recorded vicar was William de Berminton in 1327 . The building itself has been remodelled in parts over the centuries and was substantially restored by George Gilbert Scott in 1870 . It received Grade B listed status as an Anglican church in 1950 , corresponding as Grade II .
Under the ownership of the Bec Abbey , timber from the woods around Ruislip – Park Wood , Mad Bess Wood and Copse Wood – was used in the construction of the Tower of London in 1339 , Windsor Castle in 1344 , the Palace of Westminster in 1346 and the manor of the Black Prince in Kennington . The woods were coppiced on rotation throughout the years with the timber sold to local tanneries . By the time King 's College took ownership of the manor , the woods were let for sport , with pheasants kept for shooting .
= = = Urban development = = =
In 1812 , Bishop Winnington Ingram School was established by the vestry of St Martin 's church in Eastcote Road . The school had 111 pupils by 1845 but fell into a state of disrepair until it was rebuilt in 1931 .
Ruislip came under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Police in 1845 . By 1869 , the police were renting a house in the High Street to serve as the local police station , the copyhold of which was purchased in 1873 . A new station was built in The Oaks in 1961 .
In 1863 , the White Bear public house came under the ownership of the Harman 's Brewery in Uxbridge . It had been built close to Primrose Hill Farm near the junction of the Ickenham Road and Kings End . Kings End was a hamlet , with one building dating back to the 16th century . It was named after a family who had lived there at that time .
A well was sunk in 1864 in the High Street at the junction with Bury Street , constructed by Mr Charles Page from Uxbridge . The first 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) were dug , before 90 @.@ 75 @-@ foot ( 27 @.@ 66 m ) was bored through the London clay and the final 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) was cut through chalk . A drought in 1898 led to the parish council requesting a well be created on what are now the Pinn Meadows , to make use of the natural spring there . The Colne River Water Company agreed , upon the guarantee of £ 45 per year , and the service was established .
A report had been prepared for the parish council in 1903 which noted the population in Northwood – 2 @,@ 700 by that time , with 530 houses – compared with the largely rural character of the rest of Ruislip parish . At a meeting of the Ruislip parish council on 28 October 1903 , the forthcoming extension of the Metropolitan Railway from Harrow on the Hill to Uxbridge was also discussed as it was known that a station would be opened in Ruislip on the new line . Councillors were also aware that King 's College , Cambridge , owners of much of the land in the parish and lords of the manor , were planning to sell some for development . With this in mind , a vote was cast which went in favour of becoming an urban district . The new district was designed to better reflect to increase in development , as councillors felt a parish council would work slower than an urban district .
The first train on the new railway line ran on 30 June 1904 , and the new station at Ruislip opened on 4 July . The area became popular with ramblers , who would head to the Ruislip Lido , and general day @-@ trippers who sought out the countryside . Local residents in Ruislip established their own tea gardens , which they advertised for the visitors . In particular , the Poplars , a Georgian house built in 1774 on the corner of the High Street and Ickenham Road , opened a tea garden in the grounds . It was eventually demolished in 1929 to make way for shops . A similar establishment was opened in light of the new railway on the corner of Sharps Lane , known as The Orchard Bungalow . It was eventually expanded and became The Orchard Hotel .
The new urban district was formed on 30 September 1904 , covering the parish , which had previously been part of the Uxbridge Rural District . At the time the parish incorporated Ruislip Manor , South Ruislip , Eastcote and Northwood . The new urban district council held its first meeting at Northwood School on 1 October , the day after forming .
Kings End was developed as a residential road in the early 1900s . By 1907 , the first of the new homes were completed and residents began to move into them . The road was named Kings End Avenue , though reverted to the original name of Kings End later in the century .
The district experienced a sharp rise in population , from 6 @,@ 217 in 1911 to 72 @,@ 791 in 1961 , caused by the extension of the Metropolitan Railway , termed Metro @-@ land , which brought with it an increase in suburban house building . As a consequence , the district was one of the first in England to devise a statutory planning scheme in 1914 , following the Housing and Town Planning Act 1909 . The council had been prompted to follow this new act by the Chairman of the Council , a Mr. Elgood , an architect , and the Clerk to the Council , Mr. Abbot . Members of the council had already raised concerns over some of the new building work around Eastcote and South Ruislip , and the new development near Northwood station which they described as " badly arranged and closely @-@ packed " .
Together with King 's College , the urban district council worked to establish plots of land for development around Ruislip and Ruislip Manor . A town planning competition was held , won by A & J Soutar from Wandsworth , who sought to create a symmetrical design spreading across Ruislip parish . Many of the woods and historic sites including Manor Farm were to be demolished and cleared as part of the plan , making way for a projected total of 7 @,@ 642 homes , enough for 35 @,@ 000 residents . Only St. Martin 's church would have been spared . An outline map was made public on 30 November 1910 with few objections recorded . A Local Board inquiry followed on 17 February 1911 which required negotiations with landowners to allow for a full planning scheme to be compiled . This was presented in February 1913 with an adaptation of the original Soutars plan , receiving approval from the Local Government Board in September 1914 . Three roads with residential housing , Manor Way , Windmill Way and Park Way were completed before the outbreak of the First World War when all construction work was halted . It did not resume until 1919 .
Manor Farm and the local woods eventually avoided demolition in January 1930 , after the visit by a member of the Royal Society of Arts to choose the buildings that should be conserved . The Great Barn and Little Barn were singled out from the site , together with the old Post Office , the Old Bell public house and the Priest 's House of the local church . The woods were included in a sale by King 's College to the district in February 1931 . Park Wood was sold for £ 28 @,@ 100 with Manor Farm and the old Post Office included as a gift to the people of Ruislip . King 's had wished to also present the wood as a gift but was required by the University and Colleges Act to receive payment as it was the trustee of the land . Middlesex County Council contributed 75 % of the cost as the urban district council argued that many of those who would make use of the land would be recreational day @-@ trippers from outside the district . Under a 999 @-@ year lease , the council agreed to maintain the wood and ensure no new building was constructed without the permission of the county council . An area of the wood to the south was not included in the lease agreement and three residential roads were later constructed on it .
Copse Wood was later purchased by Middlesex County Council and London County Council in 1936 for £ 23 @,@ 250 , later joined by Mad Bess Wood in the same year . The urban district council purchased the 186 acres ( 75 ha ) wood together with Middlesex and London County Councils for £ 28 @,@ 000 in a compulsory purchase from Sir Howard Stransom Button . Sir Howard became High Sheriff of Middlesex in 1937 .
On the 19th of December 1946 a Railway Air Services Dakota 3 airliner taking @-@ off from Northolt crashed into a house in Angus Drive , Ruislip , fortunately with no serous injuries to anyone , either in the aircraft or on the ground .
On 6 January 1948 a British European Airways Vickers VC.1 Viking flying from Renfrew Airport to RAF Northolt crashed in a ploughed field in Ruislip , five miles from the runway . The crew had tried to land the aircraft twice unsuccessfully when the aircraft struck a tree on the third approach attempt . Of the 18 passengers and crew on board , one crew member was killed in the crash .
In 1961 , the Portland Spy Ring was uncovered . Peter and Helen Kroger were found to have been involved , while living in Ruislip . They were visited each Saturday evening by Gordon Lonsdale and were eventually placed under police surveillance . The Krogers were eventually arrested and found to have codes , a microdot reader and film of the Admiralty Underwater Weapons Establishment in Portland Harbour concealed within ordinary household items . A radio transmitter hidden in the garden was not retrieved until 1977 .
Primrose Hill Farm was demolished to make way for housing in 1965 . Field End Farm , covering 50 acres ( 20 ha ) at the junction of Wood Lane and West End Road , was demolished in 1966 . The farm house had been owned by the manor of Northolt under the name of Berrengers . Bishop Winnington Ingram School moved to Southcote Rise in 1968 and the original school building was demolished . In 1976 , the war memorial dedicated to those killed during the First World War was moved from the graveyard of St Martin 's to the entrance of Manor Farm . Bury Street Farm near the Plough was demolished in 1980 .
In 1984 , the Battle of Britain House , built within Copse Wood in 1905 , was destroyed by fire and the ruins demolished . The house became a college in 1948 and included plaques with the crests of all Royal Air Force squadrons involved in the Battle of Britain as a memorial .
In April 2007 , restoration work began on the Manor Farm site using funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund . The work was completed in June the following year , and included the renovation of the Grade II listed library . The Duck Pond Market began in the Great Barn in December 2008 , following the refurbishment , and runs once a month . Winston Churchill Hall on the site received a £ 370 @,@ 000 grant from Hillingdon Council in March 2011 to enable its refurbishment .
= = Local government = =
Ruislip formed an ancient parish of 6 @,@ 585 acres ( 26 @.@ 65 km2 ) in the Elthorne hundred of Middlesex . Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , the parish lost control of poor relief to Uxbridge Poor Law Union and it was grouped into the Uxbridge rural sanitary district in 1875 . In 1894 the sanitary district was replaced by Uxbridge Rural District and the parish vestry was replaced with a parish council . Due to increasing population , the parish split off from the rural district and formed the Ruislip @-@ Northwood Urban District , with the parish council replaced by an urban district council . The urban district was abolished in 1965 and was transferred to Greater London to form part of the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon .
Within the London Borough of Hillingdon , Ruislip is covered by three electoral wards : Eastcote and East Ruislip , South Ruislip and West Ruislip . Ruislip is part of the Ruislip , Northwood and Pinner constituency within the UK Parliament , represented by Nick Hurd MP .
= = Education = =
Primary schools in Ruislip include Deanesfield Infants and Juniors Schools , Bishop Winnington Ingram Church of England Primary School , Sacred Heart Catholic Primary School , Bourne Primary School , Field End Infant School , Field End Junior School , Lady Bankes Infant School , Lady Bankes Junior School , Newnham Infant School , Newnham Junior School , Ruislip Gardens Primary School , St Swithun Wells Roman Catholic Primary School , Warrender Primary School , Whiteheath Infant School , and Whiteheath Junior School .
Secondary schools include Bishop Ramsey School , Queensmead School , and Ruislip High School .
= = Sports clubs = =
Ruislip has two Non @-@ League football clubs – Hillingdon Borough F.C. , which plays at the Middlesex Stadium and Wealdstone FC based at the St. Georges Stadium .
The Middlesex town also played host to Ruislip Manor F.C. between 1938 and 2008 , before the non @-@ league club folded following a period of financial uncertainty during its latter two trading years .
Ruislip Rugby Club is based in West End Road and was formed in 1954 , succeeding an earlier club from around 1950 . The club 's ground is at West End Road in Ruislip .
Ruislip Golf Course , on Ickenham Road , was opened in 1922 , and is operated by a private company on behalf of the London Borough of Hillingdon . Ruislip is also the home of Eastcote Hockey Club , based at Kings College playing fields . The club was originally based in Eastcote , from where it took its name , but moved to the present location in 1964 .
Ruislip Eagles West London Handball Club runs competitive men ’ s and women 's handball teams . Affiliated to the EHA , the club was founded in 1970 ad is based in Queensmead Sports Centre in South Ruislip .
= = Transport = =
= = = London Underground = = =
Stations in the area :
South Ruislip station ( Central line and Chiltern Railways )
Ruislip Station ( Metropolitan line & Piccadilly line )
Ruislip Manor station ( Metropolitan line & Piccadilly line )
Ruislip Gardens Station ( Central line )
West Ruislip station ( Central line & Chiltern Railways )
= = = Buses = = =
London Buses serving Ruislip are :
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Village square = = =
The buildings at the north end of Ruislip High Street , Nos 1 to 15 , the Duck House restaurant and the Swan public house , which has since been re @-@ branded as Cafe Rouge , form the core of the original village and are Grade II listed . This area formed the village square , at the junction of the High Street , Bury Street and Eastcote Road . The village water pump was sunk in the centre of the square in 1864 , to a depth of 105 feet ( 32 m ) 9 inches ( 230 mm ) , though was moved to be beside the Manor Farm Lodge in the 1970s . It was moved again in 1982 to sit outside 7 – 15 High Street .
= = = Manor Farm = = =
To the north of Ruislip High Street , the 22 acres ( 8 @.@ 9 ha ) Manor Farm site incorporates the remains of settlements dating back to the 9th century , as well as buildings including the Great Barn , dated by English Heritage as having been built around 1280 . A working farm until the 1930s , the farm was let by King 's College , Cambridge , the owners of the land from 1500 to the mid 20th century . It has been designated as a local heritage site and was refurbished between 2007 and 2008 with funding from the Heritage Lottery Fund .
= = = Ruislip Lido = = =
Ruislip Lido is a nineteenth century reservoir with an artificial sand beach , surrounded by woodlands through which runs the Ruislip Lido Railway , a miniature 12 " gauge railway with diesel and steam locomotives . The Lido was established as a reservoir to feed the Grand Union Canal by damming and flooding the lower part of the valley between Park Wood and Copse Wood , including the hamlet of Park Hearn . Work began in 1811 ; the consulting engineer John Rennie announced completion of the project to the Grand Junction Waterworks Company on 5 December that year . Unsuccessful as a canal feeder lake , it was reconstructed as a pleasure resort in 1933 .
= = = The Orchard Hotel = = =
Following the extension of the Metropolitan Railway to Ruislip , and the resulting influx of visitors to the area , Albert Cross built a bungalow from where teas were served to day @-@ trippers . This became a success and Cross had the building expanded , which soon became The Orchard Hotel . Between 1933 and 1971 it became an Ansells licensed bar and well @-@ known high @-@ class restaurant . It then became a Beefeater steak house , which it remains , and was recently extended with a Premier Inn hotel . During the Battle of Britain , The Orchard was very popular with the pilots of No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron stationed at RAF Northolt , who celebrated many of their successes in battle there . The owner was known to open a bottle of Champagne for each German aircraft shot down by the squadron .
= = Notable people = =
Optical mineralogist Stuart Olof Agrell ( 1913 – 1996 ) was born in Ruislip .
Lady Mary Bankes ( c . 1598 – 1661 ) , Royalist figure of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society , lived in Ruislip .
Experimental musician Paul Burwell ( 1949 – 2007 ) was born in Ruislip .
Poet Peter Levi ( 1931 – 2000 ) was born in Ruislip .
Actress Lana Morris ( 1930 – 1998 ) was born in Ruislip .
Actor Simon Fisher @-@ Becker was born in Ruislip in 1961
Actor and recorder Andy Serkis was born in Ruislip in 1964
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= History of Cornell University =
The history of Cornell University begins when its two founders , Andrew Dickson White of Syracuse and Ezra Cornell of Ithaca , met in the New York State Senate in January 1864 . Together , they established Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , in 1865 . The university was initially funded by Ezra Cornell 's $ 400 @,@ 000 endowment and by New York 's 989 @,@ 920 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 006 @.@ 1 km2 ) allotment of the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 .
However , even before Ezra Cornell and Andrew White met in the New York Senate , each had separate plans and dreams that would draw them toward their collaboration in founding Cornell . White believed in the need for a great university for the nation that would take a radical new approach to education ; and Cornell , who had great respect for education and philanthropy , desired to use his money " to do the greatest good . " Abraham Lincoln 's signing of Vermont Senator Justin Morrill 's Land Grant Act into law was also critical to the formation of many universities , including Cornell , in the post @-@ Civil War era .
= = Founders = =
As newly elected members of the state senate , Cornell chaired the Committee of Agriculture , and White was the chair of the Committee of Literature , which dealt with educational matters . Hence , both chaired committees with jurisdiction over bills allocating the land grant , which was to be used for instruction in " without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactic , to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts " . Yet their eventual partnership seemed unlikely . Although both valued egalitarianism , science , and education , they had come from two very different backgrounds . Ezra Cornell , a self @-@ made businessman and austere , pragmatic telegraph mogul , made his fortune on the Western Union Telegraph Company stock he received during the consolidation that led to its formation . Cornell , who had been poor for most of his life , suddenly found himself looking for ways that he could do the greatest good for with his money . He wrote , " My greatest care now is how to spend this large income to do the greatest good to those who are properly dependent on me , to the poor and to posterity . " Cornell 's self @-@ education and hard work would lead him to the conclusion that the greatest end for his philanthropy was in the need of colleges for the teaching of practical pursuits such as agriculture , the applied sciences , veterinary medicine and engineering , and in finding opportunities for the poor to attain such an education .
Andrew Dickson White entered college at the age of 16 in 1849 . White dreamed of going to one of the elite eastern colleges , but his father sent him to Geneva Academy ( later known as the Hobart and William Smith Colleges ) , a small Episcopal college.At Geneva , White would read about the great colleges at Oxford University and at the University of Cambridge ; this appears to be his first inspiration for " dreaming of a university worthy of the commonwealth [ New York ] and of the nation . " This dream would become a lifelong goal of White 's . After a year at Geneva , White convinced his father to send him to Yale University . For White , Yale was a great improvement over Geneva , but he found that even at one of the country 's great universities there was " too much reciting by rote and too little real intercourse . "
In the late 1850s , while White served as a professor of history at the University of Michigan , he continued to develop his thoughts on a great American university . He was influenced by both the curriculum , which was more liberal than at the Eastern universities , and by the administration of the university as a secular institution .
= = Conception = =
White had been duly impressed by a bill introduced by Cornell in one of his first actions as a state senator : the incorporation of a large public library for Ithaca for which Cornell had donated $ 100 @,@ 000 . White was struck by not only his generosity , but also " his breadth of mind " . He wrote :
The most striking sign of this was his mode of forming a board of trustees ; for , instead of the usual effort to tie up the organization forever in some sect , party or clique , he had named the best men of his town — his political opponents as well as his friends ; and had added to them the pastors of all the principal churches , Catholic and Protestant .
Yet , Cornell and White soon found themselves on opposite sides of a battle that would in the end lead to the creation of Cornell University . In 1863 , the legislature had granted the proceeds of the land grant to the People 's College in Havana ( now Montour Falls ) , with conditions that would need to be met within a certain time frame . Because the Morrill Act set a five @-@ year limit on each state identifying a land grant college , and it seemed unlikely that the People 's College would meet its conditions , the legislature was ready to select a different school . Initially , Cornell , as a member of the Board of Trustees of the New York State Agricultural College at Ovid , wanted half the grant to go to that school . However , White " vigorously opposed this bill , on the ground that the educational resources of the state were already too much dispersed " . He felt that the grant would be most effective if it were used to establish or strengthen a comprehensive university .
Still working to send part of the grant to the Agricultural College , on September 25 , 1864 , in Rochester , New York , Cornell announced his offer to donate $ 300 @,@ 000 ( soon thereafter increased to $ 500 @,@ 000 ) if part of the land grant could be secured and the trustees moved the college to Ithaca . White did not relent ; however , he said he would support a similar measure that did not split up the grant . Thus began the collaboration between Ezra Cornell and Andrew D. White that became Cornell University .
= = Establishment = =
On February 7 , 1865 , Andrew D. White introduced an act to the State Senate " to establish the Cornell University " , which appropriated the full income of the sale of lands given to New York under the Morrill Act to the university . But , while Cornell and White had come to an agreement , they faced fierce opposition , including from the People 's College in Havana , the Agricultural College at Ovid , and dozens of other institutions across the state vying for a share of the land grant funds ; from religious groups , who opposed the proposed composition of the university 's board of trustees ; and even from the secular press , some of whom thought Cornell was swindling the state out of its federal land grant . To placate legislators representing Ovid , White arranged for the Willard State Asylum for the Insane to be located on the land held for the Agricultural College . The bill limited the total amount of property or endowment that Cornell University could hold to $ 3 million .
The bill was modified at least twice in attempts to attain the votes necessary for passage . In the first change , the People 's College was given three months to meet certain conditions for which it would receive the land grant under the 1863 law . The second came from a Methodist faction , which wanted a share of the grant for Genesee College . They agreed to a quid @-@ pro quo donation of $ 25 @,@ 000 from Ezra Cornell in exchange for their support . Cornell insisted the bargain be written into the bill . The bill was signed into law by Governor Reuben E. Fenton on April 27 , 1865 . On July 27 , the People 's College lost its claim to the land grant funds , and the building of Cornell University began .
From 1865 to 1868 , the year the university opened , Ezra Cornell and Andrew D. White worked in tireless collaboration to build their university . Cornell oversaw the construction of the university 's first buildings , starting with Morrill Hall , and spent time investing the federal land scrip in western lands for the university that would eventually net millions of dollars , while White , who was unanimously elected the first President of Cornell University by the Board of Trustees on November 21 , 1866 , began making plans for the administrative and educational policies of the university . To this end , he traveled to France , Germany and England " to visit model institutions , to buy books and equipment , to collect professors " . White returned from Europe to be inaugurated as Cornell 's president in 1868 , and he remained leader of Cornell until his retirement from the presidency in 1885 .
= = Opening = =
The university 's Inauguration Day took place on October 7 , 1868 . The previous day , each of the candidates who showed up in Ithaca was given an entrance examination . There were 412 successful applicants ; with this initial enrollment , Cornell 's first class was , at the time , the largest entering class at an American university .
On the occasion , Ezra Cornell delivered a brief speech . He said , " I hope we have laid the foundation of an institution which shall combine practical with liberal education . ... I believe we have made the beginning of an institution which will prove highly beneficial to the poor young men and the poor young women of our country . " His speech included another statement which later became the school 's motto , " I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study . "
Two other Ezra Cornell @-@ founded , Ithaca institutions played a role in the rapid opening of the university . The Cornell Library , a public library in downtown Ithaca which opened in 1866 , served as a classroom and library for the first students . Also Cascadilla Hall , which was constructed in 1866 as a water cure sanitarium , served at the university 's first dormitory .
Cornell was among the first universities in the United States to admit women alongside men . The first woman was admitted to Cornell in 1870 , although the university did not yet have a women 's dormitory . On February 13 , 1872 , Cornell 's Board of Trustees accepted an offer of $ 250 @,@ 000 from Henry W. Sage to build such a dormitory . During the construction of Sage College ( now home to the Samuel Curtis Johnson Graduate School of Management as Sage Hall ) and after its opening in 1875 , the admittance of women to Cornell continued to increase .
Significant departures from the standard curriculum were made at Cornell under the leadership of Andrew D. White . In 1868 , Cornell introduced the elective system , under which students were free to choose their own course of study . Harvard University would make a similar change in 1872 , soon after the inauguration of Charles W. Eliot in 1869 .
It was the success of the egalitarian ideals of the newly established Cornell , a uniquely American institution , that would help drive some of the changes seen at other universities throughout the next few decades , and would lead educational historian Frederick Rudolph to write :
Andrew D. White , its first president , and Ezra Cornell , who gave it his name , turned out to be the developers of the first American university and therefore the agents of revolutionary curricular reform .
In 1892 , the university library was opened . Known today as Uris Library , it was the result of a gift from Henry W. Sage in memory of Jennie McGraw . In her will , she left $ 300 @,@ 000 to her husband Willard Fiske , $ 550 @,@ 000 to her brother Joseph and his children , $ 200 @,@ 000 to Cornell for a library , $ 50 @,@ 000 for construction of McGraw Hall , $ 40 @,@ 000 for a student hospital , and the remainder to the University for whatever use it saw fit . However , the University 's charter limited its property holdings to $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and Cornell could not accept the full amount of McGraw 's gift . When Fiske realized that the university had failed to inform him of this restriction , he launched a legal assault to re @-@ acquire the money , known as The Great Will Case . The United States Supreme Court eventually affirmed the judgment of the New York Court of Appeals that Cornell could not receive the estate on May 19 , 1890 , with Justice Samuel Blatchford giving the majority opinion . However , Sage then donated $ 500 @,@ 000 to build the library instead .
= = Coeducation = =
In 1870 , Cornell admitted its first female students , making it the first coeducational school among what came to be known as the Ivy League . However , the admission of female students was limited until the construction of Sage Hall to serve as a women 's dormitory in 1872 .
The requirement that women ( at least freshman women ) must live in dormitories , which started in 1884 , served to constrain female student admissions until 1972 , when Cornell dropped its freshman dorm residency requirement . As a result , the academic admission standards for women in each college were typically higher than the corresponding standards for men . In general , women have been over @-@ represented in certain schools and under @-@ represented in others . For example , the NYS College of Home Economics and the Cornell School of Nursing historically drew a disproportionate number of women students , while the College of Engineering attracted fewer women .
Early in the history of the university , female students were separated from male students in many ways . For example , they had a separate entrance and lounges in Willard Straight Hall , a separate student government , and a separate page ( edited by women ) in the Cornell Daily Sun . The male students were required to take " drill " ( a precursor to ROTC ) , but the women were exempt . One account of the history of coeducation at Cornell claims that in the very beginning , " [ m ] ale students were almost unanimously opposed to co @-@ education , and vigorously protested the arrival of a group of 16 women , who promptly formed a women 's club with a broom for their standard , and ' In hoc signo vinces ' as their motto . " In the 1870s and 1880s , female Cornell students on campus were generally ignored by male students . Women did not have a formal role in the annual commencement ceremony until 1935 , when the student government selected a woman to be Class Poet . In 1936 , the Willard Straight Hall Board of Managers voted to allow women to eat in its cafeteria . Until the 1970s , male students resided in west campus dormitories while women were housed in the north campus . As of 2010 , the only remaining women 's dormitory is Balch Hall , due to a restriction in the gift that funded it . Lyon Hall ( which for most of its history was a men @-@ only dormintory ) , also currently disallows male residents on its lower floors . All other dormitories were converted to co @-@ educational housing in the late 1970s .
The NYS College of Veterinary Medicine was an early pioneer in educating women , bestowing the first DVM degree on a woman in the United States , Florence Kimball , in 1910 . However , until the early 1980s , the Vet College limited the number of women in each entering class to four or less , regardless of female applicants ' qualifications .
With the implementation of Title IX in the mid @-@ 1970s , Cornell significantly expanded its athletic offerings for women . The Department of Physical Education and Athletics moved from having all women 's activities housed in Helen Newman Hall to having men 's and women 's programs in all facilities .
= = Nonsectarianism and religion on campus = =
Up until the time of Cornell 's founding , most prominent American colleges had ties to religious denominations . Cornell was founded as a non @-@ sectarian school , but had to compete with church @-@ sponsored institutions for gaining New York 's land grant status . A.D. White noted in his inaugural address , " We will labor to make this a Christian institution , a sectarian institution may it never be . " However , the university has made provision for voluntary religious observance on campus . Currently , the University Charter provides , " Persons of every religious denomination , or of no religious denomination , shall be equally eligible to all offices and appointments " . Through the 20th century , the University Charter also required that a majority of trustees could not be of any single denomination . Sage Chapel , a non @-@ denominational house of worship opened in 1875 . Since 1929 , the Cornell United Religious Works ( CURW ) has been an umbrella organization for the campus chaplains sponsored by different denominations and faiths . Perhaps the most newsworthy of the chaplains was Daniel Berrigan who , while Assistant Director of CURW , became a national leader in protesting the Vietnam War . In 1971 , the social activism aspects of CURW were spun off into a separate Center for Religion , Ethics and Social Policy ( CRESP ) . In 2006 , CRESP was reorganized as Cornell 's Center for Transformative Action .
In the late 1950s , the National Council of Young Israel ( NCYI ) leased a house across the street from the university and established a Jewish living center and kosher dining hall . The Cornell Young Israel chapter became the Center for Jewish Living , and a new Foundation for Kosher Observance at Cornell , Inc. was established so that the university 's dining department would operate both a kosher kitchen at the center as well as serving kosher food on the North Campus .
Since the 1870s , Cornell 's system of fraternities and sororities grew to play a large role in student life , with many chapters becoming a part of national organizations . As of 1952 , 19 fraternities had national restrictions based on race , religion or national origin , and of the 32 fraternities without such national requirements , 19 did not have " mixed " memberships . In response , the undergraduate Interfraternity Council passed a resolution condemning discrimination . In the 1960s , the Trustees established a Commission to examine the membership restrictions of those national organizations . Cornell adopted a policy that required fraternities and sororities affiliated with nationals that discriminated based on religion or race to either amend their national charters or quit the national organizations . As a result , a number of national Greek organizations dropped racial or religious barriers to their membership .
In 1873 , the cornerstone of Sage Hall was laid . This new hall was to house the Sage College for Women and thus to concretely establish Cornell University 's coeducational status . Ezra Cornell wrote a letter for posterity — dated May 15 , 1873 — and sealed it into the cornerstone . No copies of the letter were made , and Cornell kept its contents a secret . However , he hinted at the theme of the letter during his speech at the dedication of Sage Hall , stating that " the letter deposited in the cornerstone addressed to the future man and woman , of which I have kept no copy , will relate to future generations the cause of the failure of this experiment , if it ever does fail , as I trust in God it never will . "
Cornell historians largely assumed that the " experiment " to which Cornell referred was that of coeducation , given that Sage Hall was to be a women 's dormitory and that coeducation was still a controversial issue at the time . However , when the letter was finally unearthed in 1997 , its focus was revealed to be the university 's nonsectarian status — a principle which had invited equal controversy in the 19th century , given that most universities of the time had specific religious affiliations . Cornell wrote :
= = Infrastructure innovations = =
In 1883 , Cornell was one of the first university campuses to use electricity to light the grounds from a water @-@ powered dynamo . In 1904 , a hydroelectric plant was built in the Fall Creek gorge . The plant takes water from Beebe Lake through a tunnel in the side of the gorge to power up to 1 @.@ 9 megawatts of electricity . The plant continued to serve the campus 's electric needs until 1970 , when local utility rates placed a heavy economic penalty on independently generating electricity . The abandoned plant was vandalized in 1972 , but renovated and placed back into service in 1981 .
In 1986 – 87 , a cogeneration facility was added to the central heating plant to generate electricity from the plant 's waste heat . A Cornell Combined Heat & Power Project , which was completed in December 2009 , shifted the central heating plant from using coal to natural gas and enable the plant to generate all of the campus 's non @-@ peak electric requirements .
In the 1880s , a suspension bridge was built across Fall Creek to provide pedestrian access to the campus from the North . In 1913 , Professors S.C. Hollister and William McGuire designed a new suspension bridge that is 138 ft ( 42 m ) , 3 @.@ 5 in. above the water and 500 ft ( 150 m ) downstream from the original . However , the second bridge was declared unsafe and closed August 1960 to be rebuilt with a replacement of the same design .
The Arecibo Observatory , radio and radar telescope , from its construction in the 1960s until 2011 , was managed by Cornell University .
Cornell began operating a closed loop , central chilled water system for air conditioning and laboratory cooling in the 1963 using centralized mechanical chillers , rather than inefficient , building @-@ specific air conditioners . In 2000 , Cornell began operation of its Lake Source Cooling System which uses the cold water temperature at the bottom of Cayuga Lake ( approx 39 ° F ) to air condition the campus . The system was the first wide @-@ scale use of lake source cooling in North America .
= = Giving and alumni involvement = =
The first endowed chair at Cornell was the Professorship of Hebrew and Oriental Literature and History donated by New York City financier Joseph Seligman in 1874 , with the proviso that he ( Seligman ) would nominate the chairholder ; and following his wishes , Dr. Felix Adler ( Society for Ethical Culture ) , was appointed . After two years , Professor Adler was quietly let go . Seligman demanded an inquiry . On rebuffing Joseph Seligman in 1877 , the Trustees established one of their guiding principles governing the receipt of gifts , " That in the future no Endowment of Professorships will be accepted by the ( Cornell ) University which deprives the Board of Trustees of the power to Select The persons who shall fill such professorships " .
In September 1896 , Cornell ’ s president Jacob Gould Schurman prevailed upon the Board of Trustees to extend an offer to Nathaniel Schmidt . The situation at Colgate ’ s Divinity School had deteriorated . Schmidt ’ s unorthodox theology generated discomfort within that college . From 1886 to the arrival of Professor Nathaniel Schmidt in 1896 , Cornell ’ s Library maintained its support for the acquisition of Near Eastern materials . Taking over as Cornell President , Jacob Gould Schurman decided Cornell needed a chair of Hebrew language . In 1896 , Schurman persuaded Henry W. Sage to finance a professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures for AY1896 @-@ 97 and AY 1897 @-@ 98 . He knew the University could secure Schmidt at a bargain . Schmidt ’ s unorthodox theological views made his stay at Colgate Divinity School untenable . Schmidt gained the respect of the Cornell community . Noted for his personal and scholarly integrity , he was soon shielded by sympathetic administrators . Schmidt served Cornell for thirty @-@ six years , carrying a high teaching load in addition to this extensive research . He taught an elementary course in Hebrew each year . Advanced Hebrew covered the leading writers of the Old Testament and some parts of the Mishnaic and other Talmudic literature in three years . General linguistics students were advised to begin their study of Semitic languages with Arabic , also offered each year . Aramaic and Egyptian alternated with Assyrian and Ethiopic . The Semitic Seminary , given one term each year , was dedicated to epigraphical studies .
The second was the Susan E. Linn Sage Professor of Ethics and Philosophy given in 1890 by Henry W. Sage . Since then , 327 named professorships have been established , of which 43 are honorary and do not have endowments . The university 's first endowed scholarship was established in 1892 .
The original University charter adopted by the New York State legislature required that Cornell give scholarships from students in each legislative district to attend the University tuition @-@ free . Although both Cornell and White believed this meant one scholarship , the legislature later argued that it meant one new freshman student per district each year , or four per district . This allowed students of diverse financial resources to attend the university from the start .
When Atlantic Gulf & Pacific Dredging Company John McMullen left his estate to Cornell to establish scholarships for engineering students , Cornell 's Trustees decided to invest those funds , and eventually sold the dredging company . The resulting fund is Cornell 's largest single scholarship endowment . Since 1925 , the fund has provided substantial assistance to more than 3 @,@ 700 engineering students . ( Cornell has received a number of unusual non @-@ cash ( in @-@ kind ) gifts over the years , including : Ezra Cornell 's farm , the Cornell Aeronautical Laborary ( see below ) , a copy of Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address , a Peruvian mummy , and the Ostrander elm trees . )
Before the university opened , the State Legislature amended Cornell 's charter on April 24 , 1867 to specify alumni elected trustees . However that provision did not become operative until there were at least 100 alumni in 1872 . Cornell was one of the first Universities to elect trustees by direct election . ( Harvard was probably the first to shift to direct election of its Board of Overseers by alumni in 1865 . ) Cornell 's first female trustee was Martha Carey Thomas ( class of 1877 ) , who the alumni elected while she was serving as President of Bryn Mawr College .
In October 1890 , Andrew Carnegie became a Cornell Trustee and quickly became aware of the lack of an adequate pension plans for Cornell faculty . His concern led to the formation in 1905 of what is now called Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association of America ( TIAA ) . In October 2010 , David A. Atkinson and his wife Patricia donated $ 80 million to fund a sustainability center , and the gift is currently the largest single gift to Cornell ( ignoring inflation ) and is the largest ever given to a university for sustainability research and faculty support .
Many alumni classes elected secretaries to maintain correspondence with classmates . In 1905 , the Class Secretaries organized to form what is now called the Cornell Association of Class Officers , which meets annually to develop alumni class programs and assist in organizing reunions . The Cornell Alumni News is an independent , alumni @-@ owned publication founded in 1899 It is owned and controlled by the Cornell Alumni Association , a separate nonprofit corporation and is now known as Cornell Alumni Magazine .
= = Support from New York State = =
Under the Morrill Act , states were obligated to fund the maintenance of land grant college facilities , but were not obligated to fund operations . Subsequent laws required states to match federal funds for agricultural research stations and cooperative extension . In his inaugural address as Cornell 's third president on November 11 , 1892 , Jacob Gould Schurman announced his intention to enlist the financial support of the state . Until that point , Cornell 's relationship with the state was a net economic loss . Cornell was offering full scholarships to four students in each New York assembly district every year and was spending funds to serve as the state 's land @-@ grant university . It determined to convince the state to become a benefactor of the university , instead . In 1894 , the state legislature voted to give financial support for the establishment of the New York State College of Veterinary Medicine and to make annual appropriations for the college . This set the precedents of privately controlled , state @-@ supported statutory colleges and cooperation between Cornell and the state . The annual state appropriations were later extended to agriculture , home economics , and following World War II , industrial and labor relations .
In 1882 , Cornell opened the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva , New York , the sixth oldest institution of its kind in the United States . It made significant advances in scientific agriculture and for many years played an active role in agriculture law enforcement .
In 1900 , a home economics curriculum was added to Cornell 's Agriculture college . This was expanded to a separate state @-@ supported school in 1919 . The Home Economics School , in turn , began to develop classes in hotel administration in 1922 , which spun off into a separate , endowed college in 1950 .
In 1898 , the New York State College of Forestry opened at Cornell , which was the first forestry college in North America . The College undertook to establish a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 120 km2 ) demonstration forest in the Adirondacks , funded by New York State . However , the plans of the school 's director Bernhard Fernow for the land drew criticism from neighbors living on Saranac Lake , Knollwood Club , and Governor Benjamin B. Odell vetoed the 1903 appropriation for the school . In response , Cornell closed the school . By some reports , Cornell gained annual state funding of the College of Agriculture in exchange for closing the forestry college . Subsequently , in 1911 , the State Legislature established a New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University , and the remains of Cornell 's program became the Department of Natural Resources in its Agriculture College in 1910 . However , Cornell had contracted with the Brooklyn Cooperage Company to take the logs from the forest , and the People of the State of New York , Knollwood Club members ( " People v. the Brooklyn Cooperage Company and Cornell " ) sued to stop the destructive practices of Fernow even before the closing of the school . Cornell University lost the case in 1910 and on appeal in 1912 . Cornell eventually established a research forest south of Ithaca , the Arnot Woods . When New York State later funded the construction of a Forestry building for the Agriculture school , New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences , Cornell named it Fernow Hall .
In 1914 , the US Department of Agriculture began to fund cooperative extension services through the land grant college of each state , and Cornell expanded its impact by sending agents to spread knowledge in each county of New York State . Although Syracuse had started awarding forestry degrees at this point , Cornell 's extension agents covered all of home economics and agriculture , including forestry .
In 1945 , the New York State Legislature founded the New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell , in response to requests from organized labor and Democratic leaders . The school quickly gained national stature when U.S. Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins , who was the first female US Cabinet member and served longer than anyone else as Secretary of Labor ( 12 years ) , joined the ILR faculty . Since agricultural interests were mostly affiliated with the Republicans , Cornell enjoyed bi @-@ partisan support following World War II .
In 1948 , the Legislature placed all state @-@ funded higher education into the new State University of New York ( SUNY ) . Cornell 's four statutory colleges ( agriculture , human ecology , labor relations and veterinary medicine ) have been affiliated with SUNY since its inception , but did not have any such state affiliation prior to that time . Statutory college employees legally are employees of Cornell , not employees of SUNY . The State Education Law gives the SUNY Board of Trustees the authority to approve Cornell 's appointment of the deans / unit heads of the statutory colleges , and control of the level of state funding for the statutory colleges .
Today , state support is significant . In 2007 – 08 , Cornell received a total of $ 174 million of state appropriations for operations . Of the $ 2 @.@ 5 billion in capital spending budgeted for 2007 – 2017 , $ 721 million was to come from the state of New York .
= = Medical education = =
Starting in 1878 , Cornell 's Ithaca campus offered a pre @-@ medical school curriculum , although most medical students enrolled in medical school directly after high school . In 1896 , three New York City institutions , the University Medical College , the Loomis Laboratory and the Bellevue Hospital Medical College united with the goal of affiliating with New York University ( NYU ) . Unfortunately , NYU imposed a number of surprising new policies including limiting faculty to what they would have otherwise earned in private practice . The faculty revolted in 1897 and sought return of the property of the three former institutions , with a resulting lawsuit . On March 22 , 1904 and April 5 , 1904 , the New York State Court of Appeals ordered NYU to return property to Loomis Laboratory because the NYU Dean had breached oral promises made to form the merger . Having won their separation from NYU , the medical faculties sought a new university affiliation , and on April 14 , 1898 , Cornell 's Board of Trustees voted to create a medical school and elected former NYU professors as its Dean and faculty . The school opened on October 4 , 1898 in the Loomis Laboratory facilities . In 1900 , a new campus on First Avenue on the upper East Side of Manhattan opened which was donated by Oliver Hazard Payne . Cornell also began a program in the fall of 1898 to allow students to take their first two years of medical school in Ithaca , with Stimson Hall being constructed to house that program . The building opened in 1903 . The M.D. degree program was open to both men and women , but women were required to study in Ithaca for their first two years . In 1908 , Cornell was one of the early medical schools to require an undergraduate degree as a prerequisite to admission to the M.D. program . In 1913 , Cornell 's medical school affiliated with New York Hospital as its teaching hospital . Unlike the New York branch of the medical school which was well endowed , the Ithaca branch was subsidized by the University , and the Trustees reduced its scope to just first year students in 1910 , and eventually phased it out .
In 1927 , William Payne Whitney 's $ 27 million donation led to the building of the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic , which became the name for Weill Cornell 's large psychiatric effort . That same year , the college became affiliated with New York Hospital and the two institutions moved to their current joint campus in 1932 . The hospital 's Training School for Nurses became affiliated with the university in 1942 , operating as the Cornell Nursing School until it closed in 1979 .
In 1998 , Cornell University Medical College 's affiliate hospital , New York Hospital , merged with Presbyterian Hospital ( the affiliate hospital for Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons ) . The combined institution operates today as NewYork @-@ Presbyterian Hospital . Despite the clinical alliance , the faculty and instructional functions of the Cornell and Columbia units remain distinct and independent . Multiple fellowships and clinical programs have merged , however , and the institutions are continuing in their efforts to bring together departments , which could enhance academic efforts , reduce costs , and increase public recognition . All hospitals in the NewYork @-@ Presbyterian Healthcare System are affiliated with one of the two colleges .
Also in 1998 , the medical college was renamed as Weill Medical College of Cornell University after receiving a substantial endowment from Sanford I. Weill , then Chairman of Citigroup .
= = Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory = =
Curtiss @-@ Wright built this lab facility located in the suburbs of Buffalo , New York as a part of the World War II effort . As a part of its tax planning in the wake of the war effort , Curtiss @-@ Wright donated the facility to Cornell University to operate " as a public trust " and received a charitable tax deduction . Seven other east coast aircraft companies also donated $ 675 @,@ 000 to provide working capital for the lab . The lab operated under the name Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory from 1946 until 1972 . During this same time , Cornell formed a new Graduate School of Aerospace Engineering on its Ithaca , New York campus .
CAL invented the first crash test dummy in 1948 , the automotive seat belt in 1951 , the first mobile field unit with Doppler weather radar for weather @-@ tracking in 1956 , the first accurate airborne simulation of another aircraft ( the North American X @-@ 15 ) in 1960 , the first successful demonstration of an automatic terrain @-@ following radar system in 1964 , the first use of a laser beam to successfully measure gas density in 1966 , the first independent HYGE sled test facility to evaluate automotive restraint systems in 1967 , the mytron , an instrument for research on neuromuscular behavior and disorders in 1969 , and the prototype for the Federal Bureau of Investigation 's fingerprint reading system in 1972 . CAL served as an " honest broker " making objective comparisons of competing plans to build military hardware . It also conducted classified counter @-@ insurgency research in Thailand for the Defense Department . By the time of its divestiture , CAL had 1 @,@ 600 employees . CAL conducted wind tunnel test on models of a number of skyscraper buildings , including most notably the John Hancock Tower in Boston , Massachusetts and the 40 @-@ story Commerce House in Seattle , Washington .
During the late 1960s and early 1970s , universities came under criticism for conducting war @-@ related research particularly as the Vietnam War became unpopular , and Cornell University tried to sever its ties . Cornell accepted a $ 25 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 offer from EDP Technology , Inc. to purchase the lab in 1968 . However , a group of lab employees who had made a competing $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 offer organized a lawsuit to block the sale . In May 1971 , New York 's highest court ruled that Cornell had the right to sell the lab . At the conclusion of the suit , EDP Technology could not raise the money , and in 1972 , Cornell reorganized the lab as the for @-@ profit Calspan Corporation and then sold its stock in Calspan to the public .
= = Race relations = =
Cornell had enrolled African @-@ American students by the mid @-@ 1880s . On December 4 , 1906 , Alpha Phi Alpha , the first Greek letter fraternity for African @-@ Americans was founded at Cornell . Cornell had a very low black enrollment until the 1960s , when it formed the Committee on Special Educational Projects ( COSEP ) to recruit and mentor minority students . In 1969 , Cornell established its Africana Studies and Research Center , one of the first such black studies programs in the Ivy League . On April 1 , 1970 , during a period of heightened racial tension , the building that housed the Africana Studies center burned down . Since 1972 , Ujamaa , a special interest program dormitory located in North Campus Low Rise No. 10 , provides housing for many minority students . However , in 1974 , the New York State Board of Regents ordered it desegregated , and its status remained controversial for years .
= = = Willard Straight Hall Takeover = = =
On April 19 , 1969 , during a parents ' weekend , over 80 members of Cornell 's Afro @-@ American Society took over the student union building , Willard Straight Hall . The takeover was precipitated by increasing racial tension at the university and the students ' frustration with the administration 's lack of support for a black studies program . The specific catalysts for the takeover were a reprimand of three black students for an incident the previous December and a cross burning in front of the black women 's cooperative and other cases of racism .
By the following day a deal was brokered between the students and university officials , and on April 20 , the takeover ended , with the administration ceding to some of the Afro @-@ American Society 's demands . The students emerged making a black @-@ power salute and with guns in hand ( the guns had been brought into Willard Straight Hall after the initial takeover ) . James A. Perkins , president of Cornell during the events , would resign soon after the crisis .
Some of the elements of the deal required faculty approval , and the faculty voted to uphold the reprimands of the three students on April 21 . The faculty was asked to reconsider , and a group of 2 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 gathered in Barton Hall to debate the matter as the faculty deliberated . This " Barton Hall Community " formed a representative Constituent Assembly which undertook a comprehensive review of the University . Among the changes stemming from the crisis were the founding of an Africana Studies and Research Center , an overhaul of the campus judicial system , and the addition of students to Cornell 's Board of Trustees . The crisis also prompted New York to enact the Henderson Law requiring every college in the State to adopt rules for the maintenance of public order .
Yale Professor Donald Kagan , at Cornell through 1969 ( 1958 – 69 ) was once a liberal democrat , but he changed his views in 1969 and became one of the original signers to the 1997 Statement of Principles by the neoconservative think tank Project for the New American Century . According to Jim Lobe , cited in The Fall of the House of Bush by Craig Unger ( p . 39 , n . ) , Kagan 's turn away from liberalism occurred in 1969 when Cornell University was pressured into starting a " Black Studies " program by gun @-@ wielding students seizing Willard Straight Hall on campus : " Watching administrators demonstrate all the courage of Neville Chamberlain had a great impact on me , and I became much more conservative . " On the eve of the 2000 presidential elections , Kagan and his son , Frederick Kagan , published While America Sleeps , a call to increase defense spending .
= = Interdisciplinary studies = =
Historically , Cornell 's colleges have operated with great autonomy , each with a separate admissions policy , separate faculty , separate fundraising staff and in many cases , separate tuition structure . However , the University has taken steps to encourage collaboration between related academic fields within the University and with outside organizations . In the 1960s , the University created a Division of Biological Sciences to unify related programs in the Art and Agriculture colleges . Although a success , the structure was ultimately dropped in 1999 due to difficulty with funding .
A " Faculty of Computing and Information Science " was established in 1999 to unify computer science efforts throughout the University . This structure obviates the need for a separate school or college of computer science . For its first ten years , Robert Constable served as its Dean .
= = Affordability and use of the endowment = =
Since the 1970s , tuition at Cornell and other Ivy League schools has grown much faster than inflation . This trend coincided with the creation of Federally guaranteed student loan programs . At the same time , the endowments of these schools continue to grow due to gifts and successful investments . Critics called for universities to keep their tuition at affordable levels and to not hoard endowment earnings . As a result , in 2008 , Cornell and other Ivy Schools decided to increase the spending of endowment earnings in order to subsidize tuition for low and middle income families , reducing the amount of debt that Cornell students will incur . Cornell also placed a priority to soliciting endowed scholarships for undergraduates . In fall 2007 , Cornell had 1 @,@ 863 undergraduates ( 14 % of all undergraduates ) receiving federal Pell Grants . Cornell 's Pell Grant students roughly totals the combined Pell Grant recipients studying at Harvard , Princeton and Yale .
= = Portrayal in fiction = =
Students and faculty have chronicled Cornell in works of fiction . The most notable was The Widening Stain which first appeared anonymously . It was since revealed to have been written by Morris Bishop . Alison Lurie wrote a fictional account of the campus during the Vietnam War protests called The War Between the Tates . Matt Ruff captured Cornell around 1985 in The Fool on the Hill . Richard Fariña wrote a novel based on a real 1958 protest led by Kirkpatrick Sale against in loco parentis policies in Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me .
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= Grift of the Magi =
" Grift of the Magi " is the ninth episode of the eleventh season of the American animated television sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 19 , 1999 . In the episode , mafia boss Fat Tony successfully extorts a large sum of money from Springfield Elementary School , forcing Principal Skinner to close it down . However , a toy company called Kid First Industries , led by Jim Hope , later buys the school and privatizes it . Classes now start focusing on toys and marketing only , and soon a new toy called Funzo that resembles the children 's ideas is released by Kid First Industries in time for the Christmas shopping season . Bart and Lisa decide to destroy all Funzos in Springfield but Gary Coleman , Kid First Industries ' security guard , tries to intercept them .
" Grift of the Magi " , which satirizes the commercialization of Christmas , was written by Tom Martin and directed by Matthew Nastuk . The episode features several guest appearances ; Tim Robbins as Jim Hope , Gary Coleman as himself , Joe Mantegna as Fat Tony , and Clarence Clemons as a narrator that tells the viewers at the end of the episode how the story ends .
Around 7 @.@ 76 million American homes tuned in to watch the episode during its original airing . It was first released on DVD in 2003 in a collection of five Christmas @-@ related Simpsons episodes , titled Christmas With the Simpsons . Critics have given " Grift of the Magi " generally mixed to negative reviews , particularly because of its plot . The episode has , however , been praised for some of its gags and Coleman 's appearance .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Milhouse have to remain inside the Simpsons ' house when an ozone hole moves over Springfield . The two dress up as ladies and jump on the bed , singing " Sisters Are Doin ' It for Themselves " . When Homer comes in abruptly , Bart falls off of the bed and lands on one of Homer 's bowling balls and breaks his coccyx . Dr. Hibbert informs Homer and Marge that Bart will have to use a wheelchair until the bone has healed . When Bart arrives at Springfield Elementary School the following day , he finds that he cannot enter because the school lacks ramps for the disabled . As Principal Skinner considers a ramp for the school , mafia boss Fat Tony emerges and suggests that his construction company would be a good choice of company to build it . Although the new ramp system almost immediately collapses , Fat Tony informs Skinner that the construction supposedly cost US $ 200 @,@ 000 and that the school will still have to pay . In response , Principal Skinner decides to close Springfield Elementary due to lack of funds ( having used them to pay off Fat Tony and thus avoid brutal mob reprisals ) .
All pleas for financial help are in vain , including a private school play performed in front of Mr. Burns at his mansion , until Jim Hope , the president of a company named Kid First Industries , buys the school and privatizes it . The school 's staff is replaced , and classes now focus on toys and marketing . Lisa soon discovers that the company that bought Springfield Elementary is a toy company , using students for research to make a new popular toy in time for the Christmas shopping season . She is then frightened by the appearance of a robotic figure . When Bart and Lisa are back at home , watching television , they see an advertisement for a toy named Funzo . It has many features suggested by Springfield Elementary students during a brainstorming session at the school . They visit Jim Hope 's office to complain , and he apologetically gives them a free Funzo toy . Bart and Lisa later discover that Funzo is programmed to destroy other toys .
On Christmas Eve , with Homer 's help , the two steal all the Funzo toys from underneath every Christmas tree in Springfield with the intention of burning them in the town 's long @-@ running tire fire . However , Gary Coleman , who is a security guard at Kid First Industries , comes to stop them . The two parties argue all night until the next morning when they settle down into civilized discussion about the commercialization of Christmas . Coleman changes his opinion about the toy company and helps the Simpsons destroy the remaining functioning Funzo toys that were not destroyed in the tire fire . Afterwards , Homer invites Coleman to Christmas dinner at the Simpson family 's house , where Mr. Burns shows up after deciding to donate money to Springfield Elementary following an epiphany he had that night .
= = Production = =
" Grift of the Magi " was written by Tom Martin and directed by Matthew Nastuk as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . It was the first episode that Martin wrote on his own , having previously co @-@ written the season ten episode " Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " with George Meyer , Brian Scully , and The Simpsons showrunner Mike Scully . Martin got the inspiration for " Grift of the Magi " after reading a magazine article about how major companies were receiving permission to advertise their products in school students ' textbooks . He thought it " seemed like a gigantic conflict that could lead to big problems " , and therefore believed an episode based on it would be a good idea . According to DVD Talk reviewer Adam Tyner , the episode is a satire of the commercialization of Christmas . A writer for Newsday has commented that episode skewers " the annual craze for that one ' hot ' toy . " This has also been pointed out by Mike Scully , who said in 2008 that " Grift of the Magi " was produced around the time when " every year there seemed to be a hot toy . Like the Furbies , or whatever – some toy that kids just had to have that year . " In response to Scully 's comment , Martin added that every year " the media would create this gigantic rush at the toy store for various things . This [ episode ] was coming on the heels of , yeah , the Furby . "
Guest stars in the episode include Tim Robbins as Jim Hope , Gary Coleman as himself , Joe Mantegna as Fat Tony , and Clarence Clemons as a narrator . Scully thought Robbins " did a great job " because the Simpsons staff wanted the character of Jim Hope to be " fun and upbeat and somebody the kids would love . " Clemons narrates a few scenes at the end of the episode , telling the viewers how the story ends . When Coleman agrees to spend Christmas with the Simpsons , Clemons says , for example : " And Gary Coleman was as good as his word , and as for old Mr. Burns , he was visited by three ghosts during the night and agreed to fund the school with some money he found in his tuxedo pants . " Shortly after Coleman 's death in 2010 , an article appeared in the newspaper El Comercio that noted that " the nod to the harsh reality of Gary Coleman in [ the episode ] is given : in real life a few years ago Gary had to make a living as a shop security guard . "
= = Release = =
" Grift of the Magi " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 19 , 1999 . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 76 million households that night . With a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 7 , the episode finished 39th in the ratings for the week of December 13 – 19 , 1999 ( tied with an episode of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) ' s 20 / 20 ) . It was the second highest @-@ rated broadcast on Fox that week , following an episode of Ally McBeal ( which received a 9 @.@ 9 rating ) . On October 14 , 2003 , " Grift of the Magi " was released in the United States on a DVD collection titled Christmas With the Simpsons , along with the season one episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , the season four episode " Mr. Plow " , the season nine episode " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " , and the season thirteen episode " She of Little Faith " . On October 7 , 2008 , the episode was released on DVD again as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Martin , Scully , Meyer , Matt Groening , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Matt Selman , Tim Long , and Lance Kramer participated in the DVD audio commentary for " Grift of the Magi " . Deleted scenes from the episode were also included on the box set .
Since airing , " Grift of the Magi " has received generally mixed to negative reception from critics . While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented that the episode " feels like an amalgamation of elements from prior holiday programs and never really elicits much humor . Christmas is commercialized and corporations use and abuse their customers ? Those aren ’ t exactly rich insights , so [ ' Grift of the Magi ' ] comes across as a below average episode . " In his review of the DVD Christmas With the Simpsons , Digitally Obsessed critic Joel Cunningham wrote that the episode " comes from Season 11 , well past the point when the series had sacrificed character for absurdist humor . Unless you don 't think evil toy marketers , sentient Furbys , and Gary Coleman qualify . Anyway , after the school nearly goes bankrupt , Principal Skinner signs a contract with corporate backers who use the kids to conduct market research . There are some good gags , but the story doesn 't hang together very well . " Adam Tyner of DVD Talk argued that the episode " has a couple of good gags ( Gary Coleman chatting on the phone being my favorite ) but is quickly forgettable " . Brian James of PopMatters described Coleman 's cameo as " hysterical " in 2004 , and Meghan Lewit of the same website listed " Grift of the Magi " at number eight on her 2009 list of the " 10 best holiday themed TV episodes . "
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= Falklands ' 82 =
Falklands ' 82 ( released as Malvinas ' 82 in Spanish markets ) is a 1986 turn @-@ based strategy video game developed and published by Personal Software Services for the ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64 . It is the fifth instalment of the Strategic Wargames series . The game is set during the 1982 Falklands War and revolves around the Argentine occupation and subsequent British re @-@ capture of the Falkland Islands . The player controls the British Task Force as they must either defeat all Argentine forces on the archipelago or re @-@ capture every settlement .
A port for the Amstrad CPC was advertised but never released . During development , the developers obtained information and statistics of the war from NATO . The game met with mixed reviews and controversy : critics praised the detailed graphics , but some were divided over the gameplay and authenticity ; others criticised the in @-@ game potential of an Argentine " victory " .
= = Gameplay = =
Falklands ' 82 is a turn @-@ based strategy game focusing on land battles during the Falklands War . The player commands the British Task Force against the Argentine ground forces , who are occupying the islands . The game begins by allocating fifteen Royal Navy ships for the task force ; a proportionate amount must be devoted for attack and defence purposes . The player must then choose four landing spots in northern East Falkland to begin the invasion : Port Stanley , Berkeley Sound , Cow Bay and San Carlos Bay . The SAS or SBS are available throughout the game to provide intelligence on Argentine movements ; however , intelligence is limited and may only be collected a certain number of times . At any time , the player may request reinforcements from either one of the two aircraft carriers , HMS Hermes or HMS Invincible .
The main objective of the game is to either defeat all occupying Argentine forces in the archipelago , or to capture and hold all ten settlements of the Falklands simultaneously . Depending on the difficulty setting , the game lasts 25 or 30 turns ; if every settlement has not been occupied or any Argentine forces remain by the end of the last turn , the game will end . The capital of the Falklands , Stanley , has the highest concentration of Argentine forces and is usually the last settlement to be captured . There are a total of four choices for combat : attack , move , pass , and " recce " . The game includes a weather system that changes from every turn and provides obstructions for various forces . For example , stormy seas will temporarily render naval vessels and troop reinforcements unavailable , while fog will render both naval and air forces unavailable .
During the course of the game , Argentine airstrikes will frequently sink Royal Navy ships , depending on how many of them were initially allocated to defensive positions . In addition , Argentine air forces will occasionally bomb and destroy British forces on the ground , which are represented as animated sprites on the map . The map also displays terrain details , including rivers and mountains . If troops are situated on top of a mountain , they will receive a defensive bonus once attacked ; however , due to the steep terrain , they will move more slowly . If the player chooses to enter an enemy @-@ controlled zone , the move will instantly end , leaving the unit vulnerable to an Argentine attack .
= = Background and release = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in November 1981 . The company was known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Bismarck and Battle of Britain . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . The Strategic Wargames series was conceptualised in 1984 by software designer Alan Steel ; during development of these titles , Steel would often research the upcoming game 's topic and pass on his findings to associates in Coventry and London . In 1983 , the company was recognised as " one of the top software houses " in the United Kingdom , and was a finalist for BBC Radio 4 's New Business Enterprise Award .
During development of both games , Cockayne and Mays obtained statistics for both the Cold War and Falklands War from NATO and the Soviet embassy in London . In an interview with Your Computer magazine , Richard Cockayne stated that both Theatre Europe and Falklands ' 82 received heavy criticism from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and The Sun newspaper , respectively . An editor from The Sunday Press suggested that Falklands ' 82 was " distasteful " because of the game 's possibility of an Argentine victory . The game was planned for an Amstrad CPC port , but was never released for that computer . In Spanish markets , the game was released as Malvinas ' 82 ( the Spanish name for the Falkland Islands ) and included a manual which was never translated into English .
In 1986 , Cockayne decided to alter products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , since smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles , such as the ZX Spectrum , lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted by video game journalist Phillipa Irving as " pulling out " from the Spectrum market . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid @-@ 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , and Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed due to debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release . Rachael Smith of Your Sinclair praised the overall experience of the gameplay , stating that it was " ideal " for newcomers and plays " smooth " ; however , she criticised it for being " annoyingly slow " at times . Sean Masterson of Crash criticised the gameplay , stating that it fails to " offer a serious challenge " and prohibits the player from experimenting with choices the real commanders never had , such as planning tactical air strikes . A reviewer from Sinclair User praised the gameplay , stating that it was " swift " and had " nice touches " for beginners to the wargame genre . He sarcastically remarked that the inability to play on the Argentine side would help improve Anglo @-@ Argentinian relations . A reviewer from Zzap ! 64 criticised the game 's lack of authenticity and strategy , stating that the developer 's previous games had more credence if the player " played them with their eyes shut " .
A reviewer from ZX Computing heralded the graphics and details of the map but suggested that " hardened wargamers " would not be interested in graphical advancements . A reviewer from Computer Gamer praised its simplicity , stating that it was a " simple game " and would prove to be an " excellent " introduction to the wargame strategy genre . In a retrospective review , Tim Stone of Rock , Paper , Shotgun praised the game 's ability to display the war in a neutral manner ; however , he questioned the inability to play on the Argentine side . Stone concluded that the game had " greater significance " over other war strategy games at the time and had an " undeniable quality " . Upon release , The Sun newspaper criticised Falklands ' 82 for including a scenario where " Argentina could win , " but Cockayne maintained that his company 's video games did not trivialise the war .
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= Dive ( Usher song ) =
" Dive " is a song recorded by American recording artist Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . It was written and produced by Rico Love , Jim Jonsin , Danny Morris and Frank Romano . " Dive " is a slow @-@ paced R & B ballad with elements of pop music , with Usher making use of his falsetto range . Its lyrics use the metaphor of diving , which was interpreted by critics to discuss a commitment to a relationship . The song was announced by Usher via Twitter as the fifth single from Looking 4 Myself on August 21 , 2012 . It was released to urban radio on August 28 , 2012 .
" Dive " was received well by critics , who praised its production and Usher 's vocals , particularly his falsetto . An accompanying music video directed by Chris Applebaum , portrays Victoria 's Secret Angel model Chanel Iman as Usher 's love interest , showing them being intimate and making love in several scenes . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 50 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 6 @,@ 546 digital copies . " Dive " peaked at number 34 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , remaining on the chart for twelve weeks before dropping out .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
The track is a slow @-@ paced R & B ballad with elements of pop music , that runs for a length of three minutes and 47 seconds . Throughout the song , Usher makes use of his falsetto range , to which Billboard 's Erika Ramirez described as " soulful " . Chuck Arnold of People complimented Usher 's falsetto on both " Dive " and lead single " Climax " , adding that the songs show " that he 's a " better singer than ever " . Matt Cibula of PopMatters wrote that " Dive " contains a triple entendre in its lyrics : seemingly singing about diving or oral sex , " only to realize that what he 's really discussing " is commitment to a relationship . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush perceived that the song 's lyrics " metaphorically compares love to the crashing waters of the ocean " . Carrie Battan of Pitchfork interpreted the lyrics as " explicit " which might " make you cringe if they 'd come from of anyone else " in the line : " It 's raining inside your bed / No parts are dry / Lovin ' made you so wet / Your Legs / Your thighs " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Dive " received universally positive acclaim from music critics . DJ Booth described its production as " sultry " and noted the song as a potential hit for Usher . Erika Ramirez of Billboard also saw the song as a success , writing that it is " slower and more sensual " than Jim Jonsin and Rico Love 's " Motivation " ( 2011 ) performed by Kelly Rowland . Ramirez also praised Usher 's vocals , more specifically his falsetto , the reasoning to why " we fell in love with the singer to begin with " . Complex 's Brad Wete perceived the song as a " sexy slow @-@ winding cut " , that is " powered by Usher ’ s falsetto " . Ryan Hadfield of Consequence of Sound also praised Usher 's vocals , with " Dive " and lead single " Climax " showing his " superior R & B vocal range " . Pitchfork 's Carry Battan wrote that Usher 's " vocal mastery " allows him to turn the chorus of " Dive " — which she viewed as " cornball " — into something " more specific , as if he were addressing just one woman [ ... ] " . PopMatters ' Matt Cibula saw the lyric 's as " clever " for incorporating a triple @-@ entendre . Cibula further lauded Usher 's falsetto , which he wrote Usher sings in an " urgent " whisper .
= = Music video and live performances = =
The music video for " Dive " was filmed in July 2012 , directed by Chris Applebaum , and released to VEVO on August 25 , 2012 . In the video , Victoria 's Secret Angel model Chanel Iman plays as Usher 's love interest . Set on a luxury Yacht in the open sea , the video begins with Usher talking , before showing him singing the first verse . The video intercuts to Iman , and Usher inside a cabin with water gushing in . For the chorus , Usher and Iman are being intimate , with water further entering the singer 's cabin . Usher and Iman are once again being intimate for the second verse , sat outside of the Yacht , with water now level with Usher 's waist inside the cabin , entering the second chorus , where Usher and Iman make love . During the bridge , both are romancing within the cabin 's bathroom , with the video intercutting to different romantic scenarios . Further scenarios are shown in the final chorus , with the water now fully submerging the cabin and Usher . The video closes with Usher swimming to safety , but before reaching the surface , he and Iman approach each other , embracing in the water . Opening the 2012 iTunes Festival , Usher performed " Dive " for the first time along with " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " , " Twisted " and " Numb " and other songs .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Vocal recording – Parkland Playhouse , Parkland , FL ; Circlehouse Studios , Miami , FL
Mixing – Parkland Playhouse , Parkland , FL
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads , " Dive " entered the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 50 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 6 @,@ 546 digital copies . It debuted at number eight on the US Bubbling Under Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart for the chart issue dated September 8 , 2012 . On the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , " Dive " peaked at number 34 , remaining on the chart for twelve weeks before dropping out .
= = Release history = =
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= Justinian I =
Justinian I ( / dʒʌˈstɪniən / ; Latin : Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus , Greek : Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ἰουστινιανός Flávios Pétros Sabbátios Ioustinianós ) ( c . 482 – 14 November 565 ) , traditionally known as Justinian the Great and also Saint Justinian the Great in the Eastern Orthodox Church , was a Byzantine ( East Roman ) emperor from 527 to 565 . During his reign , Justinian sought to revive the empire 's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire . Justinian 's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Later Roman empire , and his reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or " restoration of the Empire " .
Because of his restoration activities , Justinian has sometimes been called the " last Roman " in modern historiography . This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman empire . His general , Belisarius , swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa . Subsequently Belisarius , Narses , and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom , restoring Dalmatia , Sicily , Italy , and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths . The prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian peninsula , establishing the province of Spania . These campaigns re @-@ established Roman control over the western Mediterranean , increasing the Empire 's annual revenue by over a million solidi . During his reign Justinian also subdued the Tzani , a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before .
A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law , the Corpus Juris Civilis , which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states . His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture , and his building program yielded such masterpieces as the church of Hagia Sophia . A devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendour .
= = Life = =
Justinian was born in Tauresium around 482 . A native speaker of Latin ( possibly the last Roman emperor to be one ) , he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro @-@ Roman or Thraco @-@ Roman origins . The cognomen Iustinianus , which he took later , is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin . During his reign , he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace , which today is in South East Serbia . His mother was Vigilantia , the sister of Justin . Justin , who was in the imperial guard ( the Excubitors ) before he became emperor , adopted Justinian , brought him to Constantinople , and ensured the boy 's education . As a result , Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence , theology and Roman history . Justinian served for some time with the Excubitors but the details of his early career are unknown . Chronicler John Malalas , who lived during the reign of Justinian , tells of his appearance that he was short , fair skinned , curly haired , round faced and handsome . Another contemporary chronicler , Procopius , compares Justinian 's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian , although this is probably slander .
When Emperor Anastasius died in 518 , Justin was proclaimed the new emperor , with significant help from Justinian . During Justin 's reign ( 518 – 527 ) , Justinian was the emperor 's close confidant . Justinian showed much ambition , and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor on 1 April 527 , although there is no conclusive evidence for this . As Justin became senile near the end of his reign , Justinian became the de facto ruler . Justinian was appointed consul in 521 and later commander of the army of the east . Upon Justin 's death on 1 August 527 , Justinian became the sole sovereign .
As a ruler , Justinian showed great energy . He was known as " the emperor who never sleeps " on account of his work habits . Nevertheless , he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach . Around 525 , he married his mistress , Theodora , in Constantinople . She was by profession a courtesan and some twenty years his junior . In earlier times , Justinian could not have married her because of her class , but his uncle , Emperor Justin I , had passed a law allowing intermarriage between social classes . Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire , and later emperors would follow Justinian 's precedent in marrying outside the aristocratic class . The marriage caused a scandal , but Theodora would prove to be shrewd judge of character and Justinian 's greatest supporter . Other talented individuals included Tribonian , his legal adviser ; Peter the Patrician , the diplomat and longtime head of the palace bureaucracy ; Justinian 's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes , who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before , thereby funding Justinian 's wars ; and finally , his prodigiously talented generals , Belisarius and Narses .
Justinian 's rule was not universally popular ; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots , and a conspiracy against the emperor 's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562 . Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered . Theodora died in 548 at a relatively young age , possibly of cancer ; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years . Justinian , who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine , became even more devoted to religion during the later years of his life . When he died on 14 November 565 , he left no children , though his wife Theodora had given birth to a stillborn son several years into his reign . He was succeeded by Justin II , who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia , the niece of Empress Theodora . Justinian 's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade .
= = Reign = =
= = = Legislative activities = = =
Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms , particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law , something that had not previously been attempted . The total of Justinian 's legislature is known today as the Corpus juris civilis . It consists of the Codex Iustinianus , the Digesta or Pandectae , the Institutiones , and the Novellae .
Early in his reign , Justinian appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task . The first draft of the Codex Iustinianus , a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward , was issued on 7 April 529 . ( The final version appeared in 534 . ) It was followed by the Digesta ( or Pandectae ) , a compilation of older legal texts , in 533 , and by the Institutiones , a textbook explaining the principles of law . The Novellae , a collection of new laws issued during Justinian 's reign , supplements the Corpus . As opposed to the rest of the corpus , the Novellae appeared in Greek , the common language of the Eastern Empire .
The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence ( including ecclesiastical Canon Law ) and , for historians , provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire . As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges ( laws ) and the other rules were expressed or published : proper laws , senatorial consults ( senatusconsulta ) , imperial decrees , case law , and jurists ' opinions and interpretations ( responsa prudentum ) . Tribonian 's code ensured the survival of Roman law . It formed the basis of later Byzantine law , as expressed in the Basilika of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise . The only western province where the Justinianic code was introduced was Italy ( after the conquest by the so @-@ called Pragmatic Sanction of 554 ) , from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much European law code . It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions , and it also passed on to Russia . It remains influential to this day .
He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution . Rapists were treated severely . Further , by his policies : women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse ; if a woman was widowed , her dowry should be returned ; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice .
= = = Nika riots = = =
Justinian 's habit of choosing efficient , but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign . In January 532 , partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople , normally divided among themselves , united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots . They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers , and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius , who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius . While the crowd was rioting in the streets , Justinian considered fleeing the capital , but eventually decided to stay , apparently on the prompting of Theodora , who refused to leave . In the next two days , he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus . Procopius relates that 30 @,@ 000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome . On Theodora 's insistence , and apparently against his own judgment , Justinian had Anastasius ' nephews executed .
The destruction that had taken place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings , most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia .
= = = Military activities = = =
One of the most spectacular features of Justinian 's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century . As a Christian Roman emperor , Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries . Although he never personally took part in military campaigns , he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art . The re @-@ conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius .
= = = = War with the Sassanid Empire , 527 – 532 = = = =
From his uncle , Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire . In 530 a Persian army was defeated at Dara , but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum . When king Kavadh I of Persia died ( September 531 ) , Justinian concluded an " Eternal Peace " ( which cost him 11 @,@ 000 pounds of gold ) with his successor Khosrau I ( 532 ) . Having thus secured his eastern frontier , Justinian turned his attention to the West , where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire .
= = = = Conquest of North Africa , 533 – 534 = = = =
The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa . King Hilderic , who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy , had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 . Imprisoned , the deposed king appealed to Justinian .
In 533 , Belisarius with a fleet of 92 dromons escorting 500 transports , landed at Caput Vada ( modern Ras Kaboudia ) in modern Tunisia with an army of about 15 @,@ 000 men , as well as a number of barbarian troops . They defeated the Vandals , who were caught completely off guard , at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December ; Belisarius took Carthage . King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia , but surrendered the next spring . He was taken to Constantinople , where he was paraded in a triumph . Sardinia and Corsica , the Balearic Islands , and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Gibraltar were recovered in the same campaign .
An African prefecture , centered in Carthage , was established in April 534 , but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years , amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies . The area was not completely pacified until 548 , but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperity . The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100 @,@ 000 pounds of gold .
= = = = War in Italy , first phase , 535 – 540 = = = =
As in Africa , dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention . The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534 , and a usurper , Theodahad , had imprisoned queen Amalasuntha , Theodoric 's daughter and mother of Athalaric , on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena , where he had her assassinated in 535 . Thereupon Belisarius with 7 @,@ 500 men invaded Sicily ( 535 ) and advanced into Italy , sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536 . By that time Theodahad had been deposed by the Ostrogothic army , who had elected Vitigis as their new king . He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city .
Justinian sent another general , Narses , to Italy , but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign . Milan was taken , but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths . Justinian recalled Narses in 539 . By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans , and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna . There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands . Belisarius feigned to accept the offer , entered the city in May 540 , and reclaimed it for the Empire . Then , having been recalled by Justinian , Belisarius returned to Constantinople , taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him .
= = = = War with the Sassanid Empire , 540 – 562 = = = =
Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians . Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors , King Khosrau I broke the " Eternal Peace " and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540 . He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch ( allowing the garrison of 6 @,@ 000 men to leave the city ) , besieged Daras , and then went on to attack the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea , exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way . He forced Justinian I to pay him 5 @,@ 000 pounds of gold , plus 500 pounds of gold more each year .
Belisarius arrived in the East in 541 , but , after some success , was again recalled to Constantinople in 542 . The reasons for his withdrawal are not known , but it may have been instigated by rumours of disloyalty on behalf of the general reaching the court . The outbreak of the plague caused a lull in the fighting during the year 543 . The following year Khosrau defeated a Byzantine army of 30 @,@ 000 men , but unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa . Both parties made little headway , and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman @-@ Persian frontier . After that the Lazic War in the North continued for several years , until a second truce in 557 , followed by a Fifty Years ' Peace in 562 . Under its terms , the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold ( 30 @,@ 000 solidi ) to be paid by the Romans .
= = = = War in Italy , second phase , 541 – 554 = = = =
While military efforts were directed to the East , the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse . Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric ( both murdered in 541 ) and especially Totila , the Ostrogoths made quick gains . After a victory at Faenza in 542 , they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire peninsula . Belisarius was sent back to Italy late in 544 , but lacked sufficient troops . Making no headway , he was relieved of his command in 548 . Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet with 200 ships . During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times , first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546 , then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547 , and then again by the Goths in January 550 . Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked the Greek coastlines .
Finally , Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35 @,@ 000 men ( 2 @,@ 000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania ) under the command of Narses . The army reached Ravenna in June 552 , and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines , where Totila was slain . After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year , the resistance of the Ostrogoths was finally broken . In 554 , a large @-@ scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum , and Italy was secured for the Empire , though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds . At the end of the war , Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16 @,@ 000 men . The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300 @,@ 000 pounds of gold .
= = = = Other campaigns = = = =
In addition to the other conquests , the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania , when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552 , Justinian dispatched a force of 2 @,@ 000 men ; according to the historian Jordanes , this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius . The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded the new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild , who had by now become king . This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion .
During Justinian 's reign , the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube . Here , Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works . In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople , but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius .
= = = Results = = =
Justinian 's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized . In the West , the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation . The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy , even though its long @-@ lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought . The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon its population were deeply resented . While the final victory in Italy and the conquest of the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area over which the Empire could project its power and influence , and while they must have contributed to the Empire 's prestige , most of the conquests proved ephemeral . The greater part of Italy would be lost to the invading Lombards three years after Justinian 's death ( 568 ) , the newly founded province of Spania was completely recovered by the Hispanian Visigoths in 624 under the leadership of Suintila , and within a century and a half Africa would be forever lost for the empire to the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates during the Muslim conquests .
Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north , and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor 's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age . In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire , Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th @-@ century Europe . Paradoxically , the grand scale of Justinian 's military successes probably contributed in part to the Empire 's subsequent decline .
= = = Religious activities = = =
Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents , especially Monophysitism , which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt . Monophysite doctrine , which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature or a synthesis of a divine and human nature , had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451 , and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been a source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome . Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine , openly condemning the Monophysites . Justinian , who continued this policy , tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties , a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them .
Near the end of his life , Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine , especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism , but he died before being able to issue any legislation . The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro @-@ Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years . In the course of his reign , Justinian , who had a genuine interest in matters of theology , authored a small number of theological treatises .
= = = = Religious policy = = = =
As in his secular administration , despotism appeared also in the Emperor 's ecclesiastical policy . He regulated everything , both in religion and in law .
At the very beginning of his reign , he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church 's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation ; and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties ; whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law . He made the Nicaeno @-@ Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church , and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils . The bishops in attendance at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 recognized that nothing could be done in the Church contrary to the emperor 's will and command ; while , on his side , the emperor , in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus , reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription . Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics . He neglected no opportunity for securing the rights of the Church and clergy , for protecting and extending monasticism . He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and the right to receive solemnia or annual gifts from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates .
Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities , he was indeed a " nursing father " of the Church . Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations , foundations , and the administration of ecclesiastical property ; election and rights of bishops , priests and abbots ; monastic life , residential obligations of the clergy , conduct of divine service , episcopal jurisdiction , et cetera . Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia ( which cost 20 @,@ 000 pounds of gold ) , the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots . The new Hagia Sophia , with its numerous chapels and shrines , gilded octagonal dome , and mosaics , became the centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople .
= = = = Religious relations with Rome = = = =
From the middle of the 5th century onward , increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters . Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle 's accession in 518 , and put an end to the Acacian schism . Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized the Council of Chalcedon , which had condemned Monophysitism , which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria , and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices . The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies . Emperors Justin I ( and later Justinian himself ) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome . After this , Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections , as he did when he favoured Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported .
This new @-@ found unity between East and West did not , however , not solve the ongoing disputes in the east . Justinian 's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks - thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces - and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering the Chalcedonian faith . Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora , who favoured the Monophysites unreservedly . In the condemnation of the Three Chapters , three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon , Justinian tried to win over the opposition . At the Fifth Ecumenical Council , most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor 's demands and Pope Vigilius , who was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a champel , finally also gave his assent . However , the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west , where it led to new ( albeit temporal ) schism , and failed to reach its goal in the east , as the Monophysites , remained unsatisfied ; all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters .
= = = = Suppression of other religions and philosophies = = = =
Justinian 's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith , and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodox ( Nicaean ) . Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution , which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue . The Codex contained two statutes that decreed the total destruction of paganism , even in private life ; these provisions were zealously enforced . Contemporary sources ( John Malalas , Theophanes , John of Ephesus ) tell of severe persecutions , even of men in high position . In 529 , the Neoplatonic Academy of Athens was placed under state control as paganism , strangling this training school for this branch of Hellenistic philosophy ..
In Asia Minor alone , John of Ephesus reported to have converted 70 @,@ 000 pagans . Other peoples also accepted Christianity : the Heruli , the Huns dwelling near the Don , the Abasgi , and the Tzanni in Caucasia .
The worship of Amun at Augila in the Libyan desert was abolished ; and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae , at the first cataract of the Nile . The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans , and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by despatching a bishop from Egypt .
The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened . Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue , and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople .
The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans , who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection . He persecuted them with rigorous edicts , but yet could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign . The consistency of Justinian 's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution , experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment . At Constantinople , on one occasion , not a few Manicheans , after strict inquisition , were executed in the emperor 's very presence : some by burning , others by drowning .
= = = Architecture , learning , art and literature = = =
Justinian was a prolific builder ; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area . Under Justinian 's patronage the San Vitale in Ravenna , which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora , was completed . Most notably , he had the Hagia Sophia , originally a basilica @-@ style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots , splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan , under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles . According to Procopius , Justinian stated at the completion of this edifice , " Solomon I have outdone thee " ( in reference to the 1st Jewish temple ) . This new cathedral , with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics , remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries .
Another prominent church in the capital , the Church of the Holy Apostles , which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century , was likewise rebuilt . Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone : excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high @-@ quality mosaics dating from Justinian 's reign , and a column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543 . Rivalry with other , more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy ( like Anicia Juliana ) might have enforced Justinian 's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty 's prestige .
Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications , and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns ( see Basilica Cistern ) . To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara , an advanced arch dam was built . During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia , securing a major military supply route to the east . Furthermore , Justinian restored cities damaged by earthquake or war and built a new city near his place of birth called Justiniana Prima , which was intended to replace Thessalonica as the political and religious centre of Illyricum .
In Justinian 's reign , and partly under his patronage , Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians , including Procopius and Agathias , and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished . On the other hand , centres of learning as the Platonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School of Beirut lost their importance during his reign . Despite Justinian 's passion for the glorious Roman past , the practice of choosing Roman consul was allowed to lapse after 541 .
= = = Economy and administration = = =
As was the case under Justinian 's predecessors , the Empire 's economic health rested primarily on agriculture . In addition , long @-@ distance trade flourished , reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat . Within the Empire , convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople with wheat and grains . Justinian made the traffic more efficient by building a large granary on the island of Tenedos for storage and further transport to Constantinople . Justinian also tried to find new routes for the eastern trade , which was suffering badly from the wars with the Persians .
One important luxury product was silk , which was imported and then processed in the Empire . In order to protect the manufacture of silk products , Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541 . In order to bypass the Persian landroute , Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians , whom he wanted to act as trade mediators by transporting Indian silk to the Empire ; the Abyssinians , however , were unable to compete with the Persian merchants in India . Then , in the early 550s , two monks succeeded in smuggling eggs of silk worms from Central Asia back to Constantinople , and silk became an indigenous product .
Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans , Anatolia , Armenia , Cyprus , Egypt and Nubia .
At the start of Justinian I 's reign he had inherited a surplus 28 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 solidi ( 400 @,@ 000 pounds of gold ) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. Under Justinian 's rule , measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient . Greater administrative power was given to both the leaders of the prefectures and of the provinces , while power was taken away from the vicariates of the dioceses , of which a number were abolished . The overall trend was towards a simplification of administrative infrastructure . According to Brown ( 1971 ) , the increased professionalization of tax collection did much to destroy the traditional structures of provincial life , as it weakened the autonomy of the town councils in the Greek towns . It has been estimated that before Justinian I 's reconquests the state had an annual revenue of 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 solidi in AD 530 , but after his reconquests , the annual revenue was increased to 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 solidi in AD 550 .
Throughout Justinian 's reign , the cities and villages of the East prospered , although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes ( 526 , 528 ) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians ( 540 ) . Justinian had the city rebuilt , but on a slightly smaller scale .
Despite all these measures , the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century . The first one was the plague , which lasted from 541 to 543 and , by decimating the Empire 's population , probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages . The lack of manpower also led to a significant increase in the number of " barbarians " in the Byzantine armies after the early 540s . The protracted war in Italy and the wars with the Persians themselves laid a heavy burden on the Empire 's resources , and Justinian was criticized for curtailing the government @-@ run post service , which he limited to only one eastern route of military importance .
= = Natural disasters = =
During the decade of the 530s , it seemed to many that God had abandoned the Christian Roman Empire . There were noxious fumes in the air ; and the Sun , while still providing day , refused to give much heat . This caused famine unlike anything those of the time had seen before , weakening the people of Europe and the Middle East .
The cause of these disasters aren 't precisely known , but the Rabaul caldera , Lake Ilopango and Krakatoa volcanoes or a collision with a swarm of meteors are all suspected . Scientists have spent decades on the mystery .
Seven years later , in 542 , a devastating outbreak of Bubonic Plague , second only to that of the 14th century , laid siege to the world , killing tens of millions . As ruler of the Empire , Justinian , and members of his court , were physically unaffected by famine . However , the Imperial Court did prove susceptible to plague , with Justinian himself contracting , but surviving , the pestilence .
In July 551 , the eastern Mediterranean was rocked by the 551 Beirut earthquake , which triggered a tsunami . The combined fatalities of both events probably exceeded 30 @,@ 000 , with tremors being felt from Antioch to Alexandria .
= = Cultural depictions = =
In the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri , Justinian I is prominently featured as a spirit residing on the sphere of Mercury , which holds the ambitious souls of Heaven . His legacy is elaborated on , and he is portrayed as a defender of the Christian faith and the restorer of Rome to the Empire . However , Justinian confesses that he was partially motivated by fame rather than duty to God , which tainted the justice of his rule in spite of his proud accomplishments . In his introduction , " Cesare fui e son Iustinïano " ( " Caesar I was , and am Justinian " ) , his mortal title is contrasted with his immortal soul , to emphasize that glory in life is ephemeral , while contributing to God 's glory is eternal , according to Dorothy L. Sayers . Dante also uses Justinian to criticize the factious politics of his 14th Century Italy , in contrast to the unified Italy of the Roman Empire .
= = Historical sources = =
Procopius provides the primary source for the history of Justinian 's reign . The Syriac chronicle of John of Ephesus , which does not survive , was used as a source for later chronicles , contributing many additional details of value . Both historians became very bitter towards Justinian and his empress , Theodora . Other sources include the histories of Agathias , Menander Protector , John Malalas , the Paschal Chronicle , the chronicles of Marcellinus Comes and Victor of Tunnuna . Justinian is considered a saint among Eastern Orthodox Christians , and is also remembered by some in the Lutheran Church on 14 November .
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= Tricholoma pardinum =
Tricholoma pardinum , commonly known as spotted tricholoma , tiger tricholoma , tigertop , leopard knight , or dirty trich , is a gilled mushroom widely distributed across North America and Europe , as well as parts of Asia . It is generally found in beech woodland in summer and autumn . Two subspecies have been described from southern Europe . First officially described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 , Tricholoma pardinum has had a confusing taxonomic history that extends over two centuries . In 1762 , German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described the species Agaricus tigrinus with an illustration corresponding to what is thought to be T. pardinum , and consequently , the name Tricholoma tigrinum has been used erroneously in some European field guides .
The fruit body of Tricholoma pardinum is an imposing mushroom with a pale grey cap up to 15 cm ( 6 in ) in diameter that is covered with dark brownish to greyish scales . The gills are whitish , and are not attached to the stout white to pale grey @-@ brown stalk . The spore print is white . One of the more toxic members of the genus Tricholoma , the species has been implicated in a number of episodes of mushroom poisoning , probably because it is a large , attractive mushroom with a pleasant smell and taste , and it bears a superficial resemblance to several edible species , like Tricholoma terreum . Ingesting T. pardinum — even in small quantities — results in a severe , persistent gastroenteritis caused by an unknown mycotoxin .
= = Taxonomy = =
Christiaan Hendrik Persoon described this species as Agaricus myomyces var. pardinus in 1801 , although he queried whether it was a distinct species . However , the German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer had in 1762 published Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones , in which he described a mushroom he called Agaricus tigrinus . The illustration accompanying the name fits what we now know as Tricholoma pardinum , although the description is less clear . To confuse matters further , Elias Magnus Fries used the name Agaricus tigrinus in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum , in accordance with Bulliard 's 1782 description , which now corresponds with Lentinus tigrinus . In his 1838 work Epicrisis systematis mycologici : seu synopsis hymenomycetum , Fries assigned a different fungus again to the binomial name and linked it to Schäffer 's 1762 description . French mycologist Lucien Quélet reclassified it as a species in 1873 , giving it its current binomial name . Italian mycologist Alfredo Riva has noted that Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan provided a description forty years before Quélet , in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse , and queried why it was ignored . He has proposed the fungus be written as Tricholoma pardinum ( Secr . ) Quél . However , Secretan 's works are generally not recognised for nomenclatural purposes because he did not use binomial nomenclature consistently .
There has been confusion over which scientific name to use for over two hundred years . Tricholoma tigrinum has been used in some European field guides , but has been applied in error to this species . The uncertainty was such that Czech mycologists Josef Herink and František Kotlaba suggested in 1967 that both designations were incorrect , and proposed the new name T. pardalotum .
Tricholoma pardinum lies within the subgenus Pardinicutis of Tricholoma , a grouping of similar species characterised by greyish , brownish , or pallid caps that are woolly or covered in small scales , spores with a length between 8 and 11 micrometres , and abundant clamp connections in the hyphae . Molecular analyses suggest that T. pardinum is closely related to T. huronense , T. mutabile , and T. venenatum . Tricholoma pardinum var. filamentosum is an uncommon variety , described in 1983 by Carlo Luciano Alessio , which produces mushrooms with more fibrillose caps and stalks than the typical variety . It is found in southern Europe , where it associates with chestnut and spruce trees . Another variety has been described as T. pardinum var. unguentatum , characterised by daintier mushrooms that have a greasy coating on their caps .
The specific epithet pardinum is derived from the Latin pardus " leopard " , referring to its mottled or spotted cap . The generic name derives from the Greek trichos / τριχος " hair " and loma / λωμα " hem " , " fringe " , or " border " . Common names include striped tricholoma , spotted tricholoma , tiger tricholoma , poison trich , leopard knight , and tigertop . Dirty trich was a name coined by author Gary H. Lincoff in response to a publisher 's request for a more accessible name than its binomial one for North American guidebooks .
= = Description = =
The fruit body is a medium @-@ sized mushroom , with a cap 6 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 – 4 in ) in diameter , though larger specimens occasionally reach 15 cm ( 6 in ) . The cap is initially hemispherical before flattening with maturity , and has a broad , shallow umbo . The cap margin is initially curled inwards but uncurls as it matures . The cap surface is silvery @-@ grey and covered with concentrically patterned darker scales of a grey , brown or blackish colour that grow paler toward the cap margin , Secretan noting its resemblance to the cap of Sarcodon imbricatus . The gills are free ( unattached to the stalk ) , white and thick , may have a yellow or greenish tint , and may drip water , as may the top of the stalk when broken . With age , the gill edges can become jagged and rough . The gill spacing is rather variable , ranging from distant to crowded ; typically , between 100 – 120 gills extend fully from the stalk to the edge of the cap , with a variable number of lamellulae ( shorter gills not extending fully from stalk to cap margin ) .
The stout stalk may be white , pale grey or pale brown , and is thicker at the base . The texture of the stalk surface ranges from fibrillose ( appearing to be made of coarse fibers arranged longitudinally ) to more or less smooth , and the stalk base will stain a dirty brown to yellow colour when bruised . It is 3 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) high and 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 0 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , with the base 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , and bruises a dirty yellowish colour . There is no ring or volva . The flesh is whitish and has a pleasant mealy smell and taste . Variety filamentosum has a mealy odour and taste reminiscent of cucumber .
The spore print is white , and the oval to oblong spores are 7 @.@ 5 – 9 @.@ 5 μm long by 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 0 μm wide . Spores are smooth , hyaline ( translucent ) , nonamyloid , and have a prominent hilum . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical to club shaped , four spored , and measure 39 – 50 by 8 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 6 μm . The cystidia present on the gill edge ( cheilocystidia ) are thin walled , hyaline , have a short stalk and a spherical apical portion , and measure 29 – 41 by 12 – 21 μm ; cystidia are absent from the gill face . The cap cuticle ranges in cellular form from a cutis ( in which the hyphae are bent over , running parallel to the cap surface ) to a trichoderm ( with hyphae emerging roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface ) ; the hyphae comprising the cuticle are cylindrical , and measure 2 @.@ 0 – 9 @.@ 0 μm wide with a club @-@ shaped tip up to 11 μm wide .
= = = Similar species = = =
Tricholoma pardinum mushrooms may be confused with several edible grey @-@ capped members of the genus Tricholoma , and some authorities recommend leaving all grey @-@ capped Tricholoma mushrooms for experienced hunters . There are several superficially similar European species that could be mistaken for T. pardinum . The smaller T. terreum lacks a mealy smell and cap scales , is darker coloured and less robust , and has smaller spores measuring 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 – 5 μm . The edible T. argyraceum somewhat resembles T. pardinum — but with finer scales , and gills and bruised parts that yellow with age . Unlike the preferentially montane T. pardinum , these lookalikes tend to fruit at lower elevations . T. atrosquamosum is smaller and darker than T. pardinum , and has a peppery aroma . T. orirubens has fine dark scales and pinkish gills , brittle flesh , and is generally smaller . T. myomyces is smaller than T. pardinum , has a thin , fibrous partial veil on young specimens , and elliptical spores measuring 5 – 6 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 μm . The edible and highly regarded T. portentosum is of a similar size , though has a uniform grey cap that is never scaled .
In North America , Tricholoma pardinum can be confused with T. nigrum and forms of T. virgatum that have more streaked rather than spotted caps . A form of T. pardinum in North America can be nearly white with pale scales , and may be confused with the whitish edible species T. resplendens . Microscopically , the presence of clamp connections sets T. pardinum apart from most other members of the genus , although the similar @-@ looking ( though more tan @-@ coloured ) T. venenatum also has them . According to Alexander H. Smith , T. huronense is closely related , but can be distinguished from T. pardinum by its narrower gills , its tendency to form drops of reddish liquid on the gills and stalk , and an ash @-@ grey and scaly stalk surface .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Tricholoma pardinum is found across Europe , where it is more common in the south . It is abundant in the Jura Mountains in eastern France . The species is found in Belgium and Germany , but has not been recorded from the Netherlands or the British Isles . A historical record from Estonia has been discarded because no herbarium specimens could be found . In Asia , it has been recorded from İzmir Province in southwestern Turkey , China , and Sado Island in Japan . It is found widely across temperate North America , where Santa Cruz County and Sierra Nevada in central California in the west of the continent , and the central Appalachians in the east form the southern limits of its distribution . T. pardinum is commonly associated with conifers in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest , and with tanoak ( Lithocarpus densiflorus ) and madrone ( Arbutus spp . ) in California . The mushroom can be abundant in some years , especially warmer years with higher rainfall , yet missing or rare for several years in between . In Europe , it is found on chalky soil in woodland with beech and fir in summer and autumn , where it prefers areas of some elevation . Although it may be found in groups or fairy rings , it most commonly occurs singly .
= = Toxicity = =
Tricholoma pardinum is one of several poisonous members of the genus Tricholoma ; its large size , fleshy appearance , and pleasant smell and taste add to the risk of it being accidentally consumed . It was responsible for over 20 percent of cases of mushroom poisoning in Switzerland in the first half of the 20th century . Many cases of poisoning arise in the Jura Mountains . Eating it causes highly unpleasant gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea , dizziness , vomiting , and diarrhea . These arise 15 minutes to 2 hours after consumption and often persist for several hours ; complete recovery usually takes 4 to 6 days . Sweating and anxiety may be evident , and disturbance in liver function has been recorded . Cramping may occur in the calves . In one case , seven people and a cat suffered severe symptoms after sharing a meal that contained only two mushroom caps . The toxin , the identity of which is unknown , appears to cause a sudden inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the stomach and intestines .
These symptoms may be severe enough to warrant hospitalisation . Treatment is supportive ; antispasmodic medicines may lessen colicky abdominal cramps , and activated charcoal may be administered early on to bind residual toxin . Intravenous fluids may be required if dehydration has been extensive , especially with children and the elderly . Once gastric contents are emptied , metoclopramide may be used in cases of recurrent vomiting .
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= HMS Swordfish ( 1916 ) =
HMS Swordfish was an experimental submarine built for the Royal Navy before the First World War to meet the Navy 's goal of an " overseas " submarine capable of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) on the surface . Diesel engines of the period were unreliable and not very powerful so steam turbines were proposed instead to meet the RN 's requirement . Swordfish proved to be slower than designed and unstable while surfacing , and consequently she was modified as an anti @-@ submarine patrol vessel in 1917 . She was paid off before the end of the war and sold for scrapping in 1922 .
= = Design = =
HMS Swordfish was developed to meet a requirement of Royal Navy 's Submarine Committee for a large submarine capable of operating with the fleet at a surfaced speed of 20 knots . Most of the earlier British submarines had been single @-@ hulled vessels built by Vickers , and the Navy was interested in evaluating other designs . Captain Roger Keyes , Inspecting Captain of Submarines , had previously served as naval attaché in Italy and had kept abreast of Italian submarine developments , which notably included double @-@ hulled submarines designed by Cesare Laurenti of Fiat @-@ San Giorgio . Three boats of the S class were ordered first and Laurenti was invited to submit a design to meet the RN requirement .
Fiat @-@ San Giorgio " was wary about using heavy oil Diesel engines and hesitated to guarantee the success of such engines of the power required . At the same time Laurenti prepared a design with geared steam turbines having a speed of 18 knots on a surface displacement of 856 tons . " His design was modified by Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , Greenock , to include guns . Swordfish kept the same main dimensions as Laurenti 's original design , but had a greater displacement and less endurance .
= = Description = =
Swordfish had an overall length of 231 ft 3 @.@ 5 in ( 70 @.@ 498 m ) , a beam of 22 ft 11 in ( 6 @.@ 99 m ) , and a draught of 14 feet 11 inches ( 4 @.@ 55 m ) . She displaced 932 long tons ( 947 t ) on the surface and 1 @,@ 105 long tons ( 1 @,@ 123 t ) submerged . She had a partial double hull , which extended over 75 % of her length . The upper portion of the double hull was controlled free @-@ flooding while the rest was devoted to watertight ' baling flats ' , ballast and fuel tanks . Her hull was divided into eight compartments by seven watertight bulkheads .
Swordfish 's diving depth and time are not known because the records from her sea trials have not survived . Shutting down her boiler , retracting the funnel and sealing the boiler uptake required about a minute and a quarter , which included switching over to the electric motors . In marked contrast to contemporary Vickers designs much attention was paid to safety arrangements , including her extensive subdivision . Indicator and telephone buoys , which could be released from inside the submarine were provided together with external air connections and a charged high @-@ pressure line which could provide air to any manned compartment or the living spaces . Furthermore , the main ballast tanks could be blown from either end of the ship .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Swordfish had two Parsons geared impulse @-@ reaction steam turbine sets , each driving one of the two propeller shafts . The turbines were powered by a single Yarrow @-@ type boiler . They were designed to produce a total of 4 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 3 @,@ 000 kW ) at a working pressure of 250 psi ( 1 @,@ 700 kPa ; 18 kgf / cm2 ) which used a superheater to increase the working temperature by 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . She was fitted with two electric motors which had a combined output of 1 @,@ 400 bhp ( 1 @,@ 000 kW ) . Two battery rooms each had 64 battery cells . It is uncertain if the ship reached her designed speed of 18 knots on the surface , although it seems unlikely given her increased displacement over Laurenti 's original design . Maximum speed was 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) underwater .
Swordfish could carry 102 long tons ( 104 t ) of fuel oil , which her builders estimated gave her an endurance of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ; 9 @.@ 8 mph ) on the surface . On her batteries her submerged endurance was 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) at a speed of 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Swordfish had two tubes for 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedoes in her bow . They were stepped vertically and positioned well back from the stem in a notch from the keel to preserve the fine lines of the bow . Two 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes were positioned on each beam amidships . Each torpedo tube was provided with one reload . Two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns were fitted on the deck in disappearing mounts , one each fore and aft of the conning tower . They were covered by watertight hoods to preserve the streamlining of the submarine .
= = Construction and service = =
Swordfish was ordered from Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company on 18 August 1913 although she was not laid down until 28 February 1914 . The start of the First World War six months later greatly hindered her completion , and she was not launched until 18 March 1916 . HMS Swordfish was commissioned on 28 April 1916 , before completion , and renamed HMS S1 that same day . She was not completed until 21 July .
Captained by Commander Geoffrey Layton , her post @-@ completion trials lasted for five months as she was used to evaluate steam power for submarine use . Much was learned about the operation of steam submarines , which helped the subsequent design of the steam @-@ powered K @-@ class fleet submarines . She proved to be very unstable while surfacing , presumably because she could not pump the water out of her controlled free @-@ flooding spaces quickly enough in the upper part of her double hull . These problems , coupled with the fact that she was too slow to work with the fleet as originally envisioned , meant that she was impossible to make into an effective warship , and she was laid up after her trials .
In July 1917 S1 reverted to her original name and was converted to a surface patrol vessel between 27 June 1917 and 24 January 1918 . Her torpedo tubes and disappearing guns were removed . She was given a forecastle , a bridge and her funnel was fixed in place and extended . She was rearmed with a pair of 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 inch , 76 mm ) guns and depth charges , weapons more suitable for her new role as an anti @-@ submarine patrol boat . Swordfish joined the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Portsmouth upon completion of her sea trials , but nothing is known of her subsequent service .
Swordfish was paid off on 30 October 1918 and stricken from the Navy List by January 1919 . She was sold for scrapping to Pounds , of Portsmouth in July 1922 , but was reported to have been resold to Hayes , of Porthcawl in 1923 .
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= Winchester Model 1897 =
The Winchester Model 1897 , also known as the Model 97 , M97 , or Trench Gun , was a pump @-@ action shotgun with an external hammer and tube magazine manufactured by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company . The Model 1897 was an evolution of the Winchester Model 1893 designed by John Browning . From 1897 until 1957 , over one million of these shotguns were produced . The Model 1897 was offered in numerous barrel lengths and grades , chambered in 12 and 16 gauge , and as a solid frame or takedown . The 16 @-@ gauge guns had a standard barrel length of 28 inches , while 12 @-@ gauge guns were furnished with 30 @-@ inch length barrels . Special length barrels could be ordered in lengths as short as 20 inches , and as long as 36 inches . Since the time the Model 1897 was first manufactured it has been used by American soldiers , police departments , and hunters .
= = History = =
The Winchester Model 1897 was designed by the famous American firearms inventor John Moses Browning . The Model 1897 was first listed for sale in the November 1897 Winchester catalog as a 12 gauge solid frame . However , the 12 gauge takedown was added in October 1898 , and the 16 gauge takedown in February 1900 . Originally produced as a tougher , stronger and more improved version of the Winchester 1893 , itself a takeoff on the early Spencer pump gun , the 1897 was identical to its forerunner , except that the receiver was thicker and allowed for use of smokeless powder shells , which were not common at the time . The 1897 introduced a " take down " design , where the barrel could be taken off ; a standard in pump shotguns made today , like the Remington 870 and Mossberg 500 series . Over time , “ the model 97 became the most popular shotgun on the American market and established a standard of performance by which other kinds and makes of shotguns were judged , including the most expensive imported articles ” . The Winchester Model 1897 was in production from 1897 until 1957 . It was in this time frame that the " modern " hammerless designs became common , like the Winchester Model 1912 and the Remington 870 and the Model 1897 was superseded by the Winchester Model 1912 . However , the gun can still be found today in regular use .
= = = Improvements From the 1893 = = =
In the new Model 1897 , many of the weaknesses that were present in the Model 93 were taken into account and remedied . These improvements included :
The frame was strengthened and made longer to handle a 12 gauge 2 ¾ -inch shell , as well as the 2 ⅝ -inch shell .
The frame at the top was covered so that the ejection of the fired shell was entirely from the side . This added a great amount of strength to the frame of the gun and it allowed the use of a 2 ¾ inch shell without the danger of the gun constantly jamming .
The gun could not be opened until a slight forward movement of the slide handle released the action slide lock . In firing , the recoil of the gun gave a slight forward motion to the slide handle and released the action slide lock which enabled immediate opening of the gun . In the absence of any recoil , the slide handle had to be pushed forward manually in order to release the action slide lock .
A movable cartridge guide was placed on the right side of the carrier block to prevent the escape of the shell when the gun was turned sideways in the act of loading .
The stock was made longer and with less drop .
Of the improvements , the slide lock is the one that really made the gun safer . This improved slide lock kept the gun locked until actual firing occurred which prevented the gun from jamming in the case of a misfire . The slide lock " stands in such a relation to the body of the firing pin as will prevent the firing pin reaching the primer until the pin has moved forward a sufficient distance to insure locking of the breech bolt . " This prevents the action sleeve " from being retracted by the hand of the gunner until after firing , and hence rendering the fire arm more safe "
= = Description = =
The Winchester Model 1897 evolved from the Winchester Model 1893 . The Model 1897 and 1893 were both designed by John Browning . The Model 1897 is an external hammer shotgun lacking a trigger disconnector . This means that the user can hold the trigger down while cycling the shotgun and once the action is returned to battery the gun fires . The gun itself is classified as a slide action pump shotgun . It was the first truly successful pump @-@ action shotgun produced . Throughout the time period the Model 1897 was in production , over a million of the type were produced in various grades and barrel lengths . 16 @-@ gauge guns had a standard barrel length of 28 inches , while 12 @-@ gauge guns were furnished with 30 @-@ inch length barrels . Special length barrels could be ordered in lengths as short as 20 inches , and as long as 36 inches . Along with various grades and barrel lengths , the Model 1897 came in two different chamberings . One was the 12 gauge and the other was the 16 gauge . The shells should be of the 2- ¾ inch or 2- ⅝ inch model . Any shells larger are not recommended . An average Model 1897 held 5 shotgun shells in the magazine tube . After including the one shell that could be held in the chamber , the average Model 1897 held a total of 6 shotgun shells . However , this would vary from grade to grade . When working the action of the Model 1897 the forend ( fore grip ) is pulled back , forcing the breech bolt to the rear which extracts and then ejects the spent shell while simultaneously cocking the external hammer by pushing it to the rear . When the forend is slid forward again , the breech bolt pushes a fresh shell into the gun 's chamber and locks into place . This action of sliding the forend back and forth ( pumping ) is why the gun is classified as a slide action ( or pump ) gun .
The Chinese company Norinco has made an effort to reproduce this firearm . The Norinco 97 is an almost exact copy of the Winchester 1897 , produced in both Trench and Riot grades , yet lacking in the fit and finish of the originals .
= = = Grades of the Model 97 = = =
= = = Original Prices = = =
When the Model 1897 was first introduced , the price depended upon what grade was being purchased and what features were being added to that specific gun . To purchase a plain finished shotgun would cost the buyer $ 25 . Whereas to have an engraved receiver with checkered and finer wood included , it would cost $ 100 . The more expensive grades of the Model 1897 were the standard , trap , pigeon , and tournament grades . These were the grades that were normally equipped with an engraved receiver and with checkered , finer wood . The less expensive and plainer grades were the Brush , Brush Takedown , Riot , and Trench . These grades were not given the higher valued wood or special designs . This is because these guns were designed and built for hard abuse . These grades stood a higher chance of being badly damaged so there was no need to put extra money into them for appearance purposes . As the functions that were performed with these grades required them to be lightweight it was not beneficial to use heavy and expensive wood when designing them . Most often , when these grades were purchased , they were purchased in high numbers . By designing these grades with standard wood and finish , it kept the prices at a lower level .
= = Military use = =
The Model 1897 was popular before World War I , but it was after the war broke out that sales of the Model 1897 picked up . This was because many were produced to meet the demands of the Military . When the United States entered World War I , there was a need for more service weapons to be issued to the troops . It became clear to the United States just how brutal trench warfare was , and how great the need was for a large amount of close @-@ range firepower while fighting in a trench , after they had observed the war for the first three years . The Model 1897 Trench grade was an evolution of this idea . The pre @-@ existing Winchester Model 1897 was modified by adding a perforated steel heat shield over the barrel which protected the hand of the user from the barrel when it became over @-@ heated , and an adapter with bayonet lug for affixing an M1917 bayonet .
This model was ideal for close combat and was efficient in trench warfare due to its 20 inch cylinder bore barrel . Buckshot ammunition was issued with the trench grade during the war . Each round of this ammunition contained nine 00 ( .33 @-@ caliber ) buckshot pellets . This gave considerable firepower to the individual soldier by each round that was fired . This shorter barrel and large amount of firepower is what made this grade ideal for trench warfare . The Model 1897 was used by American troops for other purposes in World War I other than a force multiplier . American soldiers who were skilled at trap shooting were armed with these guns and stationed where they could fire at enemy hand grenades in midair . This would deflect the grenades from falling into the American trenches and therefore protect American soldiers .
Unlike most modern pump @-@ action shotguns , the Winchester Model 1897 ( versions of which were type classified as the Model 97 or M97 for short ) fired each time the action closed with the trigger depressed ( that is , it lacks a trigger disconnector ) . Coupled with its six @-@ shot capacity made it effective for close combat , such that troops referred to it as a " trench sweeper " . This characteristic allowed troops to fire the whole magazine with great speed . The Model 1897 was so effective , and feared , that the German government protested ( in vain ) to have it outlawed in combat . The Model 1897 was used in limited numbers during World War II by the United States Army and Marine Corps , although it was largely superseded by the similarly militarized version of the hammerless Model 1912 .
Other military uses of the shotgun included " the execution of security / interior guard operations , rear area security operations , guarding prisoners of war , raids , ambushes , military operations in urban terrain , and selected special operations . "
= = World War I protests = =
Although the Model 1897 was popular with American troops in World War I , the Germans soon began to protest its use in combat . " On 19 September 1918 , the German government issued a diplomatic protest against the American use of shotguns , alleging that the shotgun was prohibited by the law of war . " A part of the German protest read that " [ i ] t is especially forbidden to employ arms , projections , or materials calculated to cause unnecessary suffering " as defined in the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare . This is the only known occasion in which the legality of actual combat use of the shotgun has been raised . However , the United States interpreted their use of the shotgun differently than Germany . The Judge Advocate General of the Army , Secretary of State Robert Lansing carefully considered and reviewed the applicable law and promptly rejected the German protest . France and Britain considered using shotguns as trench warfare weapons during World War I. The shotgun in question was a double @-@ barreled shotgun , which was not used because they were unable to obtain high powered ammunition and that type of gun is slow to reload in close combat .
= = = German Response = = =
The rejection of their protest greatly upset the German forces , because they believed they were treated unjustly in the war . Shortly after the protest was rejected , Germany issued threats that they would punish all captured American soldiers that were found to be armed with a shotgun . This led to the United States issuing a retaliation threat , stating that any measures unjustly taken against captured American soldiers would lead to an equal act by the United States on captured German soldiers .
= = Other uses = =
After the war , a shorter @-@ barrelled version of the Model 1897 was marketed by Winchester as a riot gun . Messengers of The American Express Company were armed with this weapon as were various police departments throughout the US . The differences between this riot version and the trench version were the riot version lacked the heat shield and bayonet lug , and all trench guns were equipped with sling swivels , whereas most riot guns were not .
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= We Remain =
" We Remain " is a song by American singer Christina Aguilera , taken from The Hunger Games : Catching Fire – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack , the soundtrack to the 2013 American science @-@ fiction adventure film The Hunger Games : Catching Fire . It was released as the third single from the soundtrack on October 1 , 2013 , following Coldplay 's " Atlas " and Sia 's " Elastic Heart " . Composed by Ryan Tedder , Brent Kutzle and Mikky Ekko , " We Remain " is an arena pop power ballad talking about " perseverance " . Contemporary music critics lauded the song for its sound and picked it as one of the highlights from the soundtrack . The single appeared on a few national record charts including Belgium and South Korea .
= = Background and composition = =
Following the release of her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) , which spawned two singles " Your Body " and " Just a Fool " , Aguilera was reported to be featured on the soundtrack for The Hunger Games : Catching Fire Original Motion Picture Soundtrack with a song called " We Remain " in September 2013 . On September 25 , 2013 , Aguilera unveiled a 90 @-@ second preview of the track .
The song was released as the third single from the soundtrack , following " Atlas " by Coldplay and " Elastic Heart " by Sia Furler . It was released as a digital download single at Amazon.com on October 1 , 2013 . It was also released on the iTunes Stores on the same day . On October 8 , " We Remain " impacted US contemporary hit radio . Aguilera performed " We Remain " live with her contestant Jacquie Lee during the season finale of the fifth season of The Voice on December 17 , 2013 . A studio version of the duet was released on the US iTunes Store on December 16 , 2013 .
" We Remain " was written by Ryan Tedder and Brent Kutzle of OneRepublic , and Mikky Ekko . The song is a midtempo arena pop power ballad . It lasts for a duration of 4 : 00 ( four minutes ) . Aguilera sings with " enormous " and " soaring " vocals on a " propulsive Ryan Tedder @-@ ish beat " background . " We Remain " incorporates a smooth piano and drum machine in its instrumentation . According to Billboard magazine , the ballad " finds [ Aguilera ] tamping down [ ... ] for a natural and forceful message of perseverance " . At the chorus , Aguilera sings " So burn me with fire / Drown me with rain / I 'm gonna wake up screaming your name / Yes I 'm a sinner , yes I 'm a saint / whatever happens here , whatever happens here , we remain " . Several critics compared " We Remain " to Aguilera 's previous hit " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) and Alicia Keys ' " Girl on Fire " ( 2012 ) for musical similarities .
= = Critical reception = =
" We Remain " received critical acclaim from music critics . Ryan Reed from Rolling Stone magazine praised the " triumphant sounding " track " sure to be a hit at District 12 radio " . An editor from The Huffington Post picked " We Remain " as one of the standout tracks from the soundtrack that " encapsulates the spirit and power of Games ' heroine , Katniss " . Sam Lansky for Idolator praised the single 's musical departure from Aguilera 's ballads for her 2012 album Lotus . Brett Malec of E ! simply called it " a beautiful track " , while a staff writer from Billboard named it a " triumphant " song . While reviewing the soundtrack for The Hunger Games : Catching Fire , Alex Young from Consequence of Sound selected " We Remain " as one of the highlights from the album , which made Aguilera " the biggest star on display " . Entertainment Weekly writer Nick Catucci picked it as one of the best tracks , calling it " an awesome reminder of Christina 's power " and " one of the most righteous doses of uplift this year , on any platform " .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from The Hunger Games : Catching Fire soundtrack digital inlay cover
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" We Remain " – 4 : 00
= = Charts = =
" We Remain " peaked at number 58 on the South Korean Gaon International Download Chart with 2 @,@ 689 copies sold on October 6 , 2013 . The single also peaked at number 31 on the Belgian Flanders Singles Chart and number 14 on the Belgian Wallonian Singles Chart .
= = Release history = =
Notes
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= FreeBSD =
FreeBSD is a free Unix @-@ like operating system descended from Research Unix via the Berkeley Software Distribution ( BSD ) . Although for legal reasons FreeBSD cannot use the Unix trademark , it is a direct descendant of BSD , which was historically also called " BSD Unix " or " Berkeley Unix " . The first version of FreeBSD was released in 1993 , and today FreeBSD is the most widely used open @-@ source BSD distribution , accounting for more than three @-@ quarters of all installed systems running open @-@ source BSD derivatives .
FreeBSD has similarities with Linux , with two major differences in scope and licensing : FreeBSD maintains a complete operating system , i.e. the project delivers kernel , device drivers , userland utilities and documentation , as opposed to Linux delivering a kernel and drivers only and relying on third @-@ parties for system software ; and FreeBSD source code is generally released under a permissive BSD license as opposed to the copyleft GPL used by Linux .
The FreeBSD project includes a security team overseeing all software shipped in the base distribution . A wide range of additional third @-@ party applications may be installed using the pkgng package management system or the FreeBSD Ports , or by directly compiling source code . Due to its permissive licensing terms , much of FreeBSD 's code base has become an integral part of other operating systems such as Juniper JUNOS and Apple 's OS X.
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
FreeBSD 's roots go back to the University of California , Berkeley . The university acquired a UNIX source license from AT & T. Students of the university started to modify and improve the AT & T Unix and called this modified version Berkeley Unix or BSD , implementing features such as TCP / IP , virtual memory and the Unix File System . The BSD project was founded in 1976 by Bill Joy . But since BSD contained code from AT & T Unix , all recipients had to get a license from AT & T first in order to use BSD .
In June 1989 , " Networking Release 1 " or simply Net @-@ 1 – the first public version of BSD – was released . After releasing Net @-@ 1 , Keith Bostic , a developer of BSD , suggested replacing all AT & T code with freely @-@ redistributable code under the original BSD license . Work on replacing AT & T code began and , after 18 months , much of the AT & T code was replaced . However , six files containing AT & T code remained in the kernel . The BSD developers decided to release the " Networking Release 2 " without those six files . Net @-@ 2 was released in 1991 .
= = = Birth of FreeBSD = = =
In 1992 , several months after the release of Net @-@ 2 , William Jolitz and Lynne Jolitz wrote replacements for those six missing files and ported BSD to the Intel 80386 @-@ based microprocessors and called their new operating system 386BSD . They released 386BSD via an anonymous FTP server . The development flow of 386BSD was slow and after a period of neglect , a group of 386BSD users decided to branch out on their own and create FreeBSD so that they could keep the operating system up to date . The first version of FreeBSD was released on November 1993 .
In the early days of the project 's inception , a company named Walnut Creek CDROM , upon the suggestion of the two FreeBSD developers , agreed to release the operating system on CD @-@ ROM . In addition to that , the company employed Jordan Hubbard and David Greenman , ran FreeBSD on its servers , sponsored FreeBSD conferences and published FreeBSD @-@ related books , including The Complete FreeBSD by Greg Lehey . By 1997 , FreeBSD was Walnut Creek 's " most successful product " . The company itself later renamed to The FreeBSD Mall and later iXSystems .
Today , FreeBSD is used by many IT companies such as IBM , Nokia , Juniper Networks , and NetApp to build their product . Certain parts of Apple 's Mac OS X operating system are based on FreeBSD . The PlayStation 3 operating system also borrows certain components from FreeBSD , while the PlayStation 4 operating system is derived from FreeBSD 9 . Netflix , WhatsApp , and FlightAware are also examples of big , successful and heavily network @-@ oriented companies which are running FreeBSD .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
386BSD and FreeBSD were both derived from 1992 's BSD release . In January 1992 , BSDi started to release BSD / 386 , later called BSD / OS , an operating system similar to FreeBSD and based on 1992 's BSD release . AT & T filed a lawsuit against BSDi and alleged distribution of AT & T source code in violation of license agreements . The lawsuit was settled out of court and the exact terms were not all disclosed . The only one that became public was that BSDi would migrate their source base to the newer 4.4BSD @-@ Lite sources . Although not involved in the litigation , it was suggested to FreeBSD that they should also move to 4.4BSD @-@ Lite . FreeBSD 2 @.@ 0 , which was released on November 1994 , was the first version of FreeBSD without any code from AT & T.
= = Features = =
= = = Uses = = =
As a general purpose operating system , FreeBSD could be used in various scenarios :
Servers
FreeBSD contains a significant collection of server @-@ related software in the base system and the ports collection , it is possible to configure and use FreeBSD as a mail server , web server , Firewall , FTP server , DNS server and a router , among other applications .
Desktop
Although FreeBSD does not install the X Window System by default , it is available in the FreeBSD ports collection . A number of Desktop environments such as GNOME , KDE and Xfce , and lightweight window managers such as Openbox , Fluxbox and dwm are also available to FreeBSD .
Embedded systems
Although it explicitly focuses on the x86 and x86 @-@ 64 platforms , FreeBSD also supports others such as ARM , PowerPC and MIPS to a lesser degree .
= = = Networking = = =
FreeBSD 's TCP / IP stack is based on the 4.2BSD implementation of TCP / IP which greatly contributed to the widespread adoption of these protocols . FreeBSD also supports IPv6 , SCTP , IPSec , and wireless networking ( Wi @-@ Fi ) . The IPv6 and IPSec stacks were taken from the KAME project . Also , FreeBSD supports IPX and AppleTalk protocols , but they are considered old and it is planned to drop support of them in the upcoming FreeBSD 11 @.@ 0 .
As of FreeBSD 5 @.@ 4 , support for the Common Address Redundancy Protocol ( CARP ) was imported from the OpenBSD project . CARP allows multiple nodes to share a set of IP addresses . So if one of the nodes goes down , other nodes still can serve the requests .
= = = Storage = = =
FreeBSD has several unique features related to storage . Soft updates can protect the consistency of the UFS filesystem ( widely used on the BSDs ) in the event of a system crash . Filesystem snapshots allow an image of a UFS filesystem at an instant in time to be efficiently created . Snapshots allow reliable backup of a live filesystem . GEOM is a modular framework that provides RAID ( levels 0 , 1 , 3 currently ) , full disk encryption , journaling , concatenation , caching , and access to network @-@ backed storage . GEOM allows building of complex storage solutions combining ( " chaining " ) these mechanisms . FreeBSD provides two frameworks for data encryption : GBDE and Geli . Both GBDE and Geli operate at the disk level . GBDE was written by Poul @-@ Henning Kamp and is distributed under the two @-@ clause BSD license . Geli is an alternative to GBDE that was written by Pawel Jakub Dawidek and first appeared in FreeBSD 6 @.@ 0 .
From 7 @.@ 0 onward , FreeBSD supports the ZFS filesystem . ZFS was previously an open source filesystem that was first developed by Sun Microsystems , but when Oracle acquired Sun , ZFS became a proprietary product . However , the FreeBSD project is still developing and improving its ZFS implemention via the OpenZFS project .
= = = Security = = =
FreeBSD provides several security @-@ related features including access control lists ( ACLs ) , security event auditing , extended file system attributes , mandatory access controls ( MAC ) and fine @-@ grained capabilities . These security enhancements were developed by the TrustedBSD project . The project was founded by Robert Watson with the goal of implementing concepts from the Common Criteria for Information Technology Security Evaluation and the Orange Book . This project is ongoing and many of its extensions have been integrated into FreeBSD . The project is supported by a variety of organizations , including the DARPA , NSA , Network Associates Laboratories , Safeport Network Services , the University of Pennsylvania , Yahoo ! , McAfee Research , SPARTA , Apple Computer , nCircle Network Security , Google , the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory , and others .
The project has also ported the NSA 's FLASK / TE implementation from SELinux to FreeBSD . Other work includes the development of OpenBSM , an open source implementation of Sun 's Basic Security Module ( BSM ) API and audit log file format , which supports an extensive security audit system . This was shipped as part of FreeBSD 6 @.@ 2 . Other infrastructure work in FreeBSD performed as part of the TrustedBSD Project has included GEOM and OpenPAM .
Most components of the TrustedBSD project are eventually folded into the main sources for FreeBSD . In addition , many features , once fully matured , find their way into other operating systems . For example , OpenPAM has been adopted by NetBSD . Moreover , the TrustedBSD MAC Framework has been adopted by Apple for OS X.
FreeBSD ships with three different firewall packages : IPFW , pf and IPFilter . IPFW is FreeBSD 's native firewall. pf was taken from OpenBSD and IPFilter was ported to FreeBSD by Darren Reed .
Taken from OpenBSD , the OpenSSH program was included in default install . OpenSSH is a Free implementation of the SSH protocol and is a replacement for telnet . Unlike telnet , OpenSSH encrypts all information ( including username and password ) .
In November 2012 , The FreeBSD Security Team announced that hackers gained unauthorized access on two of the project 's servers . These servers were turned off immediately . More research demonstrated that the first unauthorized access by hackers occurred on 19 September . Apparently hackers gained access to these servers by stealing SSH keys from one of the developers , not by exploiting a bug in the operating system itself . These two hacked servers were part of the infrastructure used to build third @-@ party software packages . The FreeBSD Security Team checked the integrity of the binary packages and announced that no unauthorized change was made to the binary packages , but they stated that they can 't guarantee the integrity of packages that were downloaded between 19 September and 11 November .
= = = Portability = = =
FreeBSD has been ported to a variety of processor architectures . The FreeBSD project organizes architectures into tiers that characterize the level of support provided . Tier 1 architectures are mature and fully supported . Tier 2 architectures are undergoing major development . Tier 3 architectures are experimental or are no longer under active development and Tier 4 architectures have no support at all .
As of March 2016 , FreeBSD has been ported to the following architectures :
The ARM and MIPS support is mostly aimed at embedded systems , however FreeBSD / ARM runs on a number of single @-@ board computers , including the BeagleBone Black , Raspberry Pi and Wandboard .
= = = Third @-@ party software = = =
FreeBSD has a repository of over 24 @,@ 000 applications that are developed by third parties . Examples include : windowing systems , web browsers , email clients , office suites and so forth . In general , the project itself does not develop this software , only the framework to allow these programs to be installed , which is known as the Ports collection . Applications may either be compiled from source ( " ports " ) , provided their licensing terms allow this , or downloaded as pre @-@ compiled binaries ( " packages " ) . The Ports collection supports the current and stable branches of FreeBSD . Older releases are not supported and may or may not work correctly with an up @-@ to @-@ date Ports collection .
Ports use Makefile to automatically fetch the desired application 's source code , either from a local or remote repository , unpack it on the system , apply patches to it and compile it . Depending on the size of the source code , compiling can take a long time , but it gives the user more control over the process and its result . Most ports also have package counterparts ( i.e. pre @-@ compiled binaries ) , giving the user a choice . Although this method is faster , the user has fewer customisation options .
FreeBSD version 10 @.@ 0 introduced the package manager pkg as a replacement for the previously used package tools . It is functionally similar to apt and yum in Linux distributions . It allows for installation , upgrading and removal of both ports and packages . In addition to pkg , PackageKit can also be used to access the Ports collection .
= = = Jails = = =
First introduced in FreeBSD version 4 , jails is a security mechanism and an implementation of operating @-@ system @-@ level virtualization that enables the user to run multiple instances of a guest operating system on top of a FreeBSD host . It is an enhanced version of the traditional chroot mechanism . A process that runs within such a jail is unable to access the resources outside of it . Every jail has its own hostname and IP address . It is possible to run multiple jails at the same time , but the kernel is shared among all of them . Hence only software supported by the FreeBSD kernel can be run within a jail .
= = = Virtualization = = =
bhyve , a new virtualization solution was introduced in FreeBSD 10 @.@ 0 @.@ bhyve allows a user to run a number of guest operating systems ( FreeBSD , OpenBSD , Linux , and Microsoft Windows ) simultaneously . Other operating systems such as Illumos are planned. bhyve was written by Neel Nato and Peter Grehan and was announced in the 2011 BSDCan conference for the first time . The main difference between bhyve and FreeBSD jails is that jails are an operating system @-@ level virtualization and therefore limited to only FreeBSD guests ; but bhyve is a type 2 hypervisor and is not limited to only FreeBSD guests . For comparison , bhyve is a similar technology to KVM whereas jails are closer to LXC containers or Solaris Zones .
= = = OS compatibility layers = = =
Most software that runs on Linux can run on FreeBSD using an optional built @-@ in compatibility layer . Hence , most Linux binaries can be run on FreeBSD , including some proprietary applications distributed only in binary form . This compatibility layer is not an emulation ; Linux 's system call interface is implemented in the FreeBSD 's kernel and hence , Linux executable images and shared libraries are treated the same as FreeBSD 's native executable images and shared libraries . Additionally , FreeBSD provides compatibility layers for several other Unix @-@ like operating systems , in addition to Linux , such as BSD / OS and SVR4 , however , it is more common for users to compile those programs directly on FreeBSD .
No noticeable performance penalty over native FreeBSD programs has been noted when running Linux binaries , and , in some cases , these may even perform more smoothly than on Linux . However , the layer is not altogether seamless , and some Linux binaries are unusable or only partially usable on FreeBSD . There is support for system calls up to version 2 @.@ 6 @.@ 18 , available since FreeBSD 7 @.@ 0 . As of release 10 @.@ 3 , FreeBSD can run 64 @-@ bit Linux binaries .
FreeBSD has implemented a number of Microsoft Windows native NDIS kernel interfaces to allow FreeBSD to run Windows @-@ only network drivers .
= = = Kernel = = =
FreeBSD 's kernel provides support for some essential tasks such as managing processes , communication , booting and filesystems . FreeBSD has a monolithic kernel , with modular design . Different parts of the kernel such as drivers , are designed as modules . The user can load and unload these modules at any time . ULE is the default scheduler in FreeBSD since version 7 @.@ 1 , it supports SMP and SMT . The FreeBSD kernel has also a scalable event notification interface , named kqueue . It has been ported to other BSD @-@ derivatives such as OpenBSD , NetBSD . Kernel threading was introduced in FreeBSD 5 @.@ 0 , using an M : N threading model . This model works well in theory , but it is hard to implement and few operating systems support it . Although FreeBSD 's implementation of this model worked , it did not perform well , so from version 7 @.@ 0 onward , FreeBSD started using a 1 : 1 threading model , called libthr .
= = = Documentation and support = = =
FreeBSD 's documentation consists of its handbooks , manual pages , mailing list archives , FAQs and a variety of articles , mainly maintained by The FreeBSD Documentation Project . FreeBSD 's documentation is translated into several languages . All official documentation is released under the FreeBSD Documentation License , " a permissive non @-@ copyleft free documentation license that is compatible with the GNU FDL " . FreeBSD 's documentation is described as " high @-@ quality " .
The FreeBSD project maintains a variety of mailing lists . Among the most popular mailing lists are FreeBSD @-@ questions ( general questions ) and FreeBSD @-@ hackers ( a place for asking more technical questions ) .
Since 2004 , the New York City BSD Users Group database provides dmesg information from a collection of computers ( laptops , workstations , single @-@ board computers , embedded systems , virtual machines , etc . ) running FreeBSD .
= = = Installers = = =
From version 2 @.@ 0 to 9 @.@ 0 , FreeBSD used the sysinstall program as its main installer . It was written in C by Jordan Hubbard . It uses a text user interface , and is divided into a number of menus and screens that can be used to configure and control the installation process . It can also be used to install Ports and Packages as an alternative to the command @-@ line interface .
The sysinstall utility is now considered deprecated in favor of bsdinstall , a new installer which was introduced in FreeBSD 9 @.@ 0 @.@ bsdinstall is " a lightweight replacement for sysinstall " that was written in sh . According to OSNews , " It has lost some features while gaining others , but it is a much more flexible design , and will ultimately be significant improvement " .
= = Development = =
FreeBSD is developed by a volunteer team located around the world . The developers use the Internet for all communication and many have not met each other in person . In addition to local user groups sponsored and attended by users , an annual conference , called BSDcon , is held by USENIX . BSDcon is not FreeBSD @-@ specific so it deals with the technical aspects of all BSD operating systems , including OpenBSD and NetBSD . In addition to BSDcon , three other annual conferences , EuroBSDCon , AsiaBSDCon and BSDCan take place in Europe , Japan and Canada respectively .
= = = Governance structure = = =
The FreeBSD Project is run by around 500 committers , or developers who have commit access to the master source code repositories and can develop , debug or enhance any part of the system . Most of the developers are volunteers and few developers are paid by some companies . There are several kinds of committers , including source committers ( base operating system ) , doc committers ( documentation and web site authors ) and ports ( third party application porting and infrastructure ) . Every two years the FreeBSD committers select a 9 @-@ member FreeBSD Core Team who are responsible for overall project direction , setting and enforcing project rules and approving new commiters , or the granting of SVN commit access . A number of responsibilities are officially assigned to other development teams by the FreeBSD Core Team , for example , responsibility for managing the ports collection is delegated to the Ports Management Team .
In addition to developers , FreeBSD has thousands of " contributors " . Contributors are also volunteers outside of the FreeBSD project who submit patches for consideration by committers , as they don 't have direct access to FreeBSD 's source code repository . Committers then evaluate contributors submissions and decide what to accept and what to reject . A contributor who submits high @-@ quality patches is often asked to become a committer .
= = = Branches = = =
FreeBSD developers maintain at least two branches of simultaneous development . The -CURRENT branch always represents the " bleeding edge " of FreeBSD development . A -STABLE branch of FreeBSD is created for each major version number , from which -RELEASE are cut about once every 4 – 6 months . If a feature is sufficiently stable and mature it will likely be backported ( MFC or Merge from CURRENT in FreeBSD developer slang ) to the -STABLE branch .
= = = Foundation = = =
FreeBSD development is supported in part by the FreeBSD Foundation . The foundation is a non @-@ profit organization that accepts donations to fund FreeBSD development . Such funding has been used to sponsor developers for specific activities , purchase hardware and network infrastructure , provide travel grants to developer summits , and provide legal support to the FreeBSD project .
In November 2014 , the FreeBSD Foundation received 1 million USD donation from Jan Koum , Co @-@ Founder and CEO of WhatsApp , - the largest single donation to the Foundation since its inception . Jan Koum himself is a FreeBSD user since the late 1990s and WhatsApp uses FreeBSD on its servers .
= = License = =
FreeBSD is released under a variety of open source licenses . The kernel code and most newly created code is released under the two @-@ clause BSD license which allows everyone to use and redistribute FreeBSD as they wish . This license was approved by Free Software Foundation and Open Source Initiative as a Free Software and Open Source license respectively . Free Software Foundation described this license as " a lax , permissive non @-@ copyleft free software license , compatible with the GNU GPL " . There are parts released under three- and four @-@ clause BSD licenses , as well as Beerware license . Some device drivers include a binary blob , such as the Atheros HAL of FreeBSD versions before 7 @.@ 2 . Some of the code contributed by other projects is licensed under GPL , LGPL , CDDL and ISC . All the code licensed under GPL and CDDL is clearly separated from the code under liberal licenses , to make it easy for users such as embedded device manufacturers to use only permissive free software licenses . ClangBSD aims to replace some GPL dependencies in the FreeBSD base system by replacing the GNU compiler collection with the BSD @-@ licensed LLVM / Clang compiler . ClangBSD became self @-@ hosting on 16 April 2010 .
= = Logo = =
For many years FreeBSD 's logo was the generic BSD daemon , also called Beastie , a distorted pronunciation of BSD . First appearing in 1976 on Unix T @-@ shirts purchased by Bell Labs , the more popular versions of the BSD daemon were drawn by animation director John Lasseter beginning in 1984 . Several FreeBSD @-@ specific versions were later drawn by Tatsumi Hosokawa .
However , Beastie was not unique to FreeBSD . In lithographic terms , the Lasseter graphic is not line art and often requires a screened , four color photo offset printing process for faithful reproduction on physical surfaces such as paper . Also , the BSD daemon was thought to be too graphically detailed for smooth size scaling and aesthetically over @-@ dependent on multiple color gradations , making it hard to reliably reproduce as a simple , standardized logo in only two or three colors , much less in monochrome . Because of these worries , a competition was held and a new logo designed by Anton K. Gural , still echoing the BSD daemon , was released on 8 October 2005 . However , it was announced by Robert Watson that , the FreeBSD project is " seeking a new logo , but not a new mascot " and that the FreeBSD project will continue to use Beastie as its mascot .
The name " FreeBSD " was coined by David Greenman on 19 June 1993 , other suggested names were " BSDFree86 " and " Free86BSD " . FreeBSD 's slogan , " The Power to serve " , is a trademark of The FreeBSD Foundation .
= = Derivatives = =
There are a number of software distributions based on FreeBSD including :
OpenServer 10 ( server )
PC @-@ BSD ( aimed at home users and workstations )
DesktopBSD ( desktop @-@ oriented operating system , originally based on KDE )
GhostBSD ( MATE @-@ based distribution , which also offers other desktop environments )
FreeSBIE ( live CD )
Frenzy ( live CD )
HardenedBSD ( exploit mitigation and hardening development )
m0n0wall ( firewall )
pfSense ( firewall )
FreeNAS ( for Network @-@ attached storage devices )
NAS4Free ( for Network @-@ attached storage devices )
AuthServ / Zilux - ( for network servers & storage )
All these distributions have no or only minor changes when compared with the original FreeBSD base system . The main difference to the original FreeBSD is that they come with pre @-@ installed and pre @-@ configured software for specific use cases . This can be compared with Linux distributions , which are all binary compatible because they use the same kernel and also use the same basic tools , compilers and libraries , while coming with different applications , configurations and branding .
Besides these distributions , there are some independent operating systems based on FreeBSD . DragonFly BSD is a fork from FreeBSD 4 @.@ 8 aiming for a different multiprocessor synchronization strategy than the one chosen for FreeBSD 5 and development of some microkernel features . It does not aim to stay compatible with FreeBSD and has huge differences in the kernel and basic userland . MidnightBSD is a fork of FreeBSD 6 @.@ 1 borrowing heavily from NeXTSTEP , particularly in the user interface department .
Darwin , the core of Apple OS X , includes a virtual file system and network stack derived from the FreeBSD virtual file system and network stack , and components of its userspace are also FreeBSD @-@ derived .
Some subscription services that are directly based on FreeBSD are :
WhatsApp - processes 2 million concurrent TCP connections per server .
Embedded devices and embedded device operating systems based on FreeBSD include :
NetApp 's Data ONTAP 8.x and the now superseded ONTAP GX ( only as a loader for proprietary kernel @-@ space module )
Netflix 's Open Connect Appliance to handle content delivery .
The PlayStation 4 ( " Orbis OS " )
Parts of FreeBSD were also used in PlayStation 3 .
= = Version history = =
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= Tracheal intubation =
Tracheal intubation , usually simply referred to as intubation , is the placement of a flexible plastic tube into the trachea ( windpipe ) to maintain an open airway or to serve as a conduit through which to administer certain drugs . It is frequently performed in critically injured , ill , or anesthetized patients to facilitate ventilation of the lungs , including mechanical ventilation , and to prevent the possibility of asphyxiation or airway obstruction .
The most widely used route is orotracheal , in which an endotracheal tube is passed through the mouth and vocal apparatus into the trachea . In a nasotracheal procedure , an endotracheal tube is passed through the nose and vocal apparatus into the trachea . Other methods of intubation involve surgery and include the cricothyrotomy ( used almost exclusively in emergency circumstances ) and the tracheotomy , used primarily in situations where a prolonged need for airway support is anticipated .
Because it is an invasive and uncomfortable medical procedure , intubation is usually performed after administration of general anesthesia and a neuromuscular @-@ blocking drug . It can however be performed in the awake patient with local or topical anesthesia or in an emergency without any anesthesia at all . Intubation is normally facilitated by using a conventional laryngoscope , flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope , or video laryngoscope to identify the vocal cords and pass the tube between them into the trachea instead of into the esophagus . Other devices and techniques may be used alternatively .
After the trachea has been intubated , a balloon cuff is typically inflated just above the far end of the tube to help secure it in place , to prevent leakage of respiratory gases , and to protect the tracheobronchial tree from receiving undesirable material such as stomach acid . The tube is then secured to the face or neck and connected to a T @-@ piece , anesthesia breathing circuit , bag valve mask device , or a mechanical ventilator . Once there is no longer a need for ventilatory assistance and / or protection of the airway , the tracheal tube is removed ; this is referred to as extubation of the trachea ( or decannulation , in the case of a surgical airway such as a cricothyrotomy or a tracheotomy ) .
For centuries , tracheotomy was considered the only reliable method for intubation of the trachea . However , because only a minority of patients survived the operation , physicians undertook tracheotomy only as a last resort , on patients who were nearly dead . It was not until the late 19th century however that advances in understanding of anatomy and physiology , as well an appreciation of the germ theory of disease , had improved the outcome of this operation to the point that it could be considered an acceptable treatment option . Also at that time , advances in endoscopic instrumentation had improved to such a degree that direct laryngoscopy had become a viable means to secure the airway by the non @-@ surgical orotracheal route . By the mid @-@ 20th century , the tracheotomy as well as endoscopy and non @-@ surgical tracheal intubation had evolved from rarely employed procedures to becoming essential components of the practices of anesthesiology , critical care medicine , emergency medicine , and laryngology .
Tracheal intubation can be associated with minor complications such as broken teeth or lacerations of the tissues of the upper airway . It can also be associated with potentially fatal complications such as pulmonary aspiration of stomach contents which can result in a severe and sometimes fatal chemical aspiration pneumonitis , or unrecognized intubation of the esophagus which can lead to potentially fatal anoxia . Because of this , the potential for difficulty or complications due to the presence of unusual airway anatomy or other uncontrolled variables is carefully evaluated before undertaking tracheal intubation . Alternative strategies for securing the airway must always be readily available .
= = Indications = =
Tracheal intubation is indicated in a variety of situations when illness or a medical procedure prevents a person from maintaining a clear airway , breathing , and oxygenating the blood . In these circumstances , oxygen supplementation using a simple face mask is inadequate .
= = = Depressed level of consciousness = = =
Perhaps the most common indication for tracheal intubation is for the placement of a conduit through which nitrous oxide or volatile anesthetics may be administered . General anesthetic agents , opioids , and neuromuscular @-@ blocking drugs may diminish or even abolish the respiratory drive . Although it is not the only means to maintain a patent airway during general anesthesia , intubation of the trachea provides the most reliable means of oxygenation and ventilation and the greatest degree of protection against regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration .
Damage to the brain ( such as from a massive stroke , non @-@ penetrating head injury , intoxication or poisoning ) may result in a depressed level of consciousness . When this becomes severe to the point of stupor or coma ( defined as a score on the Glasgow Coma Scale of less than 8 ) , dynamic collapse of the extrinsic muscles of the airway can obstruct the airway , impeding the free flow of air into the lungs . Furthermore , protective airway reflexes such as coughing and swallowing may be diminished or absent . Tracheal intubation is often required to restore patency ( the relative absence of blockage ) of the airway and protect the tracheobronchial tree from pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents .
= = = Hypoxemia = = =
Intubation may be necessary for a patient with decreased oxygen content and oxygen saturation of the blood caused when their breathing is inadequate ( hypoventilation ) , suspended ( apnea ) , or when the lungs are unable to sufficiently transfer gasses to the blood . Such patients , who may be awake and alert , are typically critically ill with a multisystem disease or multiple severe injuries . Examples of such conditions include cervical spine injury , multiple rib fractures , severe pneumonia , acute respiratory distress syndrome ( ARDS ) , or near @-@ drowning . Specifically , intubation is considered if the arterial partial pressure of oxygen ( PaO2 ) is less than 60 millimeters of mercury ( mm Hg ) while breathing an inspired O2 concentration ( FIO2 ) of 50 % or greater . In patients with elevated arterial carbon dioxide , an arterial partial pressure of CO2 ( PaCO2 ) greater than 45 mm Hg in the setting of acidemia would prompt intubation , especially if a series of measurements demonstrate a worsening respiratory acidosis . Regardless of the laboratory values , these guidelines are always interpreted in the clinical context .
= = = Airway obstruction = = =
Actual or impending airway obstruction is a common indication for intubation of the trachea . Life @-@ threatening airway obstruction may occur when a foreign body becomes lodged in the airway ; this is especially common in infants and toddlers . Severe blunt or penetrating injury to the face or neck may be accompanied by swelling and an expanding hematoma , or injury to the larynx , trachea or bronchi . Airway obstruction is also common in people who have suffered smoke inhalation or burns within or near the airway or epiglottitis . Sustained generalized seizure activity and angioedema are other common causes of life @-@ threatening airway obstruction which may require tracheal intubation to secure the airway .
= = = Manipulation of the airway = = =
Diagnostic or therapeutic manipulation of the airway ( such as bronchoscopy , laser therapy or stenting of the bronchi ) may intermittently interfere with the ability to breathe ; intubation may be necessary in such situations .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Laryngoscopes = = =
The vast majority of tracheal intubations involve the use of a viewing instrument of one type or another . The modern conventional laryngoscope consists of a handle containing batteries that power a light and a set of interchangeable blades , which are either straight or curved . This device is designed to allow the laryngoscopist to directly view the larynx . Due to the widespread availability of such devices , the technique of blind intubation of the trachea is rarely practiced today , although it may still be useful in certain emergency situations , such as natural or man @-@ made disasters . In the prehospital emergency setting , digital intubation may be necessitated if the patient is in a position that makes direct laryngoscopy impossible . For example , digital intubation may be used by a paramedic if the patient is entrapped in an inverted position in a vehicle after a motor vehicle collision with a prolonged extrication time .
The decision to use a straight or curved laryngoscope blade depends partly on the specific anatomical features of the airway , and partly on the personal experience and preference of the laryngoscopist . The Macintosh blade is the most widely used curved laryngoscope blade , while the Miller blade is the most popular style of straight blade . Both Miller and Macintosh laryngoscope blades are available in sizes 0 ( infant ) through 4 ( large adult ) . There are many other styles of straight and curved blades , with accessories such as mirrors for enlarging the field of view and even ports for the administration of oxygen . These specialty blades are primarily designed for use by anesthetists and otolaryngologists , most commonly in the operating room .
Fiberoptic layngoscopes have become increasingly available since the 1990s . In contrast to the conventional laryngoscope , these devices allow the laryngoscopist to indirectly view the larynx . This provides a significant advantage in situations where the operator needs to see around an acute bend in order to visualize the glottis , and deal with otherwise difficult intubations . Video laryngoscopes are specialized fiberoptic layngoscopes that use a digital video camera sensor to allow the operator to view the glottis and larynx on a video monitor . Other " noninvasive " devices which can be employed to assist in tracheal intubation are the laryngeal mask airway ( used as a conduit for endotracheal tube placement ) and the Airtraq .
= = = Stylets = = =
An intubating stylet is a malleable metal wire designed to be inserted into the endotracheal tube to make the tube conform better to the upper airway anatomy of the specific individual . This aid is commonly used with a difficult laryngoscopy . Just as with laryngoscope blades , there are also several types of available stylets , such as the Verathon Stylet , which is specifically designed to follow the 60 ° blade angle of the GlideScope video laryngoscope .
The Eschmann tracheal tube introducer ( often incorrectly referred to as a " gum elastic bougie " ) is specialized type of stylet used to facilitate difficult intubation . This flexible device is 60 cm ( 24 in ) in length , 15 French ( 5 mm diameter ) with a small " hockey @-@ stick " angle at the far end . Unlike a traditional intubating stylet , the Eschmann tracheal tube introducer is typically inserted directly into the trachea and then used as a guide over which the endotracheal tube can be passed ( in a manner analogous to the Seldinger technique ) . As the Eschmann tracheal tube introducer is considerably less rigid than a conventional stylet , this technique is considered to be a relatively atraumatic means of tracheal intubation .
The tracheal tube exchanger is a hollow catheter , 56 to 81 cm ( 22 @.@ 0 to 31 @.@ 9 in ) in length , that can be used for removal and replacement of tracheal tubes without the need for laryngoscopy . The Cook Airway Exchange Catheter ( CAEC ) is another example of this type of catheter ; this device has a central lumen ( hollow channel ) through which oxygen can be administered .
The lighted stylet is a device that employs the principle of transillumination to facilitate blind orotracheal intubation ( an intubation technique in which the laryngoscopist does not view the glottis ) .
= = = Tracheal tubes = = =
A tracheal tube is a catheter that is inserted into the trachea for the primary purpose of establishing and maintaining a patent ( open and unobstructed ) airway . Tracheal tubes are frequently used for airway management in the settings of general anesthesia , critical care , mechanical ventilation and emergency medicine . Many different types of tracheal tubes are available , suited for different specific applications . An endotracheal tube is a specific type of tracheal tube that is nearly always inserted through the mouth ( orotracheal ) or nose ( nasotracheal ) . It is a breathing conduit designed to be placed into the airway of critically injured , ill or anesthetized patients in order to perform mechanical positive pressure ventilation of the lungs and to prevent the possibility of aspiration or airway obstruction . The endotracheal tube has a fitting designed to be connected to a source of pressurized gas such as oxygen . At the other end is an orifice through which such gases are directed into the lungs and may also include a balloon ( referred to as a cuff ) . The tip of the endotracheal tube is positioned above the carina ( before the trachea divides to each lung ) and sealed within the trachea so that the lungs can be ventilated equally . A tracheostomy tube is another type of tracheal tube ; this 2 – 3 @-@ inch @-@ long ( 51 – 76 mm ) curved metal or plastic tube is inserted into a tracheostomy stoma or a cricothyrotomy incision .
Tracheal tubes can be used to ensure the adequate exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide , to deliver oxygen in higher concentrations than found in air , or to administer other gases such as helium , nitric oxide , nitrous oxide , xenon , or certain volatile anesthetic agents such as desflurane , isoflurane , or sevoflurane . They may also be used as a route for administration of certain medications such as bronchodilators , inhaled corticosteroids , and drugs used in treating cardiac arrest such as atropine , epinephrine , lidocaine and vasopressin .
Originally made from latex rubber , most modern endotracheal tubes today are constructed of polyvinyl chloride . Tubes constructed of silicone rubber , wire @-@ reinforced silicone rubber or stainless steel are also available for special applications . For human use , tubes range in size from 2 to 10 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in internal diameter . The size is chosen based on the patient 's body size , with the smaller sizes being used for infants and children . Most endotracheal tubes have an inflatable cuff to seal the tracheobronchial tree against leakage of respiratory gases and pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents , blood , secretions and other fluids . Uncuffed tubes are also available , though their use is limited mostly to children ( in small children , the cricoid cartilage is the narrowest portion of the airway and usually provides an adequate seal for mechanical ventilation ) .
In addition to cuffed or uncuffed , preformed endotracheal tubes are also available . The oral and nasal RAE tubes ( named after the inventors Ring , Adair and Elwyn ) are the most widely used of the preformed tubes .
There are a number of different types of double @-@ lumen endo @-@ bronchial tubes that have endobronchial as well as endotracheal channels ( Carlens , White and Robertshaw tubes ) . These tubes are typically coaxial , with two separate channels and two separate openings . They incorporate an endotracheal lumen which terminates in the trachea and an endobronchial lumen , the distal tip of which is positioned 1 – 2 cm into the right or left mainstem bronchus . There is also the Univent tube , which has a single tracheal lumen and an integrated endobronchial blocker . These tubes enable one to ventilate both lungs , or either lung independently . Single @-@ lung ventilation ( allowing the lung on the operative side to collapse ) can be useful during thoracic surgery , as it can facilitate the surgeon 's view and access to other relevant structures within the thoracic cavity .
The " armored " endotracheal tubes are cuffed , wire @-@ reinforced silicone rubber tubes . They are much more flexible than polyvinyl chloride tubes , yet they are difficult to compress or kink . This can make them useful for situations in which the trachea is anticipated to remain intubated for a prolonged duration , or if the neck is to remain flexed during surgery . Most armored tubes have a Magill curve , but preformed armored RAE tubes are also available . Another type of endotracheal tube has four small openings just above the inflatable cuff , which can be used for suction of the trachea or administration of intratracheal medications if necessary . Other tubes ( such as the Bivona Fome @-@ Cuf tube ) are designed specifically for use in laser surgery in and around the airway .
= = = Methods to confirm tube placement = = =
No single method for confirming tracheal tube placement has been shown to be 100 % reliable . Accordingly , the use of multiple methods for confirmation of correct tube placement is now widely considered to be the standard of care . Such methods include direct visualization as the tip of the tube passes through the glottis , or indirect visualization of the tracheal tube within the trachea using a device such as a bronchoscope . With a properly positioned tracheal tube , equal bilateral breath sounds will be heard upon listening to the chest with a stethoscope , and no sound upon listening to the area over the stomach . Equal bilateral rise and fall of the chest wall will be evident with ventilatory excursions . A small amount of water vapor will also be evident within the lumen of the tube with each exhalation and there will be no gastric contents in the tracheal tube at any time .
Ideally , at least one of the methods utilized for confirming tracheal tube placement will be a measuring instrument . Waveform capnography has emerged as the gold standard for the confirmation of tube placement within the trachea . Other methods relying on instruments include the use of a colorimetric end @-@ tidal carbon dioxide detector , a self @-@ inflating esophageal bulb , or an esophageal detection device . The distal tip of a properly positioned tracheal tube will be located in the mid @-@ trachea , roughly 2 cm ( 1 in ) above the bifurcation of the carina ; this can be confirmed by chest x @-@ ray . If it is inserted too far into the trachea ( beyond the carina ) , the tip of the tracheal tube is likely to be within the right main bronchus — a situation often referred to as a " right mainstem intubation " . In this situation , the left lung may be unable to participate in ventilation , which can lead to decreased oxygen content due to ventilation / perfusion mismatch .
= = Special situations = =
= = = Emergencies = = =
Tracheal intubation in the emergency setting can be difficult with the fiberoptic bronchoscope due to blood , vomit , or secretions in the airway and poor patient cooperation . Because of this , patients with massive facial injury , complete upper airway obstruction , severely diminished ventilation , or profuse upper airway bleeding are poor candidates for fiberoptic intubation . Fiberoptic intubation under general anesthesia typically requires two skilled individuals . Success rates of only 83 – 87 % have been reported using fiberoptic techniques in the emergency department , with significant nasal bleeding occurring in up to 22 % of patients . These drawbacks limit the use of fiberoptic bronchoscopy somewhat in urgent and emergency situations .
Personnel experienced in direct laryngoscopy are not always immediately available in certain settings that require emergency tracheal intubation . For this reason , specialized devices have been designed to act as bridges to a definitive airway . Such devices include the laryngeal mask airway , cuffed oropharyngeal airway and the esophageal @-@ tracheal combitube ( Combitube ) . Other devices such as rigid stylets , the lightwand ( a blind technique ) and indirect fiberoptic rigid stylets , such as the Bullard scope , Upsher scope and the WuScope can also be used as alternatives to direct laryngoscopy . Each of these devices have its own unique set of benefits and drawbacks , and none of them is effective under all circumstances .
= = = = Rapid @-@ sequence induction and intubation = = = =
Rapid sequence induction and intubation ( RSI ) is a particular method of induction of general anesthesia , commonly employed in emergency operations and other situations where patients are assumed to have a " full stomach " . The objective of RSI is to minimize the possibility of regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents during the induction of general anesthesia and subsequent tracheal intubation . RSI traditionally involves preoxygenating the lungs with a tightly fitting oxygen mask , followed by the sequential administration of an intravenous sleep @-@ inducing agent and a rapidly acting neuromuscular @-@ blocking drug , such as rocuronium , succinylcholine , or cisatracurium besilate , before intubation of the trachea .
One important difference between RSI and routine tracheal intubation is that the practitioner does not manually assist the ventilation of the lungs after the onset of general anesthesia and cessation of breathing , until the trachea has been intubated and the cuff has been inflated . Another key feature of RSI is the application of manual ' cricoid pressure ' to the cricoid cartilage , often referred to as the " Sellick maneuver " , prior to instrumentation of the airway and intubation of the trachea .
Since the introduction of RSI , there has been controversy regarding virtually every aspect of this technique , including :
choice of induction drug , dose and method of administration .
avoidance of manual ventilation before tracheal intubation .
optimal position and whether the head @-@ up , head @-@ down , or horizontal supine position is the safest for induction of anesthesia in full @-@ stomach patients .
application of cricoid pressure ( the Sellick maneuver ) .
Named for British anesthetist Brian Arthur Sellick ( 1918 – 1996 ) who first described the procedure in 1961 , the goal of cricoid pressure is to minimize the possibility of regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents . Cricoid pressure has been widely used during RSI for nearly fifty years , despite a lack of compelling evidence to support this practice . The initial article by Sellick was based on a small sample size at a time when high tidal volumes , head @-@ down positioning and barbiturate anesthesia were the rule . Beginning around 2000 , a significant body of evidence has accumulated which questions the effectiveness of cricoid pressure . The application of cricoid pressure may in fact displace the esophagus laterally instead of compressing it as described by Sellick . Cricoid pressure may also compress the glottis , which can obstruct the view of the laryngoscopist and actually cause a delay in securing the airway .
Cricoid pressure is often confused with the " BURP " ( Backwards Upwards Rightwards Pressure ) maneuver . While both of these involve digital pressure to the anterior aspect ( front ) of the laryngeal apparatus , the purpose of the latter is to improve the view of the glottis during laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation , rather than to prevent regurgitation . Both cricoid pressure and the BURP maneuver have the potential to worsen laryngoscopy .
RSI may also be used in prehospital emergency situations when a patient is conscious but respiratory failure is imminent ( such as in extreme trauma ) . This procedure is commonly performed by flight paramedics . Flight paramedics often use RSI to intubate before transport because intubation in a moving fixed @-@ wing or rotary @-@ wing aircraft is extremely difficult to perform due to environmental factors . The patient will be paralyzed and intubated on the ground before transport by aircraft .
= = = = Cricothyrotomy = = = =
A cricothyrotomy is an incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life @-@ threatening situations , such as airway obstruction by a foreign body , angioedema , or massive facial trauma . A cricothyrotomy is nearly always performed as a last resort in cases where orotracheal and nasotracheal intubation are impossible or contraindicated . Cricothyrotomy is easier and quicker to perform than tracheotomy , does not require manipulation of the cervical spine and is associated with fewer complications .
The easiest method to perform this technique is the needle cricothyrotomy ( also referred to as a percutaneous dilational cricothyrotomy ) , in which a large @-@ bore ( 12 – 14 gauge ) intravenous catheter is used to puncture the cricothyroid membrane . Oxygen can then be administered through this catheter via jet insufflation . However , while needle cricothyrotomy may be life @-@ saving in extreme circumstances , this technique is only intended to be a temporizing measure until a definitive airway can be established . While needle cricothyrotomy can provide adequate oxygenation , the small diameter of the cricothyrotomy catheter is insufficient for elimination of carbon dioxide ( ventilation ) . After one hour of apneic oxygenation through a needle cricothyrotomy , one can expect a PaCO2 of greater than 250 mm Hg and an arterial pH of less than 6 @.@ 72 , despite an oxygen saturation of 98 % or greater . A more definitive airway can be established by performing a surgical cricothyrotomy , in which a 5 to 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 24 in ) endotracheal tube or tracheostomy tube can be inserted through a larger incision .
Several manufacturers market prepackaged cricothyrotomy kits , which enable one to use either a wire @-@ guided percutaneous dilational ( Seldinger ) technique , or the classic surgical technique to insert a polyvinylchloride catheter through the cricothyroid membrane . The kits may be stocked in hospital emergency departments and operating suites , as well as ambulances and other selected pre @-@ hospital settings .
= = = Tracheotomy = = =
Tracheotomy consists of making an incision on the front of the neck and opening a direct airway through an incision in the trachea . The resulting opening can serve independently as an airway or as a site for a tracheostomy tube to be inserted ; this tube allows a person to breathe without the use of his nose or mouth . The opening may be made by a scalpel or a needle ( referred to as surgical and percutaneous techniques respectively ) and both techniques are widely used in current practice . In order to limit the risk of damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerves ( the nerves that control the voicebox ) , the tracheotomy is performed as high in the trachea as possible . If only one of these nerves is damaged , the patient 's voice may be impaired ( dysphonia ) ; if both of the nerves are damaged , the patient will be unable to speak ( aphonia ) . In the acute setting , indications for tracheotomy are similar to those for cricothyrotomy . In the chronic setting , indications for tracheotomy include the need for long @-@ term mechanical ventilation and removal of tracheal secretions ( e.g. , comatose patients , or extensive surgery involving the head and neck ) .
= = = Children = = =
There are significant differences in airway anatomy and respiratory physiology between children and adults , and these are taken into careful consideration before performing tracheal intubation of any pediatric patient . The differences , which are quite significant in infants , gradually disappear as the human body approaches a mature age and body mass index .
For infants and young children , orotracheal intubation is easier than the nasotracheal route . Nasotracheal intubation carries a risk of dislodgement of adenoids and nasal bleeding . Despite the greater difficulty , nasotracheal intubation route is preferable to orotracheal intubation in children undergoing intensive care and requiring prolonged intubation because this route allows a more secure fixation of the tube . As with adults , there are a number of devices specially designed for assistance with difficult tracheal intubation in children . Confirmation of proper position of the tracheal tube is accomplished as with adult patients .
Because the airway of a child is narrow , a small amount of glottic or tracheal swelling can produce critical obstruction . Inserting a tube that is too large relative to the diameter of the trachea can cause swelling . Conversely , inserting a tube that is too small can result in inability to achieve effective positive pressure ventilation due to retrograde escape of gas through the glottis and out the mouth and nose ( often referred to as a " leak " around the tube ) . An excessive leak can usually be corrected by inserting a larger tube or a cuffed tube .
The tip of a correctly positioned tracheal tube will be in the mid @-@ trachea , between the collarbones on an anteroposterior chest radiograph . The correct diameter of the tube is that which results in a small leak at a pressure of about 25 cm ( 10 in ) of water . The appropriate inner diameter for the endotracheal tube is estimated to be roughly the same diameter as the child 's little finger . The appropriate length for the endotracheal tube can be estimated by doubling the distance from the corner of the child 's mouth to the ear canal . For premature infants 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 in ) internal diameter is an appropriate size for the tracheal tube . For infants of normal gestational age , 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) internal diameter is an appropriate size . For normally nourished children 1 year of age and older , two formulae are used to estimate the appropriate diameter and depth for tracheal intubation . The internal diameter of the tube in mm is ( patient 's age in years + 16 ) / 4 , while the appropriate depth of insertion cm is 12 + ( patient 's age in years / 2 ) .
= = = Newborns = = =
In newborns free flow oxygen used to be recommended during intubation however as there is no evidence of benefit the 2011 NRP guidelines no longer do .
= = Predicting difficulty = =
Tracheal intubation is not a simple procedure and the consequences of failure are grave . Therefore , the patient is carefully evaluated for potential difficulty or complications beforehand . This involves taking the medical history of the patient and performing a physical examination , the results of which can be scored against one of several classification systems . The proposed surgical procedure ( e.g. , surgery involving the head and neck , or bariatric surgery ) may lead one to anticipate difficulties with intubation . Many individuals have unusual airway anatomy , such as those who have limited movement of their neck or jaw , or those who have tumors , deep swelling due to injury or to allergy , developmental abnormalities of the jaw , or excess fatty tissue of the face and neck . Using conventional laryngoscopic techniques , intubation of the trachea can be difficult or even impossible in such patients . This is why all persons performing tracheal intubation must be familiar with alternative techniques of securing the airway . Use of the flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope and similar devices has become among the preferred techniques in the management of such cases . However , these devices require a different skill set than that employed for conventional laryngoscopy and are expensive to purchase , maintain and repair .
When taking the patient 's medical history , the subject is questioned about any significant signs or symptoms , such as difficulty in speaking or difficulty in breathing . These may suggest obstructing lesions in various locations within the upper airway , larynx , or tracheobronchial tree . A history of previous surgery ( e.g. , previous cervical fusion ) , injury , radiation therapy , or tumors involving the head , neck and upper chest can also provide clues to a potentially difficult intubation . Previous experiences with tracheal intubation , especially difficult intubation , intubation for prolonged duration ( e.g. , intensive care unit ) or prior tracheotomy are also noted .
A detailed physical examination of the airway is important , particularly :
the range of motion of the cervical spine : the subject should be able to tilt the head back and then forward so that the chin touches the chest .
the range of motion of the jaw ( the temporomandibular joint ) : three of the subject 's fingers should be able to fit between the upper and lower incisors .
the size and shape of the upper jaw and lower jaw , looking especially for problems such as maxillary hypoplasia ( an underdeveloped upper jaw ) , micrognathia ( an abnormally small jaw ) , or retrognathia ( misalignment of the upper and lower jaw ) .
the thyromental distance : three of the subject 's fingers should be able to fit between the Adam 's apple and the chin .
the size and shape of the tongue and palate relative to the size of the mouth .
the teeth , especially noting the presence of prominent maxillary incisors , any loose or damaged teeth , or crowns .
Many classification systems have been developed in an effort to predict difficulty of tracheal intubation , including the Cormack @-@ Lehane classification system , the Intubation Difficulty Scale ( IDS ) , and the Mallampati score . The Mallampati score is drawn from the observation that the size of the base of the tongue influences the difficulty of intubation . It is determined by looking at the anatomy of the mouth , and in particular the visibility of the base of palatine uvula , faucial pillars and the soft palate . Although such medical scoring systems may aid in the evaluation of patients , no single score or combination of scores can be trusted to specifically detect all and only those patients who are difficult to intubate . Furthermore , one study of experienced anesthesiologists , on the widely used Cormack – Lehane classification system , found they did not score the same patients consistently over time , and that only 25 % could correctly define all four grades of the widely used Cormack – Lehane classification system . Under certain emergency circumstances ( e.g. , severe head trauma or suspected cervical spine injury ) , it may be impossible to fully utilize these the physical examination and the various classification systems to predict the difficulty of tracheal intubation . In such cases , alternative techniques of securing the airway must be readily available .
= = Complications = =
Tracheal intubation is generally considered the best method for airway management under a wide variety of circumstances , as it provides the most reliable means of oxygenation and ventilation and the greatest degree of protection against regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration . However , tracheal intubation requires a great deal of clinical experience to master and serious complications may result even when properly performed .
Four anatomic features must be present for orotracheal intubation to be straightforward : adequate mouth opening ( full range of motion of the temporomandibular joint ) , sufficient pharyngeal space ( determined by examining the back of the mouth ) , sufficient submandibular space ( distance between the thyroid cartilage and the chin , the space into which the tongue must be displaced in order for the larygoscopist to view the glottis ) , and adequate extension of the cervical spine at the atlanto @-@ occipital joint . If any of these variables is in any way compromised , intubation should be expected to be difficult .
Minor complications are common after laryngoscopy and insertion of an orotracheal tube . These are typically of short duration , such as sore throat , lacerations of the lips or gums or other structures within the upper airway , chipped , fractured or dislodged teeth , and nasal injury . Other complications which are common but potentially more serious include accelerated or irregular heartbeat , high blood pressure , elevated intracranial and introcular pressure , and bronchospasm .
More serious complications include laryngospasm , perforation of the trachea or esophagus , pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents or other foreign bodies , fracture or dislocation of the cervical spine , temporomandibular joint or arytenoid cartilages , decreased oxygen content , elevated arterial carbon dioxide , and vocal cord weakness . In addition to these complications , tracheal intubation via the nasal route carries a risk of dislodgement of adenoids and potentially severe nasal bleeding . Newer technologies such as flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy have fared better in reducing the incidence of some of these complications , though the most frequent cause of intubation trauma remains a lack of skill on the part of the laryngoscopist .
Complications may also be severe and long @-@ lasting or permanent , such as vocal cord damage , esophageal perforation and retropharyngeal abscess , bronchial intubation , or nerve injury . They may even be immediately life @-@ threatening , such as laryngospasm and negative pressure pulmonary edema ( fluid in the lungs ) , aspiration , unrecognized esophageal intubation , or accidental disconnection or dislodgement of the tracheal tube . Potentially fatal complications more often associated with prolonged intubation and / or tracheotomy include abnormal communication between the trachea and nearby structures such as the innominate artery ( tracheoinnominate fistula ) or esophagus ( tracheoesophageal fistula ) . Other significant complications include airway obstruction due to loss of tracheal rigidity , ventilator @-@ associated pneumonia and narrowing of the glottis or trachea . The cuff pressure is monitored carefully in order to avoid complications from over @-@ inflation , many of which can be traced to excessive cuff pressure restricting the blood supply to the tracheal mucosa . A 2000 Spanish study of bedside percutaneous tracheotomy reported overall complication rates of 10 – 15 % and procedural mortality of 0 % , which is comparable to those of other series reported in the literature from the Netherlands and the United States .
Inability to secure the airway , with subsequent failure of oxygenation and ventilation is a life @-@ threatening complication which if not immediately corrected leads to decreased oxygen content , brain damage , cardiovascular collapse , and death . When performed improperly , the associated complications ( e.g. , unrecognized esophageal intubation ) may be rapidly fatal . Without adequate training and experience , the incidence of such complications is high . The case of Andrew Davis Hughes , from Emerald Isle , NC is a widely known case in which the patient was improperly intubated and , due to the lack of oxygen , suffered severe brain damage and died . For example , among paramedics in several United States urban communities , unrecognized esophageal or hypopharyngeal intubation has been reported to be 6 % to 25 % . Although not common , where basic emergency medical technicians are permitted to intubate , reported success rates are as low as 51 % . In one study , nearly half of patients with misplaced tracheal tubes died in the emergency room . Because of this , recent editions of the American Heart Association 's Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation have de @-@ emphasized the role of tracheal intubation in favor of other airway management techniques such as bag @-@ valve @-@ mask ventilation , the laryngeal mask airway and the Combitube .
One complication — unintentional and unrecognized intubation of the esophagus — is both common ( as frequent as 25 % in the hands of inexperienced personnel ) and likely to result in a deleterious or even fatal outcome . In such cases , oxygen is inadvertently administered to the stomach , from where it cannot be taken up by the circulatory system , instead of the lungs . If this situation is not immediately identified and corrected , death will ensue from cerebral and cardiac anoxia .
Of 4 @,@ 460 claims in the American Society of Anesthesiologists ( ASA ) Closed Claims Project database , 266 ( approximately 6 % ) were for airway injury . Of these 266 cases , 87 % of the injuries were temporary , 5 % were permanent or disabling , and 8 % resulted in death . Difficult intubation , age older than 60 years , and female gender were associated with claims for perforation of the esophagus or pharynx . Early signs of perforation were present in only 51 % of perforation claims , whereas late sequelae occurred in 65 % .
= = Alternatives = =
Although it offers the greatest degree of protection against regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration , tracheal intubation is not the only means to maintain a patent airway . Alternative techniques for airway management and delivery of oxygen , volatile anesthetics or other breathing gases include the laryngeal mask airway , i @-@ gel , cuffed oropharyngeal airway , continuous positive airway pressure ( CPAP mask ) , nasal BiPAP mask , simple face mask , and nasal cannula .
General anesthesia is often administered without tracheal intubation in selected cases where the procedure is brief in duration , or procedures where the depth of anesthesia is not sufficient to cause significant compromise in ventilatory function . Even for longer duration or more invasive procedures , a general anesthetic may be administered without intubating the trachea , provided that patients are carefully selected , and the risk @-@ benefit ratio is favorable ( i.e. , the risks associated with an unprotected airway are believed to be less than the risks of intubating the trachea ) .
= = History = =
Tracheotomy
The earliest known depiction of a tracheotomy is found on two Egyptian tablets dating back to around 3600 BC . The 110 @-@ page Ebers Papyrus , an Egyptian medical papyrus which dates to roughly 1550 BC , also makes reference to the tracheotomy . Tracheotomy was described in the Rigveda , a Sanskrit text of ayurvedic medicine written around 2000 BC in ancient India . The Sushruta Samhita from around 400 BC is another text from the Indian subcontinent on ayurvedic medicine and surgery that mentions tracheotomy . Asclepiades of Bithynia ( c . 124 – 40 BC ) is often credited as being the first physician to perform a non @-@ emergency tracheotomy . Galen of Pergamon ( AD 129 – 199 ) clarified the anatomy of the trachea and was the first to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice . In one of his experiments , Galen used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal . Ibn Sīnā ( 980 – 1037 ) described the use of tracheal intubation to facilitate breathing in 1025 in his 14 @-@ volume medical encyclopedia , The Canon of Medicine . In the 12th century medical textbook Al @-@ Taisir , Ibn Zuhr ( 1092 – 1162 ) — also known as Avenzoar — of Al @-@ Andalus provided a correct description of the tracheotomy operation .
The first detailed descriptions of tracheal intubation and subsequent artificial respiration of animals were from Andreas Vesalius ( 1514 – 1564 ) of Brussels . In his landmark book published in 1543 , De humani corporis fabrica , he described an experiment in which he passed a reed into the trachea of a dying animal whose thorax had been opened and maintained ventilation by blowing into the reed intermittently . Antonio Musa Brassavola ( 1490 – 1554 ) of Ferrara successfully treated a patient suffering from peritonsillar abscess by tracheotomy . Brassavola published his account in 1546 ; this operation has been identified as the first recorded successful tracheotomy , despite the many previous references to this operation . Towards the end of the 16th century , Hieronymus Fabricius ( 1533 – 1619 ) described a useful technique for tracheotomy in his writings , although he had never actually performed the operation himself . Fabricius was the first to introduce the idea of a tracheostomy tube . In 1620 the French surgeon Nicholas Habicot ( 1550 – 1624 ) published a report of four successful tracheotomies . In 1714 , anatomist Georg Detharding ( 1671 – 1747 ) of the University of Rostock performed a tracheotomy on a drowning victim .
Despite the many recorded instances of its use since antiquity , it was not until the early 19th century that the tracheotomy finally began to be recognized as a legitimate means of treating severe airway obstruction . In 1852 , French physician Armand Trousseau ( 1801 – 1867 ) presented a series of 169 tracheotomies to the Académie Impériale de Médecine . 158 of these were performed for the treatment of croup , and 11 were performed for " chronic maladies of the larynx " . Between 1830 and 1855 , more than 350 tracheotomies were performed in Paris , most of them at the Hôpital des Enfants Malades , a public hospital , with an overall survival rate of only 20 – 25 % . This compares with 58 % of the 24 patients in Trousseau 's private practice , who fared better due to greater postoperative care .
In 1871 , the German surgeon Friedrich Trendelenburg ( 1844 – 1924 ) published a paper describing the first successful elective human tracheotomy to be performed for the purpose of administration of general anesthesia . In 1888 , Sir Morell Mackenzie ( 1837 – 1892 ) published a book discussing the indications for tracheotomy . In the early 20th century , tracheotomy became a life @-@ saving treatment for patients afflicted with paralytic poliomyelitis who required mechanical ventilation . In 1909 , Philadelphia laryngologist Chevalier Jackson ( 1865 – 1958 ) described a technique for tracheotomy that is used to this day .
Laryngoscopy and non @-@ surgical techniques
In 1854 , a Spanish singing teacher named Manuel García ( 1805 – 1906 ) became the first man to view the functioning glottis in a living human . In 1858 , French pediatrician Eugène Bouchut ( 1818 – 1891 ) developed a new technique for non @-@ surgical orotracheal intubation to bypass laryngeal obstruction resulting from a diphtheria @-@ related pseudomembrane . In 1880 , Scottish surgeon William Macewen ( 1848 – 1924 ) reported on his use of orotracheal intubation as an alternative to tracheotomy to allow a patient with glottic edema to breathe , as well as in the setting of general anesthesia with chloroform . In 1895 , Alfred Kirstein ( 1863 – 1922 ) of Berlin first described direct visualization of the vocal cords , using an esophagoscope he had modified for this purpose ; he called this device an autoscope .
In 1913 , Chevalier Jackson was the first to report a high rate of success for the use of direct laryngoscopy as a means to intubate the trachea . Jackson introduced a new laryngoscope blade that incorporated a component that the operator could slide out to allow room for passage of an endotracheal tube or bronchoscope . Also in 1913 , New York surgeon Henry H. Janeway ( 1873 – 1921 ) published results he had achieved using a laryngoscope he had recently developed . Another pioneer in this field was Sir Ivan Whiteside Magill ( 1888 – 1986 ) , who developed the technique of awake blind nasotracheal intubation , the Magill forceps , the Magill laryngoscope blade , and several apparati for the administration of volatile anesthetic agents . The Magill curve of an endotracheal tube is also named for Magill . Sir Robert Reynolds Macintosh ( 1897 – 1989 ) introduced a curved laryngoscope blade in 1943 ; the Macintosh blade remains to this day the most widely used laryngoscope blade for orotracheal intubation .
Between 1945 and 1952 , optical engineers built upon the earlier work of Rudolph Schindler ( 1888 – 1968 ) , developing the first gastrocamera . In 1964 , optical fiber technology was applied to one of these early gastrocameras to produce the first flexible fiberoptic endoscope . Initially used in upper GI endoscopy , this device was first used for laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation by Peter Murphy , an English anesthetist , in 1967 . The concept of using a stylet for replacing or exchanging orotracheal tubes was introduced by Finucane and Kupshik in 1978 , using a central venous catheter .
By the mid @-@ 1980s , the flexible fiberoptic bronchoscope had become an indispensable instrument within the pulmonology and anesthesia communities . The digital revolution of the 21st century has brought newer technology to the art and science of tracheal intubation . Several manufacturers have developed video laryngoscopes which employ digital technology such as the CMOS active pixel sensor ( CMOS APS ) to generate a view of the glottis so that the trachea may be intubated .
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= Maryland Route 704 =
Maryland Route 704 ( MD 704 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Martin Luther King Jr . Highway , the highway runs 6 @.@ 53 miles ( 10 @.@ 51 km ) from Eastern Avenue at the District of Columbia boundary in Seat Pleasant east to MD 450 in Lanham . MD 704 is a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway that connects the northern Prince George 's County communities of Seat Pleasant , Landover , Glenarden , and Lanham . The highway was constructed along the right of way of the abandoned Washington , Baltimore and Annapolis Electric Railway ( WB & A ) in the early 1940s . In the late 1950s and early 1960s , MD 704 served as a temporary routing of U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) while the U.S. Highway 's freeway was under construction from Washington to Lanham . The route was expanded to a divided highway between Seat Pleasant and US 50 in the late 1960s and early 1970s . MD 704 was completed as a divided highway when the portion east of US 50 was expanded in the late 1990s .
= = Route description = =
MD 704 begins at an intersection with Eastern Avenue near the eastern corner of the District of Columbia . The highway continues south as 63rd Street , which heads south toward Southern Avenue and East Capitol Street . MD 704 heads northeast as a six @-@ lane divided highway through the city of Seat Pleasant , where the highway intersects Addison Road at staggered intersections . Addison Road leads to St. Matthew 's Church , which is also known as the Addison Chapel . After leaving the city , the state highway crosses Cabin Branch and intersects Sheriff Road at an oblique angle . MD 704 passes through Landover , where the highway traverses Cattail Branch and meets MD 202 ( Landover Road ) at a full cloverleaf interchange . The highway continues through the city of Glenarden , where the highway intersects Ardwick Ardmore Road and crosses over Interstate 95 and I @-@ 495 ( Capital Beltway ) without access . MD 704 drops to four lanes again between Ardwick Ardmore Road and the five @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange at US 50 ( John Hanson Highway ) , which is also unsigned I @-@ 595 . The interchange includes a direct ramp to northbound I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 toward Baltimore ; the ramp to westbound US 50 is used to access southbound I @-@ 95 and I @-@ 495 toward Richmond . MD 704 continues northeast as a six @-@ lane highway across Bald Hill Branch and veers east before reaching its eastern terminus at MD 450 ( Annapolis Road ) in Lanham .
MD 704 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from US 50 to MD 450 in Lanham .
= = History = =
MD 704 follows the abandoned right of way of the defunct WB & A Railway , an interurban railroad that included a north – south line between Washington and Baltimore and a branch to Annapolis from Naval Academy Junction in Odenton . Construction on the electric railway began in 1902 and service began between the three cities in 1908 . The WB & A went into receivership in 1931 and shut down in 1935 . The Maryland State Roads Commission converted the abandoned railroad right of way into a two @-@ lane highway from the District of Columbia line to US 50 ( now MD 450 ) near Lanham between 1942 and 1944 . The WB & A had a pair of timber bridges across its right of way . The Chapel Road bridge in Seat Pleasant , which carried what was then MD 389 and is now Addison Road across the railroad , was removed ; the junction was regraded as an intersection with the new highway . In 1944 , the War Production Board authorized the replacement of MD 202 's bridge across the abandoned railroad as one of the few non – war @-@ effort highway projects federally funded during World War II . Construction on the new steel @-@ and @-@ concrete bridge began in late 1944 and was completed by 1946 . Access between the grade @-@ separated highways at the MD 202 – MD 704 junction was via a pair of two @-@ way ramps .
MD 704 was named for George N. Palmer , a banker and community leader in Seat Pleasant , by 1951 . John Hanson Highway was constructed from US 301 in Bowie west to MD 704 between 1954 and 1957 . MD 704 was expanded to a divided highway through the highway 's interchange with the freeway as part of the construction . In addition to the current set of ramps , the interchange included loop ramps from westbound MD 704 to the eastbound freeway and from the westbound freeway to westbound MD 704 . By 1958 , the portion of MD 704 south of the freeway was marked as Temporary US 50 . This temporary route extended west into Washington along newly completed East Capitol Street and the pair of Independence Avenue and Constitution Avenue to reconnect with US 50 at 2nd Street in Capitol Hill . US 50 remained along Defense Highway ( now MD 450 ) from Bowie to Bladensburg and on Bladensburg Road and Maryland Avenue within the city until 1962 , when the U.S. Highway was placed along the newly completed John Hanson Highway from Bowie to Washington and Temporary US 50 was removed from MD 704 .
MD 704 was expanded to a divided highway from the District of Columbia boundary to Addison Road in Seat Pleasant in 1962 . The segment of divided highway at the US 50 interchange was extended west to Ardwick Ardmore Road in Glenarden in 1969 . MD 704 's modern cloverleaf interchange with MD 202 was completed in 1971 , the same year the former highway was expanded to a divided highway from Seat Pleasant to just north of the latter highway . The divided highway was extended southwest through Glenarden from Ardwick Ardmore Road to Glenarden Parkway in 1972 and to MD 202 in 1973 . MD 704 was renamed for Martin Luther King , Jr . , in 1987 . The highway 's interchange with US 50 was rebuilt in 1991 in conjunction with the overhaul of the US 50 – Capital Beltway interchange immediately to the west ; two of the interchange 's loop ramps with westbound MD 704 were removed . The MD 704 divided highway was extended east from the US 50 interchange to Forbes Boulevard in 1997 and Lottsford Vista Road in 1999 . MD 704 and MD 450 were relocated at their junction to make MD 704 part of the east – west axis of a more orthogonal intersection in 2000 . This project was part of the expansion of the final segment of MD 704 and the adjacent portion of MD 450 to a divided highway .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Prince George 's County .
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 704A was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) segment of old alignment of MD 704 at its junction with MD 450 . The designation was assigned in 2000 when MD 704 and MD 450 were relocated . The MD 704A designation and the road itself were removed in 2004 ; the Vista Gardens shopping center now sits on the highway 's general location .
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= Geet Ramayan =
Geet Ramayan ( Marathi : गीत रामायण , English : The Ramayana in Songs ) is a collection of 56 Marathi language songs chronologically describing events from the Indian Hindu epic , the Ramayana . It was broadcast by All India Radio , Pune in 1955 – 1956 , four years before television was introduced in India . Written by G. D. Madgulkar and the songs being composed by Sudhir Phadke , Geet Ramayan was acclaimed for its lyrics , music and singing . It is considered a " milestone of Marathi light music " and the " most popular " Marathi version of Ramayana .
The team of Madgulkar and Phadke presented a new song every week for a year with every song being aired first on a Friday morning and then again on Saturday and Sunday morning , between 8 : 45 AM and 9 : 00 AM IST . The program 's first song " Kuśa Lava Rāmāyaṇ Gātī " was aired on 1 April 1955 . Though Geet Ramayan is based on sage Valmiki 's epic Ramayana , Madgulkar chose a different narrative format and was praised for the lyrics , and was called Ādhunik Valmiki ( the modern Valmiki ) . The Geet Ramayan is considered as " the crescendo of Madgulkar 's literary vigour " . Phadke mainly used ragas of Hindustani classical music to compose the songs . He also selected the raga and the Tāla of a song to suit the time of the incident and the narrative mood . The poet and composer were praised for their contribution to the series .
The series showcased a total of 32 various characters from Ramayana . Rama ( avatar of Vishnu and hero of the Ramayana ) being the lead character of the series was given maximum number of songs ( 10 ) , followed by eight songs for Sita ( Rama 's wife and avatar of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi ) . Madgulkar expressed their various moods , ranging from their divinity to the human weaknesses . Incidentally , the central antagonist of the Ramayana and Geet Ramayan , the demon @-@ king Ravana , was not given any song . The series is narrated by Kusha and Lava , twin sons of Rama and Sita , and the writer of Ramayana ( Valmiki ) was also given one song in the series .
With increasing popularity since its release , Geet Ramayan has been translated into nine other languages : five Hindi translations and one each in Bengali , English , Gujarati , Kannada , Konkani , Sanskrit , Sindhi and Telugu . It has also been transliterated into Braille .
= = Concept = =
Geet Ramayan was conceptualized in 1955 , four years before the introduction of television in India in 1959 . During the early days of All India Radio , Pune ( also known as Aakashwani Pune ) , station director Sitakant Lad wanted to begin a radio programme which would be entertaining and provide moral education . He hence outlined his plan to poet and writer G. D. Madgulkar ( popularly known as " Ga @-@ Di @-@ Ma " ) . Since the Ramayana ( written by Valmiki ) is an Indian epic , Lad and Madgulkar came up with an idea of a version in singable verse . Madgulkar accepted the challenge , enlisting his music @-@ director friend Sudhir Phadke ( popularly known as " Babuji " ) for the collaboration .
The team of Madgulkar and Phadke would present a new song every week for a year . Every song would be aired first on a Friday morning and then again on Saturday and Sunday morning , between 8 : 45 am and 9 : 00am IST . The programme was initially planned for a year ( with 52 songs ) with the concluding song Trīvār Jayajayakār Rāmā where Rama becomes the King , but 1955 in the Hindu calendar had an extra month ( Adhikmās ) ; therefore , four songs were added to extend the series to a total of fifty @-@ six . The series ended with the song " Gā Bāḷāno , Shrīrāmāyaṇ " where the part post crown ceremony was added . Apart from the number of songs , Madgulkar and Phadke left music , lyrics and choice of singers ad libitum . Madgulkar was given artistic liberty for the choice of the meters for the song , execution of the story line , and the message he could convey through it .
Initially , the programme was scheduled to begin on the occasion of Gudi Padwa , beginning of the New year according to the lunisolar Hindu calendar but later finalized to be Rama Navami , traditional birthday of Rama . The program 's first song " Kuśa Lava Rāmāyaṇ Gātī " was aired on 1 April 1955 at 8 : 45 am IST . Vidya Madgulkar , the poet 's wife , recalled in an interview that Madgulkar wrote the first song and gave it to Phadke the day before the recording ; however , Phadke lost the lyrics . With the broadcast already scheduled , station director Sitakant Lad requested Madgulkar to re @-@ write the song which was readily declined by an angered poet . Lad then decided to lock the poet in one of recording rooms equipped with all the required writing material and agreed to unlock the door only when Madgulkar is ready with the lyrics . Madgulkar then rewrote the lyrics from memory in fifteen minutes so Phadke could compose the music .
= = Lyrics = =
Though Valmiki was the main inspiration for the Geet Ramayan , Madgulkar chose a different narrative format . He used a simple lyrical format with a flexible number of stanzas ( from five to eleven stanzas , with three or four lines of varying length ) . The metre used was similar to Bhavageete , with roughly the same number of mātrās in each line . The metre was also suited to the narration and the characters who sang the song . Madgulkar used various formats , including narrative , descriptive and communal songs . He was praised for his lyrics , and was called " Ādhunik Valmiki " ( the modern Valmiki ) ; and the Geet Ramayan is considered " the crescendo of Madgulkar 's literary vigour " .
Madgulkar 's narrative format was different from that of Valmiki 's where he did not end the series with the coronation of Rama and Sita , but included Sita 's abandonment by Rama , and her giving birth to the twins , Lava and Kusha . However , he chose not to include the last episode of Sita 's final confrontation in Rama 's court and her entering the earth . Madgulkar ended the series with the song " Gā Bāḷāno , Shrīrāmāyaṇ " which was voiced by Valmiki where he tells his disciples , Lava and Kusha , how they should recite the Ramayana in front of Rama . Evidently , this also completes the cycle of songs where it had begun , with Lava and Kusha singing in Rama 's court .
Madgulkar did not make any attempt to provide new interpretation or meaning to the Ramayana but told the same story in the simpler and poetic format . With inclusion of characters like Ahalya and Shabari , he included the sentiments of religious devotion ( Bhakti ) and also gave divine touch to the story while describing the marriage of Sita and Rama as a union of Maya and Brahman . He composed songs on all seven chapters or Kāṇḍa of Ramayana . Out of 56 songs , poet composed twelve songs on Balakanda , seven on Ayodhya Kanda , fourteen on Aranya Kanda , three on Kishkindha Kanda , four on Sundara Kanda , twelve on Yuddha Kanda and three on Uttara Kanda .
As the series became popular , the daily newspapers in Pune began to print the text of the new song every week after its first airing . The first official edition of the text of these fifty @-@ six poems and their prose narrations came out on the occasion of Vijayadashami , 3 October 1957 , published for Akashwani by the director of the Publications Division , Delhi , in pocketbook size .
= = Music and singing = =
Musical director Sudhir Phadke composed the songs based on the ragas of Hindustani classical music , including Bhopali , Bhimpalasi and Madhuvanti . The raga and Tāla of a song was selected to suit the time of the incident and the narrative mood . For example , the song " Calā Rāghavā Calā " is composed as a Bibhas ( morning ) raga , and the song describes an event taking place in the morning . The songs " Āj Mī Śāpmucta Jāhale " and " Yāckā , Thāmbu Nako Dārāta " are not based on a specific raga , but include several ragas in each song .
The singers , which included Vasantrao Deshpande , Manik Varma , Suresh Haldankar , Ram Phatak and Lata Mangeshkar , were familiar with the vocal style of Indian classical music . Phadke voiced all the songs for Rama , and well @-@ known Kirana gharana singer Manik Varma voiced the character of Sita . Lata Mangeshkar sang one song for Sita , " Maj Sāng Lakṣmaṇā " , in which Sita questions Rama about her abandonment but her question remains unanswered .
= = Characters = =
A total of 32 characters from the Ramayana were voiced in the Geet Ramayan . Madgulkar expressed the emotions of characters such as Rama , Sita , Hanuman – the monkey ( vanara ) god and devotee of Rama – and Lakshmana ( Rama 's brother ) ; he also attempted to give voice to the humblest characters in the epic . The vanara are given a song ( " Setū Bāndhā Re Sāgarī " ) describing a bridge forming over the ocean so Rama and his army could cross to Lanka . The poet noted that the song described the sacrifice of joint labour and was an example of the principle , " Union is strength " . Nishadraj Guha ( King of Kevati , kingdom located by the banks of Ganges river ) and the boatmen who helped Rama in crossing the Ganges river expressed themselves in " Nakos Nauke Parat Phirū " . The author of the Ramayana , Valmiki , was also given a song ( the final song , " Gā Bāḷāno , Shrīrāmāyaṇ " ) with his advice to Rama 's sons Kusha and Lava before they appear before Rama .
Being hero of the Ramayana and Geet Ramayan , Madgulkar expressed the varied moods of Rama ; he was the most @-@ voiced character in the Geet Ramayan with ten songs , followed by Sita with eight . He portrayed Rama as a complex character full of emotions and passions , with some of the questionable deeds , yet bound by a traditional virtue and the sanctity of a promise . Madgulkar voiced Rama 's personal ethical dilemmas ( in " Vālīvadh Nā , Khalnidrālan " and " Līnate , Cārūte , Sīte " ) along with his courage ( in " Nabhā Bhedunī Nād Chālale " ) , and steadfastness ( in " Līnate , Cārūte , Sīte " ) . He was shown to be patient with his brothers and mothers ( in " Parādhīn Āhe Jagatī Putra Mānavāchā " ) , obedient of father and sages ( in " Calā Rāghavā Calā " ) , heroic on the battlefield , and diplomatic when dealing with the monkey king , Vali ( in " Vālīvadh Nā , Khalnidrālan " ) . Madgulkar is said to have successfully shown Rama 's divinity alongside his human weaknesses . He was shown to be distracted at the loss Sita ( in " Koṭhe Sītā Janakanandinī ? " ) , and wailed in Lakshmana 's presence ( in " Hī Ticyā Veṇitil Phule " ) . In another situation , he uttered some heart @-@ wrenching words to Sita , in front of his army with blaming her for all the happenings ( in " Līnate , Cārūte , Sīte " ) , and then he was also shown to explain his behavior with oaths and confessions of loyalty to Sita ( in " Lokasākṣa Shuddhī Jhālī " ) .
Rama 's mother , Kausalya , sang three songs ; his brother Bharata , his father Dasharatha , Hanuman , Lakshmana , the demon Surpanakha ( sister of Ravana ) , Rama 's guru @-@ sage Vishvamitra and Kusha @-@ Lava have two songs each . The central antagonist of the Ramayana , the demon @-@ king Ravana , was not given a song ; his oppressive presence was expressed in prose narration , poetic descriptions and songs sung by the other characters ( such as Ravana 's demon brother Kumbhakarna in " Lankevar Kāḷ Kaṭhin ālā " ) .
= = List of songs = =
= = Performances = =
After Geet Ramayan 's original broadcast was over in March of 1956 , requests of re @-@ broadcast were flooding the radio station . All @-@ India Radio repeated the entire series of fifty @-@ six weekly songs due to popular demand . After the broadcast , Phadke produced public concerts of selected songs . The first public performance was held in the Madgulkars ' bungalow , " Panchavati " at Wakdewadi , Pune on 28 May 1958 . In 1979 , a Silver Jubilee celebration of the programme took place at the New English School in Pune for eight nights . Atal Bihari Vajpayee , the then Minister of External Affairs , attended the show as the guest of honour along with the then Deputy Prime Minister of India Yashwantrao Chavan , Bollywood film director Basu Bhattacharya , actor Dada Kondke , and celebrated classical singers such as Bhimsen Joshi and Kishori Amonkar . Vajpayee also attended the Golden Jubilee celebration with Sharad Pawar and Bal Thackeray . National Award @-@ winning art director Nitin Chandrakant Desai designed the stage depicting scenes from the Ramayana . The event featured all the songs from the original Geet Ramayan now vocalized by Madgulkar 's son Anand Madgulkar , Shridhar Phadke , Suresh Wadkar , Upendra Bhat , Padmaja Phenany Joglekar and others .
= = Reception = =
As the radio programme became popular , daily newspapers in Pune began printing the lyrics of the new songs each week . The publication department of All India Radio also compiled the lyrics and excerpts from the introductory comments in a book form . The 179 @-@ page volume , then priced at ₹ 2 , was launched on 3 October 1957 on the occasion of Vijayadashami . In 1965 , the HMV released ten LPs featuring the voice of Sudhir Phadke . In 1968 , the Gramophone Company of India released a 10 @-@ cassette set , again featuring Phadke 's voice , and 50 @,@ 000 records were sold . Madgulkar 's son , Anand , produced a televised version showcasing twenty @-@ eight episodes of the Geet Ramayan on Zee Marathi which was well received by the audience . He has also written a book , Geet Ramayanache Ramayan , describing the birth of each Geet Ramayana song.This book was extremely well received and is well into its second edition already.He also did a radio program by the same name . Live shows of Geet Ramayan are still produced on occasion of Rama Navami.Anand Madgulkar himself has religiously been performing ' geet ramayana ' concerts in India , USA , Australia , Canada , Europe and UAE for the last 30 years .
= = Other languages = =
Geet Ramayan has been translated into nine other languages including Bengali , English , Guajarati , Kannada , Hindi , Konkani , Sanskrit , Sindhi and Telugu . It is also transliterated into Braille . This is the first and only collection of Marathi language songs got translated in so many languages . The translation is done in such a way that the basic the basic length and other specification of poem are unchanged . The translations are :
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= Scarborough Day School =
The Scarborough Day School was a private school in Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson , in Briarcliff Manor , New York . Frank and Narcissa Vanderlip established the school in 1913 at their estate , Beechwood . The school , a nonsectarian nonprofit college preparatory day school , taught students at pre @-@ kindergarten to twelfth grade levels and had small class sizes , with total enrollment rarely exceeding 150 students . Since 1980 , the buildings and property have been owned by The Clear View School , which runs a day treatment program for 83 students . The current school still uses the Scarborough School 's theater , which was opened in 1917 . The school campus is a contributing property to the Scarborough Historic District .
The Scarborough Day School was accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools and the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York . The school also was a member of the Cum Laude Society and the National Association of Independent Schools . Its seal copies that of Scarborough , North Yorkshire ; Scarborough @-@ on @-@ Hudson 's namesake .
= = History = =
The Scarborough School was founded in 1913 by Frank and Narcissa Vanderlip for their six children and the children of friends and neighbors . Having met educator Maria Montessori during their European travels , the Vanderlips pioneered the Montessori method at the Edward Harden Mansion in nearby Sleepy Hollow by creating the first Montessori school in the United States , in 1912 . Frank Vanderlip 's sister Ruth was married to Harden ; the families maintained close ties . After a year existing in two rooms of the Harden residence , the school moved to the River Gate House at the north end of River Road and the Beechwood estate .
The school moved to its final location in 1917 , at Vanderlip Hall , a building Vanderlip constructed in 1916 bordering Albany Post Road ( current U.S. Route 9 ) . The building was designed for classes of ten , to accommodate 120 children total . It was situated on Beechwood 's 80 @-@ acre ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) parkland designed by Frederick Law Olmsted for the Vanderlips . Throughout the school 's history , students were open to wander the woodlands and gardens , utilize the lawns and tennis courts , and swim in the Olympic @-@ sized pool . There were always farm animals nearby for the children to see and play with and a circus carousel to ride on . The school had a gymnasium class , amateur theater group , folk singing , a swimming pool , and an economic forum . Frank Vanderlip had spent about $ 500 @,@ 000 on the school ( $ 9 @,@ 235 @,@ 100 in 2015 ) . Regular art exhibits were held at the Scarborough School , including a sculpture exhibition in the Italian garden at Beechwood , which included works by Jose de Creeft , Jason Seley ( a longtime professor of sculpture at Cornell ) , and Richard Stankiewicz .
Early on in the school 's history , the Vanderlips decided to change the school 's system from the Montessori method to a more formal approach with more discipline , although students still had more freedom than the average school . In the 1930s , the school was considered progressive : students were not graded and were instructed to work at their own speed . As enrollment grew , another building was built for younger children , which burnt down in 1959 . In addition , a lunchroom , shop , and studio were built early in the school 's history . Frank Vanderlip enjoyed teaching simplified political economy at the school ; he would act out Swiss Family Robinson on an imaginary island with students to demonstrate the development of capitalism . Narcissa Vanderlip ran the school lunchroom , and it is recorded that she served good simple food . She named some of her foods artistically ( rice pudding with raisins was called Bête Noire a la Bolshevik ) .
Members of the Vanderlip family , particularly Virginia Vanderlip Schoales , continued to administer the school for sixty years . A 1959 development plan made way for a new primary school in 1961 , new science facilities in 1962 , expansion of the library in 1963 , and the creation of an organization for alumni , of whom there were more than a thousand living in 1977 . The school was unable to obtain sufficient funding and closed in 1978 . In 1980 , the buildings and property were taken over by The Clear View School , which opened in September 1981 after major renovations . The school runs a day treatment program for 83 students from nursery school age to 21 , and is sponsored by the Association for Mentally Ill Children of Westchester ; its program involves education , treatment , and crisis intervention and parent involvement .
= = Campus = =
The main Scarborough School building , Vanderlip Hall , was designed by William W. Bosworth , known for landscaping Kykuit and restoring Versailles . The school building was constructed in a severe , all @-@ white Neoclassical style , and was completed early in 1917 . In addition to a grand porticoed entry , there were two wings that housed classes , a library , cafeteria and gymnasium , basement science labs , and an art room measuring 1 @,@ 000 square feet ( 93 m2 ) , ringed on three sides with French windows . In the 1960s , an additional Modernist structure was built across a stream that would ultimately house the school 's lower grades .
Rosemont , an estate and the birthplace of John Worden , was later used by Vanderlip as a dormitory for Scarborough School boarding students . Rosemont stood opposite the Beechwood estate , at the corner of Route 9 and Scarborough Road . Another campus building was Marie Fayant Hall , which was originally Barnesby House , home to Dr. Percy Norman Barnesby . Vanderlip built the house for him and his wife ; the house was later given to the Scarborough School and served as a girls ' dormitory in the 1940s and as a headmaster 's residence about thirty years later .
= = = Theater = = =
Beechwood Theater , a replica of the Little Theater on Broadway , was included in Wells Bosworth 's design of the primary school building because Vanderlip particularly wanted his own theater . Beechwood Theater , with 256 gold velvet seats , was designed by Winthrop Ames around 1917 . Details were closely examined upon construction ; the lighting equipment , the scene lofts and fly gallery , and the dressing rooms were well @-@ designed and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art . The stage floor was designed especially for dancing , and the acoustics and theater proportions made varieties of productions possible .
The theater was used for assemblies , plays , concerts , and lectures . It was also home to the Beechwood Players , an adult performing arts group which had its origins in 1919 . The Players put on several plays a year , summer and winter , six plays a year and three @-@ night runs . They had started with three one @-@ act plays but had graduated to full @-@ length dramas . From its first years , Broadway actors used the theater when not otherwise engaged . Among them were Sylvia Sidney , Laurette Taylor , Lynn Fontanne , James Dean , Judson Laire , and Parker Fennelly . Lecturers and performers in the Beechwood Theater included Sarah Bernhardt , Robert Frost , John Masefield , Vachel Lindsay , Eleanor Roosevelt , H. G. Wells , Stephen Vincent Benét , and a King of Siam . Other notable appearances at the theater included Charles Coburn and Isadora Duncan . Audiences have included Franklin D. Roosevelt , John D. Rockefeller Jr . , Henry Ford and the last King of Poland .
The theater was opened and dedicated on January 2 , 1917 . The first concert took place on July 30 , 1916 , and was by Ignacy Jan Paderewski . During his performance , the Black Tom explosion took place at a munitions works in New Jersey , more than 30 miles ( 48 km ) from Scarborough . Frank Vanderlip Jr . , ten years old at the time , later recalled that he saw the detonation shake the jammed theater building , and that Paderewski had played on as if nothing had happened . The automatic fire doors at the top of the theater had sprung open , and two men were sent aloft to sit on them until the end of the performance to prevent a cold draft from entering the room .
Following the Scarborough School 's closing , the Beechwood Theater had stood empty for many years , and was restored in 1983 by the Greater Ossining Area Community Theater . On March 17 , 1984 , The Clear View School presented a solo performance of Currier Bell , Esquire ( a dramatization of Charlotte Brontë 's life ) performed by Julie Harris . The performance was a $ 100 @-@ a @-@ ticket benefit for the school . Also on that day , the theater was rededicated as the Julie Harris Theater . Briarcliff High School used the theater until its own was constructed in 1998 .
= = Alumni = =
Notable alumni of the Scarborough School include Secretary of the Army Stephen Ailes , Benjamin Cheever , a writer ; and Daniel and Margaret Da Silva , children of Ossining resident Howard Da Silva ( actor in the musical 1776 and the film of the same name ) . Richard Pousette @-@ Dart , an Abstract Expressionist artist , graduated from the school in 1935 . Anna Roosevelt Halsted lived with Curtis Bean Dall on nearby Sleepy Hollow Road ; their children Eleanor " Sistie " and Curtis " Buzzie " ( grandchildren of President and Mrs. Roosevelt ) attended the Scarborough School . Other notable alumni include Mark Helprin , a writer who graduated in 1965 ; the three children of Ely Jacques Kahn , Jr . ; John Kelvin Koelsch , a U.S. Navy officer during the Korean War and the first helicopter pilot to receive the Medal of Honor , who also lived in Scarborough ; Musical theater composer Henry Krieger and his sister lived in Ossining and attended the school together . Tina Louise , an actress and singer ; Ralph J. Menconi , a medallic sculptor ; Ilyasah Shabazz , an author and a daughter of Malcolm X ; and Richard Yates , a writer who attended from 1937 to 1939 while his mother taught sculpture there .
= = Headmasters = =
Headmasters included :
= = Gallery = =
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= Edward Said =
Edward Wadie Said ( Arabic pronunciation : [ wædiːʕ sæʕiːd ] Arabic : إدوارد وديع سعيد , Idwārd Wadīʿ Saʿīd ; 1 November 1935 – 25 September 2003 ) was a Palestinian @-@ American literary theoretician , professor of English , history and comparative literature at Columbia University , and a public intellectual who was a founder of post @-@ colonial studies . A Palestinian Arab born in Jerusalem in the days of Mandatory Palestine , Edward W. Said was an American citizen by way of his father , Wadir Said , a U.S. Army veteran of the First World War ; having moved from Jerusalem as a young boy , Said would later advocate for the political and human rights of the Palestinian people .
As a cultural critic , Said is known for his 1978 book Orientalism , a critical analysis of what he believed to be the culturally inaccurate representations that are the bases of Orientalism — the Western study of the Eastern world that presents how Westerners perceive and represent Orientals . Said argued that because Orientalist scholarship was and remains inextricably tied to the imperialist societies that produced it , much of the work is inherently political and servile to power , and so is intellectually suspect . The thesis of Orientalism is that Orientalism is defined by the presuppositions of the political culture out of which it arises , and that it shapes that political culture in its turn . In his book , Said shows how European imperialists thought about people in their colony , and by doing so , he shows how the political culture of imperialists shapes that of the colony .
The analytical model of Orientalism much influenced the humanities ( e.g. , literary theory and literary criticism ) and especially the field of Middle Eastern studies , where it transformed the academic discourse of the researchers — how they examine , describe and define the cultures of the Middle East . Some academic historians disagreed with his thesis , especially the Anglo – American Orientalist and historian Bernard Lewis . Orientalism derived from Said 's knowledge of colonial literature ( such as that of Joseph Conrad ) , the literary theories of R. P. Blackmur and Raymond Williams , the post @-@ structuralist theories of Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida , and the critical works of Giambattista Vico , Antonio Gramsci and Theodor Adorno . Educated in the Western canon at a British school in Egypt and in the U.S. , Said wrote in his autobiography Out of Place ( 1999 ) that he applied his education and cultural heritages to narrowing the perceptual gaps of political and cultural understanding between the West and the Middle East , improving Western understanding of the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and telling of how a decade @-@ long membership in the Palestinian National Council made him a controversial public intellectual .
Drawing from the experiences of his family as Palestinian Christians in the Middle East at the time of the establishment of the State of Israel , Said argued for the establishment of a Palestinian state to ensure equal political and human rights for the Palestinians in Israel , including the right of return , by way of U.S. political pressure upon Israel to recognize , grant and respect human rights . In that vein , Said also criticized the political and cultural policies of the Arab and Muslim regimes who acted against the national interests of their peoples . Said remained intellectually active late in life , before dying of leukemia in September 2003 . In a 2001 interview , Said summarized his oppositional role to the status quo , the remit of which is " to sift , to judge , to criticize , to choose , so that choice and agency return to the individual . " He stated his ideal community does not exalt " commodified interests and profitable commercial goals " , but values " survivability and sustainability in a human and decent way " , while acknowledging that " those are difficult goals to achieve . But I think they are achievable . "
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Edward W. Said was born on 1 November 1935 , to Hilda Said and Wadir Said , a businessman , in Jerusalem in the British Mandate of Palestine . Wadir Said , a native Palestinian , was an Arab Christian man who soldiered in the U.S. Army component of the American Expeditionary Forces ( 1917 – 19 ) , commanded by General John J. Pershing , in the First World War ; that war @-@ time military service granted Said père U.S. citizenship to him and to family . His mother Hilda was born to a Lebanese mother and raised in Nazareth .
In 1919 , after the war had ended , Wadir Said established a stationery business in Cairo , in partnership with a cousin . Like her husband , Hilda Said was an Arab Christian . Although the Said family practiced the Jerusalemite variety of Greek Orthodox Christianity , Edward was agnostic ; his sister Rosemarie Saïd Zahlan ( 1937 – 2006 ) pursued an academic career , much like her brother .
= = = Education = = =
Said described his early life as a boy 's life lived " between worlds " , in Cairo and in Jerusalem , until he was a young man of twelve years . In 1947 , Said enrolled in the Anglican St. George 's School , Jerusalem ; he would later describe the experience :
With an unexceptionally Arab family name like " Saïd " , connected to an improbably British first name ( my mother much admired [ Edward VIII ] the Prince of Wales in 1935 , the year of my birth ) , I was an uncomfortably anomalous student all through my early years : a Palestinian going to school in Egypt , with an English first name , an American passport , and no certain identity , at all . To make matters worse , Arabic , my native language , and English , my school language , were inextricably mixed : I have never known which was my first language , and have felt fully at home in neither , although I dream in both . Every time I speak an English sentence , I find myself echoing it in Arabic , and vice versa .
In the late 1940s , his latter school days included the Egyptian branch of Victoria College ( VC ) , where one classmate was Michel Shaloub ( later the actor Omar Sharif ) whom he remembered as a sadistic and physically abusive Head Boy ; other classmates included King Hussein of Jordan , and Egyptian , Syrian , Jordanian , and Saudi Arabian boys whose academic careers progressed to their becoming ministers , prime ministers , and leading businessmen in their respective countries . In that colonial time , the VC school educated a selection of Arab and Levantine young men to become the Anglicized ruling @-@ class who , in due course of their careers , were to rule their respective countries , upon British decolonization . VC would be the last school Edward Said attended before being sent to school in the U.S. :
The moment one became a student at [ Victoria College ] , one was given the student handbook , a series of regulations governing every aspect of school life — the kind of uniform we were to wear , what equipment was needed for sports , the dates of school holidays , bus schedules , and so on . But the school 's first rule , emblazoned on the opening page of the handbook , read : " English is the language of the school ; students caught speaking any other language will be punished . " Yet , there were no native speakers of English among the students . Whereas the masters were all British , we were a motley crew of Arabs of various kinds , Armenians , Greeks , Italians , Jews , and Turks , each of whom had a native language that the school had explicitly outlawed . Yet all , or nearly all , of us spoke Arabic — many spoke Arabic and French — and so we were able to take refuge in a common language , in defiance of what we perceived as an unjust colonial stricture .
Despite high intelligence and academic achievements , Said proved a troublesome student and was expelled from Victoria College in 1951 , and was sent from Egypt to the eastern U.S. , where he attended Northfield Mount Hermon School , Massachusetts , an elite college @-@ prep boarding @-@ school where he endured a psychologically difficult year of social alienation . Nonetheless , Said excelled academically , and achieved the rank of either first ( valedictorian ) or second ( salutatorian ) in a class of one hundred sixty students .
He would later say that , in retrospect , his parents ' decision to send him so far from the Middle East was much influenced by " the prospects of deracinated people , like us , being so uncertain that it would be best to send me as far away as possible " . The realities of a peripatetic life — of interwoven cultures , of feeling out of place , and of being far from home — affected the schoolboy Said to the degree that , in adult life , the themes of dissonance continually arose in the academic , political , and intellectual works wrote . Said matured as an intellectual — a polyglot young man , fluent in English , French and Arabic , earning his Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees from Princeton University in 1957 and 1960 respectively , followed by a Doctor of Philosophy in English Literature from Harvard University in 1964 . Despite his many intellectual achievements , Said 's battle with his identity as it related to language ( Arabic and English specifically ) continued throughout his adult life . He discusses the battle with language in both Out of Place ( 1999 ) and Reflections on Exile ( 2002 ) by it describing as something he had to carry with him throughout his life and career . Many of his peers also examined this particular aspect of his identity as intellectual porter ( of language , briefcases , among other things ) .
= = = Career = = =
In 1963 , Said joined Columbia University , as a member of the English and Comparative Literature faculties , where he taught and worked until 2003 . In 1974 , he was Visiting Professor of Comparative Literature at Harvard ; during 1975 – 76 , he was a Fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Science , at Stanford University . In 1977 , he became the Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University , and subsequently was the Old Dominion Foundation Professor in the Humanities , and then in 1979 was Visiting Professor of Humanities at Johns Hopkins University . Said also worked as a visiting professor at Yale University , and lectured at other universities . Said lectured at over 200 universities in the Middle East , Canada , United States , and Europe . He has published more twenty books in his lifetime . In 1992 , Said was promoted to " Professor " , the highest @-@ rank academic job at Columbia University . Editorially , Prof. Said served as president of the Modern Language Association , editor of the Arab Studies Quarterly in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , on the executive board of International PEN , and was a member in the American Academy of Arts and Letters , the Royal Society of Literature , the Council of Foreign Relations the American Philosophical Society . In 1993 , Said presented the BBC 's annual Reith Lectures , a six @-@ lecture series titled Representation of the Intellectual , wherein he examined the role of the public intellectual in contemporary society , which the BBC published in 2011 .
= = Literary production = =
Said 's first published book , Joseph Conrad and the Fiction of Autobiography ( 1966 ) , was an expansion of the dissertation he presented to earn his PhD ; later , in Edward Saïd : Criticism and Society ( 2010 ) , Abdirahman Hussein would remark that Conrad 's novella Heart of Darkness ( 1899 ) was " foundational to Said 's entire career and project " . Afterwards , Said redacted ideas gleaned from the works of the 17th @-@ century philosopher Giambattista Vico , and other intellectuals , in the book Beginnings : Intention and Method ( 1974 ) , about the theoretical bases of literary criticism . Said 's later works include The World , the Text , and the Critic ( 1983 ) , Nationalism , Colonialism , and Literature : Yeats and Decolonization ( 1988 ) , Culture and Imperialism ( 1993 ) , Representations of the Intellectual : The 1993 Reith Lectures ( 1994 ) , Humanism and Democratic Criticism ( 2004 ) , and On Late Style ( 2006 ) .
Like his post @-@ modern intellectual mentors , the philosophers Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault , Said was fascinated by how the people of the Western world perceive the peoples of and the things from a different culture , as well as the effects of society , politics , and power upon literature ; these preoccupations led him to become a founding intellectual of post @-@ colonial criticism . While Orientalism remains his principal cultural contribution , Said 's influential critical interpretations of the works of Joseph Conrad , Jane Austen , Rudyard Kipling , William Butler Yeats and others further bolstered his intellectual reputation .
= = = Orientalism = = =
Edward Said 's notability as cultural critic was established with his critique ( description and analyses ) of Orientalism as the source of the inaccurate cultural representations that are the foundation of Western thought towards the Middle East , of how The West perceives and represents The East . The thesis of Orientalism ( 1978 ) proposes the existence of a " subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo – Islamic peoples and their culture " , which derives from Western culture 's long tradition of false and romanticized images of Asia , in general , and the Middle East , in particular . Said argued that such perceptions and consequent cultural representations have served , and continue to serve , as implicit justifications for the colonial and imperialist ambitions of the European powers and of the U.S. Likewise , Said also criticized and denounced the political and the cultural malpractices of the regimes of the ruling Arab elites who have internalized the false , romanticized representations of Arabic culture that were created by Anglo – American Orientalists .
So far as the United States seems to be concerned , it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists . Very little of the detail , the human density , the passion of Arab – Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people whose profession it is to report the Arab world . What we have , instead , is a series of crude , essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world , presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to military aggression .
In Orientalism , Said contended that much Western study of Islamic civilization was political intellectualism meant for self @-@ affirmation , rather than for objective intellectual inquiry and academic study . Thus , Oriental studies functioned as a practical method of cultural discrimination and imperialist domination ; i.e. , the Western Orientalist knows more about the Orient than do the Orientals . As such , Orientalism has exerted much impact upon the fields of literary theory and cultural studies , human geography and history , and Oriental studies . Parting from the philosophical works of Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault , and the works of the early Western critics of Orientalism — such as Abdul Latif Tibawi , Anouar Abdel @-@ Malek , Maxime Rodinson , and Richard William Southern ( Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages , 1978 ) — Said argued that " Orientalism " and the derived perceptions of " The East " by " the West " purveyed in them are intellectually suspect , and cannot be accepted at their face value as faithful , true , and accurate representations of Oriental peoples and things . Said proposed that the history of European colonial rule , and its consequent political domination of the Eastern civilizations , distorts the writing of even the most knowledgeable , well @-@ meaning , and culturally sympathetic Western Orientalists , transforming " Orientalism " into a pejorative term .
I doubt if it is controversial , for example , to say that an Englishman in India , or Egypt , in the later nineteenth century , took an interest in those countries , which was never far from their status , in his mind , as British colonies . To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with , violated by , the gross political fact — and yet that is what I am saying in this study of Orientalism .
For Said , " the Orient " has been represented since Antiquity in the Western literature , painting and sculpture in the form of stereotypes . As an example , he cites the Greek tragedy The Persians ( 472 BC ) , by Aeschylus , where the protagonist fails and falls because he misperceived the true nature of The East . Contemporarily , Europe has politically dominated Asia to the degree that even the most outwardly objective Western texts about " The Orient " are culturally biased to a degree unrecognized by Western scholars , who appropriated for themselves the intellectual tasks of studying , exploring and interpreting the languages , histories and cultures of the Orient ; thereby implying that such ( subaltern ) peoples were incapable of speaking for themselves , and much less capable of composing their own cultural and historical narratives . Western Orientalists have written Asia 's past — therein constructing the modern identities of Asia — from a perspective that establishes " The West " as the cultural norm to emulate , from which the " exotic and inscrutable " Orientals deviate .
Orientalism concluded that Western writing about " The Orient " depicts the Oriental culture as an irrational , weak and feminized " Other " , an existential condition greatly contrasted with the rational , strong and masculine culture of the " West . " Said says this artificial binary @-@ relation derives from the European psychological need to create a " difference " of cultural inequality between " The West " and " The East " ; this inequality is attributed to immutable cultural " essences " inherent to " Oriental " peoples and things . In 1978 , the intellectual , cultural and commercial success of the book Orientalism assumed historical resonance in the wake of the 1973 Yom Kippur War and the OPEC petroleum embargo . These recent events had surprised Western countries : Europe and the U.S. did not expect pro @-@ active , decisive and definitive actions from non – Western peoples , whom the ideology of Orientalism had defined as weak societies and impotent countries . For Said , the geopolitical reality of Israeli military and Arab economic warfare demonstrated the fictional nature of Orientalist representations and Western perceptions of the non – Western " Other " .
= = = Criticism of Orientalism = = =
Orientalism ( 1978 ) provoked much professional and personal criticism . Traditional Orientalists , such as Albert Hourani , Robert Graham Irwin , Nikki Keddie , Bernard Lewis and Kanan Makiya , incurred what the historian Nikki Keddie said were unfortunate professional consequences of Orientalism upon the public 's perception of the intellectual quality of their Orientalist scholarship .
Nikki Keddie has stated that Said 's work on Orientalism , drawing on critical theory , had caused :
some unfortunate consequences ... I think that there has been a tendency in the Middle East [ studies ] field to adopt the word " Orientalism " as a generalized swear @-@ word , essentially referring to people who take the " wrong " position on the Arab – Israeli dispute , or to people who are judged " too conservative " . It has nothing to do with whether they are good or not good in their disciplines . So , " Orientalism " , for many people , is a word that substitutes for thought , and enables people to dismiss certain scholars and their works . I think that is too bad . It may not have been what Edward Saïd meant , at all , but the term has become a kind of slogan .
= = = = Historical = = = =
In " The Mightier Pen ? Edward Saïd and the Double Standards of Inside @-@ out Colonialism " ( 1993 ) , the social anthropologist Ernest Gellner said that Said 's contentions that the West dominated the East for two millennia were unsupportable , because the Ottoman Empire had been a political and military threat to Europe until the late 17th century . In " Disraeli as an Orientalist : The Polemical Errors of Edward Said " ( 2005 ) , Mark Proudman reported that Said incorrectly described the British Empire as extending from Egypt to India in the late 19th century , as the Ottoman Empire and the Persian Empire were simultaneously active in that geopolitical region .
In Empire and Information : Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India , 1780 – 1870 ( 1996 ) , Christopher Alan Bayly said that , at the height of European imperialism , European power in the Orient was not absolute , and much depended upon local collaborators , who often subverted the geopolitical strategies of the European powers with whom they collaborated against their own peoples . In For Lust of Knowing : The Orientalists and Their Enemies ( 2006 ) , Robert Graham Irwin said that Palestine and Egypt were poor historical examples of Orientalism , because they were under European hegemonic control only for short periods in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . He believed that Said ignored better examples of Orientalism and imperialism , namely the British Raj ( 1858 – 1947 ) in India and Russia 's Asian dominions , because Said sought to score political points against the West 's actions in the Middle East .
= = = = Ideological = = = =
In the war of ideas that erupted from the book , Anglo @-@ American Orientalist Bernard Lewis became a particular intellectual nemesis of Said and his thesis in Orientalism ; Said had identified Lewis in the book as :
A perfect exemplification [ of an ] Establishment Orientalist [ whose work ] purports to be objective , liberal scholarship , but is , in reality , very close to being propaganda against his subject material .
For sheer heedless anti @-@ intellectualism , unrestrained or unencumbered by the slightest trace of critical self @-@ consciousness , no one , in my experience , has achieved the sublime confidence of Bernard Lewis , whose almost purely political exploits require more time to mention than they are worth . In a series of articles , and one particularly weak book — The Muslim Discovery of Europe ( 1982 ) — Lewis has been busy responding to my argument , insisting that the Western quest for knowledge about other societies is unique , that it is motivated by pure curiosity , and that , in contrast , Muslims neither were able nor interested in getting knowledge about Europe , as if knowledge about Europe were the only acceptable criterion for true knowledge .
Lewis 's arguments are presented as emanating exclusively from the scholar 's apolitical impartiality , whereas , at the same time , he has become an authority drawn on for anti – Islamic , anti – Arab , Zionist , and Cold War crusades , all of them underwritten by a zealotry , covered with a veneer of urbanity , that has very little in common with the " science " and learning Lewis purports to be upholding .
Bernard Lewis replied to Said 's characterizations , both of his ( Lewis 's ) works as political propaganda and of him as an anti @-@ intellectual , with essays critical of Said and his works ; Lewis later was joined by the academics Maxime Rodinson , Jacques Berque , Malcolm H. Kerr , Aijaz Ahmad and William Montgomery Watt , who said that Orientalism represents a flawed account of Orientalist scholarship . Said himself , in the " Afterword " to the 1995 edition of Orientalism , answered Bernard Lewis 's criticisms against the first edition of the book . Critics argued that Said and his followers failed to critically distinguish among the varieties of Orientalism featured in Western popular culture and mass @-@ communications media ( e.g. , Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom , 1984 ) , and Oriental Studies of the languages , literatures , histories and cultures of the Eastern world .
In The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India 's Past , O.P. Kejariwal said that Said 's opposition to the monolithic Orientalism of Western discourse prompted him to create a monolithic Occidentalism , failing to distinguish among the paradigms of Romanticism and the secular intellectual traditions of the Age of Enlightenment . Kejariwal stated that Said ignored the wide range and fundamental differences of opinion among Orientalists about the nature of Oriental peoples and things , failed to acknowledge that some Orientalists , such as the philologist William Jones , sought to establish " cultural kinship " rather than " cultural difference " between The East and The West , and that these scholars often made discoveries that later provided foundations for anti @-@ imperial nationalism .
Robert Irwin has said in the Times Literary Supplement that the theoretical flaw of Orientalism is its failure to distinguish between the numerous Orientalist writers , who held different cultural perspectives on and experiences of the Orient — the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe ( who never traveled to the East ) , the French novelist Gustave Flaubert ( who toured Egypt ) , the French geographer Joseph @-@ Ernest Renan ( who advanced racist theories of inferiority of " Semitic peoples " ) , and the British translator and lexicographer Edward William Lane ( who was fluent in Arabic ) .
In Defending the West : A Critique of Edward Said 's Orientalism ( 2007 ) , Ibn Warraq said that the varied origins and cultural attitudes of European Orientalists over @-@ rode factual and historical considerations , which Said ignored in order to construct a stereotype of Europeans befitting his thesis about the nature of Orientalism . In For Lust of Knowing : The Orientalists and Their Enemies , Robert Irwin said that Said ignored the domination of 19th @-@ century Oriental studies by German and Hungarian Orientalists , scholars from countries without imperial colonies in the Orient . Earlier critics said that the brief survey of German Orientalist scholarship limited the book , leading Said to counter in " Orientalism Reconsidered " ( 1985 ) that no one had demonstrated that the brief survey of German Orientalism limits the scholarly value and application of the thesis of Orientalism — the politics of discourse applied to the Eastern world in opposition to the Western world .
= = = = Personal = = = =
In the article " Who is Afraid of Edward Said ? " , Biswamoy Pati said that in establishing ethnicity and cultural background as tests of authority and objectivity in studying the Orient , Edward Said drew attention to his own ethnic and cultural identities as a Palestinian man and as a colonial Subaltern from the Mandate of Palestine , the British Middle East . In the article " Orients and Occidents : Colonial Discourse Theory and the Historiography of the British Empire " , D. A. Washbrook said that Said 's Anglophone education ( British and American ) disqualified him from writing about the Orient by virtue of his own arguments in Orientalism ; Said had lived most of his adult life in the U.S. as a university professor , but argued that : " any and all representations ... are embedded , first , in the language , and then in the culture , institutions , and political ambience of the representer ... [ and are ] interwoven with a great many other things besides ' The Truth ' , which is , itself , a representation " . That excessive cultural relativism had trapped the academic Said , and his post @-@ colonial theorist followers , in a " web of solipsism " , which limits him and them to speak only of cultural " representations " , whilst simultaneously allowing Said and cohort to deny the existence of any objective truth about the Orient .
= = = Influence of Orientalism = = =
Since Orientalism 's publication in 1978 , Said has been praised as an " intellectual superstar " for his range of inquiry , drawing on literary theory , comparative literature , history , political commentary , cultural criticism and music criticism . Orientalism became a foundational text in the field of Post @-@ colonial studies for what Terry Eagleton called its " central truth ... that demeaning images of the east and imperialist incursions into its terrain have historically gone hand in hand . " One of the most influential book in this area is Postcolonial Theory written by Leela Gandhi , where the author explains from basic introduction about Postcolonial @-@ ism to how it can be made and shaped in the real history with wider philosophical and intellectual context of it .
Said 's academic friends and foes acknowledged the transformative influence of Orientalism upon scholarship in the humanities ; critics argued that the thesis is an intellectually limiting influence upon scholars , whilst supporters said the thesis is intellectually liberating . The fields of post @-@ colonial and cultural studies attempt to explain the " post @-@ colonial world , its peoples , and their discontents " ; for this , the investigational validity and analytical efficacy of the propositions in Orientalism continue to resonate , especially in the field of Middle Eastern studies .
The analytical scholarship of Orientalism is especially applicable to literary criticism and cultural studies , including reviews of the post @-@ colonial history of India by Gyan Prakash , Nicholas Dirks and Ronald Inden , modern Cambodia by Simon Springer , and the literary theories of Homi K. Bhabha , Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Hamid Dabashi ( Iran : A People Interrupted , 2007 ) .
In Eastern Europe , Milica Bakić – Hayden developed the concept of Nesting Orientalisms ( 1992 ) , derived from the ideas of the historian Larry Wolff ( Inventing Eastern Europe : The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment , 1994 ) and Said 's ideas in Orientalism ( 1978 ) . The Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova ( Imagining the Balkans , 1997 ) presented the ethnologic concept of Nesting Balkanisms ( Ethnologia Balkanica , 1997 ) , which is derived from Milica Bakić – Hayden 's concept of Nesting Orientalisms .
Lorenzo Kamel , a Middle Eastern historian , presented the concept of ' Biblical Orientalism ' through his historical analysis of the simplifications of the complex local Palestinian reality which occurred through the 1830s up to the early 20th century . He notes that selective usage and simplification of religion in approaching the ' Holy Land ' created a view that the ' Holy Land ' is devoid of any history but only Biblical richness .
It also impacts on theological studies . Said 's post @-@ colonial discourse impact on appearance of post @-@ colonial theology and post @-@ colonial biblical criticism , in which the reader approach the scripture with a perspective of colonial reader . For more information , see the book named " The Bible and Zionism : invented traditions , archaeology and post @-@ colonialism in Palestine @-@ Israel "
= = Politics = =
After the 1967 Six Day War , Said entered the public sphere to counter what he perceived as the stereotyped misrepresentations in which the U.S. news media explained the Arab – Israeli wars ; he claimed this reportage was divorced from the historical realities of the Middle East , in general , and Palestine and Israel , in particular . To address , explain , and correct the issue , Said published " The Arab Portrayed " in 1968 , a descriptive essay about images of " the Arab " that are meant to evade specific discussion of the historical and cultural realities of the peoples who live in the Middle East , featured in journalism and scholarship .
In the essay " Zionism from the Standpoint of its Victims " ( 1979 ) , Said argued in favour of the political legitimacy and philosophic authenticity of the Zionist claims and right to a Jewish homeland ; and for the inherent right of national self @-@ determination of the Palestinian people . Said 's books about Israel and Palestine include The Question of Palestine ( 1979 ) , The Politics of Dispossession ( 1994 ) , and The End of the Peace Process ( 2000 ) .
In 1985 , Said suffered personal consequences for his political activism when the Jewish Defense League ( JDL ) traduced Said 's public statements about the state and nature of Arab – Israeli relations , and officially said that Said was a Nazi , because of his anti – Zionism statements , which the JDL viewed as anti @-@ Semitism ; an arsonist set fire to his office at Columbia University , and he and his family were continually subjected to intimidations and " innumerable death threats " .
= = = Palestinian National Council = = =
From 1977 until 1991 , Said was an independent member of the Palestinian National Council ( PNC ) . In 1988 , he was a proponent of the two @-@ state solution to the Israeli – Palestinian conflict ( 1948 ) , and voted for the establishment of the State of Palestine at a meeting of the Palestinian National Council meeting in Algiers . In 1993 , Said quit his membership to the Palestinian National Council , to protest the internal politics that lead to the signing of the Oslo Accords ( Declaration of Principles on Interim Self @-@ Government Arrangements , 1993 ) , because he thought the accord terms unacceptable , and because they had been rejected by the Madrid Conference of 1991 .
Said was displeased that the Oslo Accords would not produce an independent Palestine , and that they were politically inferior to a plan that Yasser Arafat had rejected — a plan which Said had presented to Arafat on behalf of the U.S. government in the late 1970s . Especially troublesome to Said was his belief that Yasir Arafat had betrayed the right of return of the Palestinian refugees to their houses and properties in the Green Line territories of pre – 1967 Israel , and that Arafat ignored the growing political threat of the Israeli settlements in the occupied territories that had been established since the conquest of Palestine in 1967 . By 1995 , in response to Said 's political criticisms , the Palestinian Authority ( PA ) banned the sale of Said 's books ; however , the PA lifted the book @-@ ban when Said publicly praised Yasir Arafat for rejecting Prime Minister Ehud Barak 's offers at the Middle East Peace Summit at Camp David ( 2000 ) in the U.S.
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Said wrote the Foreword to the history book Jewish History , Jewish Religion : The Weight of Three Thousand Years ( 1994 ) , by Israel Shahak , which presents the cultural proposition that Israel 's mistreatment of the Palestinians is rooted in a Judaic requirement ( of permission ) for Jews to commit crimes , including murder , against Gentiles ( non @-@ Jews ) . In his Foreword , Said said that Jewish History , Jewish Religion is " nothing less than a concise history of classic and modern Judaism , insofar as these are relevant to the understanding of modern Israel " ; and praised the historian Shahak for describing contemporary Israel as a nation subsumed in a " Judeo – Nazi " cultural ambience that allowed the dehumanization of the Palestinian Other :
In all my works , I remained fundamentally critical of a gloating and uncritical nationalism . . . . My view of Palestine . . . remains the same today : I expressed all sorts of reservations about the insouciant nativism , and militant militarism of the nationalist consensus ; I suggested , instead , a critical look at the Arab environment , Palestinian history , and the Israeli realities , with the explicit conclusion that only a negotiated settlement , between the two communities of suffering , Arab and Jewish , would provide respite from the unending war .
In 1998 , Said made In Search of Palestine ( 1998 ) , a BBC documentary film about Palestine past and Palestine present , in which he returned to the country from which he had emigrated to the U.S. in 1947 . In the company of his son , Wadie , Said revisited his places of boyhood , and confronted the Israeli injustices ( social and cultural ) meted out to ordinary Palestinians in the contemporary West Bank . Despite the social and cultural prestige usual to BBC cinema products in the U.S. , the documentary was never broadcast by any American television company .
= = = In Palestine = = =
On 3 July 2000 , whilst touring the Middle East with his son , Wadie , Said was photographed throwing a stone across the Blue Line Lebanese – Israel border , which image elicited much political criticism about his action demonstrating an inherent , personal sympathy with terrorism ; and , in Commentary magazine , the journalist Edward Alexander labelled Said as The Professor of Terror , for aggression against Israel . Said explained the stone @-@ throwing as a two @-@ fold action , personal and political ; a man @-@ to @-@ man contest @-@ of @-@ skill , between a father and his son , and an Arab Man 's gesture of joy at the end of the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon ( 1985 – 2000 ) :
It was a pebble ; there was nobody there . The guardhouse was at least half a mile away .
Despite having denied that he aimed the stone at an Israeli guardhouse , the Beirut newspaper As @-@ Safir ( The Ambassador ) reported that a Lebanese local resident reported that Said was at less than ten metres ( ca . 30 ft . ) distance from the Israeli Defense Force ( IDF ) soldiers manning the two @-@ storey guardhouse , when Said aimed and threw the stone over the border fence ; the stone 's projectile path was thwarted when it struck the barbed wire atop the border fence . In the U.S. , despite objections by some student groups at Columbia University and the Anti @-@ Defamation League of B 'nai B 'rith International ( Sons of the Covenant ) , the university provost published a five @-@ page letter defending Said 's action as academic freedom of expression :
To my knowledge , the stone was directed at no @-@ one ; no law was broken ; no indictment was made ; no criminal or civil action has been taken against Professor Saïd .
Said still endured political repercussions , such as the cancellation of a February 2001 invitation to Austria to give a lecture to the Freud Society . The President of the Freud Society justified withdrawing the invitation by explaining to Said that " the political situation in the Middle East , and its consequences " had rendered an accusation of anti @-@ Semitism a very serious matter , and that any such accusation " has become more dangerous " in the politics of Austria ; thus , the Freud Society cancelled their invitation to Said in order to " to avoid an internal clash " of opinions , about him , that might ideologically divide the Freud Society . In Culture and Resistance : Conversations with Edward Saïd , Said likened his political situation to the situation that Noam Chomsky has endured as a public intellectual :
It 's very similar to his . He 's a well @-@ known , great linguist . He 's been celebrated and honored for that , but he 's also vilified as an anti – Semite and as a Hitler worshiper . . . . For anyone to deny the horrendous experience of anti @-@ Semitism and the Holocaust is unacceptable . We don 't want anybody 's history of suffering to go unrecorded and unacknowledged . On the other hand , there 's a great difference , between acknowledging Jewish oppression and using that as a cover for the oppression of another people .
Under surveillance
In 2003 , Haidar Abdel @-@ Shafi , Ibrahim Dakak , Mustafa Barghouti , and Said established Al @-@ Mubadara ( The Palestinian National Initiative ) , headed by Dr. Mustafa Barghouti , a third @-@ party reformist , democratic party meant to be an alternative to the usual two @-@ party politics of Palestine . As a political party , the ideology of Al @-@ Mubadara is specifically an alternative to the extremist politics of the social @-@ democratic Fatah and the Islamist Hamas ( Islamic Resistance Movement ) . Said 's founding of the group , as well as his other international political activities concerning Palestine , were noticed by the U.S. government ; in 2006 , the anthropologist David Price obtained 147 pages of the 283 @-@ page political dossier that the FBI had compiled on Said , begun in 1971 , four years into his career as a public intellectual active in U.S. politics .
= = Music = =
Besides having been a public intellectual , Edward Said was an accomplished pianist , worked as the music critic for The Nation magazine , and wrote four books about music : Musical Elaborations ( 1991 ) ; Parallels and Paradoxes : Explorations in Music and Society ( 2002 ) , with Daniel Barenboim as co @-@ author ; On Late Style : Music and Literature Against the Grain ( 2006 ) ; and Music at the Limits ( 2007 ) in which final tome he spoke of finding musical reflections of his literary and historical ideas in bold compositions and strong performances .
Elsewhere in the musical world , the composer Mohammed Fairouz acknowledged the deep influence of Edward Said upon his works ; compositionally , Fairouz 's First Symphony thematically alludes to the essay " Homage to a Belly @-@ Dancer " ( 1990 ) , about Tahia Carioca , the Egyptian terpsichorean , actress , and political militant ; and a piano sonata titled Reflections on Exile ( 1984 ) , which thematically refers to the emotions inherent to being an exile .
In 1999 , Edward W. Said and Daniel Barenboim co @-@ founded the West @-@ Eastern Divan Orchestra , which is composed of young Israeli , Palestinian , and Arab musicians . They also established The Barenboim – Said Foundation in Seville , to develop education @-@ through @-@ music projects . Besides managing the West – Eastern Divan Orchestra , the Barenboim – Said Foundation assists with the administration of the Academy of Orchestral Studies , the Musical Education in Palestine Project , and the Early Childhood Musical Education Project , in Seville .
= = Awards = =
Besides honors , memberships , and postings to prestigious organizations world @-@ wide , Edward Said was awarded some twenty honorary university degrees in the course of his professional life as an academic , critic , and Man of Letters . Among the honors bestowed to him was the Bowdoin Prize by Harvard University . He twice received the Lionel Trilling Book Award ; the first occasion was the inaugural bestowing of said literary award in 1976 , for Beginnings : Intention and Method ( 1974 ) . He also received the Wellek Prize of the American Comparative Literature Association , and was awarded the inaugural Spinoza Lens Prize . In 2001 , Said was awarded the Lannan Literary Award for Lifetime Achievement , and in 2002 , he received the Prince of Asturias Award for Concord . He was the first U.S. citizen to receive the Sultan Owais Prize ( for Cultural & Scientific Achievements , 1996 – 1997 ) . The autobiography Out of Place ( 1999 ) was bestowed three awards , the 1999 New Yorker Book Award for Non @-@ Fiction ; the 2000 Anisfield @-@ Wolf Book Award for Non @-@ Fiction ; and the Morton Dauwen Zabel Award in Literature .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 25 September 2003 , after enduring a twelve @-@ year sickness with chronic lymphocytic leukemia , Edward W. Said died , at 67 years of age , in New York City . He was survived by his wife , Mariam C. Said , his son , Wadie Said , and his daughter , Najla Said . The eulogists included Alexander Cockburn ( " A Mighty and Passionate Heart " ) ; Seamus Deane ( " A Late Style of Humanism " ) ; Christopher Hitchens ( " A Valediction for Edward Said " ) ; Tony Judt ( " The Rootless Cosmopolitan " ) ; Michael Wood ( " On Edward Said " ) ; and Tariq Ali ( " Remembering Edward Said , 1935 – 2003 " ) . In November 2004 , in Palestine , Birzeit University renamed their music school the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music .
The tributes to Edward Said include books and schools ; such as Waiting for the Barbarians : A Tribute to Edward W. Said ( 2008 ) features essays by Akeel Bilgrami , Rashid Khalidi , and Elias Khoury ; Edward Said : The Charisma of Criticism ( 2010 ) , by Harold Aram Veeser , a critical biography ; and Edward Said : A Legacy of Emancipation and Representations ( 2010 ) , essays by Joseph Massad , Ilan Pappé , Ella Shohat , Ghada Karmi , Noam Chomsky , Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak , and Daniel Barenboim ; and the Barenboim – Said Academy ( Berlin ) was established in 2012 .
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= Holger Glinicki =
Holger Glinicki ( born 25 October 1952 ) is a German wheelchair basketball coach , who coached Hamburger SV . He was assistant coach of the German women 's national team from 2003 to 2005 . He has been coach of the team since 2006 , during which time it has won five European championships , a silver medal at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing and a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London .
= = Biography = =
Holger Glinicki was born in Hamburg on 25 October 1952 . He was paralysed following a motorcycle accident in 1972 that broke his fourth thoracic vertebra . He became involved in disability sports , playing wheelchair basketball for RSC Hamburg , who were the German national champions in 1983 , and played a total of 123 international games . He became assistant coach of the German women 's national wheelchair basketball team in 2003 , and then coach in 2006 . The team won five consecutive European championships , in 2003 , 2005 , 2007 , 2009 and 2011 , and a silver medal at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing .
The German team started off slow in its games against the United States and China at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , winning these games by slim six @-@ point margins . Marina Mohnen thought that they played their best basketball only in the final minutes of a game . They defeated the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics by 44 – 58 in front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 at the North Greenwich Arena to win the gold medal . It was the first gold medal that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball at the Paralympics since 1984 . They were awarded the Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were named Team of the Year for 2012 . Glinicki celebrated by plunging off Canary Wharf into London 's River Thames . He was named Hamburg 's coach of the year for 2012 .
Glinicki was philosophical about the win , noting in December 2012 that there were many awards and ceremonies , but that the memory of London was fading over time . He returned to coaching his club team , Hamburger SV ( now renamed BG Baskets Hamburg ) , which included national team members Mareike Adermann and Edina Müller ( and Australia 's Bridie Kean ) . It went on to win the national championship for the eighth time in 2013 . The national team was not so fortunate , losing the European Championship to the Netherlands by a point , 56 – 57 , before a home town crowd in Frankfurt in July 2013 .
In April 2014 , Glinicki coached BG Baskets Hamburg to a win in the final of the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Euro League Challenge Cup , its first International title , with a 62 – 54 over the Frankfurt Mainhatten Skywheelers . The team also won the Fair Play Award of the International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Europe .
= = Achievements = =
2003 : Gold European Championships ( Hamburg , Germany )
2005 : Gold European Championships ( Villeneuve d 'Ascq , France )
2007 : Gold European Championships ( Wetzlar , Germany )
2008 : Silver Paralympic Games ( Beijing , China )
2009 : Gold European Championships ( Stoke Mandeville , Great Britain )
2010 : Silver World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )
2011 : Gold European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold Paralympic Games ( London , Great Britain )
2012 : Hamburg coach of the year for 2012 .
2013 : Silver European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
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= Big Man on Hippocampus =
" Big Man on Hippocampus " is the tenth episode of the eighth season of the Fox animated comedy Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on January 3 , 2010 . The episode features Peter after he suddenly begins suffering from amnesia , and can no longer remember anything about his life , including his own family and friends . His wife , Lois , then attempts to reintroduce Peter to his surroundings , but he soon discovers partying , and having sex with other women is much more entertaining . Frustrated , Lois decides to leave her husband , causing her neighbor , Quagmire , to attempt to win her over .
The episode was written by Brian Scully and directed by Dominic Bianchi . It received generally negative reviews from critics , for its " promising start , " as well as its many cultural references . According to the Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 1 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dwayne Johnson , Adrianne Palicki , and Rick Pasqualone , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Big Man on Hippocampus " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with the Griffin family watching television . A commercial for local auditions of the syndicated game show Family Feud is shown , prompting them to try out the next day . The Griffins are chosen for the show and reach the final round . During a fight with Richard Dawson about welching on the prize money , Peter hits his head . This causes him to forget everything about his life , including his family and friends . Lois tries to jog his memory by reintroducing him to his old self , including his children and his sex life . Unfortunately , this causes Peter to believe that he 's free to have sexual relations with others in his newfound " bachelorhood . " Lois had earlier told him that it is inappropriate to have sex with his children - in response , Meg attempts an incest joke ( " Well , I wish you would 've told him that BEFORE he lost his memory ! " ) . Most of the family lambaste her for this and Chris kicks her out of the room . Deeply angered , Lois decides to move out , taking the kids . When Quagmire finds out , he jumps on the opportunity to pursue a relationship with Lois .
When Brian returns home to warn Peter about the consequences of this development , Peter reveals that he had regained his memory after Ernie the Giant Chicken hit him on the head with " an odd number of objects " earlier that day . Alerted by Brian 's warnings , Peter rushes to reclaim Lois , just as Quagmire 's plans had been delayed by guilt @-@ induced impotence when Lois confessed that she " trusts " him . Peter then professes his love for her , and desire to be with her for the rest of his life , causing Lois to love him again . The two walk home , happy in their reunion , leaving Quagmire as he frustratedly attempts increasingly drastic measures to " resuscitate " his genitalia using : a penis pump , intravenous therapy , and a crash cart with a defibrillator in his closet .
= = Production and development = =
This episode was written by Brian Scully , older brother of long @-@ time Simpsons writer and producer Mike Scully . This was his second Family Guy episode , the first being " I Dream of Jesus " from the seventh season . Series regular Dominic Bianchi directed the episode , before the conclusion of the eighth production season .
" Big Man on Hippocampus " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , actor Dwayne Johnson made a brief live @-@ action appearance in the episode , appearing as himself , along with two action figures of Peter and Lois , which he proceeds to bang on top of each other in order to illustrate a censored sex scene . Commenting on his appearance in the episode , Johnson stated that he was a " big fan " of Family Guy , having quickly befriended show creator Seth MacFarlane after he had in a minor role in Johnson 's 2010 film Tooth Fairy . While filming the movie , Johnson had reached out to MacFarlane , saying that he would love to " return the favor " by appearing on Family Guy , which eventually led to his role in this episode . Actress Adrianne Palicki and voice actor Rick Pasqualone also guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , writer Steve Callaghan , voice actor Ralph Garman , writer Mark Hentemann , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . Actors Patrick Warburton and Adam West made a few appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode contains numerous in @-@ jokes and references to other events . As the episode opens , the family sees an announcement about auditions for the game show Family Feud . Deciding to try out , the family is quickly chosen , along with the family of show writer Steve Callaghan . The segment features a re @-@ creation of the game show 's original 1976 set and rules , including host Richard Dawson 's practice of kissing the female contestants . As an answer to one of the questions , Peter supplies " the flute that Captain Picard played , first in his imagination , and then in real life , in the episode " The Inner Light " from Star Trek : The Next Generation . " Then , during the Fast Money round , when Lois was asked to name a favorite holiday , Stewie answered 9 / 11 .
When Peter is introduced to Meg , he exclaims " D 'oh ! " , to which Lois replies " No , Peter , that 's not your catchphrase " , an allusion to Homer Simpson in The Simpsons . In a further attempt to restore Peter 's memory , Lois decides to show Peter footage of their honeymoon , which is reminiscent of the Corona commercials with its scene of a bottle of beer placed between the couple , as they are both sitting on a beach . Going on to teach Peter how to drive , Lois gives him a copy of the video game Grand Theft Auto . As a result , he kills a prostitute with a baseball bat , steals her money then steals a car , in a parody of the actions the player is allowed to perform in the game itself . Peter also rediscovers " Surfin ' Bird " by The Trashmen and sings to it while dancing , annoying the family . The Griffins had been previously tormented by it in the seventh season episode " I Dream of Jesus " , which the writer of the episode , Brian Scully , also wrote . At the end of the first act , when Brian says " Oh No " , ( in place of the commercial interlude from Night Rider ) a series of white on black text is shown , in a parody of the Cartoon Network block Adult Swim . The Adult Swim broadcast also features the Animation Domination graphics package used by Fox , but replaces Fox with Adult Swim .
Paul Hogan from " Crocodile " Dundee makes an appearance when Lois is teaching Peter how to use silverware . She says " this is a knife " saying his machete is a knife , referencing a famous scene from the film .
Returning home from a night out , Peter brings home Tiffani Thiessen from Saved by the Bell , naively thinking he is allowed to have sex with her . The reference is made clear when Peter asks her if she bought a necklace using her money from the show . Tiffani also tells Peter he need not worry about her conceiving , as she is " already pregnant . " In real life , Thiessen was expecting her first child at the time . After Lois decides to leave Peter , she is shown shopping for groceries at the Quahog Market . Quagmire sneakingly approaches her from behind , saying his " giggity " catchphrase to the shark motif composed by John Williams for the 1975 film Jaws .
The title is a pun on the common phrase Big Man on Campus , but with campus changed to hippocampus , a reference to Peter 's amnesia in the episode .
= = Reception = =
The episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 1 million homes , and received a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 / 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic . In addition , it was also the second most viewed and second highest rated show on Fox 's Animation Domination lineup , losing slightly to The Simpsons , but continued its lead over both The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! in total viewership and ratings .
Reviews of the episode were negative , citing the storyline as " safe , " without any offensive jokes for the sake of being offensive . " Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the " cohesive story " as " [ succeeding ] on its simplicity , " but criticized the series for continuing to broadcast in the 4 : 3 format , as opposed to widescreen like MacFarlane 's other two shows . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club reviewed the episode more negatively , however , criticizing the writers for using " storylines as a thin spine to hang jokes on , " giving the episode a D rating . Jason Hughes of TV Squad commended the live @-@ action sequence featuring Johnson , as well as the utilization of Meg 's personality to create an awkward situation with the family . Despite the somewhat negative criticism , the episode still ended up on the most downloaded episodes list on iTunes 2010 Rewind .
Australian channel 7mate received criticism for airing the episode on 12 August 2014 , 14 hours after the suicide of Robin Williams , who features in a cutaway implying that he is overrated . A spokesperson for the channel subsequently stated " it was a coincidence " .
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= Manasa =
Manasā , also Mansa Devi , is a Hindu folk goddess of snakes , worshipped mainly in Bengal and other parts of North and northeastern India , chiefly for the prevention and cure of snakebite and also for fertility and prosperity . Manasa is the sister of Vasuki , king of Nāgas ( snakes ) and wife of sage Jagatkāru ( Jaratkāru ) . She is also known as Vishahara ( the destroyer of poison ) , Nityā ( eternal ) and Padmavati .
Her myths emphasize her bad temper and unhappiness , due to rejection by her father Shiva and her husband , and the hatred of her stepmother , Chandi ( Shiva 's wife , identified with Parvati in this context ) . In some scriptures , sage Kashyapa is considered to be her father , rather than Shiva . Manasa is depicted as kind to her devotees , but harsh to people who refused to worship her . Denied full godhead by her mixed parentage , Manasa ’ s aim was to fully establish her authority as a goddess and to acquire steadfast human devotees .
= = Origins = =
Manasa first appears in the Hindu text Atharva Veda as a snake goddess . In the Puranas , she was recognized as a daughter of sage Kashyapa and Kadru , the mother of all Nāgas . By the 14th century , Manasa was identified as the goddess of fertility and marriage rites and was assimilated into the Shaiva pantheon as a relative of Shiva . Myths glorified her by describing that she saved Shiva after he drank poison , and venerated her as the " remover of poison " . Her popularity grew and spread to Southern India , and her cult began to rival Shaivism itself . As a consequence , stories attributing Manasa 's birth to Shiva emerged and ultimately Shaivism adopted this indigenous goddess into the Brahmanical tradition of mainstream Hinduism .
= = Iconography = =
Manasa is depicted as a woman covered with snakes , sitting on a lotus or standing upon a snake . She is sheltered by the canopy of the hoods of seven cobras . Sometimes , she is depicted with a child on her lap . The child is assumed to be her son , Astika . She is often called " the one @-@ eyed goddess " and among the Hajong tribe of northeastern India she is called Kānī Dīyāʊ ( Blind Goddess ) , as one of her eyes was burnt by her stepmother Chandi .
= = Legends = =
= = = Mahabharata = = =
The Mahabharata tells the story of Manasa 's marriage . Sage Jagatkāru practiced severe austerities and had decided to abstain from marriage . Once he came across a group of men hanging from a tree upside down . These men were his ancestors , who were doomed to misery as their children had not performed their last rites . So they advised Jagatkāru to marry and have a son who could free them of those miseries by performing the ceremonies . Vasuki offered his sister Manasa 's hand to Jagatkāru . Manasa mothered a son , Astīka , who freed his ancestors . Astika also helped in saving the Nāga race from destruction when King Janamejaya decided to exterminate them by sacrificing them in his Yajna , fire offering .
= = = Puranas = = =
Puranas are the first scriptures to speak about her birth . They declare that sage Kashyapa is her father , not Shiva as described in the Mangalkavyas . Once , when serpents and reptiles had created chaos on the earth , sage Kashyapa created goddess Manasa from his mind ( mana ) . The creator god Brahma made her the presiding deity of snakes and reptiles . Manasa gained control over the earth , by the power of mantras she chanted . Manasa then propitiated the god , Shiva , who told her to please Krishna . Upon being pleased , Krishna granted her divine Siddhi powers and ritually worshipped her , making her an established goddess .
Kashyapa married Manasa to sage Jaratkaru , who agreed to marry her on the condition that he would leave her if she disobeyed him . Once , when Jaratkaru was awakened by Manasa , he became upset with her because she awakened him too late for worship , and so he deserted her . On the request of the great Hindu gods , Jaratkaru returned to Manasa and she gave birth to Astika , their son .
= = = Mangalkavyas = = =
The Mangalkavyas were devotional paeans to local deities such as Manasa , composed in Bengal between the 13th and the 18th centuries . The Manasa Mangalkavya by Bijay Gupta and Manasa Vijaya ( 1495 ) by Bipradas Pipilai trace the origin and myths of the goddess .
According to Manasa Vijaya , Manasa was born when a statue of girl that had been sculpted by Vasuki 's mother was touched by Shiva 's semen . Vasuki accepted Manasa as his sister , and granted her charge of the poison that was produced when King Prithu milked the Earth as a cow . When Shiva saw Manasa , he was sexually attracted to her , but she proved to him that he was her father . Shiva took Manasa to his home where his wife , Chandi , suspected Manasa of being Shiva 's concubine or co @-@ wife , and insulted Manasa and burnt one of her eyes , leaving Manasa half @-@ blind . Later , when Shiva was dying of poison , Manasa cured him . On one occasion , when Chandi kicked her , Manasa rendered her senseless with a glance of her poison eye . Finally , tired of quarrels between Manasa and Chandi , Shiva deserted Manasa under a tree , but created a companion for her from his tears of remorse , called Neto or Netā .
Later , the sage Jaratkaru married Manasa , but Chandi ruined Manasa 's wedding night . Chandi advised Manasa to wear snake ornaments and then threw a frog in the bridal chamber which caused the snakes to run around the chamber . As a consequence , the terrified Jaratkaru ran away from the house . After few days , he returned and Astika , their son , was born .
Accompanied by her adviser , Neto , Manasa descended to earth to obtain human devotees . She was initially mocked by the people but then Manasa forced them to worship her by raining calamity on those who denied her power . She managed to convert people from different walks of life , including the Muslim ruler Hasan , but failed to convert Chand Sadagar . Manasa wanted to become a goddess like Lakshmi or Saraswati . In order to get there she had to achieve the worship Chand Sadagar who was extremely adamant and took oath not to worship Manasa . Thus to gain his fear and insecurity Manasa one by one killed his six sons . At last Manasa conspired against two dancers of Indras Court who loved each other , Anirudha and Usha . Anirudh had to take birth as Lakhinder , Chand and Sanaka 's seventh son . Usha took birth as behula and married him . Manasa killed him but Behula floated on water for nine months with the dead body of her husband and finally brought back the lives of the seven sons and the lost prosperity of Chand . At last , he yielded by offering a flower to the goddess with his left hand without even looking at her . This gesture made Manasa so happy that she resurrected all of Chand 's sons and restored his fame and fortunes . The Mangal kavyas say that after this , the worship of Manasa was popular forever more .
Manasa Mangalkavya attributes Manasa 's difficulty in attracting devotees to an unjust curse she gave to Chand in his previous life . Chand then retaliated with a counter @-@ curse that worshipping her would not be popular on earth unless he worshipped her also .
In many renditions of the myth , Manasa is depicted as being quite dependent on Neta ( traditionally imagined as a washerwoman ) for ideas and moral support . In fact , of the two , Manasa is often the stupider one - a curious instance of anthropomorphism .
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy and Sister Nivedita say , " [ The ] legend of [ Chand Sadagar and ] Manasā Devī , [ ... ] who must be as old as the Mykenean stratum in Asiatic society , reflects the conflict between the religion of Shiva and that of female local deities in Bengal . Afterwards Manasā or Padmā was recognized as a form of Shakti , [ ... ] and her worship accepted by Shaivas . She is a phase of the mother @-@ divinity who for so many worshippers is nearer and dearer than the far @-@ off and impersonal Shiva ... " .
= = Worship = =
Generally , Manasa is worshipped without an image . A branch of a tree , an earthen pot or an earthen snake image is worshipped as the goddess , though images of Manasa are worshipped too . She is worshipped for protection from and cure of snake bites and infectious diseases like smallpox and chicken pox .
The cult of Manasa is most widespread in Bengal , where she is ritually worshipped in temples . The goddess is widely worshipped in the rainy season , when the snakes are most active . Manasa is also a very important fertility deity , especially among the lower castes , and her blessings are invoked during marriage or for childlessness . She is usually worshipped and mentioned along with Neto , who is called Neta , Netidhopani , Netalasundori , etc. in various parts of Bengal .
In North Bengal , among the Rajbanshis , Manasa ( called Bishohora , Bishohori or Padmavati ) is one of the most important goddesses , and her thaan ( shrine ) may be found in the courtyard of almost every agrarian household . Among the lower @-@ caste Hindus of East Bengal ( present @-@ day Bangladesh ) too , she is worshipped with great pomp .
Manasa is an especially important deity in Bengal for the mercantile castes . This is because Chando of the Manasamangal was the first to initiate her worship , and Behula , the heroine of the Manasamangal was a daughter of the Saha clan ( a powerful trading community ) .
Manasa is also worshipped extensively in Assam , and a kind of Oja @-@ Pali ( musical folk theatre ) is dedicated entirely to her myth .
Manasa is ceremonially worshipped on Nag Panchami - a festival of snake worship in the Hindu month of Shravan ( July – August ) . Bengali women observe a fast ( vrata ) on this day and offer milk at snake holes .
= = Notable temples = =
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= Mega Mendoeng =
Mega Mendoeng ( [ məˈga mənˈdʊŋ ] ; Perfected Spelling : Mega Mendung ) is a black @-@ and @-@ white drama film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) directed by Boen Kin Nam and produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films . Starring Rd Soekarno , Oedjang , Boen Sofiati , and Soehaena , it follows two young lovers who are separated by lies but ultimately reunite at the village of Mega Mendoeng in Bogor . This film , Union 's seventh and final production , was shot concurrently with Soeara Berbisa and completed over a period of three months . It was released in early 1942 and screened as late as July of that year , but may now be lost .
= = Plot = =
Winanta 's father , Raden Koesoema , tells him that he should divorce his wife , Retnaningsih , to marry his cousin Fatimah , on threat of being disowned . To spare her husband from this fate , Retnaningsih decides to abandon him and moves from Bandung to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , where she lives a life of poverty . Unknown to her , this decision is used by Raden Koesoema as proof of her that she was not trustworthy . Winanta falls into despair , but eventually marries Fatimah .
Eighteen years later , Winanta and Fatimah have had a daughter named Koestini ( Boen Sofiati ) , who is studying in Batavia . Educated , graceful , and beautiful , she is popular with young men but only returns the affections of Soedjono ( Rd Soekarno ) , a young assistant pharmacist who is polite and refined . One of her spurned suitors , Soekatma , decides to ruin their relationship by telling Winanta that Koestini has spent all of her time chasing boys rather than studying . Believing these lies , Winanta recalls Koestini to Bandung .
Koestini falls ill , and her death is reported . Driven mad by the news , Soedjono begins wandering aimlessly . Ultimately , as if guided by some unseen force , he discovers Koestini alive in a village called Mega Mendoeng , near Bogor . This discovery brings him back to his senses , and the two are able to live happily together .
= = Production = =
Mega Mendoeng was directed by Boen Kin Nam for Union Films , a production house based out of Batavia ( now Jakarta ) which was run by Tjoa Ma Tjoen and financed by Ang Hock Liem . A sound technician by training , Mega Mendoeng was Boen 's only full directorial credit . Liem served as producer . The film was announced in September 1941 and produced concurrently with Soeara Berbisa ( Venomous Voice ) , a film on which Boen acted as assistant director . Mega Mendoeng was completed by December 1941 , after Soeara Berbisa .
The black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Rd Soekarno , Oedjang , Boen Sofiati , and Soehaena ; it also featured Ratna Djoewita , Ratnasih , Gamari Fadjar , and Moesa . Oedjang had acted for Union since its first film , Kedok Ketawa ( The Laughing Mask ; 1940 ) , while Soekarno and Soehaena had made their debuts in Soeara Berbisa . Sofiati , a stage actress who operated her own troupe , was a newcomer to cinema . This cast was of various socio @-@ economic backgrounds , including noblemen and stage actors . Although Union stated that the film was made along realist lines and aimed at educated viewers , owing to the inclusion of stage actors – people who usually entertained lower class audiences – the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran suggests that this was untrue .
= = Release and legacy = =
Mega Mendoeng was released in early 1942 , the seventh and final film completed by Union . With a Japanese invasion looming , the February 1942 edition of the film magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film reported that several studios would move away from the colonial capital of Batavia or go on a production hiatus . Union , though already beginning production of a film set in the Majapahit era titled Damar Woelan , was forced to close shop ; it never reopened . Soekarno returned to the film industry in the 1950s and was active until the 1970s , mostly credited as Rendra Karno .
Mega Mendoeng was screened as late as July 1942 , but may now be lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , the American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , J.B. Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Taylor v. Beckham =
Taylor v. Beckham , 178 U.S. 548 ( 1900 ) , was a case heard before the Supreme Court of the United States on April 30 and May 1 , 1900 , to decide the outcome of the disputed Kentucky gubernatorial election of 1899 . The litigants were Republican gubernatorial candidate William S. Taylor and Democratic lieutenant gubernatorial candidate J. C. W. Beckham . In the November 7 , 1899 , election , Taylor received 193 @,@ 714 votes to Democrat William Goebel 's 191 @,@ 331 . This result was certified by a 2 – 1 decision of the state 's Board of Elections . Goebel challenged the election results on the basis of alleged voting irregularities , and the Democrat @-@ controlled Kentucky General Assembly formed a committee to investigate Goebel 's claims . Goebel was shot on January 30 , 1900 , one day before the General Assembly approved the committee 's report declaring enough Taylor votes invalid to swing the election to Goebel . As he lay dying of his wounds , Goebel was sworn into office on January 31 , 1900 . He died on February 3 , 1900 , and Beckham ascended to the governorship .
Claiming the General Assembly 's decision was invalid , Taylor sued to prevent Beckham from exercising the authority of the governor 's office . Beckham countersued Taylor for possession of the state capitol and governor 's mansion . The suits were consolidated and heard in Jefferson County circuit court , which claimed it had no authority to interfere with the method of deciding contested elections prescribed by the state constitution , an outcome that favored Beckham . The Kentucky Court of Appeals upheld the circuit court 's decision on appeal and rejected Taylor 's claim that he had been deprived of property without due process by stating that an elective office was not property and thus not protected by the Fourteenth Amendment .
The injection of Taylor 's claim under the Fourteenth Amendment gave him grounds to appeal the decision to the U.S. Supreme Court . In a majority opinion delivered by Chief Justice Melville Fuller , the Supreme Court also rejected Taylor 's claim to loss of property without due process and thus refused to intervene on Taylor 's behalf , claiming that no federal issues were in question and the court lacked jurisdiction . Justices Gray , White , Shiras , and Peckham concurred with the majority opinion . Justice Joseph McKenna concurred with the decision to dismiss , but expressed reservations about the determination that an elected office was not property . Justice David J. Brewer , joined by Justice Henry B. Brown , contended that the Supreme Court did have jurisdiction , but concurred with the result in favor of Beckham . Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan authored the lone dissent from the majority opinion , claiming that the court did have jurisdiction and should have found in favor of Taylor based on his claim of loss of property without due process . He further argued that elective office fell under the definition of " liberty " as used in the Fourteenth Amendment and was protected by due process .
= = Background = =
= = = History = = =
In 1898 , the Kentucky General Assembly enacted a law which created a Board of Election Commissioners , appointed by the General Assembly , who were responsible for choosing election commissioners in all of Kentucky 's counties . The Board was empowered to examine election returns and certify the results . The power to decide the outcome of disputed elections remained with the General Assembly under Section 153 of the state constitution . The law was commonly referred to as the Goebel Election Law , a reference to its sponsor , President Pro Tempore of the Kentucky Senate William Goebel . Because the General Assembly was heavily Democratic and Goebel was considered a likely Democratic aspirant for the governorship in the 1899 election , the law was attacked as blatantly partisan and self @-@ serving . Republicans organized a test case against the law , but the Kentucky Court of Appeals upheld it as constitutional .
Goebel secured the Democratic nomination for governor at a contentious nominating convention . Despite the nominations of two minor party candidates – including that of former governor John Y. Brown by a dissident faction of Democrats – the race centered on Goebel and his Republican opponent , Attorney General William S. Taylor . The results of the election were too close to call for several days . Before the official results could be announced , charges of voting irregularities began . In Nelson County , 1 @,@ 200 ballots listed the Republican candidate as " W. P. Taylor " instead of " W. S. Taylor " ; Democrats claimed these votes should be invalidated . In Knox and Johnson counties , voters complained of " thin tissue ballots " that allowed the voter 's choices to be seen through them . In the city of Louisville , Democrats charged that the militia had intimidated voters there and that the entire city 's vote should be invalidated .
When the official tally was announced , Taylor had won by a vote of 193 @,@ 714 to 191 @,@ 331 . Though the Board of Elections was thought to be controlled by Goebel allies , it voted 2 – 1 to certify the announced vote tally . The Board 's majority opinion claimed that they did not have any judicial power and were thus unable to hear proof or swear witnesses . Taylor was inaugurated on December 12 , 1899 . Goebel announced his decision to contest the Board 's decision to the General Assembly . The Assembly appointed a committee to investigate the allegations contained in the challenges . The members of the committee were drawn at random , though the drawing was likely rigged – only one Republican joined ten Democrats on the committee . ( Chance dictated that the committee should have contained four or five Republicans . ) Among the rules the General Assembly adopted for the contest committee were : that the committee report at the pleasure of the General Assembly , that debate be limited once the findings were presented , and that the report be voted on in a joint session of the Assembly . The rules further provided that the speaker of the House preside over the joint session instead of the lieutenant governor , as was customary . The Republican minority fought the provisions , but the Democratic majority passed them despite the opposition .
Republicans around the state expected the committee to recommend disqualification of enough ballots to make Goebel governor . Armed men from heavily Republican eastern Kentucky filled the capital . On the morning of January 30 , 1900 , as Goebel and two friends walked toward the capitol building , shots were fired , and Goebel fell wounded . After being denied entrance to the state capitol by armed men , the contest committee met in Frankfort 's city hall and , by a strict party @-@ line vote , adopted a majority report that claimed Goebel and Beckham had received the most legitimate votes and should be installed in their respective offices . When Democratic legislators attempted to convene to approve the committee 's report , they found the doors to the state capitol and other public locations in Frankfort blocked by armed citizens . On January 31 , 1900 , they convened secretly in a Frankfort hotel , with no Republicans present , and voted to certify the findings of the contest committee , invalidating enough votes to make Goebel governor . Still lying on his sick bed , Goebel took the oath of office .
Goebel died of his wounds on February 3 , 1900 . Leaders from both parties drafted an agreement whereby Taylor and his Lieutenant Governor , John Marshall , would step down from their respective offices , allowing Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham , to assume the governorship ; in exchange , Taylor and Marshall would receive immunity from prosecution in any actions they may have taken with regard to Goebel 's assassination . The militia would withdraw from Frankfort , and the Goebel Election Law would be repealed and replaced with a fairer election law . Despite his allies ' insistence , Taylor refused to sign the agreement .
= = = Lower court decisions = = =
As negotiations for a peaceful resolution of the elections for governor and lieutenant governor were ongoing , the Republican candidates for the state 's minor offices filed suit in federal court in Cincinnati , Ohio , to prevent their removal from office . The case could have been filed in the federal court at Louisville , Kentucky , but Judge Walter Evans asked to be excused from adjudicating the case . The Republican officers , represented by ex @-@ Governor William O 'Connell Bradley and future governor Augustus E. Willson among others , argued that the Goebel Election Law deprived citizens of their right to vote . The right to vote , they claimed , was inherent in the Fourteenth Amendment 's guarantee of " liberty " , and could not be taken from any citizen without due process .
The case was argued before Judge ( and later President ) William Howard Taft , who held that the federal court could not prevent the removal of officers by injunction . He advised the Republicans to seek remedy quo warranto in the state courts . Taft further opined that , should any federal question be raised in such proceedings , the officers could seek remedy in a federal court on appeal . The Republicans were encouraged by Taft 's decision , which cleared the way for an appeal all the way to the federal Supreme Court if a federal question could be raised .
The Republican minor officeholders returned to the state courts with their case . Franklin County circuit court justice James E. Cantrill ruled against them , and the Kentucky Court of Appeals , then the state 's court of last resort , sustained Cantrill 's ruling by a vote of 4 – 3 . Republican Attorney General Clifton J. Pratt continued with legal challenges and finally was allowed to serve out his term . Though Cantrill 's decision was based on the invalidation of Louisville 's vote and the votes of four counties in eastern Kentucky , none of the legislators from those areas were unseated .
Taft 's ruling had no bearing on the cases of Governor Taylor and Lieutenant Governor Marshall except to spell out a means for them to take their cases to the federal courts , if necessary . On the same day that Taft 's ruling was issued , Taylor filed suit in Jefferson County circuit court against Beckham and Adjutant General John Breckinridge Castleman to prevent them from exercising any authority due the offices they claimed . Unaware of Taylor 's suit , Beckham filed suit against Taylor for possession of the capitol and executive building in Franklin County circuit court – a court believed to be favorable to the Democratic cause . Marshall also filed suit against Beckham and state senator L. H. Carter to prevent them from exercising any authority in the state senate , where the lieutenant governor was the presiding officer .
Republicans claimed that Taylor 's suit , by virtue of having been filed two hours before Beckham 's , gave the case precedence in Louisville . By mutual consent , the parties consolidated the suits , which were heard before Judge Emmet Field in Jefferson County circuit court . Both sides knew that Field 's decision , whatever it might be , would be appealed , but both agreed to abide by the outcome of the final court 's decision . The case was heard on March 1 and 2 , 1900 . Taylor 's attorney 's contended that the General Assembly had acted in a quasi @-@ judicial manner , violating the principle of separation of powers . Further , because the contest committee 's report did not specify how many votes were invalid , Republicans argued that all 150 @,@ 000 votes cast in the contested counties had been invalidated by the General Assembly 's vote , and consequently , the voters of those counties had been illegally disenfranchised . The most the Assembly should have been able to do , they claimed , was to invalidate the entire election . Finally , they contended that the alleged illegal activities of the General Assembly had deprived Taylor and Marshall of their property rights – the " property " in question being the offices they claimed – and their liberty to hold an elected office . Attorneys for Beckham contended that legislative actions historically had not been subject to judicial review , and indeed were not subject to such under any provision of the state constitution .
On March 10 , 1900 , Field sided with the Democrats . In his ruling , he opined that legislative actions " must be taken as absolute " and that the court did not have the authority to circumvent the legislative record . Republicans appealed the decision to the Kentucky Court of Appeals . In their appeal , they were careful to raise a federal issue . If Judge Field 's ruling was correct , and the Board of Elections , the General Assembly , or both had the right under the state constitution to an absolute review of all elections , then the Assembly had been given absolute arbitrary power over elections , in conflict with the federal constitution .
On April 6 , 1900 , the Court of Appeals upheld Judge Field 's decision by a vote of 6 – 1 . The majority opinion held that an elected office is not property and thus not subject to the protections guaranteed in the Fourteenth Amendment . As a creation of the Kentucky Constitution , the court held , any elective office is conferred and held only subject to the provisions of that constitution . This put the matter beyond the reach of any judicial review , according to the court .
The four Democratic judges concurred on the majority opinion . Two Republican judges , in a separate opinion , concurred with the majority opinion , but declared that Taylor and Marshall had been done an irreparable injustice . The lone dissent , authored by the court 's third Republican , held that the contest board had acted outside its legal authority . Republicans turned to the Supreme Court of the United States as their final option .
= = Supreme Court = =
Louisville attorney Helm Bruce opened the Republicans ' case before the Supreme Court on April 1 , 1900 . He maintained that , after Taylor 's election had been certified by the Board of Elections , he was legally the governor of Kentucky , and the attempt by the legislature to oust him from office amounted to an arbitrary and despotic use of power , not a due process , as the federal constitution required . In addressing the complaints upon which the dismissal of ballots was justified – namely , the intimidation of voters in Jefferson County by the state militia and the use of " thin ballots " in forty Kentucky counties – Bruce maintained that even if the allegations were true , both were the fault of the state , not Taylor and Marshall , and were not sufficient grounds upon which to deny them their right to the offices they claimed .
Bruce was followed by Lawrence N. Maxwell , counsel for Beckham . Maxwell reiterated that the General Assembly had acted within its enumerated powers under the state constitution in deciding the outcome of the disputed election . He claimed that the decision of the state court of appeals made it clear that Taylor had not been legally elected governor , and therefore never possessed the property he was now claiming had been taken from him without due process . Maxwell further asserted that this disposed of any federal questions with regard to the case , and that the Supreme Court could claim no jurisdiction . The decision of the state court of appeals should be allowed to stand , he concluded . Lewis McQuown further argued on behalf of Beckham that , even if Taylor 's claim to the governorship were legitimate , the investigation and decision by the General Assembly 's contest committee represented sufficient due process . He acknowledged that the Goebel Election Law 's provision that the legislature be the arbiter of any contested gubernatorial election differed little if at all from provisions in as many as twenty other states . If the Goebel Election Law was constitutional , as it had before been declared , then the Supreme Court had no jurisdiction regarding how it had been administered .
When Maxwell concluded his argument , ex @-@ Governor Bradley spoke on Taylor 's behalf . After reiterating Taylor 's legal claim to the office of governor , he answered the question of jurisdiction by citing Thayer v. Boyd , a similar case in which the court had assumed jurisdiction . He further quoted authorities who opined that an elected office was property , using this to contend that Taylor 's rights under the Fourteenth Amendment had been violated , thus giving the court jurisdiction . Also , Bradley asserted , the election of some members of the Assembly 's contest committee would hinge on the decision of that very committee . At least one member of the committee was known to have wagered on the election 's outcome . These facts should have nullified the decision of the committee and the Assembly on the grounds that it had left some members as judges of their own cases . Finally , Bradley cited irregularities in the proceedings of the contest committee , including insufficient time given for the review of testimony provided in written form by Taylor and Marshall 's legal representation . Following Bradley 's argument , the court recessed until May 14 , 1900 .
= = = Opinion of the Court = = =
Chief Justice Melville Fuller delivered the opinion of the court on May 21 , 1900 . This opinion held that there were no federal issues in question in the case , and that the court lacked jurisdiction . The opinion affirmed the state court of appeals ' assertion that an elective office was not property . Justices Gray , White , Shiras , and Peckham concurred with the majority opinion .
In his 1910 book , The Constitutional Law of the United States , Westel W. Willoughby noted that the court 's ruling that an elective office was not property was at odds with previous decisions in which it had assumed jurisdiction in cases between two contestants for an office to determine if due process was granted . By assuming jurisdiction in these cases , Willoughby claimed , the court had given elective offices standing as property . Accordingly , Justice Joseph McKenna issued a separate concurring opinion in which he stated : " I agree fully with those decisions which are referred to [ in the majority opinion ] , and which hold that as between the State and the office holder there is no contract right either to the term of office or to the amount of salary , and that the legislature may , if not restrained by constitutional provisions , abolish the office or reduce the salary . But when the office is not disturbed , when the salary is not changed , and when , under the Constitution of the State , neither can be by the legislature , and the question is simply whether one shall be deprived of that office and its salary , and both given to another , a different question is presented , and in such a case to hold that the incumbent has no property in the office , with its accompanying salary , does not commend itself to my judgment . "
= = = Dissent of Justice Brewer = = =
Justice David J. Brewer issued a dissent stating that he believed that due process had been observed and that the majority opinion should have affirmed the lower court rulings rather than dismissing the case . In his opinion , Brewer stated : " [ A ] s I understand the law , this court has jurisdiction to review a judgment of the highest court of a State ousting one from his office and giving it to another , and a right to inquire whether that judgment is right or wrong in respect to any federal question such as due process of law , I think the writ of error should not be dismissed , but that the judgment of the Court of Appeals of Kentucky should be affirmed . " Justice Henry B. Brown concurred with Brewer .
= = = Dissent of Justice Harlan = = =
The only dissent came from Kentuckian John Marshall Harlan . Harlan opined that not only did the court have jurisdiction , it should have sustained the writ of error on the grounds that the General Assembly 's actions had deprived Taylor and Marshall of property without due process , in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment . Going beyond the claim that an elective office is property , Harlan wrote that the right to hold office fell within the definition of " liberty " as used in the Fourteenth Amendment . Justifying this claim , Harlan wrote : " What more directly involves the liberty of the citizen than to be able to enter upon the discharge of the duties of an office to which he has been lawfully elected by his fellow citizens ? "
Whereas the majority opinion wholly ignored the proceedings of the General Assembly as irrelevant ( the court lacking jurisdiction ) and Brewer and Brown affirmed them , Harlan excoriated the legislature in his dissent . " Looking into the record before us , I find such action taken by the body claiming to be organized as the lawful legislature of Kentucky as was discreditable in the last degree and unworthy of the free people whom it professed to represent . ... Those who composed that body seemed to have shut their eyes against the proof for fear that it would compel them to respect the popular will as expressed at the polls . " He also expressed disbelief at the majority opinion : " [ T ] he overturning of the public will , as expressed at the ballot box , without evidence or against evidence , in order to accomplish partisan ends , is a crime against free government , and deserves the execration of all lovers of liberty . ... I cannot believe that the judiciary is helpless in the presence of such a crime . "
= = Subsequent developments = =
Taylor v. Beckham established as a judicial principle that public offices are mere agencies or trusts , and not property protected by the Fourteenth Amendment . The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 2005 stated that the Supreme Court subsequently had adopted a more expansive approach to identifying " property " within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment , but that it is the Supreme Court 's prerogative alone to overrule one of its precedents .
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= Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts =
" Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " is the second episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 2 , 2011 . The episode was the first to feature Superintendent Chalmers as the central character and Chalmers ' flashbacks references the films The Breakfast Club and Fight Club . In the episode , Principal Skinner challenges Superintendent Chalmers to take over Bart 's education after one of his pranks . Chalmers accepts and starts teaching Bart about Theodore Roosevelt and manliness . After he takes Bart and his friends on an unauthorized field trip which results in one of the children breaking an arm , Chalmers is fired . Bart and his friends then take over the school in an effort to save his job .
The episode was written by Tim Long , directed by Steven Dean Moore , and features the voice of Theodore Roosevelt through archive recordings . The opening sequence was guest directed by Canadian animator John Kricfalusi , who previously created the animated television show , The Ren & Stimpy Show . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 19 million people . The show overall received positive reviews for the story . Special praise was given to the guest directed opening sequence by Kricfalusi .
= = Plot = =
Springfield Elementary School is hosting a fundraiser auction and invites all the families with children in their classes , including the Simpson family . Every item in the auction is sold to an English widow named Edith Knickertwist , who is bidding over the phone . When the auction is over , Bart reveals that he was the real Mrs. Knickertwist and that there is no money for the school . Frustrated over Bart 's latest prank and pressured by his supervisor Superintendent Chalmers , Principal Skinner challenges Chalmers to take over Bart 's education . Chalmers accepts and immediately gives Bart his own lesson plan , which primarily consists of former U.S. president Theodore Roosevelt . He makes Bart interested in the subject by talking about Roosevelt 's heroic and rebellious nature . Classmates Milhouse , Nelson , Jimbo , Kearney and Dolph soon join Bart in his education .
With the success of his lessons , Chalmers plans to take them all on a field trip to Springfield Forest , in which Roosevelt left one of his spectacles . The field trip does not go well , however , as Nelson breaks his arm when he tries to reach for the spectacles . Since it was an unauthorized field trip , Nelson 's mother threatens to sue the school for medical expenses , which leads to Chalmers getting fired . In order to save Chalmers ' job , Bart and his friends , who now go by the name " The Brotherhood of the Spectacles " , take over the school in a hostage situation and stand up for the teacher who made a meaningful impact to them . They lock all of the teachers out of the school and demand that Chalmers get reinstated . A SWAT team prepares to storm the school , before Chalmers walks up to convince Bart to stop . Luckily , Chief Wiggum accidentally drops his gun , knee @-@ capping the school representative State Comptroller Atkins , who thereafter agrees to reinstate Chalmers because they can recover the money lost in the previous lawsuit with a new lawsuit against the police department .
= = Production = =
" Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " was written by Tim Long and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The episode features former American President Theodore Roosevelt with the use of archival audio recordings . The use of Roosevelt 's voice was first announced at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California , on July 23 , 2011 . Showrunner Al Jean revealed to the press that " we [ the staff ] have actual audio of Roosevelt ( taken from a speech circa 1918 ) in the show . I thought , ' Finally ! We can put a president in the show . ' And a good one too . We 're going to give him a little credit at the end . "
Even though Superintendent Chalmers was first introduced in the season four episode " Whacking Day " , the character had never been a central part to an episode . This episode marks the first time in which the entire episode follows Chalmers . In Chalmers ' flashback from his teaching days , the scene looks like the library of Shermer High School from the film The Breakfast Club from 1985 . The students however refer to the club as Fight Club .
= = = Opening sequence = = =
Canadian animator and creator of The Ren & Stimpy Show , John Kricfalusi , guest animated the couch gag for the episode . This was the second time The Simpsons had chosen a guest director for its opening sequence , following the previous season 's episode " MoneyBART " , which was guest directed by British graffiti artist and political activist Banksy . Previously , Kricfalusi had criticized The Simpsons staff in the show 's early years by saying that " the show succeeded despite the writing " and similarly derogatory comments . The producers responded with the fourth season episode " The Front " ( 1993 ) , in which The Ren & Stimpy Show is nominated for a cartoon award . During the award ceremony , the clip from the nominated episode is merely a black screen with the text " Clip not done yet " , a comment on the slow production time of the show . The show was mentioned again in the season six episode " Another Simpsons Clip Show " ( 1994 ) , when Lisa claims that Ren & Stimpy recycles animation to make new episodes , while referencing Itchy & Scratchy 's habit of doing the same . Despite this , Kricfalusi changed his tone in an interview with Aaron Simpson in 2007 and claimed that The Simpsons made it easier to do more edgy work : " Well it started with Bakshi ’ s Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures and Pee Wee Herman . Those were kid shows , but with layers of perversion in them . Then The Simpsons came along and did edgy material in prime time cartoons . "
After the positive response to the opening sequence by Banksy , creator Matt Groening and Jean came to Kricfalusi and asked him if he could do something similar . Originally , they only wanted him to do the storyboards and then let their regular crew animate it , but Kricfalusi insisted on doing the animation himself , explaining that " If we had done it that way , no one would even have known that I had anything to do with it because it would have ended up on model and all pose to pose " . On The Simpsons , the animators draw key poses and then let tweeners interpolate between those poses . The interpolation however , is a straight a to b animation . That way the animation ends up having the characters just going from pose to pose . Kricfalusi explains that on The Simpsons he " wanted to try moving the characters in crazy fun ways , not just looking funny each time they come to a stop " , and further elaborated " that the way things happened was even more important than what was happening in my work . You can ’ t write visual performance . You have to actually draw it . "
He showed Groening and Jean his Adult Swim shorts and Groening responded by giving him free hands to do the 35 @-@ second @-@ long segment . Groening told him to break all The Simpsons rules , but Kricfalusi explains that he " tried not to break any rules in the characters ’ personalities , just in the execution of the visuals . I didn ’ t follow any models — not even my own " . The more rules he broke , the more pleased Groening and Jean were with the result . Contrary to Banksy , who lives a life in secrecy , Kricfalusi was involved in every detail and even oversaw the dubbing of the final soundtrack . While Kricfalusi animated the 2D parts , he had John Kedzie to help him with the computer graphics and Sarah Harkey and Tommy Tanner to do the assistant animation .
In an interview by Neil Bennett from Digital Arts Magazine , Kricfalusi revealed that he would have taken a different approach to the animation if he were to animate the entire episode . Primarily , the animation would be slower paced than it was in the 35 @-@ second @-@ long segment . The couch gag was done at a faster pace so he was able to include all of his ideas . Kricfalusi explains that " [ if I did a whole episode ] , I would definitely keep on experimenting with the way they move and the acting . I 'm sure I would do of my trademark long scenes of two characters interacting with each other without a cut . I would [ also ] want to do more stuff with Marge . I loved animating her and was inspired by the way the Fleischers animated Olive Oyl . I couldn 't animate a whole half hour myself , so I would hire other animators ( and designers , painters , etc . ) with strong styles and cast them according to which parts of the story would best take advantage of their individual talent . "
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 2 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately 6 @.@ 19 million people during this broadcast . The show received a 3 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , which was a 23 % drop from the season premiere episode , and an eight percent audience share . The Simpsons became the second highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing with a higher rating than The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! , but a lower rating than Family Guy . These three other animated shows were part of a crossover event , called Night of the Hurricane , in which they shared the same storyline . For the week of September 26 – October 2 , 2011 , " Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " tied for 29th place in the ratings among all network prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Since airing , " Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " has been well received by television critics . Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club gave this episode a " B " rating and commented that " The Simpsons episodes that strive to have a little heart without going overboard are generally going to work better than the random @-@ gag episodes , at least at this point in the storied history of The Simpsons , and ' Bart Stops To Smell The Roosevelts ' has enough wee little heart to see this episode through " , but further wrote that " there were a number of jokes that didn 't work , Milhouse 's final scene in particular , but the episode had a steady stream of gags to push through the lean times . And that 's all we can ask for . " Ology 's Josh Harrison was also positive and gave the episode a rating of seven out of ten , while commenting that he " thought this was a definite downgrade from the season premiere in terms of sheer comedic value , but the sincerity of Bart 's educational experience , combined with the enthusiasm of his mad quest for justice , definitely made this one a winner . "
The couch gag for the episode was critically acclaimed by television critics . Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew called the opening revolutionary and explained that " in 35 short and sweet seconds , he liberates the animation of The Simpsons from years of graphic banality . " He continued : " The visual look of the show , which has been so carefully controlled by its producers , becomes a giddy and unrestrained playground for graphic play , and the balance of creative authority is shifted from the writers ' room to the animators in one fell swoop . " When comparing the segment to Banksy 's , Amidi concluded that it is " in fact , far more subversive because he focuses almost exclusively on making a pictorial statement , relegating the show 's dominant literary elements to the back seat . " Similarly , Television Blend 's Katey Rich wrote that she appreciates " The Simpsons always being willing to push the envelope in different ways " , but admitted that it would take her " some time to get the gangly @-@ legged Marge Simpson and the leering Homer Simpson out of [ her ] brain . "
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= SMS Hindenburg =
SMS Hindenburg was a battlecruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the third ship of the Derfflinger class , built to a slightly modified design . She carried the same battery of eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , but in improved turrets that allowed them to fire further . The ship was also slightly larger and faster than her two sister ships . She was named in honor of Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , the victor of the Battle of Tannenberg and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes , as well as Supreme Commander of the German armies from 1916 . The ship was the last capital ship of any type built by the German navy during World War I.
Hindenburg was commissioned late in the war and as a result had a brief service career . The ship took part in a handful of short fleet operations as the flagship of the I Scouting Group in 1917 – 18 , though saw no major action . The proposed final sortie of the fleet in the last weeks of the war came to nothing when the crews of the capital ships mutinied . Hindenburg was subsequently interned with the rest of the German battlecruisers at Scapa Flow in November 1918 . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered the ships be scuttled on 21 June 1919 . Hindenburg was the last of the ships to sink . She was raised in 1930 and broken up for scrap over the following two years .
= = Design = =
Hindenburg 's primary armament was eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns in four twin turrets , the same as in her two sisters . However , the gun turrets were Drh LC / 1913 mounts , which were an improved version the Drh LC / 1912 type mounts on Derfflinger and Lützow — the gun houses on Hindenburg allowed gun elevation to 16 ° , as opposed to 13 @.@ 5 ° in the earlier model . This gave the guns mounted in the Drh LC / 1913 turrets an advantage of some 2 @,@ 000 m ( 2 @,@ 200 yd ) over those in the older turret . Like her sister ship , the Lützow , she was armed with fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 guns and four 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) torpedo tubes instead of the standard twelve 15 cm guns and four 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) tubes mounted on Derfflinger . While 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) longer and 300 metric tons ( 300 long tons ; 330 short tons ) heavier than her sisters , Hindenburg was also faster , capable of steaming at 26 @.@ 6 knots ( 49 @.@ 3 km / h ; 30 @.@ 6 mph ) during trials , compared with 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) for Derfflinger .
= = Service history = =
Built by the Kaiserliche Werft at their shipyard in Wilhelmshaven , Hindenburg was the third and final ship of her class ; her sister ships were Derfflinger and Lützow . Designed as a replacement for the elderly protected cruiser Hertha , Hindenburg 's keel was laid down on 30 June 1913 . She was launched on 1 August 1915 , but due to shifting construction priorities in time of war , she was not completed until 10 May 1917 , by which time it was too late for her to see any significant operations in World War I. At the time , British naval intelligence believed the ship was commissioned so late because she had had parts removed to repair Derfflinger after the battle of Jutland in June 1916 . In actuality , construction proceeded slowly because of labor shortages .
SMS Hindenburg was the last battlecruiser completed for the Imperial German Navy , and as such had a very short career . She was fully operational by 20 October 1917 , but this was too late to see any major operation in World War I. On 17 November Hindenburg and Moltke , along with the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group , were acting as distant support for German minesweepers off the German coast when the minesweepers were attacked by British warships . The British raiders included the new battlecruisers Repulse , Courageous , and Glorious . However , the raid was brief ; by the time Hindenburg and Moltke arrived on the scene , the British ships had broken off the attack and withdrawn . On 23 November , Hindenburg replaced Seydlitz as flagship of the I Scouting Group .
= = = Advance of 23 April 1918 = = =
In late 1917 , light forces of the High Seas Fleet began interdicting British convoys to Norway . On 17 October the light cruisers Brummer and Bremse intercepted one of the convoys , sinking nine of the twelve cargo ships and the two escorting destroyers — Mary Rose and Strongbow — before turning back to Germany . On 12 December , four German destroyers ambushed a second British convoy of five cargo vessels and two British destroyers . All five transports were sunk , as was one of the destroyers . Following these two raids , Admiral David Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , detached battleships from the battle fleet to protect the convoys . The German navy was now presented with an opportunity for which it had been waiting the entire war : a portion of the numerically stronger Grand Fleet was separated and could be isolated and destroyed . Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper planned the operation : the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group , along with light cruisers and destroyers , would attack one of the large convoys , while the rest of the High Seas Fleet would stand by , ready to attack the British dreadnought battleship squadron .
At 05 : 00 on 23 April 1918 , the German fleet , with Hindenburg in the lead , departed from the Schillig roadstead . Hipper ordered wireless transmissions be kept to a minimum , to prevent British intelligence from receiving radio intercepts . At 06 : 10 the German battlecruisers had reached a position approximately 60 kilometers southwest of Bergen , when Moltke lost her inner starboard propeller . Without resistance from the water , the propeller @-@ less shaft began spinning faster and faster , until one of the engine gears flew apart . Shrapnel from the broken machinery damaged several boilers and tore a hole in the hull ; the ship was dead in the water . The ship 's crew effected temporary repairs , which allowed the ship to steam at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) . However , it was decided to take the ship under tow by the battleship Oldenburg . Despite this setback , Hipper continued northward . By 14 : 00 , Hipper 's force had crossed the convoy route several times but had found nothing . At 14 : 10 , Hipper turned his ships southward . By 18 : 37 , the German fleet had made it back to the defensive minefields surrounding their bases . It was later discovered that the convoy had left port a day later than expected by the German planning staff .
= = = Later planned operations = = =
On 11 August 1918 , Hipper was promoted to Admiral and given command of the entire High Seas Fleet . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter replaced Hipper as the commander of the I Scouting Group ; he raised his flag on Hindenburg the following day .
Hindenburg was to have taken part in what would have amounted to the " death ride " of the High Seas Fleet shortly before the end of World War I. The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Admiral Reinhard Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to achieve a better bargaining position for Germany whatever the cost to the fleet . The plan involved two simultaneous attacks by light cruisers and destroyers , one on Flanders and another on shipping in the Thames estuary ; Hindenburg and the other four battlecruisers were to support the Thames attack . After both strikes , the fleet was to concentrate off the Dutch coast , where it would meet the Grand Fleet in battle . While the fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , war @-@ weary sailors began deserting en masse . As Von der Tann and Derfflinger passed through the locks that separated Wilhelmshaven 's inner harbor and roadstead , some 300 men from both ships climbed over the side and disappeared ashore .
On 24 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on several battleships mutinied ; three ships from the III Squadron refused to weigh anchors , and acts of sabotage were committed on board the battleships Thüringen and Helgoland . In the face of open rebellion , the order to sail was rescinded and the planned operation was abandoned . In an attempt to suppress the mutiny , the High Seas Fleet squadrons were dispersed .
= = = Fate = = =
Under the terms of the Armistice between Germany and the Allies that ended World War I , the majority of the German fleet was to be interned at Scapa Flow ; this included Hindenburg and the rest of the battlecruisers . On 21 November 1918 , the ships to be interned — 14 capital ships , seven light cruisers , and 50 of the most modern torpedo boats — departed German waters for what would prove to be the last time . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , who was given command of the ships to be interned , that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations in Versailles that ultimately produced the treaty that ended the war . A copy of The Times informed von Reuter that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919 , the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty . Rear Admiral von Reuter came to the conclusion that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired . To prevent this , he decided to scuttle his ships at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers ; at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Hindenburg was the last ship to sink , at 17 : 00 . Her captain had deliberately arranged that the ship sank on an even keel to make it easier for her crew to escape . After several unsuccessful attempts , she was raised on 23 July 1930 , only to be scrapped at Rosyth between 1930 and 1932 . Her bell was presented to the Bundesmarine ( Federal Navy ) on 28 May 1959 .
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= Junagarh Fort =
Junagarh Fort ( Rajasthani : जुनाग ् द क ़ िला ) is a fort in the city of Bikaner , Rajasthan , India . The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or " Old Fort " in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits . It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop . The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort .
The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand , the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh , the sixth ruler of Bikaner , who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD . Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594 . It was built outside the original fort of the city , about 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the city centre . Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple .
Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort , it was not taken , except for a lone one @-@ day occupation by Kamran Mirza . Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534 , which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh .
The 5 @.@ 28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces , temples and pavilions . These buildings depict a composite culture , manifest in the mix of architectural styles .
= = Geography = =
Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range , a range of mountains in western India . Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city , which is one of the three desert triangle cities ; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur . The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh .
= = History = =
Before the present Junagarh Fort was built , an old stone fort existed in the city . This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472 . Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan , the founder of Jodhpur city . He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain . As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father ’ s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja . He , therefore , reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called " Jungladesh " . Bikaner , though a partly of the Thar Desert , was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources . Bika ’ s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner ( “ the settlement of Bika ” ) that he established . The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika . It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner ’ s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji , the sixth ruler of Bikaner , who ruled from 1571 to 1611 . During the Mughal Empire ’ s rule in the country , he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir . His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors . He was gifted the jagirs ( lands ) of Gujarat and Burhanpur . With the large revenue earned from these jagirs , he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land , which has an average elevation of 760 feet ( 230 m ) . The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594 . Raja Rai Singhji , was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort . Thus the fort , a composite structure , became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art , amidst the Thar desert .
Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639 , under the suzerainty of the Mughals , built the Karan Mahal palace . Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal . Anup Singh , who ruled from 1669 – 98 , made substantial additions to the fort complex , with new palaces and the Zenana quarter ( royal dwelling for females ) . He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan @-@ i @-@ Am ( public audience hall ) and called it the Anup Mahal . Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal ( the Moon palace ) . Following him , Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall ( see picture in info box ) with glass and lively paintwork . Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal ( the weather palace ) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds ( a rare event in arid Bikaner ) . Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace , which has towers at the entrance patio . This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob . Ganga Singh ’ s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949 . He died in 1950 .
Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818 , where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort . However , during the 18th century , before this treaty was signed , there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur , which was put down by the British troops . It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army , of the two entrances to the fort ( one in the east and the other in the west ) , the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged ; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort .
Ganga Singh was the best @-@ known king among the Rajasthan princes . A favourite of the British Raj , he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India . He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet , represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943 , before the war was won by the allies . His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions . The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum . He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton , the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902 . The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalgarh palace , which they have converted into a heritage hotel .
= = Structures = =
The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples , which are made of red sandstone ( Dulmera ) and marble . The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards , balconies , kiosks and windows . The fort , the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan . The fort is called “ a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration ” .
= = = Overview = = =
The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular ( quadrangular ) layout with a peripheral length of 1 @,@ 078 yards ( 986 m ) . The fort walls are 14 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 40 feet ( 12 m ) in height . It encompasses an area of 63 @,@ 119 square yards ( 5 @.@ 28 ha ) . It was surrounded by a moat which was 20 – 25 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 6 m ) deep with a base width of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) and top width of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . However , the moat no longer exists . The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions ( ‘ burj ’ in local language ) and seven gates ( two are main gates ) to counter enemy attacks . The fort was built as a “ new stronghold ” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls ( 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the city centre ) ; the old fort was demolished a century after it was built .
The fort with seven gates contains several palaces , pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century . A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones . The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style . The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms , as every king built his own separate set of rooms , not wanting to live in his predecessors ’ rooms . These structures were considered as “ at par with those of Louis ’ s France or of Imperial Russia ” . Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture . The earliest style is of Rajput architecture , defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers , the second type is of semi @-@ western architecture reflecting British influence , and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh . Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors . Thus , the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner , starting from the end of the 16th century .
Gates
While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole , facing east , the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol ( meaning the Sun gate ) , ' pol ' also colloquially spelt prol , built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone , unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone . It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun ’ s rays to fall on the gate , which is considered a good omen . The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack . At the entrance to the gate , two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels . The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate . The other gates are Karan Pol , Daulat Pol , Chand Pol ( a double gate ) and Fateh Pol ; these provided access to various monuments in the fort . The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants . To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol . Forty @-@ one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall , in red colour , of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner , who committed sati ( self immolation ) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle .
Between the main gate and the palace , there is a quadrangle , and then another gate called the Tripolia gate ( triple gateway ) before accessing the royal chambers . Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir , where the Royal family used to offer worship . In the quadrangle , which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble . The Karan Mahal , where public audience was held in the Diwan @-@ i @-@ Am by Karan Singh ( 1631 – 39 ) and his successors till the 20th century , can also be seen in the same quadrangle .
= = = Temples = = =
Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family . The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here , apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages . In the Dussera celebrations , weapons and horses were worshipped here . The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan , a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi .
The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort , was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner . It was built in Indo @-@ Mughal architectural style using white marble . The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple .
= = = Palaces = = =
Karan mahal ( Public Audience Hall ) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb . It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens , which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan . It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns . Later Rajas , Anup Singh and Surat Singh , also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass , intricate mirror patterns , and red and gold paint . In the coronation chamber , there is a shored up alcove , which was used as a throne .
Phool Mahal ( " Flower Palace " ) is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner , who ruled between 1571 @-@ 1668 .
Anup Mahal is a multi @-@ storey structure , which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom . It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors , Italian tiles , and fine lattice windows and balconies . It has some gold leaf paintings . It is considered as one of the “ grandest construction ” .
Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace , which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones . In the royal bedroom , mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed , any intruder entering his room .
Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943 , has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum . The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane ( biplane ) , which is stated to be well maintained .
Badal Mahal ( The weather palace ) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions . It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans . Photos of people standing on nails , wood , swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance . The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds .
Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city ’ s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture . Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “ They are the pride of Bikaner . ”
= = Fort museum = =
The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of " Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust " . The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts , miniature paintings , jewels , royal costumes , farmans ( royal orders ) , portrait galleries , costumes , headgear and dresses of gods ’ idols , enamelware , silver , palanquins , howdahs and war drums . The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms .
Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust
Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the ' Royal family of Bikaner ' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors . Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships , cultural activities , setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts .
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= Battle of Trois @-@ Rivières =
The Battle of Trois @-@ Rivières ( Three Rivers in English ) was fought on June 8 , 1776 , during the American Revolutionary War . A British army under Quebec Governor Guy Carleton defeated an attempt by units from the Continental Army under the command of Brigadier General William Thompson to stop a British advance up the Saint Lawrence River valley . The battle occurred as a part of the American colonists ' invasion of Quebec , which had begun in September 1775 with the goal of removing the province from British rule .
The crossing of the Saint Lawrence by the American troops was observed by Quebec militia , who alerted British troops at Trois @-@ Rivières . A local farmer led the Americans into a swamp , enabling the British to land additional forces in the village , and to establish positions behind the American army . After a brief exchange between an established British line and American troops emerging from the swamp , the Americans broke into a somewhat disorganized retreat . As some avenues of retreat were cut off , the British took a sizable number of prisoners , including General Thompson and much of his staff .
This was the last major battle fought on Quebec soil . Following the defeat , the remainder of the American forces , under the command of John Sullivan , retreated , first to Fort Saint @-@ Jean , and then to Fort Ticonderoga .
= = Background = =
The Continental Army , which had invaded Quebec in September 1775 , suffered a severe blow in the disastrous attack on Quebec City on New Year 's Eve in 1775 . Following that loss , Benedict Arnold and the remnants of the army besieged Quebec until May 1776 .
Early on May 6 , three Royal Navy ships sailed into Quebec Harbour . Troops on these ships were immediately sent into the city and , not long after , General Guy Carleton formed them up and marched them out to the American siege camp . General John Thomas , then in command of the American forces , had already been making arrangements to retreat , but the British arrival threw his troops into a panic . He led a disorganized retreat that eventually reached Sorel on about May 18 .
= = = British forces at Trois @-@ Rivières = = =
Throughout the month of May and into early June , ships carrying troops and war supplies continued to arrive at Quebec . By June 2 , Carleton had added the 9th , 20th , 29th , 53rd and 60th Regiments of Foot , along with General John Burgoyne , to his command . Also arriving in the fleet were Hessian troops from Brunswick commanded by Baron Riedesel .
After the Americans ' flight early in May , Carleton took no significant offensive steps but on May 22 , he sent ships carrying elements of the 47th and 29th Foot to Trois @-@ Rivières under Allan Maclean 's command . Brigadier General Simon Fraser led more forces to Trois @-@ Rivières on June 2 . By June 7 , the forces on the ground at Trois @-@ Rivières had grown to nearly 1 @,@ 000 , and 25 ships carrying additional troops and supplies were anchored in the river near the village and for several miles upriver .
= = = American arrangements = = =
Since Thomas 's retreat was instigated by the early arrival of three ships of the fleet carrying only a few hundred troops , he was unaware of the true size of the British army . In a war council at Sorel on May 21 , which included representatives of the Second Continental Congress , a decision was reached to make a stand at Deschambault , between Trois @-@ Rivières and Quebec . This decision was reached based on sketchy reports and rumors of the British troop strengths and was dominated by the non @-@ military Congressional representatives . Thomas contracted smallpox on May 21 , from which he died on June 2 . He was briefly replaced by Brigadier General William Thompson , who relinquished command to General John Sullivan when he arrived on June 5 at Sorel with further reinforcements from Fort Ticonderoga .
On June 5 , just hours before Sullivan 's arrival , Thompson sent 600 troops under the command of Colonel Arthur St. Clair toward Trois @-@ Rivières with the goal of surprising and beating back the small British force believed to be there . Sullivan , on his arrival at Sorel , immediately dispatched Thompson with an additional 1 @,@ 600 men to follow . These forces caught up with St. Clair at Nicolet , where defenses against troop movements on the river were erected the next day . On the night of June 7 , Thompson , St. Clair , and about 2 @,@ 000 men crossed the river , landing at Pointe du Lac , a few miles above Trois @-@ Rivières .
= = Battle = =
The American crossing had been seen by a local militia captain , who rushed to the British camp at Trois @-@ Rivières and reported to General Fraser . Thompson left 250 men to guard the landing and headed the rest towards Trois @-@ Rivières . Unfamiliar with the local terrain , he convinced Antoine Gautier , a local farmer , to guide the men to Trois @-@ Rivières . Gautier proceeded , apparently intentionally , to lead the American army into a swampy morass from which it took them hours to extricate themselves . In the meantime , the British , having been alerted to the American presence , proceeded to land troops from the fleet and formed battle lines on the road outside the village . Ships were also sent up to Pointe du Lac , where they drove the American guards there to flee across the river with most of the boats .
Some of the Americans , led by Thompson , made their way out of the swamp to be confronted by HMS Martin , which drove them back into the swamp with grapeshot . A column of men under Colonel Anthony Wayne fared only a little better , arriving out of the swamp only to face Fraser 's formation . A brief exchange of fire took place : but the Americans , clearly outmatched by Fraser 's forces , broke and ran , leaving arms and supplies behind . Portions of the American force retreated to the edge of the woods , which gave them some cover , and attempted to engage some of the British troops : but fire from those troops kept them off the road and fire from some of the ships in the river kept them from the shore . St. Clair and a number of men made it back to the landing site , only to find it occupied by the British troops . Only by returning to the swampy woods and continuing to flee upriver did these men escape capture at that time . Wayne eventually managed to form a rear guard of about 800 men , which attempted an attack on the British position ; but they were driven back into the woods . Wayne then led a staggered retreat , in which companies of men slipped away , with the woods giving cover to hide their true numbers .
General Carleton arrived in Trois @-@ Rivières late in the action . A detachment of British forces led by Major Grant had taken control of a bridge over the Rivière @-@ du @-@ Loup , a critical crossing for the Americans retreating along the north shore of the Saint Lawrence . Carleton ordered Grant to withdraw , allowing most of the Americans to escape , either because he did not want to deal with large numbers of prisoners or because he wanted to demoralize the Americans further . A significant number of Americans did not make it that far , and were captured . These included General Thompson and seventeen of his officers . It was not until June 13 that the British finished rounding up the stragglers . In all , 236 captives were taken . Brendan Morrissey says that about 30 Americans were killed in the battle , while Howard Peckham gives a figure of 50 Americans killed .
= = Aftermath = =
Scattered fragments of the American army made their way overland on the northern shore to Berthier , where they crossed over to Sorel . Some did not return until June 11 . Sullivan , who counted 2 @,@ 500 effective troops under his command , at first wanted to make a stand at Sorel , but smallpox , desertions , and word that the British fleet was again under sail to come upriver convinced him it was time to retreat . By June 17 , the Continental Army had left the province ; but not before it had attempted to burn Montreal , as well as destroying Fort Saint @-@ Jean and any boats of military value capable of navigating Lake Champlain .
Carleton ordered most of the British army to sail upriver toward Sorel on June 9 , but they did not actually leave until he joined them on June 13 . A detachment of 1200 men under Fraser marched up the northern shore toward Berthier and Montreal . The British fleet arrived at Sorel late on the 14th ; the Americans had left there just that morning . Elements of the British army entered Montreal on June 17 , and also arrived at Fort Saint @-@ Jean in time to see the last Americans ( the very last one reported to be Benedict Arnold ) push away from its burning remnants .
The captives were treated quite generously by Carleton . Although the conditions of their imprisonment were not always good , he provided them with clothing , and eventually had all but the officers transported to New York and released .
= = Legacy = =
A site near the Le Jeune bridge was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920 in order to commemorate the battle .
There are three plaques in the city of Trois @-@ Rivières commemorating aspects of the battle . A plaque honouring the British participants was placed at the National Historic Site by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada . A plaque honouring the American dead was placed in the Parc Champlain by the Daughters of the American Revolution in August 1985 . The third plaque honours Antoine Gauthier for his role in misleading the American troops .
During the American retreat from Quebec , and in this battle , wounded soldiers were treated at the Ursuline convent in Trois @-@ Rivières . Congress never authorized payment for these services and the convent has retained the bill . A bill that was about £ 26 at the time is now estimated to be between ten and twenty million dollars . On July 4 , 2009 , during festivities marking the town 's 375th anniversary , American Consul @-@ General David Fetter symbolically repaid the debt to the Ursulines with a payment of C $ 130 .
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= Tenebrae ( film ) =
Tenebrae ( also known as Tenebre ) is a 1982 Italian giallo film written and directed by Dario Argento . The film stars Anthony Franciosa as American author Peter Neal , who – while in Rome promoting his latest murder @-@ mystery novel – becomes embroiled in the search for a serial killer who may have been inspired to kill by the novel . John Saxon and Daria Nicolodi co @-@ star as Neal 's agent and assistant ; Giuliano Gemma and Carola Stagnaro appear as detectives investigating the murders . John Steiner , Veronica Lario and Mirella D 'Angelo also feature . The film has been described as exploring themes of dualism and sexual aberration , and has strong metafictional elements ; some commentators consider Tenebrae to be a direct reaction by Argento to criticism of his previous work , most especially his depictions of murders of beautiful women .
After Argento had experimented with pure supernatural horror with 1977 's Suspiria and 1980 's Inferno , Tenebrae represented the filmmaker 's return to the giallo horror subgenre , which he had helped popularize in the 1970s . Argento was inspired by a series of incidents which saw an obsessed fan telephone the director to criticise him for the damaging psychological effects of his previous work . The telephone calls culminated in death threats towards Argento , who channelled the experience into the writing of Tenebrae . The director also wanted to explore the senselessness of killings he had witnessed and heard about while staying in Los Angeles in 1980 , and his feeling at the time that true horror came from those who wanted " to kill for nothing " .
Shot on location in Rome and at Elios Studios , Tenebrae utilised mostly modern @-@ looking locations and sets to help Argento realise his intent that the film reflect a near @-@ future with a diminished population ; the director filmed none of the historical landmarks that usually featured in films set in Rome . Employing director of photography Luciano Tovoli , Argento also intended that the film simulate the stark , realistic lighting featured in television police shows at the time ; production designer Giuseppe Bassa created supporting environments that were cold and austere , with sharp angles and modernistic spaces . Several former members of Italian rock band Goblin provided Tenebrae 's music , a synth @-@ heavy score inspired by rock and disco music .
Tenebrae was a modest success in Italy ; it reached theatres with little controversy after Argento made cuts to one of the most violent scenes . However , in the United Kingdom , it was added to the infamous list of " video nasties " and banned from sale until 1999 . The film 's theatrical distribution in the United States was delayed until 1984 , when it was released in a heavily censored version under the title Unsane . In its cut form , Tenebrae received a mostly negative critical reception , but the original , fully restored version later became widely available for reappraisal ; it is considered by some to be one of Argento 's best thrillers . The film critic and author Maitland McDonagh said that it was " in many respects ... the finest film that Argento has ever made " .
= = Plot = =
Peter Neal , an American writer of violent horror novels , is in Italy to promote his latest work , Tenebrae . He is accompanied by his literary agent , Bullmer and his assistant , Anne . Neal is unaware that he has also been followed to Rome by his embittered ex @-@ wife , Jane . Just before Neal arrived in Rome , Elsa , a young female shoplifter , was murdered with a razor by an unseen assailant . The murderer sends Neal a letter informing him that his books have inspired him to go on a killing spree . Neal is soon contacted by the police in the form of Detective Giermani and his female partner , Inspector Altieri .
More killings take place . Tilde , a beautiful lesbian journalist , is murdered at her home along with her lover Marion . Maria , the young daughter of Neal 's landlord , is later hacked to death with a axe after discovering the killer 's lair . Neal notices that TV interviewer Christiano Berti has an unusually intense interest in his work . That night , Neal and his Italian assistant Gianni watch Berti 's house . Gianni approaches the house alone to get a better view and sees an assailant hack Berti to death with an axe . However , Gianni is unable to see the murderer 's face . He returns to Neal to find the novelist has been knocked unconscious on the lawn .
Giermani discovers that Berti was obsessed with Neal 's novels , and believes the killings will stop now that Berti is dead . However , Bullmer , who is having an affair with Jane , is stabbed to death while waiting for his lover in a public square . Gianni is haunted by the thought that he missed the importance of something he saw at Berti 's house . He returns to the house and suddenly remembers that he had heard Berti confessing to his attacker : " I killed them all , I killed them all ! " Before Gianni can share this detail with anyone , he is strangled to death from the back seat of his car .
Jane sits at her kitchen table with a pistol when a figure leaps through her window and hacks off one of her arms . The wound sprays blood over the kitchen walls before Jane falls to the floor . The killer continues to hack at her until she is dead , at which point Neal is revealed to be the murderer . Upon learning the details of Berti 's sadistic murder spree , Neal recovered a previously repressed memory involving his murder of a girl who had sexually humiliated him when he was a youth in Rhode Island . The memory torments Neal and inflames his previously repressed lust for blood , driving him insane .
Inspector Altieri arrives at the house and Neal kills her . Giermani and Anne arrive soon afterwards ; when Neal sees that he cannot escape , he slits his throat in front of them . Finding the telephone out of order , Giermani and Anne go outside to report the incident from the car radio . Giermani returns to the house and is murdered by Neal , who had faked his own death . Neal waits inside for Anne to return , but when she opens the door , she accidentally knocks over a metal sculpture that impales and kills Neal . The horror @-@ stricken Anne stands in the rain and screams repeatedly .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Themes = = =
Critics have identified various major themes in Tenebrae . In interviews conducted during the film 's production , the usually somewhat reticent Argento offered his own views as to the thematic content of the film . As biographer Maitland McDonagh noted in Broken Mirrors / Broken Minds : The Dark Dreams of Dario Argento , " ... Argento has never been more articulate and / or analytical than he was on the subject of Tenebrae . " Film scholar William Hope identifies that the film is devoid of classical narrative progression , and writes that the characters " lack a narrative function or purpose , existing only to be killed in a spectacular fashion , their death hardly moving the narrative on at all . Traditional cause and effect are seemingly forgotten or actively ignored " . According to James Gracey , author of a book about Argento 's work , with Tenebrae " explores some of his most reoccurring themes and preoccupations , such as Freudian psychology , sexual deviancy , repressed trauma , voyeurism , audience spectatorship and the fetishisation of violence and death . " Water is linked constantly with Neal ; in almost every scene his appearance is followed or accompanied by a shot of water in some way . Later , this device is used over and over as a clue to the ultimate killer 's identity – Neal himself .
= = = Dark doubles = = =
According to Argento expert Thomas Rostock , Tenebrae is filled with rhyming imagery that relates to the film 's exploration of " the dual nature of [ the ] two active murderers " using doubles , inversions , reflections and " re @-@ reflections " . Every major character has at least one double , and the theme extends to objects , locations , actions and events – major and minor . The doubling or mirroring of incidents and objects includes telephone booths , aircraft , homeless men , otherwise @-@ meaningless public brawls in the background , car accidents , typewriters ( literally side @-@ by @-@ side ) , keys , handkerchief , hands caught in doors and the characters themselves . Rostock cites several scenes where characters are set up in frame with their doppelgängers – one such is the first meeting of Peter Neal and Anne with Detectives Giermani and Altieri . McDonagh notes that Argento emphasizes the doubling between Neal and Giermani : " Giermani ... is made to reflect Neal even as Neal appropriates his role as investigator ... the detective / writer and the writer / detective each belittles his other half , as though by being demeaned this inverted reflection could be made to go away . " McDonagh also observes that , in what is arguably the film 's most potent shock , Neal at one point really does make Giermani " go away " , virtually replacing him on screen " in a shot that is as schematically logical as it is logically outrageous . " Earlier , Neal killed a woman who – to his and the audience 's surprise – was not Anne , but Altieri . Tenebrae itself is split almost exactly into two parts . The first half belongs to the murders of Berti ; the second to those of Neal . The two are set up as mirrors of one another . Berti 's killings with a razor are clinical , with " lingering sexualised aggressiveness " , whereas Neal 's ( with an axe ) are crimes of passion committed for personal reasons or out of necessity ; they are swift and to the point .
Kevin Lyon observes , " The plot revolves around the audacious and quite unexpected transference of guilt from the maniacal killer ( about whom we learn very little , itself unusual for Argento ) to the eminently likeable hero , surely the film 's boldest stroke . " While noting that the device is " striking " , McDonagh comments that this guilt transmission / transfer occurs between two dark doubles who are seriously warped individuals . She suggests that " Neal and Berti ... act as mirrors to one another , each twisting the reflection into a warped parody of the other . " Berti 's obsession with Neal 's fiction compels him to commit murder in homage to the writer , while Neal seems to think that his own violent acts are simply part of some kind of " elaborate fiction " . When the bloody Neal is confronted by Giermani immediately after having killed numerous people , Neal screams at him , " It was like a book ... a book ! "
= = = Metafiction = = =
The moment at which the first half becomes the second is punctuated by the rising score and pan to an otherwise meaningless point of reflected light on an ornament . According to Rostock , the meaning is clear : it marks the spot when Berti 's spree ends and Neal 's rampage begins . Argento uses the shift in focus to comment on the shaping of the film itself , until that moment a typical , " clichéd and remote " giallo . Neal , previously passive , begins to control what happens in his own story , which is more personal with " weight and meaning " . According to Rostock , this structure allows Argento equal scope to play with the narrative while commenting upon it , all without having to deviate from the advancement of plot . According to Kim Newman , the use of a sculpture as a weapon makes literal one of the themes of the film : " art that kills people " . Rostock agreed , saying that as the film is a commentary on art , the only weapon that can end the narrative is art itself .
According to Gracey , a number of critics have compared Argento with the character of Peter Neal , speculating that he serves as an alter @-@ ego of the director . Gracey refers to Tenebrae as a " reflexive commentary on [ the director 's ] earlier work . " The director himself saw the film in the same light , claiming it was a reaction to accusations that " Dario Argento was a misogynist ... a criminal ... a murderer . " Argento resolved to include all of these aspects of his previous films into Tenebrae . A scene in which a woman criticises the lead character 's books as " sexist " , featuring " women as victims , cipers , male heroes [ and ] macho bullshit " echoes criticisms of Argento 's own work . Kim Newman calls the confrontation scene " essentially autobiographical " , and refuting these accusations Argento said that his films were instead an attempt to tackle his dark side , to " let it speak " . With Tenebrae in particular , he felt he was making a joke or playing a game with his critics , creating a front or mystique about himself . Rostock also believes Argento is having fun and sending up this perception . Newman agrees that Argento used Tenebrae to address his own public image , the notion that someone who creates art as " sick and twisted " as his , must himself be sick and twisted . With Tenebrae 's reveal that the author is the killer , Newman argues that Argento is saying , " What if I were ? "
= = = " Aberrant " sexuality = = =
As in many of Argento 's films , which tend to eroticize the murder of beautiful women , gender , sexuality and power are major issues foregrounded by the film . The fictional novel within the film is described as being " about human perversion and its effects on society " . Male and female sexual deviancy are a central theme , with the victims being sexually liberated women who the first killer – conservative TV presenter Cristiano Berti – refers to as " filthy , slimy perverts " . The first victim is a sexually promiscuous shoplifter , and his next two are the lesbian reporter and her bisexual lover . Berti murders the comparatively normal Maria only because she inadvertently discovers his twisted compulsion . His " moral crusade " is inspired by – and in his mind given credibility by – Neal 's novel . Neal 's own motivations for becoming a killer are revealed in " Freudian flashbacks " . As summarised by McDonagh. these flashbacks " expose how the misogyny evident in his books actually stems from being sexually humiliated by a beautiful woman in his youth . " McDonagh also notes that Tenebrae expands on the themes of sexuality and transvestitism found in Argento 's earlier films , The Bird with the Crystal Plumage , The Cat o ' Nine Tails , Four Flies on Grey Velvet ( 1972 ) , and Deep Red ( 1975 ) , but believes that Tenebrae 's " overall sensuality sets it apart from Argento 's other gialli . " She says that the film 's sexual content and abundant nudity make it " the first of Argento 's films to have an overtly erotic aspect " , and further notes that " Tenebrae is fraught with free @-@ floating anxiety that is specifically sexual in nature . " Gracey notes that in several scenes the victims gaze directly into the camera , which demonstrates Argento 's " preoccupation with voyeurism and spectacle " .
McDonagh noted that two sexually charged flashbacks are key to understanding Tenebrae . These distinct but strongly related memory fragments are introduced repeatedly throughout the film , usually immediately following a murder sequence . Although the flashbacks are never fully explained , the first reveals a beautiful young woman 's sexual humiliation ( though oral rape ) of a teenage boy , presumed to be Peter Neal . The young woman is mostly topless during this first sequence , and she humiliates the young man by jamming the heel of one of her shiny red shoes into his mouth while he is held down by a group of gleeful boys on a pale @-@ white beach . The second flashback shows the vicious revenge @-@ murder of the woman some time later . McDonagh notes that all of the fetishistic imagery of these flashbacks , combined with the sadistic details of the murder sequences in the main narrative , " set the parameters of Tenebrae 's fetishistic and fetishicized visual vocabulary , couched in terms both ritualistic and orgiastically out of control ... Peter Neal indulges in sins of the flesh and Tenebrae revels in them , inviting the spectator to join in ; in fact , it dares the viewer not to do so . "
= = = Vision impairment = = =
Argento 's protagonists in his giallo films almost always suffer from vision impairment of some kind . It is these characters ' chronic inability to find the missing pieces of a puzzle ( the puzzle being the solution of a murder or series of murders ) that generally provides much of the films ' narrative thrust . Most obviously is the blind Franco Arno ( Karl Malden ) in The Cat o ' Nine Tails , who must use his heightened aural sense in combination with visual clues supplied to him by his niece to solve a mystery . In The Bird with the Crystal Plumage , Sam Dalmas ( Tony Musante ) witnesses a murder attempt but admits to the police that something seems to be " missing " ; as the film 's surprise ending makes clear , he did not " miss " anything , but simply misinterpreted what happened in front of his eyes . In Deep Red , Marcus ( David Hemmings ) has a similar problem in both seeing and not seeing the murderer at the scene of the crime , and does not realize his mistake until it 's almost too late . This recurring theme , according to Douglas E. Winter , creates " a world of danger and deception , where seeing is not believing " .
Flanagan observes that in Tenebrae , Argento offers two characters who suffer from impaired vision . Gianni ( Christian Borromeo ) is an eyewitness to an axe @-@ murder , but the trauma of seeing the killing causes him to disregard a vital clue . Returning to the scene of the crime , he suddenly remembers everything , and is murdered before being able to tell anyone . Homicide detective Giermani reveals that he is a big fan of the novels of Agatha Christie , Mickey Spillane , Rex Stout , and Ed McBain , but admits that he has never been able to guess the identity of the killer in any of the books . He is similarly unable to solve the real mystery until the last corpses are piled at his feet – he cannot see Peter Neal for what he really is .
= = = An imaginary city = = =
In an interview that appeared in Cinefantastique , Argento noted that the film was intended as near @-@ science fiction , taking place " about five or more years in the future ... Tenebrae occurs in a world inhabited by fewer people with the result that the remainder are wealthier and less crowded . Something has happened to make it that way but no one remembers , or wants to remember ... It isn 't exactly my Blade Runner , of course , but nevertheless a step into the world of tomorrow . If you watch the film with this perspective in mind , it will become very apparent . " Argento later insisted that the film was set in an imaginary city , fifteen years in the future , and that the disaster the city 's inhabitants were striving to forget was an atomic bomb blast . Despite Argento 's claim , Maitland McDonagh observed that this vaguely science @-@ fictional concept " isn 't apparent at all " and that no critics at the time noted the underlying futuristic theme in their reviews of the theatrical release of the film . The film critic and author Kim Newman countered that in avoiding a more recognisable Rome in favour of suburbia , Argento had succeeded in giving some parts of the film an almost futuristic sheen . Argento biographer Alan Jones agreed that Argento 's intention did come across in these scenes , and Newman cites the on @-@ screen use a videophone as an attempt by Argento to place Tenebrae in the near future .
While rejecting this thematic concern as unrealized by Argento , McDonagh noted that the result of the director 's experiment is a strange " architectural landscape " that becomes the " key element in differentiating Tenebrae from Argento 's earlier gialli . " Argento 's use of unusual architectural space and so @-@ called visual " hyper @-@ realism " results in an enormously fake looking environment . Seizing on the director 's additional comment , " ... I dreamed an imaginary city in which the most amazing things happen " , she notes that the film 's " fictive space couldn 't be less ' real ' " , with its " vast unpopulated boulevards , piazzas that look like nothing more than suburban American malls , hard @-@ edged Bauhaus apartment buildings , anonymous clubs and parking garages . " The EUR district of Rome , where much of Tenebrae was filmed , was built in preparation for the 1942 World 's Fair , and intended by then @-@ Prime Minister of Italy Benito Mussolini to be a celebration of twenty years of fascism . Rostock believes that Argento used this location as an attempt to realise his theme of an imaginary city ; the district gives a glimpse of a future Rome that never was , showing the city how it might have looked had fascism not fallen .
= = Influences = =
According to the film historian and critic Bill Warren , Tenebrae is a typical example of the giallo film genre : " visually extremely stylish , with imaginative , sometimes stunning cinematography " , it presents " mysterious , gruesome murders , often in picturesque locations ; at the end , the identity of the murderer is disclosed in a scene destined to terrify and surprise . " These narrative and stylistic clichés had been introduced years before Argento made his first thriller , 1970 's The Bird with the Crystal Plumage ; most critics point to Mario Bava 's The Girl Who Knew Too Much ( 1963 ) as the original giallo .
By the time Argento made Tenebrae , he had become the acknowledged master of the genre , to the point where he felt confident enough to be openly self @-@ referential to his own past , referencing the " reckless driving humor " from The Cat o ' Nine Tails ( 1971 ) and the hero from The Bird with the Crystal Plumage . The scene in which Veronica Lario 's character , Jane , returns home directly references The Bird with the Crystal Plumage with its large sculpture in the entrance hallway .
Warren and Alan Jones cite a scene where a character is killed in a public square as evoking the work of Alfred Hitchcock ; Rostock agrees that the editing of the sequence is in a Hitchcockian vein , while the lighting is more influenced by Michelangelo Antonioni . The film critic and author Maitland McDonagh argues that Argento 's influences for Tenebrae were far broader than just his own films or previous Italian thrillers . She refers to the strong narrative in the film as an example of " the most paranoid excesses of film noir . " McDonagh suggests that Fritz Lang 's Beyond a Reasonable Doubt ( 1956 ) ( " in which a man convicted of murder on false evidence ... is in fact guilty of the murder " ) and Roy William Neill 's Black Angel ( 1946 ) ( " in which a man who tries to clear a murder suspect does so at the cost of learning that he himself is the killer " ) both use such a similar plot twist to Tenebrae that Argento may have used them as partial models for his story .
Kim Newman and Alan Jones suggest that the mysteries of Arthur Conan Doyle and Agatha Christie were both obvious influences on Tenebrae , and there are references to both authors throughout the film , as well as Rex Stout . One example is the use of a quote from Sherlock Holmes in Conan Doyle 's novel The Sign of Four ( 1890 ) : " How often have I said to you that when you have eliminated the impossible , whatever remains , however improbable , must be the truth ? " A variation of this quote is used several times throughout Tenebrae . Another reference is the dog attack ; as something of a non sequitur , the scene is thought by Newman to be a likely nod to Conan Doyle 's The Hound of the Baskervilles ( 1901 – 1902 ) . Neal is seen to be reading this novel in an early scene . The imagery in the beach flashback references the American mystery film Suddenly , Last Summer ( 1959 ) , especially the scene of Eva Robin 's wearing white while kneeling in the sand , which is a direct reference to Elizabeth Taylor in that film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After completing Inferno ( 1980 ) , the second in his planned Three Mothers trilogy of supernatural horror films , Argento was expected to move straight into production of its concluding chapter . The first in the trilogy , Suspiria ( 1977 ) , had turned the director into what Alan Jones called " a horror superstar " , but Inferno had proven a difficult follow @-@ up . Argento had become unwell while writing the film , and his ill health continued into filming . In addition , Argento 's relationship with Inferno 's co @-@ producer 20th Century Fox had soured the director on " Hollywood politics " , so when Inferno was not well @-@ received upon release , Argento put the Three Mothers trilogy on hold . Inferno also flopped commercially . According to James Gracey , Argento – under pressure and feeling " the need to once again defy expectations " – returned to the giallo genre and began work on Tenebrae . Argento later stated that he wanted to " put on film a gory roller @-@ coaster ride packed with fast and furious murders " and that he " shouldn 't resist what [ his ] hardcore audience wanted " . He added that he had also become irritated that in the years since his last giallo so many other directors had made films derivative of – and inferior to – his own genre @-@ defining works .
Argento said that Tenebrae was influenced by two disturbing incidents he had in 1980 . After Suspiria 's surprise success , Argento was spending time in Los Angeles , where an obsessed fan telephoned him repeatedly , to talk about Suspiria 's influence on him . According to Argento , the calls began pleasantly enough but before long became more insistent , eventually menacing . The fan claimed that he wanted " to harm Argento in a way that reflected how much the director 's work had affected him " , and that because the director had " ruined his life " , he in turn wanted to ruin Argento 's . Although no violence came of the threat , Argento said he found the experience understandably terrifying , and felt unable to write . At the advice of his producers , Argento fled to the coastal city of Santa Monica , where he felt safe enough to resume writing . However , after a few weeks the fan found Argento and resumed his calls , issuing more threats . The director decided to return to Italy . Argento felt the escalating nature of the fan 's threats were " symptomatic of that city of broken dreams " with its " celebrity stalkers and senseless crime " . The second incident occurred during Argento 's stay at The Beverly Hilton , where a Japanese tourist was shot dead in the hotel lobby . Later hearing of a drive @-@ by shooting outside a local cinema , Argento reflected on the senselessness of the killings : " To kill for nothing , that is the true horror of today ... when that gesture has no meaning whatsoever it 's completely repugnant , and that 's the sort of atmosphere I wanted to put across in Tenebrae . "
= = = Casting = = =
Argento reportedly offered the lead role of Peter Neal to Christopher Walken , but it eventually went to Anthony Franciosa . Kim Newman felt that Franciosa 's casting was fortunate , as he was capable of bringing more to the role than the script asked of him . He also believed that if Walken had been cast , it would have been more obvious that he was the killer . According to Jones and Daria Nicolodi , the relationship between Franciosa and Argento was a fractious one . In addition , Nicolodi and Argento were romantically involved at the time , but their relationship had suffered over a disputed story credit during filming of Suspiria . Nicolodi therefore only agreed to a cameo in Tenebrae . According to Nicolodi , she originally asked for the small role of Jane McKerrow ( which eventually went to Veronica Lario ) . Alan Jones says that Nicolodi was cast as the woman on the beach in Neal 's flashback . However , Thomas Rostock says that Nicolodi was never intended for that role , only that of Jane . Transgender actress Eva Robin 's was later hired to play the woman on the beach .
When the American actress who had been hired to play Anne dropped out just before the start of principal photography , Argento convinced Nicolodi to take on this larger role . Nicolodi found Anne to have a different personality than her own , and much preferred the characters she had played for Argento previously , whom she said had much more personality than Anne . She said the role required little energy or imagination , but liked the novelty of playing neither killer nor victim . Newman and Alan Jones agreed that Nicolodi had very little character to play , as written . Newman added that this lack of character stretched to all the Italians in the film , and that only the American characters had discernible personalities . Nicolodi later claimed that although filming began well enough , Argento became angry when she and Franciosa bonded over playwright Tennessee Williams and their experience in theatre , leading the director to make sure their shared scenes " were an ordeal to endure " . The charged atmosphere culminated with Argento reportedly telling Franciosa , " leave my woman alone ! " Nicolodi said she channelled her frustrations with the situation into her character 's last scene in the film , where Anne stands in the rain and screams repeatedly , continuing over the film 's end credits . She had been directed to scream only a little , but knowing it was the last day of filming and her last scene to complete , Nicolodi screamed loudly and for a long time , much to Argento 's and the crew 's surprise . Nicolodi said the scene was her " cathartic release from the whole nightmare " .
Although Tenebrae was an Italian production , most of the cast spoke their dialogue in English to increase the film 's chances of success in United States . For domestic audiences , the film was dubbed into Italian . The English @-@ language dub retained Franciosa 's , Saxon 's and Steiner 's natural voices . However , Nicolodi 's voice was dubbed by Theresa Russell , Giuliano Gemma 's was dubbed by David Graham , and most of the female voices were dubbed by Adrienne Posta . Michele Soavi – frequent Argento collaborator , second assistant director on Tenebrae and later a noted director in his own right – acted alongside Robin 's in the second flashback scene . Another of Argento 's collaborators , Fulvio Mingozzi cameoed as a hotel porter . In common with several other Argento films , close @-@ ups of the killer 's gloved hands were Argento 's own . In the film 's Italian @-@ language dub , Argento also provided the opening voice @-@ over , reading aloud descriptions of murderous actions from Neal 's fictitious novel , Tenebrae .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began on 3 May 1982 and took ten weeks. shot mostly on location in Rome . Kim Newman described the Rome of Tenebrae as unlike the one usually shown on television and in films , with none of the usual historical landmarks . Newman and Alan Jones agreed that this was a deliberate choice made by Argento , as some of his previous films had utilised so much of recognisable Italy . Argento himself said he had wanted to show Italy was not just a museum piece ; Newman said it was Argento 's way of saying , " Rome is a vibrant city . It is modern . " Most of Tenebrae 's location shooting was carried out in Rome 's EUR business and residential district . The first flashback scene was filmed at the Capocotta beach , south of the city near Ostia . The shoplifting scene near the beginning of Tenebrae was filmed on location at department store La Rinascente , off Piazza Fiume . Bullmer 's death in a public square was shot at a shopping precinct called " Le Terrazze " in Rome 's Casal Palocco residential neighbourhood . The scene in which Neal 's landlord 's daughter is killed was filmed outside the home of architect – and friend of Argento – Sandro Petti , switching to studio shots for her initial entrance into the house and back to Petti 's house for the confrontation with the killer . The scene at the beginning of the film where Neal boards his flight to Rome was filmed at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York .
Giuseppe Bassan – a frequent Argento collaborator – was the film 's production designer . The surroundings are given a bleached , " merciless " look , made from marble and stone façades , shiny metallic sculptures , with steel , water and glass surfaces . Some of the homes – specifically those of the lesbian couple and he first killer – are " cold , austere , brutalist " slabs of granite , and many of the interior shots feature plain white backgrounds , with characters ' wearing pale @-@ coloured clothes against them – better , Newman felt , to contrast the blood once the violence started . The studio @-@ set scenes were filmed at Elios Studios in Rome , unlike Argento 's previous films in the city , which he had filmed at Incir De Paolis . He could not use Elios because his idol Michelangelo Antonioni was using the studio to film Identification of a Woman ( 1982 ) at the time . The design and creation of Tenebrae 's special effects was supervised by Giovanni Corridori , who – with his brother Tonino – had a near @-@ monopoly on special effects in the Italian film industry at the time . The scene in which Jane is hacked to death after having her arm cut off was filmed about eight times . Argento was not satisfied with any of the takes he had , which used a type of bicycle pump to spray fake blood from the " wound " across the white wall , so the director had Corridori place an explosive squib in the prosthetic arm – a solution which apparently satisfied Argento .
Much of Tenebrae takes place during daytime , or in harshly over @-@ lit interiors . Except for the finale and some night scenes , the entire movie is shot with clear , cold light permeating the surroundings . The lighting and camerawork used in Andrzej Żuławski 's Possession ( 1981 ) was an influence on the film 's look . Although tenebrae / tenebre is a Latin / Italian word meaning " darkness " or " shadows " , Argento ordered cinematographer Luciano Tovoli to use as much bright light as possible . The director intended that the film be set in the near future and wanted the lighting to help create a " cold , stark and semi @-@ futuristic look " . Argento explained that this approach was also an attempt to imitate what he saw as the " realistic manner of lighting " used in television police shows . The director explained that he was adopting " a modern style of photography , deliberately breaking with the legacy of German Expressionism . Today 's light is the light of neon , headlights , and omnipresent flashes ... Caring about shadows seemed ridiculous to me and , more than that , reassuring . " Argento filmed half @-@ empty streets and shops where he could , in an attempt to reflect a futuristic setting where a disaster had diminished significantly the population of his imaginary city . Tovoli used Kodak 5247 film stock ( 125 ASA speed rating ) for daylight scenes , and Kodak 5293 ( 250 ASA ) for night shoots . Tovoli rated both at 300 ASA to ensure controlled overexposure of the negative during filming , for the benefit of under @-@ developing in the lab and less colour loss . The ultimate aim was for images that were " crystal clear " , and night that was awash with light .
Film scholar Richard Dyer highlights several intelligent devices uses by Argento in the editing of the film , noting that interpolated sequences are sometimes punctuated by " shots of pills and the sound of running water . " Steffen Hantke believes that the shock cuts in the latter part of the film are among cinema 's " most brutal and stylized " , and exhibit a degree of abstract expressionism . Film scholar Leon Hunt argues that the devices and themes utilized by Argento in the making of Tenebrae make it as much an example of art cinema as anything else . The initial murders are shot in a " clipped montage style " , which is later revealed to be reflecting the use of a camera by the first killer to record the scene . Giuliano Gemma later said that Argento fostered an improvisational atmosphere on set . One example he gave was the scene where his character bends to pick up some evidence from the floor , only to reveal Neal behind him having perfectly matched his position relative to the camera . This moment was not scripted , but resulted from Argento 's noticing the actors ' similar build while they were stood , one behind the other in front of him .
= = = Crane shot = = =
Gracey refers to the film 's cinematography as " nothing short of astounding " , and cites a particular example as highlighting Argento 's " passion for technical prowess and breathtaking visuals " . Influenced by the closing shot of The Passenger ( 1975 ) , on which Tovoli had also been the cinematographer , one of Tenebrae 's main setpieces is the murder of the lesbian couple . To introduce the scene , Argento and Tovoli employed the use of a Louma crane to film a several minutes @-@ long tracking shot . Owing to its extreme length , the tracking shot ended up being the most difficult and complex part of the production to complete . It required a maze of scaffolding to be built around the outside of the home . Argento captured all the footage he needed in two takes , but insisted on filming ten more . The scene , which lasts for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes on @-@ screen , took three days to shoot . It marked the first time the Louma crane had been used in an Italian production ; the crane itself had to be imported from France . According to Gracey , the camera performs " aerial gymnastics " , scaling the victims ' house in " one seamless take , navigating walls , roofs , and peering in through windows , in a set piece that effortlessly exposes the penetrability of a seemingly secure home " . Newman and Jones said that although this type of crane shot became commonplace later , at the time it was " truly ground @-@ breaking " in the way the camera seemingly crawled over the walls and up the building – not quite from the killer 's viewpoint . Patrick McAllister of Scifilm said the sequence should be considered " one of the most memorable moments in cinema " . According to McAllister , Tenebrae 's distributor begged Argento to cut the shot down because it was " meaningless " . Newman and Jones agreed that the shot added nothing to the film 's plot , but called it " meaninglessly brilliant " .
= = = Title = = =
Some European publicity materials for the film , including posters and lobby card sets , advertised the film as Tenebre , and the 1999 Anchor Bay DVD release uses that same title . However , on the print itself , during the opening credits , the title is clearly Tenebrae . In addition , the title of Neal 's latest book in the film is shown in closeup as being Tenebrae . In a lengthy interview with Argento conducted by Martin Coxhead that appeared in two issues of Fangoria in 1983 and 1984 , the title was always referred to as " Tenebrae " . Early on in production , the film as referred to as Under the Eyes of the Assassin , which was later used as one of the poster taglines . In Japan , the film was released as Shadows , and in the United States it was released as Unsane in its initial – heavily edited – incarnation .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Italian rock band Goblin had provided the scores for two of Argento 's previous films , Deep Red ( 1975 ) and Suspiria ( 1977 ) , but the director had employed English composer Keith Emerson for his foray outside of the giallo subgenre , 1980 's Inferno . Goblin had disbanded that year , but in 1982 Argento asked three of the band 's former members – Claudio Simonetti , Fabio Pignatelli and Massimo Morante – to work on Tenebrae . Owing to their history together , Simonetti felt it appropriate that Argento 's return to giallo films should utilise the core members of Goblin . The resulting synth @-@ driven score was credited to " Simonetti @-@ Pignatelli @-@ Morante " , as Goblin 's former drummer owned the rights to use the band 's name .
Tenebrae 's score is very different to those the band had produced for Argento previously . The early 1980s had seen Simonetti experimenting with dance music , and he decided on a more electronic sound for Tenebrae . Simonetti described the score as an electronica / rock hybrid , with the main theme including disco elements . So it would not be difficult to accommodate Argento 's preference for long takes , Simonetti , Pignatelli and Morante made sure to play each song for 3 – 4 minutes . Recording the score , Simonetti used the Roland Jupiter @-@ 8 , Roland Vocoder Plus and Minimoog synthesizers , as well as a piano , electric piano , the Oberheim DMX digital drum , a Roland TR @-@ 808 drum machine , and Roland MC @-@ 4 music sequencer . Pignatelli played bass and fretless guitar , while Morante played electric and acoustic guitar .
While the soundtrack is not as well regarded as Goblin 's earlier scores for Deep Red , Suspiria , or Dawn of the Dead ( 1978 ) , Tim Lucas felt it " ... so fused to the fabric of the picture that Tenebrae might be termed ... a giallo musicale ; that is , a giallo in which the soundtrack transcends mere accompaniment to occupy the same plane as the action and characters . " Writers David Kerekes and David Slater were also favorable to the score ; writing that the film " bristles with arresting imagery and a cracking musical score from ex @-@ members of Goblin " . Simonetti felt the score was good , but that it was only a " medium " -level success . However , it did enjoy a second wave of popularity being remixed in clubs . The album has had multiple reissues in numerous countries since its original release in 1982 on the Italian Cinevox label . That version consisted of only eight tracks . In 1997 , Cinevox issued a greatly expanded version on CD , including eleven bonus tracks , with a running time of over an hour . In 2004 , the expanded CD was released in the US on the Armadillo Music label . In 2012 it was released again on vinyl by AMS Records ( Italy ) .
= = Release = =
= = = Original reception and censorship = = =
Tenebrae had a wide theatrical release throughout Italy and mainland Europe , something the director very much needed after having suffered major distribution problems with his previous film , Inferno . Released on 28 October 1982 , Tenebrae saw modest success at the box office in Italy and Europe , but it did not perform as well as some of Argento 's previous films . In Italy , Tenebrae had been released with a VM18 rating , meaning it could not be seen legally by persons under the age of eighteen . Argento had desired a VM14 rating , both to attract a younger audience and to increase the film 's chances of commercial success . Tenebrae features scenes of female homosexuality ; attitudes towards homosexuality in Italy were fairly conservative at the time , and Argento said he wanted to " recount this subject freely and in an open manner , without interference or being ashamed " . The VM18 rating upset him , as he believed it was a result of the sexual diversity on display rather than the film 's violence .
One of the film 's most excessively violent scenes features the death of Neal 's ex @-@ wife , Jane ( played by Veronica Lario ) . This scene was one which suffered the most from cuts when the film was first released in Italy . The original scene featured Jane 's arm being cut off at the elbow ; blood sprays from the wound onto white walls until the character falls to the floor . After a back @-@ and @-@ forth between Argento and Italian censors ( at the time a panel of judges ) , the scene was first trimmed from showing an " immense " spray to a small one , then a smaller one still . The scene was cut to almost nothing in the 1990s , when Lario married future Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi . According to Alan Jones , Berlusconi " did not want the public seeing [ Lario ] so explicitly murdered , even if it was in a film by his country 's premier horror expert " . For a few years , it was impossible to see the film in Italy legally , as prints were withdrawn altogether . A later DVD release did become available , with the scene restored .
Averaging a murder every ten minutes , Tenebrae ranks as one of Argento 's bloodiest films . In the United Kingdom , the film was shorn of five seconds of " sexualized violence " by the British Board of Film Classification prior to its theatrical release , on 19 May 1983 . The advertising campaign for Tenebrae featured posters and a soundtrack sleeve depicting a woman with her throat cut , blood dripping from the wound . According to Jones , who worked for Tenebrae 's distributor at the time , in the UK the posters had to be recalled after the London Underground refused to run them . New posters were issued that replaced the image of the wound and blood with a red ribbon . A similar change was made to the soundtrack sleeve .
In the United States the film remained unseen in the US until 1984 , when Bedford Entertainment briefly released a heavily edited version under the title Unsane . It was approximately ten minutes shorter than the European release and was missing nearly all of the film 's violence , which effectively rendered the numerous horror sequences incomprehensible . In addition , certain scenes that established the characters and their relationships were excised , making the film 's narrative difficult to follow . This version of Tenebrae received nearly unanimously negative reviews .
= = = Home media and " video nasty " list = = =
Tenebrae has been released on home media in many different versions in numerous territories . In 1983 , when the VHS edition was released in the United Kingdom , it was short by about four seconds . However , the film soon found itself included in a list of thirty @-@ nine so @-@ called " video nasties " that were successfully prosecuted and banned from sale in UK video stores under the Video Recordings Act 1984 . Deemed harmful to audiences , " video nasties " were strongly criticised for their violent content by the press , social commentators and various religious organizations . Speculating in 2011 , Thomas Rostock said that the higher @-@ than @-@ usual murder count for an Argento film was partially responsible , while James Gracey believed it was perhaps " the highly sexualised presentation of its violent content " . He went on to say , " Of all the titles placed on the video nasty list , Tenebrae is perhaps the most misunderstood and undeserving of the grimy status it gained through its association with the whole debacle . " Kim Newman agreed that Tenebrae 's reputation as a " video nasty " was unwarranted , saying that none of the on @-@ screen deaths are as gory or lingering as those in Argento 's previous films . He also believed Tenebrae would eventually be remembered on its own merits , rather than as part of the " video nasties " list . Nevertheless , the ban lasted until 1999 , when Tenebrae was legally released on videotape with one second of footage removed in addition to the previously censored five . In 2003 , the BBFC reclassified the film and passed it without any cuts . In Germany , the release was strongly cut , and reportedly seized by the authorities .
The film has since been released on DVD in the US , mostly uncut save for approximately twenty seconds of extraneous material . Tenebrae received an initial DVD release in March 1999 from Anchor Bay Entertainment , with a re @-@ release in May 2008 . The Anchor Bay release , though presented as " uncut " was not the fully restored version of the film . A DVD German release by Raptor was also missing about one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seconds of material . In June 2011 , Arrow Films issued a special edition on DVD , but although the image quality was far better than in previous DVD releases , this version was " heavily lambasted " for carrying a transfer of the film that had visible noise and " distorted audio " . In 2013 , Arrow released a Blu @-@ ray edition that corrected the audio and video problems . Additional corrections were made to the transfer and released by Synapse films in 2016 , as a steelbook edition limited to 3000 copies . The Arrow & Synapse DVD and Blu @-@ ray releases are " completely uncut " .
= = = Later reception = = =
Tenebrae is now considered by many fans and critics to be one of Argento 's best films , with some considering it his last great one . AllMovie refers to the film " one of Dario Argento 's best thrillers " . Commenting in 1994 , Maitland McDonagh said Tenebrae was " in many respects ... the finest film that Argento has ever made . " Richard Dyer , writing for the Directory of World Cinema : Italy , describes the film as a " tease " , one which is " perhaps the apotheosis of one of the core pleasures of detective fiction : being outwitted , wrong @-@ footed , led up the garden path " , and believed that the degree of lighting used in the film was unsurpassed . Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine said that Tenebrae " is a riveting defense of auteur theory , ripe with self @-@ reflexive discourse and various moral conflicts . It 's both a riveting horror film and an architect 's worst nightmare . " Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club noted " ... Argento makes some points about the intersection of art , reality , and personality , but the director 's stunning trademark setpieces , presented here in a fully restored version , provide the real reason to watch . " Almar Haflidason , in a review for BBC Online , opined , " Sadistically beautiful and viciously exciting , welcome to true terror with Dario Argento 's shockingly relentless Tenebrae . " Tim Lucas in Video Watchdog said , " Though it is in some ways as artificial and deliberate as a De Palma thriller , Tenebrae contains more likeable characters , believable relationships , and more emphasis on the erotic than can be found in any other Argento film . " Gordon Sullivan of DVD Verdict wrote , " Tenebre is a straight @-@ up giallo in the old @-@ school tradition . It may have been filmed in 1982 , but it comes straight out of the ' 70s tradition . We 've got all the usual suspects , including a writer for a main character , lots of killer @-@ cam point of view , some crazily over the top kills , and approximately seventy @-@ two twists before all is revealed ... For fans of Argento 's earlier giallo , this is a must @-@ see . "
Not all of the recent critical reaction to Tenebrae has been positive . Geoff Andrew of Time Out thought that the film was " unpleasant even by contemporary horror standards " . John Kenneth Muir , author of Horror Films of the 1980s , considers the film to be far inferior to Suspiria , but acknowledges that it was so " unremittingly gory " that it justified its US title of " Unsane " . John Wiley Martin , although evaluating the film as a " technically mesmeric " one , felt that thematically it was a " disappointingly retrograde step " for Argento . Christopher Null of Filmcritic.com referred to it as a " gory but not particularly effective Argento horror flick " , while Dennis Schwartz dismissed it as trash . Gary Johnson , editor of Images , complained that " Not much of Tenebre makes much sense . The plot becomes little more than an excuse for Argento to stage the murder sequences . And these are some of the bloodiest murders of Argento 's career . " In 2004 , Tim Lucas re @-@ evaluated the film and found that some of his earlier enthusiasm had dimmed considerably , noting that , " Tenebre is beginning to suffer from the cheap 16 mm @-@ like softness of Luciano Tovoli 's cinematography , its sometimes over @-@ storyboarded violence ( the first two murders in particular look stilted ) , the many bewildering lapses in logic ... and the overdone performances of many of its female actors " .
= = Legacy = =
Coming at the tail end of the giallo cycle , Tenebrae does not appear to have been as influential as Argento 's earlier films were on subsequent thrillers , though Douglas E. Winter said that Tenebrae 's Louma crane sequence was stylistically influential and was used in Brian De Palma 's The Untouchables ( 1987 ) . In addition , towards the end of the film , with Neal the killer supposedly dead , the camera faces Detective Giermani directly . When he stoops to pick up some evidence from the floor , Neal is revealed to be stood behind him , their silhouettes having perfectly matched in the shot . Alan Jones believes Tenebrae was the first film to use this specific shot , and that it was copied and referenced deliberately in many subsequent films . One such example , discussed as an unacknowledged " steal " from Tenebrae , is De Palma 's " surprise reveal " of John Lithgow standing behind a victim in Raising Cain ( 1992 ) . Robert Zemeckis 's What Lies Beneath ( 2000 ) also contains a very similar moment , although Zemeckis has denied having any familiarity at all with Italian thrillers .
Neal 's death scene at the end of Tenebrae – where the character is accidentally impaled by a sculpture – is directly referenced in Kenneth Branagh 's Hitchcockian mystery Dead Again ( 1991 ) . Kim Newman says that Branagh 's film imitates so entirely the sequence ( this time with Derek Jacobi as the " victim " of the sculpture ) that Branagh must have included the reference deliberately . The subsequent moment where Nicolodi screams over and over was cited by Asia Argento ( Nicolodi 's daughter with Dario Argento ) as the moment that inspired her to become an actress .
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= Tropical Storm Gert ( 2005 ) =
Tropical Storm Gert was the fourth of seven tropical cyclones ( 4 hurricanes , two major hurricanes , and four tropical storms ) to make landfall in Mexico during 2005 . It formed in July in the Bay of Campeche , becoming the seventh named storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season .
As a tropical wave , Gert crossed Honduras and the Yucatán peninsula before organizing into Tropical Depression Seven on the afternoon of July 23 in the Bay of Campeche . It was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gert early the next day , gaining the record for the earliest formation of a seventh named storm in an Atlantic hurricane season . Gert strengthened little before making landfall south of Tampico , Tamaulipas , late on July 24 , with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 1005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) . It moved inland over central Mexico before dissipating on the next day . Gert struck in approximately the same area as Hurricane Emily just four days earlier , causing fear of flooding and landslides due to saturated lands . As a precaution , some 1 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying residences and businesses near the towns of Naranjos Amatlán and Tamiahua .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave entered the Atlantic Ocean from Africa on July 10 , and the wave developed into an area of low pressure while passing over Cape Verde . Despite the organization , the low failed to develop into a tropical cyclone due to cool waters on the sea surface and wind shear . However , those unfavorable conditions did not completely destroy the wave , as it continued traveling westward through the Lesser Antilles until July 18 . That day , while south of Puerto Rico , the wave split in two ; the northern half moved northwest and developed into Tropical Storm Franklin over the Bahamas , and the southern half continued westward , with its associated thunderstorm activity increasing .
On July 22 , a new low pressure area developed while the tropical wave was located over the Gulf of Honduras . However , this area of disturbed weather was unable to develop further , because the storm quickly moved over the Yucatán Peninsula . After its one @-@ day passage through the peninsula , the system entered the Bay of Campeche , but lacked any deep convection . This time , though , the wave quickly developed the deep convection it needed to become a tropical cyclone . In part , this was due to the Sierra Madre Oriental enhancing large @-@ scale rotation of the disturbance by forcing air to flow parallel to the mountain range , instead of through it . As a result , the National Hurricane Center in Miami , Florida designated it as Tropical Depression Seven , just 255 miles east @-@ southeast of Tuxpan , Mexico . Early on the July 24 , the cyclone was upgraded to a tropical storm with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) and received the name Gert .
Gert continued to move northwest after becoming a tropical storm , and reached a peak intensity of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 1005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 68 inHg ) . Gert made landfall just 6 miles ( 10 km ) to the southeast of Pánuco , still at peak intensity , at 10 : 00 p.m. CDT ( 0000 July 25 , UTC ) . However , due to its interaction with land , the storm quickly weakened back to a tropical depression strength early on July 25 , and became a remnant low twelve hours after that . Six hours later , just a day after it made landfall , it dissipated over the mountains of central Mexico .
= = Preparations = =
The track of Tropical Storm Gert was slightly more to the north than the National Hurricane Center 's initial predictions , giving the storm more time to develop . As a result , the NHC predicted that Gert could intensify further , but this did not occur . The primary emphasis of the forecasts was on the impact the rainfall from Gert could cause , particularly on this area of Mexico , which had been hit previously in the season by other hurricanes .
On July 23 , the Mexican Servicio Meteorológico Nacional ( National Weather Service ) issued a tropical storm warning for the eastern Mexican Gulf coast between Palma Sola and Cabo Rojo , as soon as Tropical Depression Seven formed . At that time , a tropical storm watch was issued from Cabo Rojo northward , until reaching La Cruz . That same day , the government of Veracruz declared a state of emergency in 24 municipalities of the state , making money from the National Disaster Fund available to those affected by the storm . As Gert came closer to the littoral , the tropical storm warning was extended northwards to La Cruz , and then to La Pesca , but it was canceled shortly after landfall .
Tropical Storm Gert struck just south of where Category 3 Hurricane Emily had struck , and where Tropical Storm Bret hit in late June . As a result , there were concerns that serious flooding and mudslides would result due to saturated ground . As a precaution , about 1 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying residences and businesses near the towns of Naranjos Amatlán and Tamiahua in Veracruz , and about 6 @,@ 000 throughout Tamaulipas .
= = Impact = =
The highest 24 @-@ hour rainfall reports were 214 @.@ 9 mm ( 8 @.@ 46 in ) in Tamuin , San Luis Potosí , and 185 @.@ 2 mm ( 7 @.@ 29 in ) in Tamesi , Tamaulipas . In Veracruz , the highest precipitation reading associated with Gert was 117 mm , ( 4 @.@ 61 in ) in El Higo . However , damage overall was minimal , amounting to $ 6 million ( 2005 USD , $ 60 million 2005 MXN ) , and there was only one reported fatality , from a man who was carried away by the La Silla River when he was pushing a stalled car across the flooded stream .
= = = Tamaulipas = = =
According to the government of Tamaulipas , most of the damage in the state was in farmland and in residents ' dwellings , primarily near Matamoros , Valle Hermoso , Reynosa and San Fernando . In Matamoros , part of the city lost power and running water ; in Valle Hermoso , two schools were damaged ; in Reynosa , 180 people were evacuated from low @-@ lying areas in five districts of the city , while in San Fernando , the main highway through the city was closed , and traffic on the bridge over the Conchos River was restricted to one lane .
In Mier , the spillway of the Las Blancas Dam was overtopped , causing a river bridge to be destroyed and electric power to be lost , as well . In Río Bravo , 50 families were evacuated as seven collective farms became hard to reach by road ; approximately 90 % of the residences in the farms were affected by the storm . In Altamira , 200 families were evacuated as well , and relocated to seven shelters . Also , in the municipalities of Burgos , Cruillas , and Méndez there was flooding in collective farms and family dwellings . Overall , the municipalities of Mier , Reynosa , Río Bravo , Valle Hermoso , Matamoros , San Fernando , San Carlos , Burgos , Cruillas , Méndez , Soto la Marina , Mante and Altamira were affected in the state , losing potable water and electricity .
After the storm , the state government promised to take the necessary steps to prevent an outbreak of dengue and West Nile virus ; however , by June 29 , there had already been 187 cases of classic dengue , and 29 of hemorrhagic dengue , up from 8 cases two years before , and none the previous year .
= = = Nuevo León = = =
In Nuevo León , about 6 @,@ 000 residents who lived near the Conchos , Guayalejo , and Grande Rivers were evacuated from their residences across the state . Also , the precipitation from Gert caused about 100 collective farms to become isolated from the rest of the state in the municipality of Montemorelos . In the city , one building was evacuated , as a 100 ft ( 30 m ) fissure appeared on the ground near the structure .
In the municipalities of San Vicente Tancuayalab , Valles and Ebano , 100 people were evacuated .
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= Gone for Goode =
" Gone for Goode " is the first episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 31 , 1993 , immediately following Super Bowl XXVII . The episode was written by series creator Paul Attanasio and directed by executive producer Barry Levinson . " Gone for Goode " introduced regular cast members Daniel Baldwin , Ned Beatty , Richard Belzer , Andre Braugher , Wendy Hughes , Clark Johnson , Yaphet Kotto , Melissa Leo , Jon Polito and Kyle Secor .
The episode connects several subplots involving the detectives of a Baltimore Police Department homicide unit and establishes story arcs that continued through the first season . Among them are an investigation by Meldrick Lewis ( Johnson ) and Steve Crosetti ( Polito ) into a widow killing husbands for insurance money , as well as rookie Tim Bayliss ( Secor ) being assigned the murder of an 11 @-@ year @-@ old girl for his first case . Both of those subplots were taken directly from Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book from which the series was adapted .
" Gone for Goode " was seen by 18 @.@ 24 million viewers , the largest viewership of the first season , although NBC was initially disappointed with the ratings . The episode received generally positive reviews upon its original broadcast . Barry Levinson won an Emmy Award for his direction in " Gone for Goode " , and was nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award . Paul Attanasio received a Writers Guild of America Award nomination for the episode 's script .
= = Plot summary = =
The episode opens with Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) looking for a projectile a few yards away from the body of a man shot to death . The man 's girlfriend ( Oni Faida Lampley ) , who was shot in the head during the incident but survived , tells police during questioning that her aunt Calpurnia Church hired a hitman to kill her for insurance money . The detectives learn Church previously collected life insurance from five deceased husbands . Suspecting Church of murdering her husbands , Lewis and Crosetti have the body of her most recent husband exhumed for an autopsy , but reach a dead @-@ end when it turns out to be the wrong body in his grave .
Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) hesitates to take a new murder case because he fears it will be too difficult to solve , so it is taken on by his partner Howard ( Melissa Leo ) , who has recently experienced a perfect streak of solving 11 consecutive cases . They investigate the body of a man dead in a basement , and much to Felton 's bewilderment , Howard solves the case easily . The owner of the house , Jerry Jempson ( Jim Grollman ) , literally calls her at the house while she is investigating and agrees to a police interview , during which he acts extremely nervous and is eventually charged with the murder .
Munch ( Richard Belzer ) is reluctant to follow up on the case of murdered drug addict Jenny Goode , who was run over by a car . The case has been cold for three months , but he is made to feel guilty by his partner Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) into reexamining it . Munch makes no progress after speaking with the family and reexamining notes . Based on witness accounts of a man with long blond hair and a black car , Munch spends all night looking through suspect photos until he finds a man with a black car with front end damage and long black hair , but blond eyebrows . Munch and Bolander question him , believing the suspect ( Joe Hansard ) to have dyed his hair to change his appearance after killing the woman . He quickly confesses to having hit her accidentally while driving drunk .
Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) tells Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) , an excellent detective but a lone wolf , that he must work with a partner . Pembleton ends up investigating the death of a 65 @-@ year @-@ old man with rookie detective Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) . Bayliss initially believes the death to be a heart attack , but Pembleton correctly determines it is a murder because the man 's car is missing . Police later arrest a man named Johnny ( Alexander Chaplin ) who is found driving the dead man 's car . During an interrogation , Pembleton fools Johnny into waiving his Miranda Rights , then sneakily persuades him into confessing to the murder . Bayliss , although convinced of Johnny 's guilt , nevertheless questions the ethics of Pembleton 's approach , prompting Pembleton to yell angrily at him in front of the other officers . The episode ends with Bayliss responding to his first homicide as the primary detective : the brutal murder of an 11 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Adena Watson .
= = Production = =
= = = Development and writing = = =
" Gone for Goode " was written by series creator Paul Attanasio and directed by executive producer Barry Levinson . Levinson was seeking to create a television series based on Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , a 1991 non @-@ fiction book by David Simon based on one year he spent with Baltimore Police Department homicide detectives . Levinson and fellow executive producer Tom Fontana hired Attanasio to adapt elements of the book into the teleplay for the first episode . It was first television script Attanasio ever wrote . The episode was shot by director of photography Wayne Ewing . Stan Warnow started out working as editor , but departed before the process was done due to creative differences with Levinson . Tony Black finished the editing for " Gone for Goode " , but did not return for the rest of the season , and Jay Rabinowitz worked as editor for the remaining episodes . The costumes for the episode were designed by Van Smith , but he also did not return to work on subsequent episodes . Although it was first episode of Homicide : Life on the Street , it was not technically a television pilot because the network had already ordered a full season of episodes before " Gone for Goode " was produced . The first episode was noted at the time for weaving four separate storylines into a single episode , the first in a trend of multiple subplots in each Homicide show . NBC executives indicated to Attanasio and Levinson they would have preferred the script to focus on a single homicide case rather than four , but ultimately allowed the script to be filmed with all subplots included . Additionally , despite intense advance promotion of the Homicide premiere , Attanasio deliberately sought to introduce the show with little fanfare , avoiding sensational gimmicks in favor of character @-@ driven plot , quirky dialogue and morbid dark humor .
" Gone for Goode " included several storylines , and even exact bits of dialogue , adapted straight from Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets . Among them were the investigation into Calpurnia Smith , an elderly woman suspected of murdering five husbands in order to collect their life insurance policies . This was based on the real @-@ life case of Geraldine Parrish , who was also accused of killing five husbands for insurance money , and was eventually convicted for three of their deaths . A scene involving a funeral director accidentally exhuming the wrong body while investigating the Church case mirrored a similar situation described in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets from the Parrish case . The Adena Watson murder case , which is assigned to Bayliss in the final scene of " Gone for Goode " , was adapted from the unsolved 1988 slaying of Latonya Kim Wallace , which made up a major part of the book . The Watson case became an important story arc throughout the first season which ended without the case being solved . The hit @-@ and @-@ run murder of Jenny Goode was also based on Simon 's book , and the murder of the elderly man was inspired by a case featured in the book in which a young homosexual man killed his elderly lover and stole his car .
Attanasio also based the characters in Homicide on the detectives featured in Simon 's book . The difficulties Bayliss experienced with the case , as well as the extremely personal approach he took in attempting to solve it , were inspired by the real @-@ life Baltimore detective Tom Pellegrini , who was the primary detective in the Wallace case . Most of the detectives featured in the Homicide book said they were happy with their on @-@ screen counterparts , although Detective Harry Edgerton , the inspiration for Frank Pembleton , objected to a scene in " Gone for Goode " in which the character drinks milk in a bar , something Edgerton said he never does .
The episode opens with Crosetti and Lewis looking for clues in a dark alley . Levinson and Attanasio specifically wanted a dialogue @-@ driven prologue scene that did not immediately clarify the fact that the two men were detectives or what they were looking for . The dialogue and staging of the scene were imitated in the final scene of the last Homicide episode , " Forgive Us Our Trespasses " , which aired on May 21 , 1999 . In that final scene , Detective Rene Sheppard ( played by Michael Michele ) says to Lewis , " Life is a mystery , just accept it " , a line spoken by Crosetti in the first episode . Lewis also said , " That 's what 's wrong with this job . It ain 't got nothin ' to do do with life " , a line also spoken by Crosetti in the first episode . Early scenes in " Gone for Goode " also involved Giardello introducing rookie detective Bayliss to the homicide unit . Attanasio sought to use Bayliss ' orientation as a way of introducing exposition and background about the show to the viewer as well .
In writing the script , Attanasio , Levinson and Fontana wanted the dialogue to reflect the kinds of things detectives would talk about when not discussing murders or cases , which led to the inclusion of several scenes in which detectives talk casually among themselves during lunch or around the office . Fontana , who compared the scenes to Levinson 's 1982 film Diner , said , " That really made the show different from other shows , because we had the room to have conversations that seemingly didn 't ( storywise ) connect anything , but they did reveal a lot about the characters . " Levinson specifically asked that the body by Howard and Felton be badly decomposing and attracting flies because he felt other police dramas did not portray corpses in a realistic way .
= = = Photography style = = =
Levinson and Fontana sought to establish many of the stylistic elements in the episode which would define the series for its entire run . Among them were near @-@ constant movement with hand @-@ held Super 16 cameras to give the episode a naturalistic documentary look and an editing style involving jump cuts that was unusual for television at the time . Levinson said this camera and editing style was partially inspired by Breathless , the 1960 Jean @-@ Luc Godard film . The scenes were shot on @-@ location in Baltimore , as would be the case throughout the duration of the series . The use of hand @-@ held cameras allowed the film to be shot more easily in the city , rather than on a sound @-@ stage in Los Angeles or New York City , where most shows are typically shot . Levinson said being on location at all times allowed Baltimore " to be a character in the show " .
While filming the episode , Levinson said he would simply allow the actors to perform while he switched back and forth between them with the hand @-@ held camera instead of filming carefully planned shots and individual scenes from multiple angles . This camera style largely persisted through the end of the series in 1999 . Some individual scenes involved a number of jump cuts repeated several times in fast succession . Another unusual stylistic element used in the episode involved sudden changes in jump @-@ screen direction ; a shot with an actor looking from left to right might immediately jump to another shot of the same actor looking from right to left . This process was born during the editing sessions for " Gone for Goode " , where Levinson insisted that the footage be edited to include the actor 's best performances . During editing , Tony Black cut together two shots that did not match and began looking for a cutaway shot he could use to disguise the edit . Levinson , however , liked the technique that came from cutting the two conflicting shots together and insisted it stay in .
In addition to stylistic touches , the episode established several narrative motifs that stayed with Homicide : Life on the Street throughout the duration of the series . Among them was the white board where detectives kept the names of their open cases in red and their closed cases in black . The names of NBC employees and friends of the Homicide crew were used on the white board . The episode was noted for its deliberate lack of gunplay and car chases in favor of dialogue and story . Levinson and Fontana also allowed humor to be incorporated into the show , particularly through the interactions between the detectives ; Levinson said of the first episode , " We have to inform the audience , but at the same time you want to do it with a sense of humor so you don 't seem too pretentious , in a way . " Several long @-@ standing character traits were established in " Gone for Goode " , including Kay Howard 's extraordinary streak of solved cases and the antagonism between Felton and Pembleton , which is demonstrated when the two argue loudly after being assigned to a case together . The animosity between Felton and Pembleton is based on the real @-@ life Detective Donald Kincaid , who was the inspiration behind Felton , and the strong dislike Kincaid had for Harry Edgerton , as chronicled in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets . Howard 's perfect streak is based on a similar ( although shorter ) lucky streak experienced by the real @-@ life Detective Rich Garvey , who is also featured in David Simon 's book .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was filmed over the course of seven days in Baltimore . The scene in which Pembleton and Felton try to find the correct police car in a large garage was filmed in a rundown early 20th @-@ century ballroom . The scene features dozens of white unmarked Cavaliers . Shortly before " Gone for Goode " was filmed , the Baltimore Police Department stopped using Cavaliers as their regular brand of police car , and agreed to sell their collection of leftover Cavaliers to the Homicide show for $ 1 . Although the cars were used as props in the episode , only two of the cars were actually drivable . The scenes set in the medical examiner 's office were filmed in the actual Office of the Chief Medical Examiner in Baltimore . The actors , particularly Jon Polito , hated performing in the morgue because they found the atmosphere unsettling . Ned Beatty said of filming there , " The one thing you can 't get on camera is , oh boy , it smells . " The identification pictures of suspects that Munch looks through were all pictures of photos of members of the Homicide crew . One of the final scenes in the episode , featuring Polito , Johnson and Belzer speaking in an alley at night , was conceived , written and shot in one night simply because it was raining outside , and the Homicide crew wanted to take advantage of the location during a rainy night .
Levinson said he considered the interrogation scene in " Gone for Goode " between Braugher , Secor and Chaplin , to be the " defining scene " for Frank Pembleton 's character because it defined the character 's intelligence , quirkiness , sharp instincts and sneaky interrogation style . While filming that scene , Levinson commented to Tom Fontana that the acting was so effective , an entire episode could be filmed revolving strictly around an interrogation . The comments partially inspired Fontana to write the first @-@ season episode , " Three Men and Adena " , which became one of the most critically acclaimed Homicide episodes . The final scene of the episode features Bayliss responding to the murder scene of Adena Watson in a rainy alleyway . The body was wrapped in a red raincoat , and Levinson worked with colorists to bleed out all the colors except that red to give the film a stark look . " Gone for Goode " originally included a scene with Gee and Bayliss discussing detective work at the police station . The scene , which was cut from the final episode , featured Gee comparing the work to challenges faced by literary character Sherlock Holmes , as well as Gee mistakenly referring to Holmes ' antagonist Moriarty as " Murray " .
" Gone for Goode " marks the first performance of Richard Belzer as Detective John Munch , a character the actor has played in more than 300 television episodes in a number of shows , including Homicide and Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Levinson said Belzer was a " lousy actor " during his first audition with the " Gone for Goode " script . Levinson asked Belzer to take some time to reread and practice the material , then come back and read it again . During his second reading , Levinson said Belzer was " still terrible " , but that the actor eventually found confidence in his performance . " Gone for Goode " included guest appearances by actors who later become much more widely known . Steve Harris , who later achieved fame playing Eugene Young on the ABC legal drama The Practice , played an uncooperative suspect who repeatedly lies to Munch during questioning . Alexander Chaplin , who later played speechwriter James Hobert on the ABC sitcom Spin City , portrayed the alleged murderer Johnny in " Gone for Goode " . The comedic confession scenes involving Jim Grollman as accused murderer Jerry Jempson were almost entirely improvised .
The editing process for " Gone for Goode " proved difficult due to audio problems that forced producers to re @-@ shoot several scenes . However , the cast and crew also found the atmosphere fun during editing , so much so that Barry Levinson 's mother brought in home @-@ baked snacks and the crew had to be asked to stop visiting because they were slowing down the edit sessions . When the cast finally watched the last cut of " Gone for Goode " , they hugged each other in celebration .
= = Cultural references = =
Throughout the episode , Crosetti discusses with Lewis various conspiracy theories about the assassination of Abraham Lincoln , the 16th president of the United States . Crosetti disputes the accepted theory that actor John Wilkes Booth killed Lincoln and instead theorizes that Jefferson Davis , the president of the Confederate States of America , organized the murder . Crosetti 's assassination theories about Lincoln would be a recurring theme throughout the rest of the first season . Crosetti 's fascination with the Lincoln assassination was based on Tom Fontana 's real @-@ life obsession with it . During an early scene in which a suspect tries lying to Munch , the detective berates the suspect for treating him as if he were Montel Williams instead of Larry King . King is a long @-@ time television journalist and host of CNN 's Larry King Live , whereas Williams is a more tabloid @-@ style television show host . Williams is also a Baltimore native , which becomes a point of discussion between Munch and Bolander . Munch tells a lying suspect that his false story has an " Elmore Leonard quality " , a reference to an American novelist and screenwriter .
When Munch wonders how Romans become Italians , he asks when " Friends , Romans , countrymen ; lend me your ears " turned into " Hey , yo ! " The former line is from the William Shakespeare play Julius Caesar . Munch says , " Great , let 's arrest Axl Rose " , a Guns N ' Roses musician , when he is told the suspect in a murder is blond . During one scene , the detectives eat steamed crabs . This was deliberately included in the episode to reflect the culinary culture of Baltimore , where eating crabs is extremely popular . During a discussion about Pembleton , Crosetti compares him to the lone wolf character played by actor Gary Cooper in the 1952 western film High Noon ; when trying to recall the title of the film , Crosetti said the character had a New York City type of attitude , prompting Lewis to believe he is referring to the 1942 baseball film The Pride of the Yankees , also starring Cooper .
= = Reception = =
= = = Original broadcast and ratings = = =
" Gone for Goode " was scheduled to premiere on January 31 , 1993 , in the time slot immediately following Super Bowl XXVII . Having consistently placed third in the Nielsen ratings during prime time since September 1992 , NBC hoped a large football audience coupled with an extensive advertising campaign would allow Homicide : Life on the Street to give the network a large ratings boost . The network ran numerous television commercials advertising the premiere episode , some of which focused on the involvement of Barry Levinson with the hope of capitalizing on the feature film director 's household name .
" Gone for Goode " was seen by 18 @.@ 24 million viewers . It earned an 18 rating , which represents the percentage of television @-@ equipped homes , and a 31 share , which represents percentage of sets in use . This marked the best ratings performance of a preview or premiere following a Super Bowl since The Wonder Years in 1988 . It was also the largest viewership of the first season , in large part due to its 10 : 25 p.m. time @-@ slot immediately following the Super Bowl . Nevertheless , NBC considered it a disappointing performance , based on the amount of advertising and press coverage the episode received . The episode received less than half the audience that the Super Bowl itself did . Levinson later said the Super Bowl crowd might not have been perfectly suited to Homicide : Life on the Street . In particular , regarding the episode 's complex story lines and distinctive visual style , he said , " I imagine anyone who has been drinking a lot at a Super Bowl party might have trouble following the show . "
= = = Reviews = = =
The debut episode received generally positive reviews . Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register said , " One word about ' Gone for Goode ' - wow . " Littlefield praised the episode for dropping the viewer into the middle of an episode with complex characters and storylines without getting too confusing . People magazine reviewer David Hiltbrand called the episode " extraordinary " and gave it an A grade . He complimented the realism , the hand @-@ held camera work and the cast , particularly Belzer . Lon Grahnke of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times complimented the cast and praised the show for not depending on car chases or action sequences . Grahnke also said the show " has the spice , dry wit and ethnic diversity of the Hill Street Blues crew , with even more eccentricities and a heightened sense of realism " . John Goff of Daily Variety said the episode was well filmed and edited , and included a strong cast with performances " above normal level of series work " . Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts particularly praised Andre Braugher 's performance : " It 's not often you actually witness a TV star being born ... The moment the galvanic actor steps onto the screen , though , he owns it . " The New York Times television critic John J. O 'Connor praised the performance of Jon Polito , and said the role could be " the kind of career break Joe Pesci found in the Lethal Weapon movies " .
Mike Boone of The Gazette praised Belzer 's performance and the hand @-@ held camera style of photography , adding , " But if your picture tube blew Sunday night , you could still listen to an hour of the hippest , funniest dialogue on TV . " Not all reviews were positive . Some critics considered the photography style of jump cuts and hand @-@ held camera movement too jarring ; some said it made them feel seasick . James Endrst , television columnist for The Hartford Courant , felt the episode was over @-@ hyped and said " seen it , done it , been there before " of the filming techniques otherwise being praised as cutting edge . Endrst , however , praised the performances of Braugher , Belzer , Polito and Secor in particular . Time reviewer Richard Zoglin said the episode had a strong cast and that he appreciated the lack of two @-@ dimensional violence , but said , " the characters are too pat , their conflicts too predictable " , particularly the rookie character Bayliss .
" Gone for Goode " was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series . Sun writer David Zurawik wrote : " ' Gone for Goode ' is not just a well @-@ crafted pilot , it is one of the best in the history of the medium . It introduced a sprawling cast of complicated characters and made us want to come back and visit this world again . " " Gone for Goode " was also among a 1999 Court TV marathon of the top 15 Homicide episodes , as voted on by 20 @,@ 000 visitors to the channel 's website .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Barry Levinson won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for his direction in " Gone for Goode " . It was one of two Emmys Homicide : Life on the Streets received during the 45th Primetime Emmy Awards season , with Tom Fontana also winning an Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode " Three Men and Adena " . Levinson was also nominated for a Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Direction in a Drama Series for the episode , but lost to Gregory Hoblit for his direction of the pilot episode of the police drama NYPD Blue . Paul Attanasio was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for his " Gone for Goode " script . It competed in that same category with Fontana 's Homicide script " Night of the Dead Living " , which eventually won the award .
= = DVD release = =
" Gone for Goode " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 . The set included an audio commentary by Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana for the " Gone for Goode " episode , as well as a collection of the commercials that advertised the episode during the Super Bowl .
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= California State Route 78 =
State Route 78 ( SR 78 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California that runs from Oceanside east to Blythe , traversing nearly the entire width of the state . Its western terminus is at Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in San Diego County and its eastern terminus is at I @-@ 10 in Riverside County . The route is a freeway through the heavily populated cities of northern San Diego County and a two @-@ lane highway running through the Cuyamaca Mountains to Julian . In Imperial County , SR 78 travels through the desert near the Salton Sea and passes through the city of Brawley before turning north and passing through an area of sand dunes on the way to its terminus in Blythe .
SR 78 was one of the original state highways designated in 1934 , although portions of the route existed as early as 1900 . However , it was not designated east of Brawley until 1959 . The freeway section in the North County of San Diego that connects Oceanside and Escondido was built in the middle of the twentieth century in several stages , including a transitory stage known as the Vista Way Freeway , and has been improved several times . An expressway bypass of the city of Brawley was completed in 2012 . There are many projects slated to improve the freeway due to increasing congestion in the region .
= = Route description = =
SR 78 begins in Oceanside as a continuation of Vista Way . As it encounters a traffic signal and crosses over I @-@ 5 , the route becomes a suburban freeway traveling east through Oceanside . The freeway loosely parallels Buena Vista Creek before entering the city of Vista . Turning southeast , SR 78 continues into the city of San Marcos near California State University San Marcos and enters Escondido , where it has an interchange with I @-@ 15 . A 2011 Caltrans study estimated that the average commuter encountered a delay of 10 minutes on the portion from I @-@ 5 to I @-@ 15 . After passing the Center City Parkway ( I @-@ 15 Business ) interchange , the freeway abruptly ends at the intersection with Broadway . SR 78 then makes a turn south onto Broadway and continues through downtown Escondido by turning east onto Washington Avenue and south onto Ash Street , which becomes San Pasqual Valley Road .
Turning east once again , SR 78 leaves the Escondido city limits and enters the San Pasqual Valley as it provides access to the San Diego Zoo Safari Park and San Pasqual Battlefield State Park . After leaving the San Pasqual Valley , the road follows a serpentine alignment , heading south to enter the community of Ramona as Pine Street . In Ramona , SR 78 intersects SR 67 and makes a turn east onto Main Street , going through downtown Ramona . The highway leaves Ramona as Julian Road , which continues on a winding mountain alignment through Witch Creek to Santa Ysabel where it meets SR 79 .
SR 78 runs concurrently with SR 79 across the headwaters of the San Diego River and through the hamlet of Wynola , briefly entering Cleveland National Forest before reaching Julian and entering the town as Washington Street . The route , still concurrent with SR 79 , turns east onto Main Street and travels through downtown Julian before SR 79 diverges south towards Cuyamaca and SR 78 heads northeast as Banner Road . The road intersects with County Route S2 ( CR S2 ) at a junction called Scissors Crossing ; CR S2 runs concurrently in a wrong @-@ way concurrency . Shortly afterwards , SR 78 enters Anza @-@ Borrego Desert State Park and is designated as a scenic highway for its length in the state park . Although this route travels many miles south of the town of Borrego Springs , it provides access to the town via CR S3 . SR 78 travels through the town of Ocotillo Wells before exiting the state park and entering Imperial County .
In Imperial County , SR 78 intersects with SR 86 , running concurrently with it southwest of the Salton Sea and northwest of San Felipe Creek . SR 78 passes through the desert community of Elmore Desert Ranch before entering the city of Westmorland . The route , still concurrent with SR 86 , enters into the city of Brawley as Main Street , where SR 86 splits to the south towards El Centro . SR 78 continues north onto the Brawley Bypass , a freeway that passes to the north of downtown Brawley . SR 111 runs concurrently with SR 78 for a short duration before the latter exits from the freeway and continues east .
Then , SR 78 intersects with SR 115 east of Brawley , running concurrently with it for a brief distance . Shortly after passing through the small community of Glamis , the road turns northeast and eventually north towards Blythe , passing near the Chocolate Mountain Naval Reserve . As it nears the Colorado River and the Arizona border , SR 78 briefly passes through Cibola National Wildlife Refuge before entering the community of Palo Verde , where the river turns away from the highway and SR 78 enters Riverside County .
As it nears Blythe , the highway makes a sharp turn east onto 32nd Avenue before turning north on Rannels Boulevard . It makes a right on 28th Avenue before turning north on South Neighbours Boulevard and passing through Ripley . SR 78 continues north for a few more miles to its terminus at I @-@ 10 , approximately seven miles ( 11 km ) west of the Arizona border . North of I @-@ 10 , Neighbours Boulevard becomes Interstate 10 Business for a block before the business route turns east toward Blythe .
SR 78 is designated as the Ronald Packard Parkway ( after a former Congressman named Ronald Packard from the area ) from I @-@ 5 in the city of Oceanside to I @-@ 15 in the city of Escondido , and Ben Hulse Highway ( after a former state senator named Ben Hulse ) from SR 86 near Brawley to I @-@ 10 near the city of Blythe . The portion of SR 78 from SR 86 in Brawley to CR S3 near Anza @-@ Borrego Desert State Park is designated as part of the Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail auto tour route , promoted by the National Park Service . An informal nickname for the road is " the Hops Highway , " referring to the fact that the 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) stretch of SR 78 from Oceanside to Julian passes by one @-@ third of all the breweries in San Diego County .
SR 78 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System , although only the metropolitan section of SR 78 is a freeway . The section of SR 78 from the western junction of SR 79 to the western junction with SR 86 is designated by the California State Legislature as eligible by law for the State Scenic Highway System ; however , only the section in Anza Borrego Desert State Park has officially been designated by Caltrans as being part of the system , meaning that it is a substantial section of highway passing through a " memorable landscape " with no " visual intrusions " , where the potential designation has gained popular favor with the community ; it gained this status in 1971 . SR 78 from I @-@ 5 to I @-@ 15 , and from the eastern junction with SR 86 to the eastern junction with SR 111 is part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In 2013 , SR 78 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 670 between the San Diego – Imperial county line and the western SR 86 junction , and 163 @,@ 000 between Twin Oaks Valley Road and Nordahl Road , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
= = = Original highway = = =
The Old Banner Toll Road connected the towns of Julian and Banner in 1871 , after a gold rush began in 1870 , and eliminated the need to manually lower supplies to gold miners down a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) slope . The county bought the road from Horace Wilcox in 1874 , and removed the toll . The road remained in service until 1925 , and remained operational until a flood in the winter season of 1979 – 1980 . By August 1874 , a road from Valle de las Viejas to Julian was open and accessible for horse teams . In the meantime , the City of Oceanside began discussions regarding a road east from Oceanside through the San Marcos valley . Efforts to realign the road from Ramona to Julian began in 1892 , when a county surveyor examined the prospect of shifting the road away from the Graves hill .
Before the designation of SR 78 , a road known as the Brawley @-@ Westmorland @-@ Julian @-@ Oceanside Highway ( connecting Oceanside , Escondido , Ramona , Julian , Westmorland , and Brawley ) existed during the early twentieth century . This road roughly followed the current routing of SR 78 from Escondido to the east of Brawley , although it traveled along a different routing from Westmorland into Brawley . No road connected Brawley with Glamis in 1919 ; it was necessary to travel north through Calipatria to reach Blythe . East of the Sand Hills , there was a road from Glamis passing by Smith Well into Palo Verde , which roughly follows the routing of SR 78 .
At this time , when the road from the west into Julian had been approved , many in the community began discussing a road east into the Imperial Valley . There were many proposed alignments besides the one east of Julian through Banner , including through the San Felipe Valley , and the Montezuma Valley . The plan was to construct the Santa Ysabel grade portion as a gravel road , and the rest of the road between Ballena ( near Ramona ) and Julian as a concrete road . The work to pave the road from Santa Ysabel to Julian was nearing completion in September 1920 . Grading was completed by August 1921 , and paving work continued , as well as grading on the Santa Ysabel and Julian grades . In 1922 , the Automobile Club of Southern California scouting expedition reported that the road from Ramona to Julian was " in excellent condition " though the pavement was poor from Ballena to Santa Ysabel , and under construction just east of Santa Ysabel .
A road from Julian to Kane Springs was completed in 1925 . Efforts to include this road extending to Brawley into the state highway system date back from 1927 , in order to receive state funding for the road . Plans for a cross @-@ country road through Borrego Springs were being discussed by county government officials in 1927 , as there were no east – west state highways in between Mountain Springs and Riverside . Those living in Calipatria and Westmorland supported the prospect of the road to Julian being improved , and included in the state highway system . In 1928 , state assembly member Myron Witter wrote a letter to the San Diego County Board of Supervisors to suggest that the highway be incorporated as a second entrance to the county from the east , and that it would not detract from the progress of the other highway from El Centro ; however , the county wanted to prioritize the paving over the designation . Chambers of commerce in the Imperial Valley generally agreed with Witter , proposing that the El Centro – Calexico road be made a part of the state highway system , and the Kane Springs – Julian road be given second priority for inclusion .
In June 1930 , an agreement was made between the county and the state to share in the construction and maintenance on the road to Kane Springs from Julian ; prison crews were to make up some of the workforce . Vista Way opened on November 26 , 1930 . By 1932 , the road from Escondido to Ramona was a gravel road , and the portion from Julian to U.S. Route 99 ( US 99 ) , which is currently designated as SR 86 , was still a dirt road . That year , the cost was predicted to be $ 176 @,@ 000 ( about $ 20 @.@ 6 million in 2015 dollars ) .
= = = Construction in San Diego County = = =
SR 78 was originally formed along with the originally signed state highways in California ( Sign Routes ) in 1934 ; however , it only extended to what was then US 99 near Kane Springs . In the North County , SR 78 was legislatively designated as Route 196 from then @-@ US 101 ( present @-@ day I @-@ 5 ) to Vista , and as Route 77 from Vista to US 395 in Escondido . SR 78 was legally known as Route 197 from Escondido to Ramona , and Route 198 from Ramona to US 99 , which is now SR 86 . From the eastern junction of SR 86 to the Riverside county line , the route was designated as Route 146 in 1959 .
By 1947 , US 395 ran concurrently along the portion of SR 78 from Vista to Escondido before continuing along Santa Fe Avenue to Bonsall and Fallbrook and rejoining its alignment during the 1970s . At this time , all of SR 78 that existed had been paved . Before the present @-@ day freeway was built , SR 78 was routed on the Vista Way Freeway ( which was an expressway ) from Oceanside east to downtown Vista . After this , it followed Santa Fe Avenue and Mission Road east ( now signed as CR S14 ) , continuing onto Grand Avenue in Escondido . Following the intersection with US 395 , SR 78 turned south on Ash Street and rejoined the current alignment of the highway . In 1949 , the rerouting of SR 78 from US 395 to US 99 was listed as a priority by local officials . The road was known for its curves , even though it went over relatively flat terrain ; this reduced its efficiency .
The 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) portion of the SR 78 freeway in Oceanside opened to traffic on February 11 , 1954 . This highway was extended to Vista in May 1955 , at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 159 @,@ 000 ( about $ 25 @.@ 1 million in 2015 dollars ) . The part of the freeway from Vista to Escondido was one of the top priorities for highway construction in the county as early as 1960 . The center portion of the Vista Way Freeway opened in April 1962 , but the western part of the route was not entirely access controlled , as an expressway . The section of the SR 78 freeway from Rancho Santa Fe Road in San Marcos to Nordahl Road was completed in April 1962 . The part of the freeway connecting Rancho Santa Fe Road to the Vista portion opened in February 1963 , at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 9 million ( about $ 64 @.@ 5 million in 2015 dollars ) . The opening of the freeway was credited with helping to bring 315 jobs to San Marcos in 1963 . The rest of the freeway between Nordahl Road and US 395 opened on December 21 , 1964 , providing a four @-@ lane highway from Escondido to Oceanside ; the segment cost $ 1 @,@ 865 @,@ 000 ( about $ 30 @.@ 8 million in 2015 dollars ) . SR 78 was officially designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering .
The San Diego Chamber of Commerce and the San Diego Highway Development Association urged for the conversion of SR 78 west of Vista , a length of 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) , from an expressway to a freeway in April 1967 . The College Boulevard diamond interchange on this western segment was scheduled to open to traffic on October 24 , 1967 , and connected the recently relocated MiraCosta College to the freeway . The interchange , previously an at @-@ grade intersection , improved traffic flow to the college by removing the left turn across the highway needed to access it . The construction of the interchange cost $ 800 @,@ 941 ( about $ 10 @.@ 3 million in 2015 dollars ) . May 1968 saw the state designating the Jefferson Street and Emerald Drive interchanges as a priority . In August 1968 , the state allocated $ 750 @,@ 000 ( about $ 8 @.@ 91 million in 2015 dollars ) for building the Jefferson Street interchange . Further funding difficulties were encountered due to US 395 being given priority , but both interchanges had funding by August 1970 .
The construction of the Emerald Drive interchange was scheduled for the year 1971 . While the El Camino Real interchange was already a diamond interchange , the state planned to add traffic signals to the ramps to accommodate more congestion from the nearby mall . The Emerald Drive interchange was completed in September , and the rest of the project was to be completed by the end of the year , leaving Jefferson Drive as the only remaining traffic signal . Construction on the Jefferson Street interchange began in early 1972 ; the section from I @-@ 5 east to Melrose Drive ( along the routing of the Vista Way Freeway ) had been upgraded to full freeway standards as of 1973 .
= = = Glamis Road = = =
Plans to construct a road from Brawley to Glamis date from 1953 ; the road would provide improved access to two newer state parks . The ceding of the Chocolate Mountains to the U.S. Navy had closed a north – south road traversing Imperial County , and the government needed to restore a corridor for local residents to use , as the road was closed during the day for five days a week . However , in August , the Riverside Chamber of Commerce opposed the construction , even though it would replace the Niland – Blythe road . The chamber reversed its stance in December , as the road would mostly be constructed in Imperial County .
To construct the road , the House Armed Services Committee voted to allocate $ 660 @,@ 000 ( about $ 13 @.@ 3 million in 2015 dollars ) for the Navy to give to Imperial County to construct it in February 1956 . The House Appropriations Committee bundled it with 616 other projects , however , which President Dwight Eisenhower vetoed in mid @-@ July . The allocation was eventually approved by both Congress and Eisenhower a few weeks later . The San Diego Union and the Evening Tribune ( later merged to form the Union @-@ Tribune ) were recognized by the San Diego county supervisors for their role in winning congressional support for the funding .
There was a brief delay in approving the money in February 1957 when there was a proposal to move the gunnery range . However , at the end of the month , the United States Navy obtained ownership from Imperial County of the old Niland – Blythe road running through the Chocolate Mountain Aerial Gunnery Range for the specified amount . The county then used this money to fund the construction of the Glamis Road , which Ben Hulse predicted would become a state highway . This portion of the road was specifically designed to address the challenges of building it through sand dunes . The engineers routed the highway according to the terrain and made cuts in the sand up to 80 feet ( 24 m ) deep . The routing roughly followed an old Native American trail that went from the Imperial Valley to the Palo Verde Valley . According to an Imperial County official , the road was predicted to be more busy than US 80 and to bring traffic to San Diego directly from Needles and US 66 .
The Glamis road opened in August 1958 , and the road from Glamis to Palo Verde was under construction at that time ; the part of the road that was already open was dedicated in October . In 1959 , the rest of the current routing of SR 78 between Brawley and Palo Verde was added to the state highway system as SR 195 and Legislative Route 146 . The state legislature added the portion of SR 78 from SR 115 to the Riverside County line in the 1964 state highway renumbering , also naming the road the Ben Hulse Highway . In March 1964 , the Ben Hulse Highway leading to Palo Verde was dedicated , and state senator Hulse 's efforts to have the road built were recognized . Following this , in 1965 , the newly constructed section was signed as CR S78 . The section from Palo Verde to Blythe shows up as part of SR 78 on maps as early as 1965 , and the section from southwest of Midway Well to Palo Verde is shown as part of SR 78 as early as 1966 .
= = = North County freeway expansion = = =
In 1969 , plans to extend the freeway portion of SR 78 east from the Broadway interchange through Escondido were delayed by Caltrans director Jacob Dekema due to a lack of funding until 1980 . However , in 1970 , the community raised concerns about the number of buildings that would need to be destroyed , as the freeway would go through a dense urban area . Other routes , including routing SR 78 along I @-@ 15 south , were proposed . The majority of the Escondido City Council supported sending representatives to the upcoming California Coastal Commission meeting in January 1971 to expedite the process of construction .
A month later , an environmental study was conducted that focused on the possibilities of rerouting the proposed freeway . In April 1972 , the majority of voters supported a referendum that halted plans to build the SR 78 freeway through the city of Escondido . The city then turned its focus to widening Lincoln Avenue and Ash Street instead , and also requested that the routing of SR 78 be moved to Broadway , Washington Avenue , and Ash Street from Grand Avenue to improve traffic flow . Five years later , signs were installed on eastbound SR 78 , directing traffic headed for the San Diego Zoo Safari Park to use I @-@ 15 south to Via Rancho Parkway instead of continuing eastbound , to bypass the Escondido traffic .
City officials expressed a desire to have SR 78 included in the Interstate Highway System in 1985 , but this was determined unlikely to succeed by state senator William Craven . In September , the state government agreed to pay $ 7 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 23 million in 2015 dollars ) for the widening between Oceanside and Escondido , but the county and the five cities the route ran through would have to pay for the rest of the cost . The San Diego County Board of Supervisors endorsed the project that month , in order to have the best chance at getting federal funding . A spike in accidents during that year led to Representative Ron Packard proposing a way to split the costs between the governments ; there were 387 accidents from January to August 1985 , a sharp increase from 234 in 1984 . In recognition for his work obtaining funding , SR 78 between Oceanside and Escondido was named the Ronald Packard Parkway in 2000 .
The House Public Works and Transportation Subcommittee allocated $ 12 million ( about $ 21 @.@ 9 million in 2015 dollars ) in a bill during June 1986 . The Senate raised an issue over the 65 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 105 km / h ) speed limit in October , which made the outcome dubious . The House and Senate eventually settled on a version of the bill in March 1987 , only to have President Ronald Reagan veto the bill due to " pork barrel " spending . Congress passed the bill in April 1987 , overriding Reagan 's veto , in the same legislation that allowed for rural Interstates to have a speed limit of up to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . The bill authorized $ 15 million ( about $ 41 @.@ 7 million in 2015 dollars ) in federal funding , and the cities of Oceanside , Carlsbad , Vista , San Marcos , and Escondido agreed to pay $ 6 million ( about $ 16 @.@ 7 million in 2015 dollars ) ; the total cost was $ 30 million ( about $ 83 @.@ 4 million in 2015 dollars ) . Caltrans predicted that without the widening project , traffic speeds on SR 78 would be as low as 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) by the year 2000 because of congestion . A public relations campaign had begun to garner public support for the project , including bumper stickers saying " I hate 78 " .
The widening project began construction on April 14 , 1989 , with the first project adding two lanes between San Marcos Boulevard and I @-@ 15 . Additional funding was secured with a local sales tax increase in 1987 , providing $ 80 million ( about $ 195 million in 2015 dollars ) , and an additional $ 7 @.@ 8 million ( about $ 19 million in 2015 dollars ) from the California Transportation Commission . By March 1991 , another part of the project from College Boulevard to Melrose Drive began the bidding process . The next year , the project began to wind down , with bidding on the final part of the work between Nordahl Road and I @-@ 15 . The widening was complete by the beginning of 1994 .
= = = Upgrades and improvements = = =
Several projects took place following the completion of the widening project . A realignment project took place in 1994 to remove one of the curves in the San Pasqual Valley , at a cost of $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 5 @.@ 03 million in 2015 dollars ) . The San Marcos Boulevard interchange was renovated beginning in late 1996 , but encountered difficulties in the land acquisition process . Work resumed in 1999 , and was expected to be finished by 2000 , at a cost of $ 10 million ; the benefits of decreased congestion came into effect once the new westbound offramp was opened . The Twin Oaks Valley Road interchange was another subject of contention , as the state Assembly refused to fund the project with $ 5 @.@ 1 million ( about $ 9 @.@ 02 million in 2015 dollars ) in April 1997 . However , in June 1998 , the California Transportation Commission approved the funding after the San Diego Association of Governments officially requested it . Construction began in August 1999 , and was scheduled to end in 2001 .
A new interchange with Vista Village Drive was opened in 1998 , and the College Boulevard interchange in Oceanside was revised along westbound SR 78 , at a cost of $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 9 @.@ 32 million in 2015 dollars ) . In addition to this , a new interchange was constructed at Las Posas Road in San Marcos , which opened in 2006 . According to the U @-@ T San Diego ( the renamed San Diego Union @-@ Tribune ) , SR 78 at Barham Drive was the worst " traffic bottleneck " in the county between 2010 and 2012 . Thus , the interchange at Nordahl Road was also improved , and extra lanes were to be added between Nordahl Road and I @-@ 15 ; construction commenced in early 2012 , and the new bridge opened in November . The project cost $ 41 million .
In the late 2000s , planning began for a bypass around the downtown portion of the city of Brawley . An expressway would carry the routing of SR 78 north and east of the city , with an interchange at SR 111 , before intersecting with the current alignment of SR 78 . A Swedish company began construction on this bypass in April 2008 ; the first phase consisted of the portion of the bypass that is solely SR 111 . The second phase of the bypass , from the western junction with SR 111 to the eastern junction with SR 78 , lasted from February 2008 to June 2011 . On the third phase of the project , from the junction with SR 86 west of Brawley to the western end of the completed bypass , construction began in late 2010 . This project was identified in August 2010 as a project that could be affected by California state budget cuts . The Brawley Bypass , as it was known , opened on October 30 , 2012 .
= = Future = =
The western portion of SR 78 in North County is currently slated for several improvements . There were plans to construct an additional interchange at Rancho Del Oro Road in Oceanside ; however , the Oceanside City Council decided to cancel these plans in 2005 , despite studies suggesting that this move would be detrimental to the traffic in the region . The City Council reinstated those plans in September 2012 .
There are also plans to improve the interchange with I @-@ 5 , which currently involves a traffic signal connecting Vista Way and SR 78 with the ramps to I @-@ 5 southbound . Plans call for adding more lanes to I @-@ 5 and SR 78 as well as for the construction of a new ramp from SR 78 westbound to I @-@ 5 southbound and from I @-@ 5 southbound to SR 78 eastbound . The nearby lagoon has served as an obstacle in constructing additional ramps . In 2002 , the I @-@ 5 northbound to SR 78 eastbound ramp was widened to two lanes to ease congestion . At 2015 meeting , the Oceanside community expressed concerns about a potential " flyover " ramp design for the new interchange . The project is scheduled for completion in the late 2020s .
A 2011 Caltrans report proposed adding two high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes to the freeway portion of SR 78 between I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 15 to accommodate increased traffic . In early 2016 , the mayor of San Marcos stated that there were plans to add another lane in each direction to SR 78 through parts of the city .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
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= Strobilurus tenacellus =
Strobilurus tenacellus , commonly known as the pinecone cap , is a species of agaric fungus in the family Physalacriaceae . It is found in Asia and Europe , where it grows on the fallen cones of pine and spruce trees . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) are small , with convex to flat , reddish to brownish caps up to 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter , set atop thin cylindrical stems up to 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long with a rooting base . A characteristic microscopic feature of the mushroom is the sharp , thin @-@ walled cystidia found on the stipe , gills , and cap . The mushrooms , sometimes described as edible , are too small to be of culinary interest . The fungus releases compounds called strobilurins that suppress the growth and development of other fungi . Derivatives of these compounds are used as an important class of agricultural fungicides .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Agaricus tenacellus by Christian Hendrik Persoon in his 1796 Observationes Mycologicae . In its taxonomic history , it has been moved to the genera Collybia by Paul Kummer in 1803 , Marasmius by Jules Favre in 1939 , and Pseudohiatula by Georges Métrod in 1952 . Rolf Singer transferred it to the newly circumscribed genus Strobilurus in 1962 , giving it the name by which it is currently known .
The specific epithet tenacellus is a diminutive form of the Latin word tenax , meaning " tough " . Its British Mycological Society @-@ recommended common name is the " pinecone cap " . English botanist James Edward Smith called it the " dark fir @-@ cone Agaric " in his 1836 work The English Flora .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially convex before flattening out , sometimes retaining a small central papilla , and sometimes developing a central depression ; the cap diameter reaches 5 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) . The smooth cap is hygrophanous ( i.e. , it changes colour as it loses or absorbs moisture ) , and has shallow radial grooves extending about halfway up the cap . Its colour is reddish to brownish , and is often paler in the center than the margin ; when dry , the colour fades to greyish . The greyish @-@ white gills have a free to deeply emarginate ( notched ) attachment to the cap . They are somewhat crowded together , numbering 20 – 25 gills with 1 to 7 tiers of interspersed lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap margin to the stipe ) . The cylindrical stipe measures 4 – 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 2 mm thick , and has at its base a root @-@ like pseudorrhiza that extends into the substrate . The upper stipe is yellowish brown , while lower it is dark orange @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown . The flesh has no odour and usually has a bitter taste . While the fruit bodies are sometimes described as are edible , they are too small to be of culinary interest .
The spore print is white . Spores are roughly elliptical to tear @-@ shaped , with dimensions of 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 0 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 20 – 40 by 7 – 11 μm . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are thin walled , plentiful , spindle @-@ shaped to somewhat flask @-@ shaped with a sharp tip , and measure 30 – 70 by 3 – 10 μm . The pleurocystidia ( on the gill face ) are similar in shape and size to the cheilocystidia , although usually not quite as numerous . The cap cuticle is made of a hymeniderm of club @-@ shaped to somewhat spherical cells measuring 8 – 25 by 7 – 20 μm , mixed with flask @-@ shaped pileocystidia ( cystidia on the cap ) that are 20 – 45 by 5 – 11 μm . Hyphae lack clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Strobilurus esculentus and S. stephanocystis are similar in appearance to S. tenacellus . S. esculentus mushrooms have thin , sharp cap margins and only fruit on fallen spruce cones . S. stephanocystis has a yellow @-@ brown to reddish @-@ yellow cap that is not hygrophanous . Baeospora myosura is another small agaric that grows on pine and spruce cones , but it fruits in autumn .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Strobilurus tenacellus is a saprobic wood @-@ rotting fungus . It fruits singly or in small groups on fallen and often partially buried cones of Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) , European black pine ( Pinus nigra ) and sometimes spruce ( Picea ) in coniferous and mixed forests . It is found in Europe and Asia , where it has been recorded in Japan and Jordan . In Europe , the fungus usually fruits from March to June . Its occurrence is occasional .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Two cyathane @-@ like diterpenoids , ( 12S ) -11α , 14α @-@ epoxy @-@ 13α , 14β , 15 @-@ trihydroxycyath @-@ 3 @-@ ene and ( 12R ) -11α , 14α @-@ epoxy @-@ 13α , 14β , 15 @-@ trihydroxycyath @-@ 3 @-@ ene , have been isolated and identified from the liquid culture of the fungus . These compounds inhibit the growth of certain tumor cells when grown in vitro .
Using a standard laboratory method to determine antimicrobial susceptibility , methanol @-@ based extracts of Strobilurus tenacellus fruit bodies were shown in a 2000 study to have low antibacterial activity against the bacterium Bacillus subtilis , and low to moderate activity against the fungi Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus . The fungus produces the natural antibiotic strobilurin A , which was reported as a novel compound from this species in 1977 ; other strobilurins have since been found in other basidiomycete wood @-@ rotting fungi , like Porcelain Mushroom for example . Strobilurin A is thought to be derived biosynthetically from the amino acid L @-@ phenylalanine . In nature , the fungus secretes the chemical to prevent invasion by other fungi that challenge its nutrient source . It works by blocking electron transfer in the mitochondria , stopping respiration by binding to the ubihydroquinone oxidation center of the bc1 complex . This prevents the competing fungus from creating its own energy and inhibiting its growth at the earliest stages of the life cycle , the spore germination stage . The fungus is resistant to its own chemical because its ubihydroquinone has three amino acid residues that prevent the strobilurins from binding . Because of their sensitivity to light , and high vapor pressures that causes them to rapidly disappear when applied to the surface of a leaf , chemically unmodified strobilurins are not generally useful as fungicides for agricultural use . The strobilurin @-@ derived compound azoxystrobin , first made commercially available in 1996 , was designed to overcome these limitations . It is the world 's biggest @-@ selling fungicide . Other commercial fungicides developed from the strobilurins include Allegro , and Brio ( kresoxim @-@ methyl ) Amistar .
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= Gilbert de Clare , 8th Earl of Gloucester =
Gilbert de Clare , 8th Earl of Gloucester , 7th Earl of Hertford , 10th Lord of Clare , 5th Lord of Glamorgan ( c . 10 May 1291 – 24 June 1314 ) was an English nobleman and a military commander in the Scottish Wars . In contrast to most English earls at the time , his main focus lay in the pursuit of war rather than in domestic political strife . He was the son of Gilbert de Clare , 7th Earl of Gloucester , and Joan of Acre , daughter of Edward I. The older Gilbert died when his son was only four years old , and the younger Gilbert was invested with his earldoms at the young age of sixteen . Almost immediately , he became involved in the defence of the northern border , but later he was drawn into the struggles between Edward II and some of his barons . He was one of the Lords Ordainers who ordered the expulsion of the king 's favourite Piers Gaveston in 1311 . When Gaveston was killed on his return in 1312 , Gloucester helped negotiate a settlement between the perpetrators and the king .
Now one of Edward 's strongest supporters , he accompanied the king on a campaign to Scotland in 1314 , when several other nobles refused . He was killed at the Battle of Bannockburn on 24 June , under somewhat unclear circumstances . Gloucester was the most prominent of the casualties of the battle , which ended in a humiliating defeat for England . As he had no issue , his death marked the end of the prominent de Clare family . His estates were divided between his three sisters , one of whom was married to the king 's new favourite , Hugh Despenser the Younger . Despenser 's ruthless expansion of the de Clare lordship of Glamorgan in Wales led directly to the troubles of Edward II 's later reign , including a rebellion in the Welsh Marches , the defeat of the Earl of Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge , and eventually the deposition of the king by Roger Mortimer and Queen Isabella in 1326 .
= = Family background and early life = =
Gilbert de Clare was the son of Gilbert de Clare , 7th Earl of Gloucester – known as Gilbert ' the Red ' – who in 1290 married Joan of Acre , daughter of Edward I. As a condition for the marriage , the earl had to surrender all his lands to the king , only to have them returned jointly to himself and his wife for the lifetime of either . This grant was made on the condition that the lands would pass to the couple 's joint heirs , but if they were childless to Joan 's heirs from any later marriages . The younger Gilbert was born the next year , around 10 May 1291 , securing the inheritance for the de Clare family , but his father died only four years later , on 7 December 1295 , while the boy was still a minor . Because of the joint enfeoffment , Joan kept the custody of the family lands , and did homage to the king on 20 January the next year .
In 1297 , Joan secretly married Ralph de Monthermer , a knight in the late earl 's household . This enraged Edward I , who had other marriage plans for Joan . The king imprisoned Monthermer , but later relented , and sanctioned the marriage . Because of the previous settlement , Joan was still titled countess , and her new husband became Earl of Gloucester and Hertford . This , however , only lasted for the life of Joan , who died in 1307 . Only a few months later , Gilbert was granted his inheritance , and by March 1308 made Earl of Gloucester and Hertford , at the young age of sixteen . This grant was made by Edward II , who succeeded his father Edward I in July 1307 . It was previously believed that Edward II and Gilbert were brought up together , but this is based on a confusion with another person of the same name . This other Gilbert de Clare , who was closer to the king in age , was in fact the earl 's cousin , the son of Thomas de Clare , Lord of Thomond .
= = Early service under Edward II = =
Gilbert 's first years as earl were predominantly concerned with the Scottish Wars . He had no personal interest in the region , but the Welsh Marches , where his landed interest lay , were largely pacified at the time , and Scotland presented a good opportunity to pursue military glory and reward . He was almost immediately trusted with important military commands on the northern border , and served as warden of Scotland from 1308 to 1309 , and as captain of Scotland and the northern marches in 1309 . He led an expedition to relieve the castle of Rutherglen in December 1308 . The war effort , however , was not pursued with the same intensity by Edward II as it had been by his father . The new king 's neglect of the Scottish Wars allowed Robert the Bruce to regain the initiative in the war .
This situation led to frustration among the English nobility . In addition to the Scottish issue , there was also discontent with the king 's treatment of his favourite , Piers Gaveston . Gaveston 's promotion from relative obscurity to Earl of Cornwall , combined with his arrogant behaviour , caused resentment among the established nobility . Gloucester was initially not hostile to Gaveston , who had married Gloucester 's sister Margaret in October 1307 . He did , however , share in the other earls ' frustration with Edward 's lack of initiative towards Scotland . In 1308 , therefore , Gloucester was among the earls who demanded Gaveston 's exile , a demand the king was forced to meet . After this , he seems to have been reconciled with the king , and in 1309 he acted as a mediator when the earls agreed to Gaveston 's return . Relations between the king and the nobility deteriorated even further , however , after Gaveston 's return . In 1310 , a group of so @-@ called Lords Ordainers were appointed to draft the Ordinances of 1311 , a set of restrictions on the rule of Edward II , including a renewed exile for Gaveston . Gloucester , who was still a supporter of the king , was not initially among the Ordainers , but was appointed on 4 March 1311 , upon the death of the Earl of Lincoln .
= = Escalation of the national conflict = =
In spite of his participation in the baronial reform movement , Gloucester still maintained the trust of the king . He , Gaveston and the Earl of Warenne were the only earls to accompany the king on a Scottish campaign in 1310 – 11 . In March 1311 , while the Ordinances were still in the workings , Gloucester was appointed guardian of the realm while the king was still in Scotland . There are signs that he might have fallen out with Thomas , Earl of Lancaster – who was at this point the leader of the opposition against the king – over a feud between two of their respective retainers . When Gaveston once more returned from exile , however , Gloucester sided with the baronial opposition . The earls divided the country into different parts for defence , and Gloucester was given charge of the south . In June 1312 , Gaveston was captured by Guy de Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick , who was working in cooperation with Lancaster . Aymer de Valence , Earl of Pembroke , who had the custody of Gaveston and had guaranteed his safety to the king , appealed to Gloucester , as Gaveston 's kinsman , for assistance . Gloucester , however , refused to help , and Gaveston was killed . This act brought the country to the brink of civil war , and Gloucester was one of the few men who was still trusted enough by both sides to be able to take on a role as mediator . In the following months , he was among the main negotiators working towards an agreement between the king and the offending earls , an effort that was at least temporarily successful .
Gloucester remained in the inner circle around the king over the next months . In the summer of 1313 , he was again guardian of the realm while the king was in France , and in February 1314 , he was sent to France on a diplomatic mission regarding Gascony . The greatest problem of the reign , however , remained the unresolved conflict with Scotland , and the resurgence of Robert the Bruce . In the summer of 1314 , Edward finally embarked on a major Scottish campaign . The objective was to protect the English garrison at Stirling Castle from an attack by Bruce . The campaign was impeded by the absence of some of the greater magnates , such as Lancaster and Warwick . There were still a number of great lords in the king 's company , including Humphrey de Bohun , Earl of Hereford , Pembroke and Gloucester . These men were valuable to the king for their ability to raise large numbers of troops from their dominions in the Welsh Marches . On 23 June 1314 , the royal army had passed Falkirk and was within a few miles of Stirling . There were , however , signs of strife between the earls of Gloucester and Hereford . Gloucester had been given the command of the English vanguard , a position he had earned through his loyalty to the king . Yet Hereford , who had been placed under Gloucester 's command , believed the command belonged to him , in his capacity of hereditary Constable of England .
= = Death at Bannockburn = =
Gloucester was involved in a brief skirmish with the Scots on 23 June , the day before the main battle . While the king considered whether to camp for the night or to engage the Scots immediately , Gloucester and Hereford – either through insubordination or a misunderstanding – charged directly into the place called the New Park , where the Scots were encamped . The English immediately ran into difficulties , and Hereford 's cousin Henry de Bohun was killed by King Robert the Bruce . It was perhaps during the subsequent retreat that Gloucester was thrown off his horse , but managed to escape unharmed . The next day the English were still not entirely decided on the course of action . While Gloucester took the part of certain experienced captains , recommending that Edward avoid battle that day , the younger men surrounding the king labelled this lethargic and cowardly , and advised attack . According to the Vita Edwardi , when Edward grew angry and accused Gloucester of treason , the earl forcefully replied that he would prove his loyalty on the field of battle .
The most detailed account of the Earl of Gloucester 's death at the Battle of Bannockburn is the chronicle Vita Edwardi Secundi . This account is written as a moral tale , expounding on the earl 's heroism and the cowardly conduct of his companions . For this reason , its historical accuracy must be taken with some caution . According to some accounts , Gloucester rushed headfirst into battle in the pursuit of glory , and fell victim to his own foolishness . The Vita , on the other hand , claimed that , as the earl was vigorously trying to fend off the Scottish attacks , he was knocked off his horse , and killed when his own men failed to come to his rescue . It is also likely that the quarrels between Gloucester and Hereford over precedence could have contributed to the chaotic situation . According to one account , Gloucester rushed into battle without a distinguishing coat of arms , exposing himself to the Scottish soldiers , who otherwise would have been eager to secure a valuable ransom .
After Gloucester was killed , the English army soon fell into disarray , and the battle resulted in a resounding victory for the Scots , and a humiliating withdrawal for the English . It was widely agreed that Gloucester , with his proud family history and valuable estates , was the most prominent of the many casualties that day . Robert the Bruce mourned his death and stood vigil over Gloucester 's body at a local church . Later he allowed its transfer to England , where the earl was buried at Tewkesbury Abbey , on his father 's right @-@ hand side .
= = Dispersal of estates and aftermath = =
Gloucester 's political importance did not end with his death ; his disappearance from the political scene had immediate consequences . In his Welsh lordship of Glamorgan , the uncertain situation caused by his death caused a short @-@ lived rebellion in 1316 . In Ireland , where he also held large possessions , the power vacuum he left behind facilitated the 1315 invasion by Robert the Bruce 's brother Edward . The greatest consequences , however , resulted from the division of the de Clare estates . In 1308 , Gilbert de Clare had married Maud ( or Matilda ) de Burgh , the daughter of Richard de Burgh , Earl of Ulster . The couple left no surviving issue , so his death marked the end of the great de Clare family . The family lands were worth as much as £ 6 @,@ 000 , second only to those of the Earl of Lancaster among the nobility of the realm .
The lands went into royal possession while the matter of inheritance was being settled . By the entail of 1290 , the lands could only be inherited by direct descendants of the seventh earl and Joan of Acre . Maud managed to postpone the proceedings by claiming to be pregnant , but by 1316 it was clear that this could not be the case . The late earl 's sisters , Eleanor , Margaret ( now widowed after the death of Gaveston ) and Elizabeth were by 1317 all married to favourites of Edward II : Hugh Despenser the Younger , Hugh de Audley and Roger d 'Amory respectively . The three were granted equal parts of the English possessions , but Despenser received the entire lordship of Glamorgan in Wales , politically the most important of the de Clare lands .
Not content with his part , Despenser used his relationship with the king to impinge on the lands of other Marcher lords . This caused resentment among such men as Hereford and Roger Mortimer , who rose up in rebellion in 1321 . The rebellion was crushed , but resistance continued under the Marcher lords ' ally Thomas of Lancaster , who was defeated at the Battle of Boroughbridge in 1322 , and executed . Although this victory temporarily secured Edward 's position on the throne , he was eventually deposed in 1326 by Roger Mortimer , with the help of the king 's wife Queen Isabella . The title of Earl of Gloucester was recreated by Edward II 's son Edward III in 1337 , for Hugh de Audley .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Romeo and Juliet =
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star @-@ crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families . It was among Shakespeare 's most popular plays during his lifetime and , along with Hamlet , is one of his most frequently performed plays . Today , the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers .
Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity . The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562 , and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1567 . Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both , but expanded the plot by developing a number of supporting characters , particularly Mercutio and Paris . Believed to have been written between 1591 and 1595 , the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597 . The text of the first quarto version was of poor quality , however , and later editions corrected the text to conform more closely with Shakespeare 's original .
Shakespeare 's use of his poetic dramatic structure ( especially effects such as switching between comedy and tragedy to heighten tension , his expansion of minor characters , and his use of sub @-@ plots to embellish the story ) has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill . The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters , sometimes changing the form as the character develops . Romeo , for example , grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play .
Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times for stage , film , musical and opera venues . During the English Restoration , it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant . David Garrick 's 18th @-@ century version also modified several scenes , removing material then considered indecent , and Georg Benda 's Romeo und Julie omitted much of the action , and added a happy ending . Performances in the 19th century , including Charlotte Cushman 's , restored the original text , and focused on greater realism . John Gielgud 's 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeare 's text , and used Elizabethan costumes and staging to enhance the drama . In the 20th and into the 21st century , the play has been adapted in versions as diverse as George Cukor 's 1935 film Romeo and Juliet , Franco Zeffirelli 's 1968 version Romeo and Juliet , and Baz Luhrmann 's 1996 MTV @-@ inspired Romeo + Juliet .
= = Characters = =
= = Synopsis = =
The play , set in Verona , Italy , begins with a street brawl between Montague and Capulet servants who , like their masters , are sworn enemies . Prince Escalus of Verona intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace will be punishable by death . Later , Count Paris talks to Capulet about marrying his daughter Juliet , but Capulet asks Paris to wait another two years and invites him to attend a planned Capulet ball . Lady Capulet and Juliet 's nurse try to persuade Juliet to accept Paris 's courtship .
Meanwhile , Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo , Montague 's son , about Romeo 's recent depression . Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a girl named Rosaline , one of Capulet 's nieces . Persuaded by Benvolio and Mercutio , Romeo attends the ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline . However , Romeo instead meets and falls in love with Juliet . Juliet 's cousin , Tybalt , is enraged at Romeo for sneaking into the ball , but is only stopped from killing Romeo by Juliet 's father , who doesn 't wish to shed blood in his house . After the ball , in what is now called the " balcony scene " , Romeo sneaks into the Capulet orchard and overhears Juliet at her window vowing her love to him in spite of her family 's hatred of the Montagues . Romeo makes himself known to her and they agree to be married . With the help of Friar Laurence , who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children 's union , they are secretly married the next day .
Tybalt , meanwhile , still incensed that Romeo had sneaked into the Capulet ball , challenges him to a duel . Romeo , now considering Tybalt his kinsman , refuses to fight . Mercutio is offended by Tybalt 's insolence , as well as Romeo 's " vile submission " , and accepts the duel on Romeo 's behalf . Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo attempts to break up the fight . Grief @-@ stricken and wracked with guilt , Romeo confronts and slays Tybalt .
Montague argues that Romeo has justly executed Tybalt for the murder of Mercutio . The Prince , now having lost a kinsman in the warring families ' feud , exiles Romeo from Verona , under penalty of death if he ever returns . Romeo secretly spends the night in Juliet 's chamber , where they consummate their marriage . Capulet , misinterpreting Juliet 's grief , agrees to marry her to Count Paris and threatens to disown her when she refuses to become Paris 's " joyful bride " . When she then pleads for the marriage to be delayed , her mother rejects her .
Juliet visits Friar Laurence for help , and he offers her a potion that will put her into a deathlike coma for " two and forty hours " . The Friar promises to send a messenger to inform Romeo of the plan , so that he can rejoin her when she awakens . On the night before the wedding , she takes the drug and , when discovered apparently dead , she is laid in the family crypt .
The messenger , however , does not reach Romeo and , instead , Romeo learns of Juliet 's apparent death from his servant Balthasar . Heartbroken , Romeo buys poison from an apothecary and goes to the Capulet crypt . He encounters Paris who has come to mourn Juliet privately . Believing Romeo to be a vandal , Paris confronts him and , in the ensuing battle , Romeo kills Paris . Still believing Juliet to be dead , he drinks the poison . Juliet then awakens and , finding Romeo dead , stabs herself with his dagger . The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb to find all three dead . Friar Laurence recounts the story of the two " star @-@ cross 'd lovers " . The families are reconciled by their children 's deaths and agree to end their violent feud . The play ends with the Prince 's elegy for the lovers : " For never was a story of more woe / Than this of Juliet and her Romeo . "
= = = Modern form = = =
Luigi da Porto ( 1485 – 1529 ) adapted the story as Giulietta e Romeo and included it in his Historia novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti , written in 1524 and published posthumously in 1531 in Venice . Da Porto drew on Pyramus and Thisbe , Boccacio 's Decameron , and Salernitano 's Mariotto e Ganozza , but it is likely that his story is also autobiographical : present as a soldier at a ball on 26 February 1511 at a residence of the Savorgnan clan in Udine , following a peace ceremony with the opposite Strumieri , Da Porta fell in love with Lucina , the daughter of the house , but relationships of their mentors prevented advances . The next morning , the Savorgnans led an attack on the city , and many members of the Strumieri were murdered . When years later , half @-@ paralyzed from a battle @-@ wound , he wrote Giulietta e Romeo in Montorso Vicentino ( from where he could see the " castles " of Verona ) , he dedicated the novella to bellisima e leggiadra madonna Lucina Savorgnan . Da Porto presented his tale as historically true and claimed it took place a century earlier than Salernitano had it , in the days Verona was ruled by Bartolomeo II della Scala ( anglicized as Prince Escalus ) .
Da Porto gave Romeo and Juliet most of its modern form , including the names of the lovers , the rival families of Montecchi and Capuleti , and the location in Verona . He named the friar Laurence ( frate Lorenzo ) and introduced the characters Mercutio ( Marcuccio Guertio ) , Tybalt ( Tebaldo Cappelleti ) , Count Paris ( conti ( Paride ) di Lodrone ) , the faithful servant , and Giulietta 's nurse . Da Porto originated the remaining basic elements of the story : the feuding families , Romeo -left by his mistress- meeting Giulietta at a dance at her house , the love scenes ( including the balcony scene ) , the periods of despair , Romeo killing Giulietta 's cousin ( Tebaldo ) , and the families ' reconciliation after the lovers ' suicides . In da Porto 's version Romeo takes poison and Giulietta stabs herself with his dagger .
In 1554 , Matteo Bandello published the second volume of his Novelle , which included his version of Giuletta e Romeo , probably written between 1531 and 1545 . Bandello lengthened and weighed down the plot , while leaving the storyline basically unchanged ( though he did introduce Benvolio ) . Bandello 's story was translated into French by Pierre Boaistuau in 1559 in the first volume of his Histories Tragiques . Boaistuau adds much moralising and sentiment , and the characters indulge in rhetorical outbursts .
In his 1562 narrative poem The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet , Arthur Brooke translated Boaistuau faithfully , but adjusted it to reflect parts of Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde . There was a trend among writers and playwrights to publish works based on Italian novelles — Italian tales were very popular among theatre @-@ goers — and Shakespeare may well have been familiar with William Painter 's 1567 collection of Italian tales titled Palace of Pleasure . This collection included a version in prose of the Romeo and Juliet story named " The goodly History of the true and constant love of Romeo and Juliett " . Shakespeare took advantage of this popularity : The Merchant of Venice , Much Ado About Nothing , All 's Well That Ends Well , Measure for Measure , and Romeo and Juliet are all from Italian novelle . Romeo and Juliet is a dramatisation of Brooke 's translation , and Shakespeare follows the poem closely , but adds extra detail to both major and minor characters ( in particular the Nurse and Mercutio ) .
Christopher Marlowe 's Hero and Leander and Dido , Queen of Carthage , both similar stories written in Shakespeare 's day , are thought to be less of a direct influence , although they may have helped create an atmosphere in which tragic love stories could thrive .
= = Date and text = =
It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet . Juliet 's nurse refers to an earthquake she says occurred 11 years ago . This may refer to the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 , which would date that particular line to 1591 . Other earthquakes — both in England and in Verona — have been proposed in support of the different dates . But the play 's stylistic similarities with A Midsummer Night 's Dream and other plays conventionally dated around 1594 – 95 , place its composition sometime between 1591 and 1595 . One conjecture is that Shakespeare may have begun a draft in 1591 , which he completed in 1595 .
Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet was published in two quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Folio of 1623 . These are referred to as Q1 and Q2 . The first printed edition , Q1 , appeared in early 1597 , printed by John Danter . Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions , it is labelled a ' bad quarto ' ; the 20th @-@ century editor T. J. B. Spencer described it as " a detestable text , probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors " , suggesting that it had been pirated for publication . An alternative explanation for Q1 's shortcomings is that the play ( like many others of the time ) may have been heavily edited before performance by the playing company . In any event , its appearance in early 1597 makes 1596 the latest possible date for the play 's composition .
The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet . It was printed in 1599 by Thomas Creede and published by Cuthbert Burby . Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1 . Its title page describes it as " Newly corrected , augmented and amended " . Scholars believe that Q2 was based on Shakespeare 's pre @-@ performance draft ( called his foul papers ) , since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and " false starts " for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter . It is a much more complete and reliable text , and was reprinted in 1609 ( Q3 ) , 1622 ( Q4 ) and 1637 ( Q5 ) . In effect , all later Quartos and Folios of Romeo and Juliet are based on Q2 , as are all modern editions since editors believe that any deviations from Q2 in the later editions ( whether good or bad ) are likely to arise from editors or compositors , not from Shakespeare .
The First Folio text of 1623 was based primarily on Q3 , with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook or Q1 . Other Folio editions of the play were printed in 1632 ( F2 ) , 1664 ( F3 ) , and 1685 ( F4 ) . Modern versions — that take into account several of the Folios and Quartos — first appeared with Nicholas Rowe 's 1709 edition , followed by Alexander Pope 's 1723 version . Pope began a tradition of editing the play to add information such as stage directions missing in Q2 by locating them in Q1 . This tradition continued late into the Romantic period . Fully annotated editions first appeared in the Victorian period and continue to be produced today , printing the text of the play with footnotes describing the sources and culture behind the play .
= = Themes and motifs = =
Scholars have found it extremely difficult to assign one specific , overarching theme to the play . Proposals for a main theme include a discovery by the characters that human beings are neither wholly good nor wholly evil , but instead are more or less alike , awaking out of a dream and into reality , the danger of hasty action , or the power of tragic fate . None of these have widespread support . However , even if an overall theme cannot be found it is clear that the play is full of several small , thematic elements that intertwine in complex ways . Several of those most often debated by scholars are discussed below .
= = = Love = = =
Romeo and Juliet is sometimes considered to have no unifying theme , save that of young love . Romeo and Juliet have become emblematic of young lovers and doomed love . Since it is such an obvious subject of the play , several scholars have explored the language and historical context behind the romance of the play .
On their first meeting , Romeo and Juliet use a form of communication recommended by many etiquette authors in Shakespeare 's day : metaphor . By using metaphors of saints and sins , Romeo was able to test Juliet 's feelings for him in a non @-@ threatening way . This method was recommended by Baldassare Castiglione ( whose works had been translated into English by this time ) . He pointed out that if a man used a metaphor as an invitation , the woman could pretend she did not understand him , and he could retreat without losing honour . Juliet , however , participates in the metaphor and expands on it . The religious metaphors of " shrine " , " pilgrim " and " saint " were fashionable in the poetry of the time and more likely to be understood as romantic rather than blasphemous , as the concept of sainthood was associated with the Catholicism of an earlier age . Later in the play , Shakespeare removes the more daring allusions to Christ 's resurrection in the tomb he found in his source work : Brooke 's Romeus and Juliet .
In the later balcony scene , Shakespeare has Romeo overhear Juliet 's soliloquy , but in Brooke 's version of the story her declaration is done alone . By bringing Romeo into the scene to eavesdrop , Shakespeare breaks from the normal sequence of courtship . Usually a woman was required to be modest and shy to make sure that her suitor was sincere , but breaking this rule serves to speed along the plot . The lovers are able to skip courting , and move on to plain talk about their relationship — agreeing to be married after knowing each other for only one night . In the final suicide scene , there is a contradiction in the message — in the Catholic religion , suicides were often thought to be condemned to hell , whereas people who die to be with their loves under the " Religion of Love " are joined with their loves in paradise . Romeo and Juliet 's love seems to be expressing the " Religion of Love " view rather than the Catholic view . Another point is that although their love is passionate , it is only consummated in marriage , which keeps them from losing the audience 's sympathy .
The play arguably equates love and sex with death . Throughout the story , both Romeo and Juliet , along with the other characters , fantasise about it as a dark being , often equating it with a lover . Capulet , for example , when he first discovers Juliet 's ( faked ) death , describes it as having deflowered his daughter . Juliet later erotically compares Romeo and death . Right before her suicide she grabs Romeo 's dagger , saying " O happy dagger ! This is thy sheath . There rust , and let me die . "
= = = Fate and chance = = =
Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play . No consensus exists on whether the characters are truly fated to die together or whether the events take place by a series of unlucky chances . Arguments in favour of fate often refer to the description of the lovers as " star @-@ cross 'd " . This phrase seems to hint that the stars have predetermined the lovers ' future . John W. Draper points out the parallels between the Elizabethan belief in the four humours and the main characters of the play ( for example , Tybalt as a choleric ) . Interpreting the text in the light of humours reduces the amount of plot attributed to chance by modern audiences . Still , other scholars see the play as a series of unlucky chances — many to such a degree that they do not see it as a tragedy at all , but an emotional melodrama . Ruth Nevo believes the high degree to which chance is stressed in the narrative makes Romeo and Juliet a " lesser tragedy " of happenstance , not of character . For example , Romeo 's challenging Tybalt is not impulsive ; it is , after Mercutio 's death , the expected action to take . In this scene , Nevo reads Romeo as being aware of the dangers of flouting social norms , identity and commitments . He makes the choice to kill , not because of a tragic flaw , but because of circumstance .
= = = Duality ( light and dark ) = = =
Scholars have long noted Shakespeare 's widespread use of light and dark imagery throughout the play . Caroline Spurgeon considers the theme of light as " symbolic of the natural beauty of young love " and later critics have expanded on this interpretation . For example , both Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surrounding darkness . Romeo describes Juliet as being like the sun , brighter than a torch , a jewel sparkling in the night , and a bright angel among dark clouds . Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb , he says her " beauty makes This vault a feasting presence full of light . " Juliet describes Romeo as " day in night " and " Whiter than snow upon a raven 's back . " This contrast of light and dark can be expanded as symbols — contrasting love and hate , youth and age in a metaphoric way . Sometimes these intertwining metaphors create dramatic irony . For example , Romeo and Juliet 's love is a light in the midst of the darkness of the hate around them , but all of their activity together is done in night and darkness , while all of the feuding is done in broad daylight . This paradox of imagery adds atmosphere to the moral dilemma facing the two lovers : loyalty to family or loyalty to love . At the end of the story , when the morning is gloomy and the sun hiding its face for sorrow , light and dark have returned to their proper places , the outward darkness reflecting the true , inner darkness of the family feud out of sorrow for the lovers . All characters now recognise their folly in light of recent events , and things return to the natural order , thanks to the love and death of Romeo and Juliet . The " light " theme in the play is also heavily connected to the theme of time , since light was a convenient way for Shakespeare to express the passage of time through descriptions of the sun , moon , and stars .
= = = Time = = =
Time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play . Both Romeo and Juliet struggle to maintain an imaginary world void of time in the face of the harsh realities that surround them . For instance , when Romeo swears his love to Juliet by the moon , she protests " O swear not by the moon , th 'inconstant moon , / That monthly changes in her circled orb , / Lest that thy love prove likewise variable . " From the very beginning , the lovers are designated as " star @-@ cross 'd " referring to an astrologic belief associated with time . Stars were thought to control the fates of humanity , and as time passed , stars would move along their course in the sky , also charting the course of human lives below . Romeo speaks of a foreboding he feels in the stars ' movements early in the play , and when he learns of Juliet 's death , he defies the stars ' course for him .
Another central theme is haste : Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet spans a period of four to six days , in contrast to Brooke 's poem 's spanning nine months . Scholars such as G. Thomas Tanselle believe that time was " especially important to Shakespeare " in this play , as he used references to " short @-@ time " for the young lovers as opposed to references to " long @-@ time " for the " older generation " to highlight " a headlong rush towards doom " . Romeo and Juliet fight time to make their love last forever . In the end , the only way they seem to defeat time is through a death that makes them immortal through art .
Time is also connected to the theme of light and dark . In Shakespeare 's day , plays were most often performed at noon or in the afternoon in broad daylight . This forced the playwright to use words to create the illusion of day and night in his plays . Shakespeare uses references to the night and day , the stars , the moon , and the sun to create this illusion . He also has characters frequently refer to days of the week and specific hours to help the audience understand that time has passed in the story . All in all , no fewer than 103 references to time are found in the play , adding to the illusion of its passage .
= = Criticism and interpretation = =
= = = Critical history = = =
The earliest known critic of the play was diarist Samuel Pepys , who wrote in 1662 : " it is a play of itself the worst that I ever heard in my life . " Poet John Dryden wrote 10 years later in praise of the play and its comic character Mercutio : " Shakespear show 'd the best of his skill in his Mercutio , and he said himself , that he was forc 'd to kill him in the third Act , to prevent being killed by him . " Criticism of the play in the 18th century was less sparse , but no less divided . Publisher Nicholas Rowe was the first critic to ponder the theme of the play , which he saw as the just punishment of the two feuding families . In mid @-@ century , writer Charles Gildon and philosopher Lord Kames argued that the play was a failure in that it did not follow the classical rules of drama : the tragedy must occur because of some character flaw , not an accident of fate . Writer and critic Samuel Johnson , however , considered it one of Shakespeare 's " most pleasing " plays .
In the later part of the 18th and through the 19th century , criticism centred on debates over the moral message of the play . Actor and playwright David Garrick 's 1748 adaptation excluded Rosaline : Romeo abandoning her for Juliet was seen as fickle and reckless . Critics such as Charles Dibdin argued that Rosaline had been purposely included in the play to show how reckless the hero was , and that this was the reason for his tragic end . Others argued that Friar Laurence might be Shakespeare 's spokesman in his warnings against undue haste . With the advent of the 20th century , these moral arguments were disputed by critics such as Richard Green Moulton : he argued that accident , and not some character flaw , led to the lovers ' deaths .
= = = Dramatic structure = = =
In Romeo and Juliet , Shakespeare employs several dramatic techniques that have garnered praise from critics ; most notably the abrupt shifts from comedy to tragedy ( an example is the punning exchange between Benvolio and Mercutio just before Tybalt arrives ) . Before Mercutio 's death in Act three , the play is largely a comedy . After his accidental demise , the play suddenly becomes serious and takes on a tragic tone . When Romeo is banished , rather than executed , and Friar Laurence offers Juliet a plan to reunite her with Romeo , the audience can still hope that all will end well . They are in a " breathless state of suspense " by the opening of the last scene in the tomb : If Romeo is delayed long enough for the Friar to arrive , he and Juliet may yet be saved . These shifts from hope to despair , reprieve , and new hope , serve to emphasise the tragedy when the final hope fails and both the lovers die at the end .
Shakespeare also uses sub @-@ plots to offer a clearer view of the actions of the main characters . For example , when the play begins , Romeo is in love with Rosaline , who has refused all of his advances . Romeo 's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet . This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet 's love and marriage . Paris ' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet 's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo . The formal language she uses around Paris , as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse , show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo . Beyond this , the sub @-@ plot of the Montague – Capulet feud overarches the whole play , providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor to the play 's tragic end .
= = = Language = = =
Shakespeare uses a variety of poetic forms throughout the play . He begins with a 14 @-@ line prologue in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet , spoken by a Chorus . Most of Romeo and Juliet is , however , written in blank verse , and much of it in strict iambic pentameter , with less rhythmic variation than in most of Shakespeare 's later plays . In choosing forms , Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character who uses it . Friar Laurence , for example , uses sermon and sententiae forms , and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech . Each of these forms is also moulded and matched to the emotion of the scene the character occupies . For example , when Romeo talks about Rosaline earlier in the play , he attempts to use the Petrarchan sonnet form . Petrarchan sonnets were often used by men to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain , as in Romeo 's situation with Rosaline . This sonnet form is used by Lady Capulet to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome man . When Romeo and Juliet meet , the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan ( which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare 's day ) to a then more contemporary sonnet form , using " pilgrims " and " saints " as metaphors . Finally , when the two meet on the balcony , Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love , but Juliet breaks it by saying " Dost thou love me ? " By doing this , she searches for true expression , rather than a poetic exaggeration of their love . Juliet uses monosyllabic words with Romeo , but uses formal language with Paris . Other forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet , a rhapsody in Mercutio 's Queen Mab speech , and an elegy by Paris . Shakespeare saves his prose style most often for the common people in the play , though at times he uses it for other characters , such as Mercutio . Humour , also , is important : scholar Molly Mahood identifies at least 175 puns and wordplays in the text . Many of these jokes are sexual in nature , especially those involving Mercutio and the Nurse .
= = = Psychoanalytic criticism = = =
Early psychoanalytic critics saw the problem of Romeo and Juliet in terms of Romeo 's impulsiveness , deriving from " ill @-@ controlled , partially disguised aggression " , which leads both to Mercutio 's death and to the double suicide . Romeo and Juliet is not considered to be exceedingly psychologically complex , and sympathetic psychoanalytic readings of the play make the tragic male experience equivalent with sicknesses . Norman Holland , writing in 1966 , considers Romeo 's dream as a realistic " wish fulfilling fantasy both in terms of Romeo 's adult world and his hypothetical childhood at stages oral , phallic and oedipal " – while acknowledging that a dramatic character is not a human being with mental processes separate from those of the author . Critics such as Julia Kristeva focus on the hatred between the families , arguing that this hatred is the cause of Romeo and Juliet 's passion for each other . That hatred manifests itself directly in the lovers ' language : Juliet , for example , speaks of " my only love sprung from my only hate " and often expresses her passion through an anticipation of Romeo 's death . This leads on to speculation as to the playwright 's psychology , in particular to a consideration of Shakespeare 's grief for the death of his son , Hamnet .
= = = Feminist criticism = = =
Feminist literary critics argue that the blame for the family feud lies in Verona 's patriarchal society . For Coppélia Kahn , for example , the strict , masculine code of violence imposed on Romeo is the main force driving the tragedy to its end . When Tybalt kills Mercutio , Romeo shifts into this violent mode , regretting that Juliet has made him so " effeminate " . In this view , the younger males " become men " by engaging in violence on behalf of their fathers , or in the case of the servants , their masters . The feud is also linked to male virility , as the numerous jokes about maidenheads aptly demonstrate . Juliet also submits to a female code of docility by allowing others , such as the Friar , to solve her problems for her . Other critics , such as Dympna Callaghan , look at the play 's feminism from a historicist angle , stressing that when the play was written the feudal order was being challenged by increasingly centralised government and the advent of capitalism . At the same time , emerging Puritan ideas about marriage were less concerned with the " evils of female sexuality " than those of earlier eras , and more sympathetic towards love @-@ matches : when Juliet dodges her father 's attempt to force her to marry a man she has no feeling for , she is challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not have been possible at an earlier time .
= = = Queer theory = = =
A number of critics have found the character of Mercutio to have unacknowledged homoerotic desire for Romeo . Jonathan Goldberg examined the sexuality of Mercutio and Romeo utilising " queer theory " in Queering the Renaissance , comparing their friendship with sexual love . Mercutio , in friendly conversation , mentions Romeo 's phallus , suggesting traces of homoeroticism . An example is his joking wish " To raise a spirit in his mistress ' circle ... letting it there stand / Till she had laid it and conjured it down . " Romeo 's homoeroticism can also be found in his attitude to Rosaline , a woman who is distant and unavailable and brings no hope of offspring . As Benvolio argues , she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate . Shakespeare 's procreation sonnets describe another young man who , like Romeo , is having trouble creating offspring and who may be seen as being a homosexual . Goldberg believes that Shakespeare may have used Rosaline as a way to express homosexual problems of procreation in an acceptable way . In this view , when Juliet says " ... that which we call a rose , by any other name would smell as sweet " , she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman .
= = = The Balcony Scene = = =
The balcony scene was introduced by Da Porto in 1524 . He had Romeo walk frequently by her house , " sometimes climbing to her chamber window " and wrote " It happened one night , as love ordained , when the moon shone unusually bright , that whilst Romeo was climbing the balcony , the young lady ... opened the window , and looking out saw him " . After this they have a conversation in which they declare eternal love to each other . A few decades later , Bandello greatly expanded this scene , diverging from the familiar one : Julia has her nurse deliver a letter asking Romeo to come to her window with a rope ladder , and he climbs the balcony with the help of his servant , Julia and the nurse ( the servants discreetly withdraw after this ) .
Nevertheless , in October 2014 , Lois Leveen speculated in The Atlantic that the original Shakespeare play did not contain a balcony . The word , balcone , did not exist in the English language until two years after Shakespeare 's death . The balcony was certainly used in Thomas Otway 's 1679 play , The History and Fall of Caius Marius , which had borrowed much of its story from Romeo and Juliet and placed the two lovers in a balcony reciting a speech similar to that between Romeo and Juliet . Leveen suggested that during the 18th century , David Garrick chose to use a balcony in his adaptation and revival of Romeo and Juliet and modern adaptations have continued this tradition .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Shakespeare 's day = = =
Romeo and Juliet ranks with Hamlet as one of Shakespeare 's most performed plays . Its many adaptations have made it one of his most enduring and famous stories . Even in Shakespeare 's lifetime it was extremely popular . Scholar Gary Taylor measures it as the sixth most popular of Shakespeare 's plays , in the period after the death of Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd but before the ascendancy of Ben Jonson during which Shakespeare was London 's dominant playwright . The date of the first performance is unknown . The First Quarto , printed in 1597 , says that " it hath been often ( and with great applause ) plaid publiquely " , setting the first performance before that date . The Lord Chamberlain 's Men were certainly the first to perform it . Besides their strong connections with Shakespeare , the Second Quarto actually names one of its actors , Will Kemp , instead of Peter in a line in Act five . Richard Burbage was probably the first Romeo , being the company 's actor , and Master Robert Goffe ( a boy ) the first Juliet . The premiere is likely to have been at " The Theatre " , with other early productions at " The Curtain " . Romeo and Juliet is one of the first Shakespearean plays to have been performed outside England : a shortened and simplified version was performed in Nördlingen in 1604 .
= = = Restoration and 18th @-@ century theatre = = =
All theatres were closed down by the puritan government on September 6 , 1642 . Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , two patent companies ( the King 's Company and the Duke 's Company ) were established , and the existing theatrical repertoire divided between them .
Sir William Davenant of the Duke 's Company staged a 1662 adaptation in which Henry Harris played Romeo , Thomas Betterton Mercutio , and Betterton 's wife Mary Saunderson Juliet : she was probably the first woman to play the role professionally . Another version closely followed Davenant 's adaptation and was also regularly performed by the Duke 's Company . This was a tragicomedy by James Howard , in which the two lovers survive .
Thomas Otway 's The History and Fall of Caius Marius , one of the more extreme of the Restoration adaptations of Shakespeare , debuted in 1680 . The scene is shifted from Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome ; Romeo is Marius , Juliet is Lavinia , the feud is between patricians and plebeians ; Juliet / Lavinia wakes from her potion before Romeo / Marius dies . Otway 's version was a hit , and was acted for the next seventy years . His innovation in the closing scene was even more enduring , and was used in adaptations throughout the next 200 years : Theophilus Cibber 's adaptation of 1744 , and David Garrick 's of 1748 both used variations on it . These versions also eliminated elements deemed inappropriate at the time . For example , Garrick 's version transferred all language describing Rosaline to Juliet , to heighten the idea of faithfulness and downplay the love @-@ at @-@ first @-@ sight theme . In 1750 a " Battle of the Romeos " began , with Spranger Barry and Susannah Maria Arne ( Mrs. Theophilus Cibber ) at Covent Garden versus David Garrick and George Anne Bellamy at Drury Lane .
The earliest known production in North America was an amateur one : on 23 March 1730 , a physician named Joachimus Bertrand placed an advertisement in the Gazette newspaper in New York , promoting a production in which he would play the apothecary . The first professional performances of the play in North America were those of the Hallam Company .
= = = 19th @-@ century theatre = = =
Garrick 's altered version of the play was very popular , and ran for nearly a century . Not until 1845 did Shakespeare 's original return to the stage in the United States with the sisters Susan and Charlotte Cushman as Juliet and Romeo , respectively , and then in 1847 in Britain with Samuel Phelps at Sadler 's Wells Theatre . Cushman adhered to Shakespeare 's version , beginning a string of eighty @-@ four performances . Her portrayal of Romeo was considered genius by many . The Times wrote : " For a long time Romeo has been a convention . Miss Cushman 's Romeo is a creative , a living , breathing , animated , ardent human being . " Queen Victoria wrote in her journal that " no @-@ one would ever have imagined she was a woman " . Cushman 's success broke the Garrick tradition and paved the way for later performances to return to the original storyline .
Professional performances of Shakespeare in the mid @-@ 19th century had two particular features : firstly , they were generally star vehicles , with supporting roles cut or marginalised to give greater prominence to the central characters . Secondly , they were " pictorial " , placing the action on spectacular and elaborate sets ( requiring lengthy pauses for scene changes ) and with the frequent use of tableaux . Henry Irving 's 1882 production at the Lyceum Theatre ( with himself as Romeo and Ellen Terry as Juliet ) is considered an archetype of the pictorial style . In 1895 , Sir Johnston Forbes @-@ Robertson took over from Irving , and laid the groundwork for a more natural portrayal of Shakespeare that remains popular today . Forbes @-@ Robertson avoided the showiness of Irving and instead portrayed a down @-@ to @-@ earth Romeo , expressing the poetic dialogue as realistic prose and avoiding melodramatic flourish .
American actors began to rival their British counterparts . Edwin Booth ( brother to John Wilkes Booth ) and Mary McVicker ( soon to be Edwin 's wife ) opened as Romeo and Juliet at the sumptuous Booth 's Theatre ( with its European @-@ style stage machinery , and an air conditioning system unique in New York ) on 3 February 1869 . Some reports said it was one of the most elaborate productions of Romeo and Juliet ever seen in America ; it was certainly the most popular , running for over six weeks and earning over $ 60 @,@ 000 ( equal to about $ 1 @,@ 067 @,@ 000 today ) . The programme noted that : " The tragedy will be produced in strict accordance with historical propriety , in every respect , following closely the text of Shakespeare . "
The first professional performance of the play in Japan may have been George Crichton Miln 's company 's production , which toured to Yokohama in 1890 . Throughout the 19th century , Romeo and Juliet had been Shakespeare 's most popular play , measured by the number of professional performances . In the 20th century it would become the second most popular , behind Hamlet .
= = = 20th @-@ century theatre = = =
In 1933 , the play was revived by actress Katharine Cornell and her director husband Guthrie McClintic and was taken on a seven @-@ month nationwide tour throughout the United States . It starred Orson Welles , Brian Aherne and Basil Rathbone . The production was a modest success , and so upon the return to New York , Cornell and McClintic revised it and for the first time , the play was presented with almost all the scenes intact , including the Prologue . The new production opened in December 1934 with Ralph Richardson as Mercutio and Maurice Evans as Romeo . Critics wrote that Cornell was " the finest Juliet of her time " , " endlessly haunting " , and " the most lovely and enchanting Juliet our present @-@ day theatre has seen " .
John Gielgud 's New Theatre production in 1935 featured Gielgud and Laurence Olivier as Romeo and Mercutio , exchanging roles six weeks into the run , with Peggy Ashcroft as Juliet . Gielgud used a scholarly combination of Q1 and Q2 texts , and organised the set and costumes to match as closely as possible to the Elizabethan period . His efforts were a huge success at the box office , and set the stage for increased historical realism in later productions . Olivier later compared his performance and Gielgud 's : " John , all spiritual , all spirituality , all beauty , all abstract things ; and myself as all earth , blood , humanity ... I 've always felt that John missed the lower half and that made me go for the other ... But whatever it was , when I was playing Romeo I was carrying a torch , I was trying to sell realism in Shakespeare . "
Peter Brook 's 1947 version was the beginning of a different style of Romeo and Juliet performances . Brook was less concerned with realism , and more concerned with translating the play into a form that could communicate with the modern world . He argued , " A production is only correct at the moment of its correctness , and only good at the moment of its success . " Brook excluded the final reconciliation of the families from his performance text .
Throughout the century , audiences , influenced by the cinema , became less willing to accept actors distinctly older than the teenage characters they were playing . A significant example of more youthful casting was in Franco Zeffirelli 's Old Vic production in 1960 , with John Stride and Judi Dench , which would serve as the basis for his 1968 film . Zeffirelli borrowed from Brook 's ideas , altogether removing around a third of the play 's text to make it more accessible . In an interview with The Times , he stated that the play 's " twin themes of love and the total breakdown of understanding between two generations " had contemporary relevance .
Recent performances often set the play in the contemporary world . For example , in 1986 the Royal Shakespeare Company set the play in modern Verona . Switchblades replaced swords , feasts and balls became drug @-@ laden rock parties , and Romeo committed suicide by hypodermic needle . In 1997 , the Folger Shakespeare Theatre produced a version set in a typical suburban world . Romeo sneaks into the Capulet barbecue to meet Juliet , and Juliet discovers Tybalt 's death while in class at school .
The play is sometimes given a historical setting , enabling audiences to reflect on the underlying conflicts . For example , adaptations have been set in the midst of the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict , in the apartheid era in South Africa , and in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt . Similarly , Peter Ustinov 's 1956 comic adaptation , Romanoff and Juliet , is set in a fictional mid @-@ European country in the depths of the Cold War . A mock @-@ Victorian revisionist version of Romeo and Juliet 's final scene ( with a happy ending , Romeo , Juliet , Mercutio and Paris restored to life , and Benvolio revealing that he is Paris 's love , Benvolia , in disguise ) forms part of the 1980 stage @-@ play The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby . Shakespeare ’ s R & J , by Joe Calarco , spins the classic in a modern tale of gay teenage awakening . A recent comedic musical adaptation was The Second City 's The Second City 's Romeo and Juliet Musical : The People vs. Friar Laurence , the Man Who Killed Romeo and Juliet , set in modern times .
In the 19th and 20th century , Romeo and Juliet has often been the choice of Shakespeare plays to open a classical theatre company , beginning with Edwin Booth 's inaugural production of that play in his theatre in 1869 , the newly reformed company of the Old Vic in 1929 with John Gielgud , Martita Hunt and Margaret Webster , as well as the Riverside Shakespeare Company in its founding production in New York City in 1977 , which used the 1968 film of Franco Zeffirelli 's production as its inspiration .
In 2013 , Romeo and Juliet ran on Broadway at Richard Rodgers Theatre from September 19 to December 8 for 93 regular performances after 27 previews starting on August 24 with Orlando Bloom and Condola Rashad in the starring roles .
= = = = Ballet = = = =
The best @-@ known ballet version is Prokofiev 's Romeo and Juliet . Originally commissioned by the Kirov Ballet , it was rejected by them when Prokofiev attempted a happy ending , and was rejected again for the experimental nature of its music . It has subsequently attained an " immense " reputation , and has been choreographed by John Cranko ( 1962 ) and Kenneth MacMillan ( 1965 ) among others .
In 1977 , Michael Smuin 's production of one of the play 's most dramatic and impassioned dance interpretations was debuted in its entirety by San Francisco Ballet . This production was the first full @-@ length ballet to be broadcast by the PBS series " Great Performances : Dance in America " ; it aired in 1978 .
= = = Music = = =
At least 27 operas have been based on Romeo and Juliet . The earliest , Romeo und Julie in 1776 , a Singspiel by Georg Benda , omits much of the action of the play and most of its characters , and has a happy ending . It is occasionally revived . The best @-@ known is Gounod 's 1867 Roméo et Juliette ( libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré ) , a critical triumph when first performed and frequently revived today . Bellini 's I Capuleti e i Montecchi is also revived from time to time , but has sometimes been judged unfavourably because of its perceived liberties with Shakespeare ; however , Bellini and his librettist , Felice Romani , worked from Italian sources — principally Romani 's libretto for Giulietta e Romeo by Nicola Vaccai — rather than directly adapting Shakespeare 's play . Among later operas there is Heinrich Sutermeister 's 1940 work Romeo und Julia .
Roméo et Juliette by Berlioz is a " symphonie dramatique " , a large @-@ scale work in three parts for mixed voices , chorus and orchestra , which premiered in 1839 . Tchaikovsky 's Romeo and Juliet Fantasy @-@ Overture ( 1869 , revised 1870 and 1880 ) is a 15 @-@ minute symphonic poem , containing the famous melody known as the " love theme " . Tchaikovsky 's device of repeating the same musical theme at the ball , in the balcony scene , in Juliet 's bedroom and in the tomb has been used by subsequent directors : for example Nino Rota 's love theme is used in a similar way in the 1968 film of the play , as is Des 'ree 's Kissing You in the 1996 film . Other classical composers influenced by the play include Henry Hugh Pearson ( Romeo and Juliet , overture for orchestra , Op. 86 ) , Svendsen ( Romeo og Julie , 1876 ) , Delius ( A Village Romeo and Juliet , 1899 – 1901 ) , Stenhammar ( Romeo och Julia , 1922 ) , and Kabalevsky ( Incidental Music to Romeo and Juliet , Op. 56 , 1956 ) .
The play influenced several jazz works , including Peggy Lee 's " Fever " . Duke Ellington 's Such Sweet Thunder contains a piece entitled " The Star @-@ Crossed Lovers " in which the pair are represented by tenor and alto saxophones : critics noted that Juliet 's sax dominates the piece , rather than offering an image of equality . The play has frequently influenced popular music , including works by The Supremes , Bruce Springsteen , Tom Waits , Lou Reed , and Taylor Swift . The most famous such track is Dire Straits ' " Romeo and Juliet " .
The most famous musical theatre adaptation is West Side Story with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim . It débuted on Broadway in 1957 and in the West End in 1958 , and became a popular film in 1961 . This version updated the setting to mid @-@ 20th @-@ century New York City , and the warring families to ethnic gangs . Other musical adaptations include Terrence Mann 's 1999 rock musical William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet , co @-@ written with Jerome Korman , Gérard Presgurvic 's 2001 Roméo et Juliette , de la Haine à l 'Amour and Riccardo Cocciante 's 2007 Giulietta & Romeo .
= = = Literature and art = = =
Romeo and Juliet had a profound influence on subsequent literature . Before then , romance had not even been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy . In Harold Bloom 's words , Shakespeare " invented the formula that the sexual becomes the erotic when crossed by the shadow of death " . Of Shakespeare 's works , Romeo and Juliet has generated the most — and the most varied — adaptations , including prose and verse narratives , drama , opera , orchestral and choral music , ballet , film , television and painting . The word " Romeo " has even become synonymous with " male lover " in English .
Romeo and Juliet was parodied in Shakespeare 's own lifetime : Henry Porter 's Two Angry Women of Abingdon ( 1598 ) and Thomas Dekker 's Blurt , Master Constable ( 1607 ) both contain balcony scenes in which a virginal heroine engages in bawdy wordplay . The play directly influenced later literary works . For example , the preparations for a performance form a major plot arc in Charles Dickens ' Nicholas Nickleby .
Romeo and Juliet is one of Shakespeare 's most @-@ illustrated works . The first known illustration was a woodcut of the tomb scene , thought to be by Elisha Kirkall , which appeared in Nicholas Rowe 's 1709 edition of Shakespeare 's plays . Five paintings of the play were commissioned for the Boydell Shakespeare Gallery in the late 18th century , one representing each of the five acts of the play . The 19th century fashion for " pictorial " performances led to directors drawing on paintings for their inspiration , which in turn influenced painters to depict actors and scenes from the theatre . In the 20th century , the play 's most iconic visual images have derived from its popular film versions .
In 2014 , Simon & Schuster will publish Juliet 's Nurse , a novel by historian and former college professor Lois M. Leveen imagining the fourteen years leading up to the events in the play from the point of view of the nurse . The nurse has the third largest number of lines in the original play ; only the eponymous characters have more lines .
= = = Screen = = =
Romeo and Juliet may be the most @-@ filmed play of all time . The most notable theatrical releases were George Cukor 's multi @-@ Oscar @-@ nominated 1936 production , Franco Zeffirelli 's 1968 version , and Baz Luhrmann 's 1996 MTV @-@ inspired Romeo + Juliet . The latter two were both , in their time , the highest @-@ grossing Shakespeare film ever . Romeo and Juliet was first filmed in the silent era , by Georges Méliès , although his film is now lost . The play was first heard on film in The Hollywood Revue of 1929 , in which John Gilbert recited the balcony scene opposite Norma Shearer .
Shearer and Leslie Howard , with a combined age over 75 , played the teenage lovers in George Cukor 's MGM 1936 film version . Neither critics nor the public responded enthusiastically . Cinemagoers considered the film too " arty " , staying away as they had from Warner 's A Midsummer Night Dream a year before : leading to Hollywood abandoning the Bard for over a decade . Renato Castellani won the Grand Prix at the Venice Film Festival for his 1954 film of Romeo and Juliet . His Romeo , Laurence Harvey , was already an experienced screen actor . By contrast , Susan Shentall , as Juliet , was a secretarial student who was discovered by the director in a London pub , and was cast for her " pale sweet skin and honey @-@ blonde hair " .
Stephen Orgel describes Franco Zeffirelli 's 1968 Romeo and Juliet as being " full of beautiful young people , and the camera , and the lush technicolour , make the most of their sexual energy and good looks " . Zeffirelli 's teenage leads , Leonard Whiting and Olivia Hussey , had virtually no previous acting experience , but performed capably and with great maturity . Zeffirelli has been particularly praised , for his presentation of the duel scene as bravado getting out @-@ of @-@ control . The film courted controversy by including a nude wedding @-@ night scene while Olivia Hussey was only fifteen .
Baz Luhrmann 's 1996 Romeo + Juliet and its accompanying soundtrack successfully targeted the " MTV Generation " : a young audience of similar age to the story 's characters . Far darker than Zeffirelli 's version , the film is set in the " crass , violent and superficial society " of Verona Beach and Sycamore Grove . Leonardo DiCaprio was Romeo and Claire Danes was Juliet .
The play has been widely adapted for TV and film . In 1960 , Peter Ustinov 's cold @-@ war stage parody , Romanoff and Juliet was filmed . The 1961 film of West Side Story — set among New York gangs – featured the Jets as white youths , equivalent to Shakespeare 's Montagues , while the Sharks , equivalent to the Capulets , are Puerto Rican . The 1994 film The Punk uses both the rough plot outline of Romeo and Juliet and names many of the characters in ways that reflect the characters in the play . In 2006 , Disney 's High School Musical made use of Romeo and Juliet 's plot , placing the two young lovers in rival high school cliques instead of feuding families . Film @-@ makers have frequently featured characters performing scenes from Romeo and Juliet . The conceit of dramatising Shakespeare writing Romeo and Juliet has been used several times , including John Madden 's 1998 Shakespeare in Love , in which Shakespeare writes the play against the backdrop of his own doomed love affair . An anime series produced by Gonzo and SKY Perfect Well Think , called Romeo x Juliet , was made in 2007 and the 2013 version is the latest English @-@ language film based on the play . In 2013 , Sanjay Leela Bhansali directed the Bollywood film Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela , a contemporary version of the play which starred Ranveer Singh and Deepika Padukone in leading roles . The film was a commercial and critical success . In February 2014 , BroadwayHD released a filmed version of the 2013 Broadway Revival of Romeo and Juliet . The production starred Orlando Bloom and Condola Rashad . The film was released internationally in April 2014 .
= = = Modern social media and virtual world productions = = =
In April and May 2010 the Royal Shakespeare Company and the Mudlark Production Company presented a version of the play , entitled Such Tweet Sorrow , as an improvised , real @-@ time series of tweets on Twitter . The production used RSC actors who engaged with the audience as well each other , performing not from a traditional script but a " Grid " developed by the Mudlark production team and writers Tim Wright and Bethan Marlow . The performers also make use of other media sites such as YouTube for pictures and video .
= = Scene by scene = =
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= Reptar on Ice =
" Reptar on Ice " is the tenth episode of the second season of the animated television series Rugrats . It is the first segment of the twenty @-@ third episode for the entire series . The episode was written by Peter Gaffney and directed by Howard E. Baker . It was originally broadcast on November 8 , 1992 . " Reptar on Ice " followed the infant main characters , Tommy , Chuckie , Phil , and Lil going to an ice show with their parents that follows the love story of the babies ' favorite monster , Reptar . There , the babies attempt to return a lizard to the actor , assuming it is his child .
" Reptar on Ice " continued Rugrats ' employment of the character Reptar , a satirical parody of Godzilla . The episode included several other cultural references ; the basic theme lampoons the commercialization of children 's media products and its plethora of merchandise tie @-@ ins . The ice show the children see is referent to real @-@ life ice shows , such as " Disney on Ice , " and its plot centers around a Beauty and the Beast @-@ style love story .
The episode was released on the DVD and VHS compilation " Decade in Diapers , " which included the " favorite episodes " of Rugrats in their respected category as voted on by fans on Nick.com , and was celebratory of the show 's tenth anniversary . " Reptar on Ice " in particular was categorized as the " Favorite Reptar @-@ Rageous Episode . " Gord Lacey of TVShowsOnDVD described it as one of his favorite episodes from the compilation , tied with " Vacation Special . " It was adapted into an audio story , which was featured prominently on the CD and cassette tape " In Search of the Mighty Reptar " .
= = Plot = =
The babies discover a tiny lizard in Tommy Pickles ' backyard that they are convinced is the offspring of Reptar , a fictitious green dinosaur and main character of many action movies of which the Rugrats are fond . After learning about the extinction of the dinosaurs , Tommy decides to return the lizard to Reptar just as his family has purchased tickets for a musical ice show based on the character . After Tommy 's parents and grandfather have fallen asleep , the babies sneak into the ice rink and present the lizard to Leo , the actor portraying Reptar , who coincidentally happens to possess a phobia of lizards . Stu Pickles , Tommy 's father , sees the rugrats and must retrieve them from the ice rink .
= = Production = =
" Reptar on Ice " was written by Peter Gaffney and directed by Howard E. Baker . It was the tenth episode of season two of Rugrats , which was created by Arlene Klasky and Gabor Csupo , along with Paul Germain , founders of the self @-@ titled company Klasky @-@ Csupo . " Reptar on Ice " was originally broadcast on November 8 , 1992 on Nickelodeon . John Schuck guest starred as Reptar . In the episode , Reptar is played by a man named Leo , who was used during season one 's " Reptar 's Revenge " dressed as Reptar for a state fair . " Reptar 's Revenge " was also written by Gaffney .
= = Themes = =
Reptar had been used since season one , episode three , " At the Movies , " as a satirical parody of the fictional Japanese monster , Godzilla . Despite being a green dinosaur , he still embodies the character , and though he is portrayed comically , his name is referent to the way a child would pronounce " Velociraptor , " made famous for its appearance in Jurassic Park , though that film is highly unlikely to have been the inspiration since it was released after Reptar 's début . Reptar is used to demonstrate and subsequently lampoon the ever growing domination of Japanese culture into children 's society .
" Reptar on Ice " continues this satirical tradition , heavily displaying the over commercialization where media is dragged on into several merchandising tie @-@ ins . Angelica is insistent on only eating Reptar brand cereal , which Stu states has " no actual food in it . " The ice show the babies attend mocks several different real life ice shows , including " Disney on Ice " and " Barney on Ice . " Another reference in the episode is the subsequent joke about Beauty and the Beast in the romantic plot of the entire " Reptar on Ice " performance .
= = Reception and home media releases = =
" Reptar on Ice " was originally broadcast on November 8 , 1992 . The 1997 VHS tape " Return of Reptar " was the first home video release with this episode . Four years later in 2001 , the episode is featured on a VHS and DVD compilation for the show 's tenth anniversary entitled Decade in Diapers . It included ten episodes that were voted by fans on Nick.com as their favorites in specific categories - " Reptar on Ice " was listed as the favorite " Reptar @-@ Rageous Episode . " The Decades in Diapers video had originally been released as a VHS in 2001 , and though Paramount Studios intended to concurrently put it as a DVD as well , they " opted to wait a year " . The episode was most recently re @-@ released to DVD in June 2009 as a part of the Rugrats Season 2 DVD set .
Gord Lacey of TVShowsOnDVD named the episode one of his favorites on the compilation , tying with the episode " Vacation Special , " which followed the families going to Las Vegas to relax . " Reptar on Ice " was adapted onto a CD entitled In Search of the Mighty Reptar . It features a story @-@ time set of two " adventures " the babies have ; the second story features another Reptar story , entitled " Journey to the Center of the Basement , " where they venture to their basement in order to " rescue " their " Reptar , Jr . " toy . The CD was as well made for cassette tapes , both being released on July 20 , 1999 . In Search of the Mighty Reptar was a part of Nickelodeon 's " Rugrats Go Reptar ! " event that published several different other merchandise types for Rugrats , including direct @-@ to @-@ video releases and magazines .
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= Keith Moon =
Keith John Moon ( 23 August 1946 – 7 September 1978 ) was an English drummer who played with the English rock band the Who . He was noted for his unique style and his eccentric , often self @-@ destructive behaviour . His drumming continues to be praised by critics and musicians . He was posthumously inducted into the Modern Drummer Hall of Fame in 1982 , becoming only the second rock drummer to be chosen , and in 2011 , Moon was voted the second @-@ greatest drummer in history by a Rolling Stone readers ' poll .
Moon grew up in Alperton , a suburb of Wembley , northwest London , and took up the drums during the early 1960s . After playing with a local band , the Beachcombers , he joined the Who in 1964 before they recorded their first single . Moon remained with the band during their rise to fame , and was quickly recognised for his drumming style , which emphasised tom @-@ toms , cymbal crashes , and drum fills . He occasionally collaborated with other musicians and later appeared in films , but considered playing in the Who his primary occupation and remained a member of the band until his death . In addition to his talent as a drummer , however , Moon developed a reputation for smashing his kit on stage and destroying hotel rooms on tour . He was fascinated by blowing up toilets with cherry bombs or dynamite , and by destroying television sets . Moon enjoyed touring and socialising , and was bored and restless when the Who were inactive . His 21st birthday party in Flint , Michigan , has been cited as a notorious example of decadent behaviour by rock groups .
Moon suffered a number of setbacks during the 1970s , most notably the accidental death of chauffeur Neil Boland and the breakdown of his marriage . He became addicted to alcohol , particularly brandy and champagne , and acquired a reputation for decadence and dark humour ; his nickname was " Moon the Loon . " After moving to Los Angeles with personal assistant Peter " Dougal " Butler during the mid @-@ 1970s , Moon recorded his only solo album , the poorly received Two Sides of the Moon . While touring with the Who , on several occasions he passed out on stage and was hospitalised . By their final tour with him in 1976 , and particularly during production of The Kids Are Alright and Who Are You , the drummer 's deterioration was evident . Moon moved back to London in 1978 , dying in September of that year from an overdose of Heminevrin , a drug intended to treat or prevent symptoms of alcohol withdrawal .
= = Early life = =
Keith John Moon was born to Alfred Charles ( Alf ) and Kathleen Winifred ( Kit ) Moon on 23 August 1946 at Central Middlesex Hospital in northwest London , and grew up in Wembley . He was hyperactive as a boy , with a restless imagination and a particular fondness for The Goon Show and music . Moon attended Alperton Secondary Modern School after failing his eleven plus exam , which precluded his attending a grammar school . His art teacher said in a report : " Retarded artistically . Idiotic in other respects " . His music teacher wrote that Moon " has great ability , but must guard against a tendency to show off . "
Moon joined his local Sea Cadet Corps band at the age of twelve on the bugle , but found the instrument too difficult to learn and decided to take up drums instead . He was interested in practical jokes and home science kits , with a particular fondness for explosions . On his way home from school , Moon would often go to Macari 's Music Studio on Ealing Road to practise on the drums there , learning his basic skills on the instrument . He left school at age fourteen , around Easter in 1961 . Moon then enrolled at Harrow Technical College ; this led to a job as a radio repairman , enabling him to buy his first drum kit .
= = Career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Moon took lessons from one of the loudest contemporary drummers , Screaming Lord Sutch 's Carlo Little , at ten shillings per lesson . Moon 's early style was influenced by jazz , American surf music and rhythm and blues , exemplified by noted Los Angeles studio drummer Hal Blaine . His favourite musicians were jazz artists , particularly Gene Krupa ( whose flamboyant style he subsequently copied ) . Moon also admired Elvis Presley 's original drummer DJ Fontana , the Shadows ' original drummer Tony Meehan and the Pretty Things ' Viv Prince . He also enjoyed singing , with a particular interest in Motown . Moon idolised the Beach Boys ; Roger Daltrey later said that given the opportunity , Moon would have left to play for the California band even at the peak of the Who 's fame .
During this time Moon joined his first serious band : the Escorts , replacing his best friend Gerry Evans . In December 1962 he joined the Beachcombers , a semi @-@ professional London cover band playing hits by groups such as the Shadows . During his time in the group Moon incorporated theatrical tricks into his act , including " shooting " the group 's lead singer with a starter pistol . The Beachcombers all had day jobs ; Moon , who worked in the sales department at British Gypsum , had the keenest interest in turning professional . In April 1964 , at age seventeen , he auditioned for the Who as a replacement for Doug Sandom . The Beachcombers continued as a local cover band after his departure .
= = = The Who = = =
A commonly cited story of how Moon joined the Who is that he appeared at a show shortly after Sandom 's departure , where a session drummer was used . Dressed in ginger clothes and with his hair dyed ginger ( future bandmate Pete Townshend later described him as a " ginger vision " ) , he claimed to his would @-@ be bandmates that he could play better ; he played in the set 's second half , nearly demolishing the drum kit in the process . In the words of the drummer , " they said go ahead , and I got behind this other guy 's drums and did one song- ' Road Runner . ' I 'd several drinks to get me courage up and when I got onstage I went arrgggGhhhh on the drums , broke the bass drum pedal and two skins , and got off . I figured that was it . I was scared to death . Afterwards I was sitting at the bar and Pete came over . He said : ' You ... come ' ere . ' I said , mild as you please : ' Yes , yes ? ' And Roger , who was the spokesman then , said : ' What are you doing next Monday ? ' I said : ' Nothing . ' I was working during the day , selling plaster . He said : ' You 'll have to give up work ... there 's this gig on Monday . If you want to come , we 'll pick you up in the van . ' I said : ' Right . ' And that was it . " Moon later claimed that he was never formally invited to join the Who permanently ; when Ringo Starr asked how he had joined the band , he said he had " just been filling in for the last fifteen years . "
Moon 's arrival in the Who changed the dynamics of the group . Sandom had generally been the peacemaker as Daltrey and Townshend feuded between themselves , but because of Moon 's temperament the group now had four members frequently in conflict . " We used to fight regularly , " remembered Moon in later years . " John [ Entwistle ] and I used to have fights – it wasn 't very serious , it was more of an emotional spur @-@ of @-@ the moment thing . " Moon also clashed with Daltrey and Townshend : " We really have absolutely nothing in common apart from music , " he said in a later interview . Although Townshend described him as a " completely different person to anyone I 've ever met , " the pair had a rapport in the early years and enjoyed practical jokes and improvised comedy . Moon 's drumming style affected the band 's musical structure ; although Entwistle initially found Moon 's lack of conventional timekeeping problematic , it created an original sound .
Moon was particularly fond of touring , since it was his only chance to regularly socialise with his bandmates , and was generally restless and bored when not playing live . This later carried over to other aspects of his life , as he acted them out ( according to journalist and Who biographer Dave Marsh ) " as if his life were one long tour . " These antics earned him the nickname " Moon the Loon . "
= = = = Musical contributions = = = =
Moon 's style of drumming was considered unique by his bandmates , although they sometimes found his unconventional playing frustrating ; Entwistle noted that he tended to play faster or slower according to his mood . " He wouldn 't play across his kit , " he later added . " He 'd play zig @-@ zag . That 's why he had two sets of tom @-@ toms . He 'd move his arms forward like a skier . " Daltrey said that Moon " just instinctively put drum rolls in places that other people would never have thought of putting them . "
Who biographer John Atkins wrote that the group 's early test sessions for Pye Records in 1964 show that " they seemed to have understood just how important was ... Moon 's contribution . " Contemporary critics questioned his ability to keep time , with biographer Tony Fletcher suggesting that the timing on Tommy was " all over the place . " Who producer Jon Astley said , " You didn 't think he was keeping time , but he was . " Early recordings of Moon 's drumming sound tinny and disorganised ; it was not until the recording of Who 's Next , with Glyn Johns ' no @-@ nonsense production techniques and the need to keep time to a synthesizer track , that he began developing more discipline in the studio . Fletcher considers the drumming on this album to be the best of Moon 's career .
Unlike contemporary rock drummers such as Ginger Baker and John Bonham , Moon hated drum solos and refused to play them in concert . At a Madison Square Garden show on 10 June 1974 , Townshend and Entwistle decided to spontaneously stop playing during " Wasp Man " to listen to Moon 's drum solo . Moon continued briefly and then stopped , shouting " Drum solos are boring ! " However , in 1977 , he made a guest appearance in a Led Zeppelin concert , joining John Bonham for his " Moby Dick " drum solo . The concert was bootlegged as For Badgeholders Only .
Although not an especially gifted vocalist , Moon was enthusiastic about singing and wanted to sing lead with the rest of the group . While the other three members handled the lion 's share of onstage vocals , Moon would attempt to sing backup ( particularly on " I Can 't Explain " ) . He provided humorous commentary during song announcements , although sound engineer Bob Pridden preferred to mute his vocal microphone on the mixing desk whenever possible . Moon 's knack for making his bandmates laugh around the microphone led them to banish him from the studio when vocals were being recorded ; this led to a game in which Moon would sneak in to join the singing . At the end of " Happy Jack , " Townshend can be heard saying " I saw ya ! " to Moon as he tries to sneak into the studio . The drummer 's interest in surf music and his desire to sing lead spawned lead vocals on several early tracks , including " Bucket T " and " Barbara Ann " ( Ready Steady Who EP , 1966 ) and high backing vocals on other songs , such as " Pictures of Lily . " Moon 's performance on " Bell Boy " ( Quadrophenia , 1973 ) saw him abandon " serious " vocal performances to sing in character , which gave him ( in Fletcher 's words ) " full licence to live up to his reputation as a lecherous drunk " ; it was " exactly the kind of performance the Who needed from him to bring them back down to earth . "
Moon composed " I Need You " ( which he also sang ) , the instrumental " Cobwebs and Strange " ( from the album A Quick One , 1966 ) , the single B @-@ sides " In The City " ( co @-@ written with Entwistle ) and " Girl 's Eyes " ( from The Who Sell Out sessions featured on Thirty Years of Maximum R & B and a 1995 re @-@ release of The Who Sell Out ) , " Dogs Part Two " ( 1969 ) , " Tommy 's Holiday Camp " ( 1969 ) and " Waspman " ( 1972 ) . Moon also co @-@ composed " The Ox " ( an instrumental from their debut album , My Generation ) with Townshend , Entwistle and keyboardist Nicky Hopkins . The setting for " Tommy 's Holiday Camp " ( from Tommy ) was credited to Moon ; the song was primarily written by Townshend and , although there is a misconception that Moon sings on it , the album version is Townshend 's demo .
The drummer produced the violin solo on " Baba O 'Riley . " Moon sat in on congas with East of Eden at the Lyceum , and afterwards suggested to violinist Dave Arbus that he play on the track .
= = = = Equipment = = = =
Moon played a four , then a five @-@ piece drum kit during his early career . His 1965 set consisted of Ludwig drums and Zildjian cymbals . By 1966 , feeling limited by this setup and inspired by Ginger Baker 's double bass drum , he switched to a larger Premier kit . This setup did not have a hi @-@ hat , since Moon used crash and ride cymbals instead . He remained a loyal customer of Premier .
Moon 's Classic Red Sparkle Premier setup consisted of two 22 @-@ inch ( 56 cm ) bass drums , three 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) mounted toms , two 16 @-@ inch ( 41 cm ) floor toms and a 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) Ludwig Supraphonic 400 snare . His cymbals consisted of two Paiste Giant Beat 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) crashes and one 20 @-@ inch ( 51 cm ) ride . This kit was not used at the Who 's performance at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival . From 1967 to 1969 Moon used the " Pictures of Lily " drum kit ( named for its artwork ) , which had two 22 @-@ inch ( 56 cm ) bass drums , two 16 @-@ inch ( 41 cm ) floor toms and three mounted toms . In recognition of his loyalty to the company , Premier reissued the kit in 2006 as the " Spirit of Lily . "
By 1970 Moon had begun to use timbales , gongs and timpani , and these were included in his setup for the rest of his career . In 1973 Premier 's marketing manager , Eddie Haynes , began consulting with Moon about specific requirements . At one point , Moon asked Premier to make a white kit with gold @-@ plated fittings . When Haynes said that it would be prohibitively expensive , Moon replied : " Dear boy , do exactly as you feel it should be , but that 's the way I want it . " The kit was eventually fitted with copper fittings and later given to a young Zak Starkey .
= = = = Destroying instruments and other stunts = = = =
At an early show at the Railway Tavern in Harrow , Townshend smashed his guitar after accidentally breaking it . When the audience demanded he do it again , Moon kicked over his drum kit . Subsequent live sets culminated in what the band later described as " auto @-@ destructive art , " in which band members ( particularly Moon and Townshend ) elaborately destroyed their equipment . Moon developed a habit of kicking over his drums , claiming that he did so in exasperation at an audience 's indifference . Townshend later said , " A set of skins is about $ 300 [ then £ 96 ] and after every show he 'd just go bang , bang , bang and then kick the whole thing over . "
In May 1966 , Moon discovered that the Beach Boys ' Bruce Johnston was visiting London . After the pair socialised for a few days , Moon and Entwistle brought Johnston to the set of Ready Steady Go ! , which made them late for a show with the Who that evening . During the finale of " My Generation , " an altercation broke out on stage between Moon and Townshend which was reported on the front page of the New Musical Express the following week . Moon and Entwistle left the Who for a week ( with Moon hoping to join the Animals or the Nashville Teens ) , but they changed their minds and returned .
On the Who 's early US package tour at the RKO Theatre in New York in March and April 1967 Moon performed five shows a day , kicking over his drum kit after every show . Later that year , during their appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , he bribed a stagehand to load gunpowder into one of his bass drums ; the stagehand used about ten times the standard amount . During the finale of " My Generation , " he kicked the drum off the riser and set off the charge . The intensity of the explosion singed Townshend 's hair and embedded a piece of cymbal in Moon 's arm . A clip of the incident became the opening scene for the film The Kids Are Alright .
Although Moon was known for kicking over his drum kit , Haynes claimed that it was done carefully and the kit rarely needed repairs . However , stands and foot pedals were frequently replaced ; the drummer " would go through them like a knife through butter . "
= = = Other work = = =
= = = = Music = = = =
While Moon generally said he was only interested in working with the Who , he participated in outside musical projects . In 1966 he worked with Yardbirds guitarist Jeff Beck , pianist Nicky Hopkins and future Led Zeppelin members Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones on the instrumental " Beck 's Bolero , " which was the B @-@ side to " Hi Ho Silver Lining " and appeared on the album Truth . Moon also played timpani on another track , a cover of Jerome Kern 's " Ol ' Man River . " He was credited on the album as " You Know Who . "
Moon may have inspired the name for Led Zeppelin . When he briefly considered leaving the Who in 1966 , he spoke with Entwistle and Page about forming a supergroup . Moon ( or Entwistle ) remarked that a particular suggestion had gone down like a " lead zeppelin " ( a play on " lead balloon " ) . Although the supergroup was never formed , Page remembered the phrase and later adapted it as the name of his new band .
The Beatles became friends with Moon , leading to occasional collaborations . In 1967 , he contributed backing vocals to " All You Need Is Love . " On 15 December 1969 , Moon joined John Lennon 's Plastic Ono Band for a live performance at the Lyceum Theatre in London for a UNICEF charity concert . In 1972 the performance was released as a companion disc to Lennon and Ono 's album , Some Time in New York City .
Moon 's friendship with Entwistle led to an appearance on Smash Your Head Against the Wall , Entwistle 's first solo album and the first by a member of the Who . Moon did not play drums on the album ; Jerry Shirley did , with Moon providing percussion . Rolling Stone 's John Hoegel appreciated Entwistle 's decision not to let Moon drum , saying that it distanced his album from the familiar sound of the Who .
Moon became involved in solo work when he moved to Los Angeles during the mid @-@ 1970s . In 1974 , Track Records @-@ MCA released a Moon solo single covering the Beach Boys ' " Don 't Worry , Baby " and " Teenage Idol . " The next year he released his only solo album , entitled Two Sides of the Moon . Although it featured Moon on vocals , he played drums on only three tracks ; most of the drumming was left to others ( including Ringo Starr , session musicians Curly Smith and Jim Keltner and actor @-@ musician Miguel Ferrer ) . The album was received poorly by critics . NME 's Roy Carr wrote , " Moonie , if you didn 't have talent , I wouldn 't care ; but you have , which is why I 'm not about to accept Two Sides of the Moon . " Dave Marsh , reviewing the album in Rolling Stone , wrote : " There isn 't any legitimate reason for this album 's existence . " During one of his few televised solo drum performances ( for ABC 's Wide World ) , Moon played a five @-@ minute drum solo dressed as a cat on transparent acrylic drums filled with water and goldfish . When asked by an audience member what would happen to the kit , he joked that " even the best drummers get hungry . " His performance was not appreciated by animal lovers , several of whom called the station with complaints .
= = = = Film = = = =
In the 2007 documentary film , Amazing Journey : The Story of The Who , Daltrey and Townshend reminisced about Moon 's talent for dressing as ( and embodying ) a variety of characters . They remembered his dream of getting out of music and becoming a Hollywood film actor , although Daltrey did not think Moon had the patience and work ethic required by a professional actor . Who manager Bill Curbishley agreed that Moon " wasn 't disciplined enough to actually turn up or commit to doing the stuff . "
Nevertheless , the drummer landed several acting roles . His first was in 1971 , a cameo in Frank Zappa 's 200 Motels as a nun afraid of dying from a drug overdose . Although it only took 13 days to film , fellow cast member Howard Kaylan remembers Moon spending off @-@ camera time at the Kensington Garden Hotel bar instead of sleeping . Moon 's next film role was J.D. Clover , drummer for the fictional Stray Cats at a holiday camp during the early days of British rock ' n ' roll , in 1973 's That 'll Be the Day . He reprised the role for the film 's 1974 sequel , Stardust , and played Uncle Ernie in Ken Russell 's 1975 film adaptation of Tommy . Moon 's last film appearance was in 1978 's Sextette with Starr and Alice Cooper . This was the last film to star Mae West .
= = Destructive behaviour = =
Moon led a destructive lifestyle . During the Who 's early days he began taking amphetamines , and in a New Musical Express interview said his favourite food was " French Blues . " He spent his share of the band 's income quickly , and was a regular at London clubs such as the Speakeasy and the Bag O ' Nails ; the combination of pills and alcohol escalated into alcoholism and drug addiction later in his life . " [ We ] went through the same stages everybody goes through – the bloody drug corridor , " he later reflected . " Drinking suited the group a lot better . "
According to Townshend , Moon began destroying hotel rooms when the Who stayed at the Berlin Hilton on tour in late 1966 . In addition to hotel rooms , Moon destroyed friends ' homes and even his own , throwing furniture from upper @-@ storey windows and setting fire to buildings . Andrew Neill and Matthew Kent estimated that his destruction of hotel toilets and plumbing cost as much as £ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 500 @,@ 000 ) . These acts , often fuelled by drugs and alcohol , were Moon 's way of demonstrating his eccentricity ; he enjoyed shocking the public with them . Longtime friend and personal assistant Butler observed , " He was trying to make people laugh and be Mr Funny , he wanted people to love him and enjoy him , but he would go so far . Like a train ride you couldn 't stop . "
In a limousine on the way to the airport Moon insisted they return to their hotel , saying " I forgot something . " At the hotel he ran back to his room , grabbed the television and threw it out the window into the swimming pool below . He then jumped back into the limo , saying " I nearly forgot . "
Fletcher argues that The Who 's lengthy break between the end of their 1972 European tour and the beginning of the Quadrophenia sessions devastated Moon 's health , as without the rigours of lengthy shows and regular touring that had previously kept him in shape , his hard @-@ partying lifestyle took a greater toll on his body . He did not keep a drum kit or practice at Tara , and began to deteriorate physically as a result of his lifestyle . Around the same time he became a severe alcoholic , starting the day with drinks and changing from the " lovable boozer " he presented himself as to a " boorish drunk " . David Puttnam recalled , " The drinking went from being a joke to being a problem . On That 'll Be the Day it was social drinking . By the time Stardust came round it was hard drinking . "
= = = Exploding toilets = = =
Moon 's favourite stunt was to flush powerful explosives down toilets . According to Fletcher , Moon 's toilet pyrotechnics began in 1965 when he purchased a case of 500 cherry bombs . He moved from cherry bombs to M @-@ 80 fireworks to sticks of dynamite , which became his explosive of choice . " All that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable , " Moon remembered . " I never realised dynamite was so powerful . I 'd been used to penny bangers before . " He quickly developed a reputation for destroying bathrooms and blowing up toilets . The destruction mesmerised him , and enhanced his public image as rock 's premier hell @-@ raiser . Tony Fletcher wrote that " no toilet in a hotel or changing room was safe " until Moon had exhausted his supply of explosives .
Pete Townshend walked into the bathroom of Moon 's hotel room and noticed the toilet had disappeared , with only the S @-@ bend remaining . The drummer explained that since a cherry bomb was about to explode , he had thrown it down the loo and showed Townshend the case of cherry bombs . " And of course from that moment on , " the guitarist remembered , " we got thrown out of every hotel we ever stayed in . "
Entwistle recalled being close to Moon on tour : " I suppose we were two of a kind " ... We shared a room on the road and got up to no good . " Consequently , both were often involved in blowing up toilets . In a 1981 Los Angeles Times interview he admitted , " A lot of times when Keith was blowing up toilets I was standing behind him with the matches . " In Alabama , Moon and Entwistle loaded a toilet with cherry bombs after being denied room service . According to Entwistle , " That toilet was just dust all over the walls by the time we checked out . The management brought our suitcases down to the gig and said : ' Don 't come back ... ' "
A hotel manager called Moon in his room and asked him to lower the volume on his cassette recorder because it made " too much noise . " In response the drummer asked him up to his room , excused himself to go the bathroom , put a lit stick of dynamite in the toilet and shut the bathroom door . Upon returning , he asked the manager to stay for a moment , as he wanted to explain something . Following the explosion , Moon turned the recorder back on and said , " That , dear boy , was noise . This is the ' Oo . "
= = = Flint Holiday Inn incident = = =
On 23 August 1967 , on tour opening for Herman 's Hermits , Moon celebrated what he said was his 21st birthday ( although it was thought at the time to be his 20th ) at a Holiday Inn in Flint , Michigan . Entwistle later said , " He decided that if it was a publicised fact that it was his 21st birthday , he would be able to drink . "
The drummer immediately began drinking upon his arrival in Flint . The Who spent the afternoon visiting local radio stations with Nancy Lewis ( then the band 's publicist ) , and Moon posed for a photo outside the hotel in front of a " Happy Birthday Keith " sign put up by the hotel management . According to Lewis , Moon was drunk by the time the band went onstage at the Atwood High School football stadium .
Returning to the hotel , Moon started a food fight and soon cake began flying through the air . The drummer knocked out part of his front tooth ; at the hospital , doctors could not give him an anaesthetic ( due to his inebriation ) before removing the remainder of the tooth . Back at the hotel a mêlée erupted ; fire extinguishers were set off , guests ( and objects ) thrown into the swimming pool and a piano reportedly destroyed . The chaos ended only when police arrived with guns drawn .
A furious Holiday Inn management presented the groups with a bill for $ 24 @,@ 000 , which was reportedly settled by Herman 's Hermits tour manager Edd McCann . Townshend claimed that the Who were banned for life from all of the hotel 's properties , but Fletcher wrote that they stayed at a Holiday Inn in Rochester , New York a week later . He also disputed a widely held belief that Moon drove a Lincoln Continental into the hotel 's swimming pool , as claimed by the drummer in a 1972 Rolling Stone interview .
= = = Passing out on stage = = =
Moon 's lifestyle began to undermine his health and reliability . During the 1973 Quadrophenia tour , at the Who 's debut US date at the Cow Palace in Daly City , California , Moon ingested a mixture of tranquillisers and brandy . During the concert , Moon passed out on his drum kit during " Won 't Get Fooled Again . " The band stopped playing , and a group of roadies carried Moon offstage . They gave him a shower and an injection of cortisone , sending him back onstage after a thirty @-@ minute delay . Moon passed out again during " Magic Bus , " and was again removed from the stage . The band continued without him for several songs before Townshend asked , " Can anyone play the drums ? – I mean somebody good ? " A drummer in the audience , Scot Halpin , came up and played the rest of the show .
During the opening date of the band 's March 1976 US tour at the Boston Garden , Moon passed out over his drum kit after two numbers and the show was rescheduled . The next evening Moon systematically destroyed everything in his hotel room , cut himself doing so and passed out . He was discovered by manager Bill Curbishley , who took him to a hospital , telling him " I 'm gonna get the doctor to get you nice and fit , so you 're back within two days . Because I want to break your fucking jaw ... You have fucked this band around so many times and I 'm not having it any more . " Doctors told Curbishley that if he had not intervened , Moon would have bled to death . Marsh suggested that at this point Daltrey and Entwistle seriously considered firing Moon , but decided that doing so would make his life worse .
During the band 's recording sabbatical from 1975 to 1978 , Moon gained a considerable amount of weight . Entwistle has said that Moon and the Who reached their live peak in 1975 – 76 . At the end of the 1976 US tour in Miami that August , the drummer , delirious , was treated in Hollywood Memorial Hospital for eight days . The group was concerned that he would be unable to complete the last leg of the tour , which ended at Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto on 21 October ( Moon 's last public show ) . By the time of the Who 's invitation @-@ only show at the Kilburn Gaumont in December 1977 for The Kids are Alright , Moon was visibly overweight and had difficulty sustaining a solid performance . After recording Who Are You , Townshend refused to follow the album with a tour until Moon stopped drinking , and said that if Moon 's playing did not improve he would be fired . Daltrey later denied threatening to fire him , but said that by this time the drummer was out of control .
= = = Financial problems = = =
Because the Who 's early stage act relied on smashing instruments , and owing to Moon 's enthusiasm for damaging hotels , the group were in debt for much of the 1960s ; Entwistle estimated they lost about £ 150 @,@ 000 . Even when the group became relatively financially stable after Tommy , Moon continued to rack up debts . He bought a number of cars and gadgets , and flirted with bankruptcy . Moon 's recklessness with money reduced his profit from the group 's 1975 UK tour to £ 47 @.@ 35 .
= = Personal life and relationships = =
= = = Birthdate = = =
Before the 1998 release of Tony Fletcher 's Dear Boy : The Life of Keith Moon , Moon 's date of birth was presumed to be 23 August 1947 . This erroneous date appeared in several otherwise @-@ reliable sources , including the Townshend @-@ authorised biography Before I Get Old : The Story of The Who . The incorrect date had been supplied by Moon in interviews before it was corrected by Fletcher to 1946 .
= = = Kim Kerrigan = = =
Moon 's first serious relationship was with Kim Kerrigan , whom he started dating in January 1965 after she saw the Who play at the Disc A Go Go in Bournemouth . By the end of the year , she discovered she was pregnant ; her parents , who were furious , met with the Moons to discuss their options and she moved into the Moon family home in Wembley . They were married on 17 March 1966 at Brent Registry Office , and their daughter Amanda was born on 12 July . The marriage ( and child ) were kept secret from the press until May 1968 . Moon was occasionally violent towards Kim : " if we went out after I had Mandy , " she later said , " if someone talked to me , he 'd lose it . We 'd go home and he 'd start a fight with me . " He loved Amanda , but his absences due to touring and fondness for practical jokes made their relationship uneasy when she was very young . " He had no idea how to be a father , " Kim said . " He was too much of a child himself . "
From 1971 to 1975 Moon owned Tara , a home in Chertsey where he initially lived with his wife and daughter . The Moons entertained extravagantly at home , and owned a number of cars . Jack McCullogh , then working for Track Records ( The Who 's label ) , recalls Moon ordering him to purchase a milk float to store in the garage at Tara .
In 1973 Kim , convinced that neither she nor anyone else could moderate Keith 's behaviour , left her husband and took Amanda ; she sued for divorce in 1975 and later married Faces keyboard player Ian McLagan . Marsh believes that Moon never truly recovered from the loss of his family . Butler agrees ; despite his relationship with Annette Walter @-@ Lax , he believes that Kim was the only woman Moon loved . McLagan commented that Moon " couldn 't handle it . " Moon would harass them with phone calls , and on one occasion before Kim sued for divorce , he invited McLagan for a drink at a Richmond pub and sent several " heavies " to break into McLagan 's home on Fife Road and look for Kim , forcing her to hide in a walk @-@ in closet . She died in a car accident in Austin , Texas on 2 August 2006 .
= = = Annette Walter @-@ Lax = = =
In 1975 Moon began a relationship with Swedish model Annette Walter @-@ Lax , who later said that Moon was " so sweet when he was sober , that I was just living with him in the hope that he would kick all this craziness . " She begged Malibu neighbour Larry Hagman to check Moon into a clinic to dry out ( as he had attempted to do before ) , but when doctors recorded Moon 's chemical intake at breakfast – a bottle of champagne , Courvoisier and amphetamines – they concluded that there was no hope for his rehabilitation .
= = = Friends = = =
Moon enjoyed being the life of the party . Bill Curbishley remembered that " he wouldn 't walk into any room and just listen . He was an attention seeker and he had to have it . "
Early in the Who 's career , Moon got to know the Beatles . He would join them at clubs , forming a particularly close friendship with Ringo Starr . Moon later became friends with Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band members Vivian Stanshall and " Legs " Larry Smith , and the trio would drink and play practical jokes together . Smith remembers one occasion where he and Moon tore apart a pair of trousers , with an accomplice later looking for one @-@ legged trousers . In the early 1970s Moon helped Stanshall with his " Radio Flashes " radio show for BBC Radio 1 , filling in for the vacationing John Peel ( see Rawlinson End Radio Flashes ) . Subsequently , in 1973 , Moon himself filled in for John Peel in " A Touch of the Moon , " a series of four programmes produced by John Walters .
Guitarist Joe Walsh enjoyed socialising with Moon . In an interview with Guitar World magazine , he recalled that the drummer " taught me how to break things . " In 1974 , Moon struck up a friendship with actor Oliver Reed while working on the film version of Tommy . Although Reed matched Moon drink for drink , he appeared on set the next morning ready to perform ; Moon , on the other hand , would cost several hours of filming time . Reed later said that Moon " showed me the way to insanity . "
= = = Dougal Butler = = =
Peter " Dougal " Butler began working for the Who in 1967 , becoming Moon 's personal assistant the following year to help him stay out of trouble . He remembers managers Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp saying , " We trust you with Keith but if you ever want any time off , for a holiday or some sort of rest , let us know and we 'll pay for it . " Butler never took them up on the offer .
He followed Moon when the drummer relocated to Los Angeles , but felt that the drug culture prevalent at the time was bad for Moon : " My job was to have eyes in the back of my head . " Townshend agreed , saying that by 1975 Butler had " no influence over him whatsoever . " Although he was a loyal companion to Moon , the lifestyle eventually became too much for him ; he phoned Curbishley , saying that they needed to move back to England or one of them might die . Butler quit in 1978 , and later wrote of his experiences in a book entitled Full Moon : The Amazing Rock and Roll Life of Keith Moon ( 2012 ) .
= = = Neil Boland = = =
On 4 January 1970 Moon accidentally killed his friend , driver and bodyguard , Neil Boland , outside the Red Lion pub in Hatfield , Hertfordshire . Pub patrons had begun to attack his Bentley and Moon , drunk , began driving to escape them . During the fracas , he hit Boland . After an investigation , the coroner ruled Boland 's death an accident and Moon received an absolute discharge after being charged with a number of offences .
Those close to Moon said that he was haunted by Boland 's death for the rest of his life . According to Pamela Des Barres , Moon had nightmares ( which woke them both ) about the incident and said he had no right to be alive .
= = Death = =
In mid @-@ 1978 Moon moved into a flat in Curzon Place ( later Curzon Square ) , Shepherd Market , Mayfair , London , renting from Harry Nilsson . Cass Elliot had died there four years earlier , at the age of 32 ; Nilsson was concerned about letting the flat to Moon , believing it was cursed . Townshend disagreed , assuring him that " lightning wouldn 't strike the same place twice " .
After moving in , Moon began a prescribed course of Heminevrin ( clomethiazole , a sedative ) to alleviate his alcohol withdrawal symptoms . He wanted to get sober , but due to his fear of psychiatric hospitals he wanted to do it at home . Clomethiazole is discouraged for unsupervised detoxification because of its addictive potential , its tendency to induce tolerance , and its risk of death when mixed with alcohol . The pills were prescribed by Geoffrey Dymond , a physician who was unaware of Moon 's lifestyle . Dymond prescribed a bottle of 100 pills , instructing him to take one pill when he felt a craving for alcohol but not more than three pills per day .
By September 1978 Moon was having difficulty playing the drums , according to roadie Dave " Cy " Langston . After seeing Moon in the studio trying to overdub drums for The Kids Are Alright , he said , " After two or three hours , he got more and more sluggish , he could barely hold a drum stick . "
On 6 September Moon and Walter @-@ Lax were guests of Paul and Linda McCartney at a preview of the film , The Buddy Holly Story . After dining with the McCartneys at Peppermint Park in Covent Garden , Moon and Walter @-@ Lax returned to their flat . He watched a film ( The Abominable Dr. Phibes ) , and asked Walter @-@ Lax to cook him steak and eggs . When she objected , Moon replied " If you don 't like it , you can fuck off ! " These were his last words . Moon then took 32 clomethiazole tablets . When Walter @-@ Lax checked on him the following afternoon , she discovered he was dead .
Curbishley phoned the flat at around 5 pm looking for Moon , and Dymond gave him the news . Curbishley told Townshend , who informed the rest of the band . Entwistle was giving an interview to French journalists when he was interrupted by a phone call with the news of Moon 's death . Trying to tactfully and quickly end the interview , he broke down and wept when the journalist asked him about the Who 's future plans .
Moon 's death came shortly after the release of Who Are You . On the album cover , he is straddling a chair to hide his weight gain ; the words " Not to be taken away " are on the back of the chair .
Police determined that there were 32 clomethiazole pills in Moon 's system . Six were digested , sufficient to cause his death ; the other 26 were undigested when he died . Max Glatt , an authority on alcoholism , wrote in The Sunday Times that Moon should never have been given the drug . Moon was cremated on 13 September 1978 at Golders Green Crematorium in London , and his ashes were scattered in its Gardens of Remembrance .
Townshend convinced Daltrey and Entwistle to carry on touring as The Who , although he later said that it was his means of coping with Moon 's death and " completely irrational , bordering on insane " . AllMusic 's Bruce Eder said , " When Keith Moon died , the Who carried on and were far more competent and reliable musically , but that wasn 't what sold rock records . " In November 1978 , Faces drummer Kenney Jones joined the Who . Townshend later said that Jones " was one of the few British drummers who could fill Keith 's shoes " ; Daltrey was less enthusiastic , saying that Jones " wasn 't the right style " . Keyboardist John " Rabbit " Bundrick , who had rehearsed with Moon earlier in the year , joined the live band as an unofficial member .
Jones left the Who in 1988 , and drummer Simon Phillips ( who praised Moon 's ability to drum over the backing track of " Baba O 'Riley " ) toured with the band the following year . Since 1994 , the Who 's drummer has been Ringo Starr 's son Zak Starkey , who had been given a drum kit by Moon ( whom he called " Uncle Keith " ) .
The London 2012 Summer Olympic Committee contacted Curbishley about Moon performing at the games , 34 years after his death . In an interview with The Times Curbishley quipped , " I emailed back saying Keith now resides in Golders Green crematorium , having lived up to the Who 's anthemic line ' I hope I die before I get old ' ... If they have a round table , some glasses and candles , we might contact him . "
= = Legacy = =
Moon 's drumming has been praised by critics . Author Nick Talevski described him as " the greatest drummer in rock , " adding that " he was to the drums what Jimi Hendrix was to the guitar . " Holly George @-@ Warren , editor and author of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame : The First 25 Years , said : " With the death of Keith Moon in 1978 , rock arguably lost its single greatest drummer . " According to Eder , " Moon , with his manic , lunatic side , and his life of excessive drinking , partying , and other indulgences , probably represented the youthful , zany side of rock & roll , as well as its self @-@ destructive side , better than anyone else on the planet . " The New Book of Rock Lists ranked Moon No. 1 on its list of " 50 Greatest Rock ' n ' Roll Drummers , " and he was ranked No. 2 on the 2011 Rolling Stone " Best Drummers of All Time " readers ' poll . In 2016 , the same magazine ranked him No. 2 in their list of the 100 Greatest Drummers of All Time , behind John Bonham . Adam Budofsky , editor of Drummer magazine , said that Moon 's performances on Who 's Next and Quadrophenia " represent a perfect balance of technique and passion " and " there 's been no drummer who 's touched his unique slant on rock and rhythm since . "
Several rock drummers , including Neil Peart and Dave Grohl , have cited Moon as an influence . The Jam paid homage to Moon on the second single from their third album , " Down in the Tube Station at Midnight " ; the B @-@ side of the single is a Who cover ( " So Sad About Us " ) , and the back cover of the record has a photo of Moon 's face . The Jam 's single was released about a month after Moon 's death . Animal , one of puppeteer Jim Henson 's Muppet characters , may have been based on Keith Moon due to their similar hair , eyebrows , personality and drumming style .
" God bless his beautiful heart ... " Ozzy Osbourne told Sounds a month after the drummer 's death . " People will be talking about Keith Moon ' til they die , man . Someone somewhere will say , ' Remember Keith Moon ? ' Who will remember Joe Bloggs who got killed in a car crash ? No one . He 's dead , so what ? He didn 't do anything to talk of . "
Clem Burke of Blondie has said " Early on all I cared about was Keith Moon and the Who . When I was about eleven or twelve , my favourite part of drum lessons was the last ten minutes , when I 'd get to sit at the drumset and play along to my favourite record . I 'd bring in ' My Generation ' . At the end of the song , the drums go nuts . ' My Generation ' was a turning point for me because before that it was all the Charlie Watts and Ringo type of thing . "
In 1998 Tony Fletcher published a biography of Moon , Dear Boy : The Life of Keith Moon , in the United Kingdom . The phrase " Dear Boy " became a catchphrase of Moon 's when , influenced by Kit Lambert , he began affecting a pompous English accent . In 2000 , the book was released in the US as Moon ( The Life and Death of a Rock Legend ) . Q Magazine called the book " horrific and terrific reading , " and Record Collector said it was " one of rock 's great biographies . "
In 2008 , English Heritage declined an application for Moon to be awarded a blue plaque . Speaking to The Guardian , Christopher Frayling said they " decided that bad behaviour and overdosing on various substances wasn 't a sufficient qualification . " The UK 's Heritage Foundation disagreed with the decision , presenting a plaque which was unveiled on 9 March 2009 . Daltrey , Townshend , Robin Gibb and Moon 's mother Kit were present at the ceremony .
= = Discography = =
Solo albums
Two Sides of the Moon ( 1975 )
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= CryoSat @-@ 2 =
CryoSat @-@ 2 is a European Space Agency environmental research satellite which was launched in April 2010 . It provides scientists with data about the polar ice caps and tracks changes in the thickness of the ice with a resolution of about 1 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 1 ⁄ 2 in ) .
CryoSat @-@ 2 was built as a replacement for CryoSat @-@ 1 , whose Rokot carrier rocket was unable to achieve orbit . Compared to its predecessor , CryoSat @-@ 2 features software upgrades , greater battery capacity and an updated instrument package . Its main instrument is an interferometric radar range @-@ finder with twin antennas , which measures the height difference between floating ice and open water .
CryoSat @-@ 2 is operated as part of the CryoSat programme to study the Earth 's polar ice caps , which is itself part of the Living Planet programme . The CryoSat @-@ 2 spacecraft was constructed by EADS Astrium , and was launched by ISC Kosmotras , using a Dnepr @-@ 1 carrier rocket , on 8 April 2010 . On 22 October 2010 , CryoSat @-@ 2 was declared operational following six months of on @-@ orbit testing .
= = Background = =
The initial proposal for the CryoSat programme was submitted as part of a call for proposals in July 1998 for Earth Explorer missions as part of the European Space Agency 's Living Planet programme . It was selected for further studies in 1999 , and following completion of a feasibility study the mission was authorised . The construction phase began in 2001 , and in 2002 EADS Astrium was awarded a contract to build the spacecraft . A contract was also signed with Eurockot , to conduct the launch of the satellite using a Rokot / Briz @-@ KM carrier rocket .
Construction of the original spacecraft was completed in August 2004 . Following testing the spacecraft was shipped to the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in August 2005 , and arrived on 1 September . The launch occurred from Site 133 / 3 on 8 October , however due to a missing command in the rocket 's flight control system , the second stage engine did not shut down at the end of its planned burn , and instead the stage burned to depletion . This prevented the second stage and Briz @-@ KM from separating , and as a result the rocket failed to achieve orbit . The spacecraft was lost when it reentered over the Arctic Ocean , North of Greenland .
Due to the importance of the CryoSat mission for understanding global warming and reductions in polar ice caps , a replacement satellite was proposed . The development of CryoSat @-@ 2 was authorised in February 2006 , less than five months after the failure .
= = Development = =
Like its predecessor , CryoSat @-@ 2 was constructed by EADS Astrium , with its main instrument being built by Thales Alenia Space . Construction and testing of the spacecraft 's primary instrument was completed by February 2008 , when it was shipped for integration with the rest of the spacecraft . In August 2009 , the spacecraft 's ground infrastructure , which had been redesigned since the original mission , was declared ready for use . Construction and testing of the spacecraft had been completed by mid @-@ September . The Project Manager for the CryoSat @-@ 2 mission was Richard Francis , who had been the Systems Manager on the original CryoSat mission .
CryoSat @-@ 2 is an almost @-@ identical copy of the original spacecraft , however modifications were made including the addition of a backup radar altimeter . In total , 85 improvements were made to the spacecraft when it was rebuilt .
= = Supporting Measurements : CRYOVEX = =
It was clear from the beginning of the CryoSat programme that an extensive series of measurements would be needed , both to understand interaction of the radar waves with the surface of the ice caps and to relate the measured freeboard of floating sea ice with its thickness . This latter , in particular , would have to take account of snow loading . For sea ice , which moves as it is blown by the wind , it was also necessary to develop techniques which could give consistent results when measured from platforms travelling at different speed ( scientists on the surface , helicopter @-@ towed sounders , aircraft @-@ borne radars and CryoSat itself ) . A number of campaigns were performed under a programme called CRYOVEX which aimed to address each of the identified areas of uncertainty . These campaigns continued through the development of the original CryoSat and were planned to continue after its launch .
Following the announcement that CryoSat @-@ 2 would be built the CRYOVEX programme was extended . Experiments were conducted in Antarctica to determine how snow could affect its readings , and to provide data for calibrating the satellite . In January 2007 the European Space Agency issued a request for proposals for further calibration and validation experiments . Further CryoVEx experiments were conducted on Svalbard in 2007 , followed by a final expedition to Greenland and the Devon Ice Cap in 2008 . Additional snow measurements were provided by the Arctic Arc Expedition , and the Alfred Wegener Institute 's Airborne Synthetic Aperture and Interferometric Radar Altimeter System ( ASIRAS ) instrument , mounted aboard a Dornier Do 228 aircraft .
= = Final preparations = =
When it was approved in February 2006 , the launch of CryoSat @-@ 2 was planned for March 2009 . It was originally planned that like its predecessor it would be launched by a Rokot , however due to a lack of available launches a Dnepr @-@ 1 rocket was selected instead . ISC Kosmotras were contracted to perform the launch . Due to delays to earlier missions and range availability problems , the launch was delayed until February 2010 .
The Dnepr rocket assigned to launch CryoSat @-@ 2 arrived at the Baikonur Cosmodrome by train on 29 December 2009 . On 12 January 2010 , the first two stages of the rocket were loaded into the launch canister , and the canister was prepared for transportation to the launch site . On 14 January , it was rolled out to Site 109 / 95 , where it was installed into its silo . The next day saw the third stage transported to the silo , and installed atop the rocket .
Following the completion of its construction , CryoSat @-@ 2 was placed into storage to await launch . In January 2010 , the spacecraft was removed from storage , and shipped to Baikonur for launch . It departed Munich Franz Josef Strauss Airport aboard an Antonov An @-@ 124 aircraft on 12 January , and arrived at Baikonur the next day . Following arrival at the launch site , final assembly and testing were conducted .
During final testing , engineers detected that the spacecraft 's X band ( NATO H / I / J bands ) communications antenna was transmitting only a tiny fraction of the power that it should . Thermal imaging showed that the waveguide to the antenna , deep inside the spacecraft , was very hot . Clearly that was where the missing power was being dissipated . The waveguide could not normally be inspected or repaired without major disassembly of the satellite , which would have required a return to the facilities in Europe and resulted in a major delay to the launch . To avoid doing this , a local surgeon was brought in to inspect the component with an endoscope . The surgeon , Tatiana Zykova , discovered that two pieces of ferrite were lodged in the tube , and was able to remove both of them . Engineers were able to assist the removal of the second one with a magnet . It was determined that the ferrite had come from an absorption load installed deep inside the antenna , which was intended to improve its performance . Some ferrite ( the remaining stump of this load ) was removed from inside the base of the antenna in order to prevent any further debris falling into the waveguide .
On 4 February , the CryoSat @-@ 2 spacecraft was fuelled for launch . Then on 10 February it was attached to the payload adaptor , and encapsulated in the payload fairing , to form a unit known as the Space Head Module . This was transported to the launch pad by means of a vehicle known as the crocodile , and installed atop the carrier rocket . Rollout occurred on 15 February , and the next day the satellite was activated in order to test its systems following integration onto the rocket .
= = Launch = =
When the spacecraft was installed atop the Dnepr , launch was scheduled to occur on 25 February , at 13 : 57 UTC . Prior to this , a practice countdown was scheduled for 19 February . Several hours before the practice was scheduled to begin ISC Kosmotras announced that the launch had been delayed , and as a result the practice did not take place . The delay was caused by a concern that the second stage manoeuvring engines did not have a sufficient quantity of reserve fuel .
Following the delay , the Space Head Module was removed from the rocket , and returned to its integration building on 22 February . Whilst it was in the integration building , daily inspections were made to ensure that the spacecraft was still functioning normally . Once the fuel issue had been resolved , the launch was rescheduled for 8 April , and launch operations resumed . On 1 April , the Space Head Module was returned to the silo , and reinstalled atop the Dnepr . Following integrated tests , the practice countdown was successfully conducted on 6 April .
CryoSat @-@ 2 was launched at 13 : 57 : 04 UTC on 8 April 2010 . Following a successful launch , CryoSat @-@ 2 separated from the upper stage of the Dnepr into a low Earth orbit . The first signals from the satellite were detected by a ground station at the Broglio Space Centre in Malindi , Kenya , seventeen minutes after launch .
= = Mission = =
CryoSat @-@ 2 's mission is to study the Earth 's polar ice caps , measuring , and looking for variation in , the thickness of the ice . Its mission is identical to that of the original CryoSat .
The primary instruments aboard CryoSat @-@ 2 are SIRAL @-@ 2 , the SAR / Interferometric Radar Altimeters ; which uses radar to determine and monitor the spacecraft 's altitude in order to measure the elevation of the ice . Unlike the original CryoSat , two SIRAL instruments are installed aboard CryoSat @-@ 2 , with one serving as a backup in case the other fails .
A second instrument , Doppler Orbit and Radio Positioning Integration by Satellite , or DORIS , is used to calculate precisely the spacecraft 's orbit . An array of retroreflectors are also carried aboard the spacecraft , and allow measurements to be made from the ground to verify the orbital data provided by DORIS .
Following launch , CryoSat @-@ 2 was placed into a low Earth orbit with a perigee of 720 kilometres ( 450 mi ) , an apogee of 732 kilometres ( 455 mi ) , 92 degrees of inclination and an orbital period of 99 @.@ 2 minutes . It had a mass at launch of 750 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) , and is expected to operate for at least three years .
Launch and Early Orbit Phase operations were completed in the morning of 11 April 2010 , and SIRAL @-@ 2 was activated later the same day . At 14 : 40 UTC , the spacecraft returned its first scientific data . Initial data on ice thickness was presented by the mission 's Lead Investigator , Duncan Wingham , at the 2010 Living Planet Symposium on 1 July . Later the same month , data was made available to scientists for the first time . The spacecraft underwent six months of on @-@ orbit testing and commissioning , which concluded with a review on 22 October 2010 that found the spacecraft was operating as expected , and that it was ready to begin operations .
The exploitation phase of the mission started on the 26 October 2010 under the responsibility of Tommaso Parrinello who is currently the Mission Manager .
= = Results = =
Data from CryoSat @-@ 2 has shown 25 @,@ 000 seamounts , with more to come as data is interpreted .
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= German cruiser Admiral Scheer =
Admiral Scheer was a Deutschland @-@ class heavy cruiser ( often termed a pocket battleship ) which served with the Kriegsmarine of Nazi Germany during World War II . The vessel was named after Admiral Reinhard Scheer , German commander in the Battle of Jutland . She was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven in June 1931 and completed by November 1934 . Originally classified as an armored ship ( Panzerschiff ) by the Reichsmarine , in February 1940 the Germans reclassified the remaining two ships of this class as heavy cruisers .
The ship was nominally under the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limitation on warship size imposed by the Treaty of Versailles , though with a full load displacement of 15 @,@ 180 long tons ( 15 @,@ 420 t ) , she significantly exceeded it . Armed with six 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns in two triple gun turrets , Admiral Scheer and her sisters were designed to outgun any cruiser fast enough to catch them . Their top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) left only a handful of ships in the Anglo @-@ French navies able to catch them and powerful enough to sink them .
Admiral Scheer saw heavy service with the German Navy , including a deployment to Spain during the Spanish Civil War , where she bombarded the port of Almería . Her first operation during World War II was a commerce raiding operation into the southern Atlantic Ocean ; she also made a brief foray into the Indian Ocean . During the operation , she sank 113 @,@ 223 gross register tons ( GRT ) of shipping , making her the most successful capital ship surface raider of the war . Following her return to Germany , she was deployed to northern Norway to interdict shipping to the Soviet Union . She was part of the abortive attack on Convoy PQ 17 and conducted Operation Wunderland , a sortie into the Kara Sea . After returning to Germany at the end of 1942 , the ship served as a training ship until the end of 1944 , when she was used to support ground operations against the Soviet Army . She was sunk by British bombers on 9 April 1945 and partially scrapped ; the remainder of the wreck lies buried beneath a quay .
= = Design = =
Admiral Scheer was 186 meters ( 610 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 21 @.@ 34 m ( 70 @.@ 0 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 25 m ( 23 @.@ 8 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 13 @,@ 660 t ( 13 @,@ 440 long tons ; 15 @,@ 060 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 15 @,@ 180 long tons ( 15 @,@ 420 t ) , though the ship was officially stated to be within the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Treaty of Versailles . Admiral Scheer was powered by four sets of MAN nine @-@ cylinder double @-@ acting two @-@ stroke diesel engines . The ship 's top speed was 28 @.@ 3 knots ( 52 @.@ 4 km / h ; 32 @.@ 6 mph ) , at 52 @,@ 050 shaft horsepower ( 38 @,@ 810 kW ) . At a cruising speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the ship could steam for 9 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 900 km ; 10 @,@ 500 mi ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 33 officers and 586 enlisted men , though after 1935 this was significantly increased to 30 officers and 921 – 1 @,@ 040 sailors .
Admiral Scheer 's primary armament was six 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in two triple gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The ship carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns in single turrets grouped amidships . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery originally consisted of three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 guns , though in 1935 these were replaced with six 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 78 guns . By 1940 the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft battery was significantly increased , consisting of six 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) C / 33 guns , four twin @-@ mounted 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) C / 30 guns and up to twenty @-@ eight 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Flak 30 guns . By 1945 , the anti @-@ aircraft battery had again been reorganized and comprised six 4 cm guns , eight 3 @.@ 7 cm guns , and thirty @-@ three 2 cm guns .
The ship also carried a pair of quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo launchers placed on her stern . The ship was equipped with two Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Admiral Scheer 's armored belt was 60 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 17 to 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 77 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick faces and 80 mm thick sides . Radar initially consisted of a FMG 39 G ( gO ) set , though in 1941 this was replaced with an FMG 40 G ( gO ) set and a FuMO 26 system .
= = Service history = =
Admiral Scheer was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . Naval rearmament was not popular with the Social Democrats and the Communists in the German Reichstag , so it was not until 1931 that a bill was passed to build a second Panzerschiff . The money for Panzerschiff B , which was ordered as Ersatz Lothringen , was secured after the Social Democrats abstained to prevent a political crisis . Her keel was laid on 25 June 1931 , under construction number 123 . The ship was launched on 1 April 1933 ; at her launching , she was christened by Marianne Besserer , the daughter of Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the ship 's namesake . She was completed slightly over a year and a half later on 12 November 1934 , the day she was commissioned into the German fleet . The old battleship Hessen was removed from service and her crew transferred to the newly commissioned panzerschiff .
At her commissioning in November 1934 , Admiral Scheer was placed under the command of Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Wilhelm Marschall . The ship spent the remainder of 1934 conducting sea trials and training her crew . In 1935 , she had a new catapult and landing sail system to operate her Arado seaplanes on heavy seas installed . From 1 October 1935 to 26 July 1937 her first officer was Leopold Bürkner , later to become head of foreign intelligence in the Third Reich . By October 1935 , the ship was ready for her first major cruise , when on 25 – 28 October she visited Madeira , returning to Kiel on 8 November . The following summer , she cruised out through the Skagerrak and the English Channel into the Irish Sea , before visiting Stockholm on the return voyage .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
Admiral Scheer 's first overseas deployment began in July 1936 when she was sent to Spain to evacuate German civilians caught in the midst of the Spanish Civil War . From 8 August 1936 she served together with her sister ship Deutschland on non @-@ intervention patrols off the Republican @-@ held coast of Spain . She served four tours of duty with the non @-@ intervention patrol through June 1937 . Her official objective was to control the influx of war materiel into Spain , though she also recorded Soviet ships carrying supplies to the Republicans and protected ships delivering German weapons to Nationalist forces . During the deployment to Spain , Ernst Lindemann served as the ship 's first gunnery officer . After Deutschland was attacked on 29 May 1937 by Spanish Republican Air Force aircraft off Ibiza , Admiral Scheer was ordered to bombard the Republican @-@ held port of Almería in reprisal . On 31 May 1937 , the anniversary of the Battle of Jutland , Admiral Scheer , flying the Imperial War Flag , arrived off Almería at 07 : 29 and opened fire on shore batteries , naval installations and ships in the harbor . On 26 June 1937 , she was relieved by her sister ship Admiral Graf Spee , allowing her to return to Wilhelmshaven on 1 July . She returned to the Mediterranean between August and October , however . In September 1936 KzS Otto Ciliax replaced Marschall as the ship 's commanding officer .
= = = World War II = = =
At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Admiral Scheer remained at anchor in the Schillig roadstead outside Wilhelmshaven , along with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper . On 4 September , two groups of five Bristol Blenheim bombers attacked the ships . The first group surprised the anti @-@ aircraft gunners aboard Admiral Scheer , who nevertheless managed to shoot down one of the five Blenheims . One bomb struck the ship 's deck and failed to explode , and two detonated in the water near the ship . The remaining bombs also failed to explode . The second group of five Blenheims were confronted by the alerted German defenses , which shot down four of the five bombers . Admiral Scheer emerged from the attack undamaged . In November 1939 , KzS Theodor Krancke became the ship 's commanding officer .
Admiral Scheer underwent a refit while her sister ships set out on commerce raiding operations in the Atlantic . Admiral Scheer was modified during the early months of 1940 , including the installation of a new , raked clipper bow . The heavy command tower was replaced with a lighter structure , and she was reclassified as a heavy cruiser . Additional anti @-@ aircraft guns were also installed , along with updated radar equipment . On 19 – 20 July RAF bombers attacked Admiral Scheer and the battleship Tirpitz , though they failed to score any hits . On 27 July , the ship was pronounced ready for service .
= = = = Atlantic sortie = = = =
Admiral Scheer sailed in October 1940 on her first combat sortie . On the night of 31 October she slipped through the Denmark Strait and broke into the open Atlantic . Her B @-@ Dienst radio intercept equipment identified the convoy HX @-@ 84 , sailing from Halifax Nova Scotia . Admiral Scheer 's Arado seaplanes located the convoy on 5 November 1940 , The armed merchant cruiser HMS Jervis Bay , the sole escort for the convoy , issued a report of the German raider and attempted to prevent her from attacking the convoy . The convoy was ordered to scatter under cover of a smoke screen . Admiral Scheer 's first salvo scored hits on Jervis Bay , disabling her wireless equipment and steering gear . Shells from her second salvo struck the bridge and killed her commander , Edward Fegen . Admiral Scheer quickly sank Jervis Bay , but the delay allowed the majority of the convoy to escape . The Germans sank only five of the convoy 's 37 ships .
On 18 December , Admiral Scheer encountered and sank the refrigerator ship Duquesa , of some 8 @,@ 651 long tons ( 8 @,@ 790 t ) displacement . The ship sent off a distress signal , which the German raider deliberately allowed , to draw British naval forces to the area . Krancke wanted to lure British warships to the area to draw attention away from Admiral Hipper , which had just exited the Denmark Strait . The aircraft carriers HMS Formidable and Hermes , the cruisers Dorsetshire , Neptune , and Dragon , and the armed merchant cruiser Pretoria Castle converged to hunt down the German raider , but she eluded the British .
Between 26 December and 7 January , Admiral Scheer rendezvoused with the supply ships Nordmark and Eurofeld , the auxiliary cruiser Thor , and the prizes Duquesa and Storstad . The raiders transferred some 600 prisoners to Storstad while they refueled from Nordmark and Eurofeld . Between 18 and 20 January Admiral Scheer captured three Allied merchant ships totalling 18 @,@ 738 gross register tons ( GRT ) , including the Norwegian oil tanker Sandefjord . She spent Christmas 1940 at sea in the mid @-@ Atlantic , several hundred miles from Tristan da Cunha , before making a foray into the Indian Ocean in February 1941 .
On 14 February , Admiral Scheer rendezvoused with the auxiliary cruiser Atlantis and the supply ship Tannenfels about 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) east of Madagascar . The raiders resupplied from Tannenfels and exchanged information on Allied merchant traffic in the area , parting company on 17 February . Admiral Scheer then steamed to the Seychelles north of Madagascar , where she found two merchant vessels with her Arado floatplanes . She took the 6 @,@ 994 GRT oil tanker British Advocate as a prize and sank the 2 @,@ 456 GRT Greek @-@ flagged Grigorios . A third ship , the 7 @,@ 178 GRT Canadian Cruiser , managed to send a distress signal before Admiral Scheer sank her on 21 February . The raider encountered and sank a fourth ship the following day , the 2 @,@ 542 GRT Dutch steamer Rantaupandjang , though she too was able to send a distress signal before she sank .
The British cruiser HMS Glasgow , which was patrolling in the area , received both messages from Admiral Scheer 's victims . Glasgow launched reconnaissance aircraft that spotted Admiral Scheer on 22 February . Vice Admiral Ralph Leatham , the commander of the East Indies Station , deployed the carrier Hermes and cruisers Capetown , Emerald , Hawkins , Shropshire , and the Australian HMAS Canberra to join the hunt . Krancke turned to the south @-@ east to evade his pursuers , reaching the South Atlantic by 3 March . The British , meanwhile , had abandoned the hunt on 25 February when it became clear that Admiral Scheer had withdrawn from the area .
Admiral Scheer then sailed northwards , breaking through the Denmark Strait on 26 – 27 March and evading the cruisers Fiji and Nigeria . She reached Bergen , Norway on 30 March , where she spent a day in the Grimstadfjord . A destroyer escort joined the ship for the voyage to Kiel , which they reached on 1 April . In the course of her raiding operation , she had steamed over 46 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 85 @,@ 000 km ) and sank seventeen merchant ships for a total of 113 @,@ 223 GRT . She was by far the most successful German capital ship commerce raider of the entire war . After returning to Germany , Krancke left the ship and was replaced by KzS Wilhelm Meendsen @-@ Bohlken in June 1941 . The loss of the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 , and more importantly , the Royal Navy 's destruction of the German supply ship network in the aftermath of the Bismarck operation forced a planned Atlantic raiding operation for Admiral Scheer and her sister Lützow at the end of 1941 to be abandoned . On 4 – 8 September , Admiral Scheer was briefly moved to Oslo . There , on 5 and 8 September , No. 90 Squadron RAF , equipped with Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers , mounted a pair of unsuccessful attacks on the ship . On 8 September , the ship left Oslo and returned to Swinemünde .
= = = = Deployment to Norway = = = =
On 21 February 1942 , Admiral Scheer , the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , and the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z5 Paul Jakobi , Z25 , Z7 Hermann Schoemann , and Z14 Friedrich Ihn steamed to Norway . After stopping briefly in Grimstadfjord , the ships proceeded on to Trondheim . On 23 February , the British submarine Trident torpedoed Prinz Eugen , causing serious damage . The first operation in Norway in which Admiral Scheer took part was Operation Rösselsprung , in July 1942 . On 2 July , the ship sortied as part of the attempt to intercept Arctic convoy PQ @-@ 17 . Admiral Scheer and Lützow formed one group while Tirpitz and Admiral Hipper composed another . While en route to the rendezvous point , Lützow and three destroyers ran aground , forcing the entire group to abandon the operation . Admiral Scheer was detached to join Tirpitz and Admiral Hipper in Altafjord . The British detected the German departure and ordered the convoy to scatter . Aware that surprise had been lost , the Germans broke off the surface attack and turned the destruction of PQ @-@ 17 over to the U @-@ boats and Luftwaffe . Twenty @-@ four of the convoy 's thirty @-@ five transports were sunk .
In August 1942 , she conducted Operation Wunderland , a sortie into the Kara Sea to interdict Soviet shipping and attack targets of opportunity . The length of the mission and the distances involved precluded a destroyer escort for the operation ; three destroyers would escort Admiral Scheer until they reached Novaya Zemlya , at which point they would return to Norway . Two U @-@ boats — U @-@ 251 and U @-@ 456 — patrolled the Kara Gate and the Jugor Strait . The Germans originally intended to send Admiral Scheer with her sister ship Lützow , but since the latter had run aground the previous month , she was unavailable for the operation .
The operational plan called for strict radio silence to ensure surprise could be maintained . This required Meendsen @-@ Bohlken to have total tactical and operational control of his ship ; shore @-@ based commands would be unable to direct the mission . On 16 August , Admiral Scheer and her destroyer escort left Narvik on a course to pass to the north of Novaya Zemlya . Upon entering the Kara Sea , she encountered heavy ice ; in addition to searching for merchant shipping , the Arado floatplane was used to scout paths through the ice fields . On 25 August , she encountered the Soviet icebreaker Sibiryakov . Admiral Scheer sank the icebreaker , but not before she sent a distress signal . The German ship then turned south , and two days later , arrived off the port of Dikson . Admiral Scheer damaged two ships in the port and shelled harbor facilities . Meendsen @-@ Bohlken considered sending a landing party ashore , but firing from Soviet shore batteries convinced him to abandon the plan . After breaking off the bombardment , Meendsen @-@ Bohlken decided to return to Narvik . She reached port on 30 August without having achieved any significant successes .
On 23 October Admiral Scheer , Tirpitz and the destroyers Z4 Richard Beitzen , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , Z23 , Z28 , and Z29 left Bogen Bay and proceeded to Trondheim . There , Tirpitz stopped for repairs , while Admiral Scheer and Z28 continued on to Germany . Fregattenkapitän Ernst Gruber served as the ship 's acting commander at the end of November . In December 1942 , Admiral Scheer returned to Wilhelmshaven for major overhaul , where she was attacked and slightly damaged by RAF bombers . Consequently , Admiral Scheer moved to the less exposed port of Swinemünde . In February 1943 , KzS Richard Rothe @-@ Roth took command of the ship . Until the end of 1944 Admiral Scheer was part of the Fleet Training Group .
= = = = Return to the Baltic = = = =
KzS Ernst @-@ Ludwig Thienemann , the ship 's final commander , took command of Admiral Scheer in April 1944 . On 22 November 1944 , Admiral Scheer , the destroyers Z25 and Z35 , and the 2nd Torpedo Boat Flotilla relieved the cruiser Prinz Eugen and several destroyers supporting German forces fighting the Soviets on the island of Ösel in the Baltic . The Soviet Air Force launched several air attacks on the German forces , all of which were successfully repelled by heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . The ship 's Arado floatplane was shot down , however . On the night of 23 – 24 November , the German naval forces completed the evacuation of the island . In all , 4 @,@ 694 troops were evacuated from the island .
In early February 1945 , Admiral Scheer stood off Samland with several torpedo boats in support of German forces fighting Soviet advances . On 9 February , the ships began shelling Soviet positions . Between 18 and 24 February , German forces launched a local counterattack ; Admiral Scheer and the torpedo boats provided artillery support , targeting Soviet positions near Peyse and Gross @-@ Heydekrug . The German attack temporarily restored the land connection to Königsberg . The ship 's guns were badly worn out by March and in need of repair . On 8 March , Admiral Scheer departed the eastern Baltic to have her guns relined in Kiel ; she carried 800 civilian refugees and 200 wounded soldiers . An uncleared minefield prevented her from reaching Kiel , and so she unloaded her passengers in Swinemünde . Despite her worn @-@ out gun barrels , the ship then shelled Soviet forces outside Kolberg until she used up her remaining ammunition .
The ship then loaded refugees and left Swinemünde ; she successfully navigated the minefields on the way to Kiel , arriving on 18 March . Her stern turret had its guns replaced at the Deutsche Werke shipyard by early April . During the repair process , most of the ship 's crew went ashore . On the night of 9 April 1945 , a general RAF bombing raid by over 300 aircraft struck the harbor in Kiel . Admiral Scheer was hit by five Tallboy bombs and capsized . She was partially broken up for scrap after the end of the war , though part of the hull was left in place and buried with rubble from the attack in the construction of a new quay . The number of casualties from her loss is unknown .
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= Barrhill , New Zealand =
Barrhill is a lightly populated locality in the Canterbury region of New Zealand 's South Island . It is situated on the Canterbury Plains , on the right bank of the Rakaia River , about 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) inland from Rakaia . It was founded by Cathcart Wason in the mid @-@ 1870s and named by him after his old home Barrhill in South Ayrshire , Scotland . Wason set it up as a model village for the workers of his large sheep farm . The population of the village peaked in the mid @-@ 1880s before the general recession initiated a downturn for the village . Wason had expected for the Methven Branch railway to run past Barrhill , but the line was built in 1880 on an alignment many miles away , which caused Barrhill population to decrease .
Three of the original buildings of Barrhill plus the gatehouse at Wason 's homestead were constructed of concrete , and they still exist to this day . One of those buildings , St John 's Church , is registered by Heritage New Zealand as a Category II heritage building , and the gatehouse is a museum that is open on request . Today , few buildings exist in the village , but the formal layout of avenues still exists , giving the setting a charming appearance .
= = Geography = =
Barrhill is a small settlement between the Rakaia Barrhill Methven Road and the Rakaia River , located 210 metres ( 690 ft ) above sea level . It is about 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) from the town of Rakaia and 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) from Methven . The four outer streets , one of which is the Rakaia Barrhill Methven Road , form a trapezoid with the longest side at 200 metres ( 660 ft ) . Two internal roads run at right angles to one another , dividing the area into four quadrants . The intersection of the internal roads forms the market place .
Apart from the main road , there are five avenues , each planted in its own species and named accordingly : oak , poplar , birch , lime , and sycamore . The tree @-@ lined avenues give Barrhill a charming appearance . Wason had trees planted in an unusual pattern around the market square . Residents only noticed in 1975 when viewing an aerial photo that those trees form what appears to be the three circles of Trinity , with the two inner avenues possibly symbolising a crucifix .
= = History = =
Wason emigrated from Scotland to New Zealand in late 1868 . In February 1869 or April 1870 ( sources vary ) , he bought the Lendon sheep run ( Run 116 ) in mid @-@ Canterbury . Lendon was a 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) run on the south bank of the Rakaia River . The land had first been taken up by John Hall , but had changed ownership several times before Wason bought it , including 1 @,@ 250 acres ( 5 @.@ 1 km2 ) of freehold land . Wason renamed his property Corwar after his father 's lands in Scotland , and the first advertisement placed in newspapers by Wason mentions Corwar in October 1869 , hence the April 1870 date appears less likely . Wason set about trying to create an estate village on land bought from the adjacent Lavington run ( Run 117 ) . He also bought part of the Hororata Station on the other side of the Rakaia River from John Cordy ( Run 67 ) .
His planting of pine trees and of oaks , walnuts and poplars extended over 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) and allowed shelter from the prevailing north @-@ west winds to allow sheep farming and the growing of wheat , while water power was used for agricultural machinery . He bought and sold land , and by 1882 Corwar was consolidated as a freehold estate of just over 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) with a large mansion overlooking the river , complete with gate lodge and gate @-@ keeper .
On the estate , Wason built a model village called Barrhill , with avenues forming a grid layout and a central market square . Barrhill had 28 sections , including a post office , bakery , school , church , other facilities , and fifteen cottages were built . Wason named the village after his old home in South Ayrshire , Scotland . The post office opened in 1876 and in the same year , construction of the church began , and these buildings mark the beginning of Barrhill .
However , Wason had expected the Methven Branch railway to be built near Barrhill , but when it was built on a more southerly route along Thompsons Track and what was later to become known as Lauriston , the village began to decline . Dwindling population forced the closure of the school in 1938 , although the Church of St John the Evangelist is still in use . Most of the buildings were constructed from pine wood grown on the estate , but the three original concrete buildings remain : church , school and schoolhouse .
Without the railway , Wason saw his project as doomed , and sold up in 1900 . A rural mail service was discussed for the Ashburton District in September 1924 and after the contracts were let in February 1925 , the Barrhill post office was closed . The school closed in 1938 .
The Ashburton Branch of New Zealand Historic Places Trust , since renamed to Heritage New Zealand , unveiled an information panel on Anzac Day in 2012 in Barrhill 's market square . It was their last project as a branch committee before the pending disestablishment of branch committees through the Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Bill , and they chose Barrhill to relaunch themselves as the Historic Places Mid Canterbury regional society as part of the unveiling of the historic panel .
= = = Population = = =
Barrhill flourished until about 1885 , when population in the village itself peaked at 50 , and two effects caused a population decline . Firstly , a recession set in across New Zealand that made people move to where work opportunities presented themselves , and locally those opportunities were created near the stations of the Methven Branch railway . Wason began to gradually sell off parts of his land holdings from the mid @-@ 1880s .
More recent population data can be obtained from Statistics New Zealand . The smallest unit for which data are available is a meshblock , and Barrhill is located within the meshblock with ID 2750400 . This meshblock has an area of 36 square kilometres ( 14 sq mi ) , i.e. a rural area much larger than just the village , and 5 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 sq mi ) is within the river bed . Population in this meshblock was recorded at 60 in the 1996 census , 60 in 2001 , 69 in 2006 , and 66 in 2013 .
= = Notable places = =
Three buildings in the township remain from the time of its founding . In addition , there is the historic gatehouse some 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) northwest of Barrhill . Those buildings remain partly because they were built in concrete , with some of the walls 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) thick . The cement was landed in barrels on Kaitorete Spit , barged across Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora , and then transported by dray overland and along the bed of the Rakaia River . All four buildings are registered as Category A ( " high value " ) heritage structures by Ashburton District Council .
St John 's Church was mostly paid for by Wason , and construction started in 1876 , with the first service held on 8 July 1877 by the vicar of Ashburton , W. E. Paige . A vicarage was also envisaged , but it was never built . A lych gate was added as a centennial project . St John 's belongs to the Rakaia parish of the Waipounamu diocese of the Anglican Church in Aotearoa , New Zealand and Polynesia , with services each second Sunday of the month . The church was registered as a heritage building by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust ( since renamed to Heritage New Zealand ) on 23 June 1983 with registration number 1765 classified as C. With the change of the classification system , the building later became a Category II listing . The church is owned by Church Property Trustees ( i.e. the Anglican Church ) .
After the land had been surveyed , the first buyer was the Education Board , securing land for a school in the market square , and a teacher 's house on the adjacent section . Both these buildings were also built in concrete and exist to this day . The school was built to a northern hemisphere design and has windows on the south side only to stop children from becoming distracted , but the windows are on the wrong side to utilise the sun . Since the school closed in 1938 it has been used for functions and as a hall . The former teacher 's house is used as a bach . Both buildings are owned by Ashburton District Council .
The other remaining 1870s concrete building is the gate house , located some distance away on the Rakaia Barrhill Methven Road . Wason 's homestead was at the end of a drive starting at this gate house , on a cliff top overlooking the Rakaia River . The homestead burnt down not long after Wason had left the country , and a new homestead was built nearby . The gatekeeper 's lodge originally had a slate roof , but this was later replaced by iron . The last family moved out in 1935 . During the second world war , the iron was stripped off the empty building , and it fell into ruin . A later owner , Colin McLachlan , donated the land and the ruin to the people of the district ; it is now vested in the Ashburton District Council . The renovation began in 1970 , with work carried out and financed by descendants of previous inhabitants of the building . A plaque on the building states that it was reopened in March 1979 by the Prime Minister of the time , Robert Muldoon , but his plane ran late and the opening ceremony was conducted by Colin McLachlan . The gate house is fitted out as a museum , and viewing can be arranged through the Ashburton or Methven information centres .
Barrhill Cemetery is located 200 metres ( 660 ft ) south @-@ west of the village on Lauriston Barrhill Road . It is one of 11 open cemeteries in the Ashburton District . The oldest recorded burial was in 1881 .
= = Notable people = =
Barrhill 's founder , Cathcart Wason , was a member of parliament in two countries : first in New Zealand for a total of six years , and then in the United Kingdom for twenty years . New Zealand actress Tania Nolan , born in nearby Rakaia , lived in Barrhill for two years as a child .
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= 243 Ida =
243 Ida ( / ˈaɪdə / ) is an asteroid in the Koronis family of the asteroid belt . It was discovered on 29 September 1884 by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa and named after a nymph from Greek mythology . Later telescopic observations categorized Ida as an S @-@ type asteroid , the most numerous type in the inner asteroid belt . On 28 August 1993 , Ida was visited by the unmanned Galileo spacecraft , while en route to Jupiter . It was the second asteroid visited by a spacecraft and the first found to have a natural satellite .
Like all main @-@ belt asteroids , Ida 's orbit lies between the planets Mars and Jupiter . Its orbital period is 4 @.@ 84 years , and its rotation period is 4 @.@ 63 hours . Ida has an average diameter of 31 @.@ 4 km ( 19 @.@ 5 mi ) . It is irregularly shaped and elongated , and apparently composed of two large objects connected together . Its surface is one of the most heavily cratered in the Solar System , featuring a wide variety of crater sizes and ages .
Ida 's moon , Dactyl , was discovered by mission member Ann Harch in images returned from Galileo . It was named after the Dactyls , creatures which inhabited Mount Ida in Greek mythology . Dactyl , being only 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) in diameter , is about one @-@ twentieth the size of Ida . Its orbit around Ida could not be determined with much accuracy . However , the constraints of possible orbits allowed a rough determination of Ida 's density , which revealed that it is depleted of metallic minerals . Dactyl and Ida share many characteristics , suggesting a common origin .
The images returned from Galileo , and the subsequent measurement of Ida 's mass , provided new insights into the geology of S @-@ type asteroids . Before the Galileo flyby , many different theories had been proposed to explain their mineral composition . Determining their composition permits a correlation between meteorites falling to the Earth and their origin in the asteroid belt . Data returned from the flyby pointed to S @-@ type asteroids as the source for the ordinary chondrite meteorites , the most common type found on the Earth 's surface .
= = Discovery and observations = =
Ida was discovered on 29 September 1884 by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa at the Vienna Observatory . It was his 45th asteroid discovery . Ida was named by Moriz von Kuffner , a Viennese brewer and amateur astronomer . In Greek mythology , Ida was a nymph of Crete who raised the god Zeus . Ida was recognized as a member of the Koronis family by Kiyotsugu Hirayama , who proposed in 1918 that the group comprised the remnants of a destroyed precursor body .
Ida 's reflection spectrum was measured on 16 September 1980 by astronomers David J. Tholen and Edward F. Tedesco as part of the eight @-@ color asteroid survey ( ECAS ) . Its spectrum matched those of the asteroids in the S @-@ type classification . Many observations of Ida were made in early 1993 by the US Naval Observatory in Flagstaff and the Oak Ridge Observatory . These improved the measurement of Ida 's orbit around the Sun and reduced the uncertainty of its position during the Galileo flyby from 78 to 60 km ( 48 to 37 mi ) .
= = Exploration = =
= = = Galileo flyby = = =
Ida was visited in 1993 by the Jupiter @-@ bound space probe Galileo . Its encounters of the asteroids Gaspra and Ida were secondary to the Jupiter mission . These were selected as targets in response to a new NASA policy directing mission planners to consider asteroid flybys for all spacecraft crossing the belt . No prior missions had attempted such a flyby . Galileo was launched into orbit by the Space Shuttle Atlantis mission STS @-@ 34 on 18 October 1989 . Changing Galileo 's trajectory to approach Ida required that it consume 34 kg ( 75 lb ) of propellant . Mission planners delayed the decision to attempt a flyby until they were certain that this would leave the spacecraft enough propellant to complete its Jupiter mission .
Galileo 's trajectory carried it into the asteroid belt twice on its way to Jupiter . During its second crossing , it flew by Ida on 28 August 1993 at a speed of 12 @,@ 400 m / s ( 41 @,@ 000 ft / s ) relative to the asteroid . The onboard imager observed Ida from a distance of 240 @,@ 350 km ( 149 @,@ 350 mi ) to its closest approach of 2 @,@ 390 km ( 1 @,@ 490 mi ) . Ida was the second asteroid , after Gaspra , to be imaged by a spacecraft . About 95 % of Ida 's surface came into view of the probe during the flyby .
Transmission of many Ida images was delayed due to a permanent failure in the spacecraft 's high @-@ gain antenna . The first five images were received in September 1993 . These comprised a high @-@ resolution mosaic of the asteroid at a resolution of 31 – 38 m / pixel . The remaining images were sent in February 1994 , when the spacecraft 's proximity to the Earth allowed higher speed transmissions .
= = = Discoveries = = =
The data returned from the Galileo flybys of Gaspra and Ida , and the later NEAR Shoemaker asteroid mission , permitted the first study of asteroid geology . Ida 's relatively large surface exhibited a diverse range of geological features . The discovery of Ida 's moon Dactyl , the first confirmed satellite of an asteroid , provided additional insights into Ida 's composition .
Ida is classified as an S @-@ type asteroid based on ground @-@ based spectroscopic measurements . The composition of S @-@ types was uncertain before the Galileo flybys , but was interpreted to be either of two minerals found in meteorites that had fallen to the Earth : ordinary chondrite ( OC ) and stony @-@ iron . Estimates of Ida 's density are constrained to less than 3 @.@ 2 g / cm3 by the long @-@ term stability of Dactyl 's orbit . This all but rules out a stony @-@ iron composition ; were Ida made of 5 g / cm3 iron- and nickel @-@ rich material , it would have to contain more than 40 % empty space .
The Galileo images also led to the discovery that space weathering was taking place on Ida , a process which causes older regions to become more red in color over time . The same process affects both Ida and its moon , although Dactyl shows a lesser change . The weathering of Ida 's surface revealed another detail about its composition : the reflection spectra of freshly exposed parts of the surface resembled that of OC meteorites , but the older regions matched the spectra of S @-@ type asteroids .
Both of these discoveries — the space weathering effects and the low density — led to a new understanding about the relationship between S @-@ type asteroids and OC meteorites . S @-@ types are the most numerous kind of asteroid in the inner part of the asteroid belt . OC meteorites are , likewise , the most common type of meteorite found on the Earth 's surface . The reflection spectra measured by remote observations of S @-@ type asteroids , however , did not match that of OC meteorites . The Galileo flyby of Ida found that some S @-@ types , particularly the Koronis family , could be the source of these meteorites .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Ida 's mass is between 3 @.@ 65 and 4 @.@ 99 × 1016 kg . Its gravitational field produces an acceleration of about 0 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 1 cm / s2 over its surface . This field is so weak that an astronaut standing on its surface could leap from one end of Ida to the other , and an object moving in excess of 20 m / s ( 70 ft / s ) could escape the asteroid entirely .
Ida is a distinctly elongated asteroid , with an irregular surface . Ida is 2 @.@ 35 times as long as it is wide , and a " waist " separates it into two geologically dissimilar halves . This constricted shape is consistent with Ida being made of two large , solid components , with loose debris filling the gap between them . However , no such debris was seen in high @-@ resolution images captured by Galileo . Although there are a few steep slopes tilting up to about 50 ° on Ida , the slope generally does not exceed 35 ° . Ida 's irregular shape is responsible for the asteroid 's very uneven gravitational field . The surface acceleration is lowest at the extremities because of their high rotational speed . It is also low near the " waist " because the mass of the asteroid is concentrated in the two halves , away from this location .
= = Surface features = =
Ida 's surface appears heavily cratered and mostly gray , although minor color variations mark newly formed or uncovered areas . Besides craters , other features are evident , such as grooves , ridges , and protrusions . Ida is covered by a thick layer of regolith , loose debris that obscures the solid rock beneath . The largest , boulder @-@ sized , debris fragments are called ejecta blocks , several of which have been observed on the surface .
= = = Regolith = = =
The surface of Ida is covered in a blanket of pulverized rock , called regolith , about 50 – 100 m ( 160 – 330 ft ) thick . This material is produced in impact events and redistributed across Ida 's surface by geological processes . Galileo observed evidence of recent downslope regolith movement .
Ida 's regolith is composed of the silicate minerals olivine and pyroxene . Its appearance changes over time through a process called space weathering . Because of this process , older regolith appears more red in color compared to freshly exposed material .
About 20 large ( 40 – 150 m across ) ejecta blocks have been identified , embedded in Ida 's regolith . Ejecta blocks constitute the largest pieces of the regolith . Because ejecta blocks are expected to break down quickly by impact events , those present on the surface must have been either formed recently or uncovered by an impact event . Most of them are located within the craters Lascaux and Mammoth , but they may not have been produced there . This area attracts debris due to Ida 's irregular gravitational field . Some blocks may have been ejected from the young crater Azzurra on the opposite side of the asteroid .
= = = Structures = = =
Several major structures mark Ida 's surface . The asteroid appears to be split into two halves , here referred to as region 1 and region 2 , connected by a " waist " . This feature may have been filled in by debris , or blasted out of the asteroid by impacts .
Region 1 of Ida contains two major structures . One is a prominent 40 km ( 25 mi ) ridge named Townsend Dorsum that stretches 150 degrees around Ida 's surface . The other structure is a large indentation named Vienna Regio .
Ida 's region 2 features several sets of grooves , most of which are 100 m ( 330 ft ) wide or less and up to 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) long . They are located near , but are not connected with , the craters Mammoth , Lascaux , and Kartchner . Some grooves are related to major impact events , for example a set opposite Vienna Regio .
= = = Craters = = =
Ida is one of the most densely cratered bodies yet explored in the Solar System , and impacts have been the primary process shaping its surface . Cratering has reached the saturation point , meaning that new impacts erase evidence of old ones , leaving the total crater count roughly the same . It is covered with craters of all sizes and stages of degradation , and ranging in age from fresh to as old as Ida itself . The oldest may have been formed during the breakup of the Koronis family parent body . The largest crater , Lascaux , is almost 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) across . Region 2 contains nearly all of the craters larger than 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) in diameter , but Region 1 has no large craters at all . Some craters are arranged in chains .
Ida 's major craters are named after caves and lava tubes on Earth . The crater Azzurra , for example , is named after a submerged cave on the island of Capri , also known as the Blue Grotto . Azzurra seems to be the most recent major impact on Ida . The ejecta from this collision is distributed discontinuously over Ida and is responsible for the large @-@ scale color and albedo variations across its surface . An exception to the crater morphology is the fresh , asymmetric Fingal , which has a sharp boundary between the floor and wall on one side . Another significant crater is Afon , which marks Ida 's prime meridian .
The craters are simple in structure : bowl @-@ shaped with no flat bottoms and no central peaks . They are distributed evenly around Ida , except for a protrusion north of crater Choukoutien which is smoother and less cratered . The ejecta excavated by impacts is deposited differently on Ida than on planets because of its rapid rotation , low gravity and irregular shape . Ejecta blankets settle asymmetrically around their craters , but fast @-@ moving ejecta that escapes from the asteroid is permanently lost .
= = Composition = =
Ida was classified as an S @-@ type asteroid based on the similarity of its reflectance spectra with similar asteroids . S @-@ types may share their composition with stony @-@ iron or ordinary chondrite ( OC ) meteorites . The composition of the interior has not been directly analyzed , but is assumed to be similar to OC material based on observed surface color changes and Ida 's bulk density of 2 @.@ 27 – 3 @.@ 10 g / cm3 . OC meteorites contain varying amounts of the silicates olivine and pyroxene , iron , and feldspar . Olivine and pyroxene were detected on Ida by Galileo . The mineral content appears to be homogeneous throughout its extent . Galileo found minimal variations on the surface , and the asteroid 's spin indicates a consistent density . Assuming that its composition is similar to OC meteorites , which range in density from 3 @.@ 48 to 3 @.@ 64 g / cm3 , Ida would have a porosity of 11 – 42 % .
Ida 's interior probably contains some amount of impact @-@ fractured rock , called megaregolith . The megaregolith layer of Ida extends between hundreds of meters below the surface to a few kilometers . Some rock in Ida 's core may have been fractured below the large craters Mammoth , Lascaux , and Undara .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Ida is a member of the Koronis family of asteroid @-@ belt asteroids . Ida orbits the Sun at an average distance of 2 @.@ 862 AU ( 428 @.@ 1 Gm ) , between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Ida takes 4 @.@ 84089 years to complete one orbit .
Ida 's rotation period is 4 @.@ 63 hours , making it one of the fastest rotating asteroids yet discovered . The calculated maximum moment of inertia of a uniformly dense object the same shape as Ida coincides with the spin axis of the asteroid . This suggests that there are no major variations of density within the asteroid . Ida 's axis of rotation precesses with a period of 77 thousand years , due to the gravity of the Sun acting upon the nonspherical shape of the asteroid .
= = Origin = =
Ida originated in the breakup of the roughly 120 km ( 75 mi ) diameter Koronis parent body . The progenitor asteroid had partially differentiated , with heavier metals migrating to the core . Ida carried away insignificant amounts of this core material . It is uncertain how long ago the disruption event occurred . According to an analysis of Ida 's cratering processes , its surface is more than a billion years old . However , this is inconsistent with the estimated age of the Ida – Dactyl system of less than 100 million years ; it is unlikely that Dactyl , due to its small size , could have escaped being destroyed in a major collision for longer . The difference in age estimates may be explained by an increased rate of cratering from the debris of the Koronis parent body 's destruction .
= = Moon = =
Ida has a moon named Dactyl , official designation ( 243 ) Ida I Dactyl ( / ˈdæktᵻl / DAK @-@ til ) . It was discovered in images taken by the Galileo spacecraft during its flyby in 1993 . These images provided the first direct confirmation of an asteroid moon . At the time , it was separated from Ida by a distance of 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) , moving in a prograde orbit . Dactyl is heavily cratered , like Ida , and consists of similar materials . Its origin is uncertain , but evidence from the flyby suggests that it originated as a fragment of the Koronis parent body .
= = = Discovery = = =
Dactyl was found on 17 February 1994 by Galileo mission member Ann Harch , while examining delayed image downloads from the spacecraft . Galileo recorded 47 images of Dactyl over an observation period of 5 @.@ 5 hours in August 1993 . The spacecraft was 10 @,@ 760 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 690 mi ) from Ida and 10 @,@ 870 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 750 mi ) from Dactyl when the first image of the moon was captured , 14 minutes before Galileo made its closest approach .
Dactyl was initially designated 1993 ( 243 ) 1 . It was named by the International Astronomical Union in 1994 , for the mythological dactyls who inhabited Mount Ida on the island of Crete .
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
Dactyl is an " egg @-@ shaped " but " remarkably spherical " object measuring 1 @.@ 6 by 1 @.@ 4 by 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi × 0 @.@ 87 mi × 0 @.@ 75 mi ) . It was oriented with its longest axis pointing towards Ida . Like Ida , Dactyl 's surface exhibits saturation cratering . It is marked by more than a dozen craters with a diameter greater than 80 m ( 260 ft ) , indicating that the moon has suffered many collisions during its history . At least six craters form a linear chain , suggesting that it was caused by locally produced debris , possibly ejected from Ida . Dactyl 's craters may contain central peaks , unlike those found on Ida . These features , and Dactyl 's spheroidal shape , imply that the moon is gravitationally controlled despite its small size . Like Ida , its average temperature is about 200 K ( − 73 ° C ; − 100 ° F ) .
Dactyl shares many characteristics with Ida . Their albedos and reflection spectra are very similar . The small differences indicate that the space weathering process is less active on Dactyl . Its small size would make the formation of significant amounts of regolith impossible . This contrasts with Ida , which is covered by a deep layer of regolith .
The two largest imaged craters on Dactyl were named Acmon and Celmis , after two of the mythological dactyls . Acmon is the largest crater in the above image , and Celmis is near the bottom , mostly obscured in shadow . The craters are 300 and 200 meters in diameter , respectively .
= = = Orbit = = =
Dactyl 's orbit around Ida is not precisely known . Galileo was in the plane of Dactyl 's orbit when most of the images were taken , which made determining its exact orbit difficult . Dactyl orbits in the prograde direction and is inclined about 8 ° to Ida 's equator . Based on computer simulations , Dactyl 's pericenter must be more than about 65 km ( 40 mi ) from Ida for it to remain in a stable orbit . The range of orbits generated by the simulations was narrowed down by the necessity of having the orbits pass through points at which Galileo observed Dactyl to be at 16 : 52 : 05 UT on 28 August 1993 , about 90 km ( 56 mi ) from Ida at longitude 85 ° . On 26 April 1994 , the Hubble Space Telescope observed Ida for eight hours and was unable to spot Dactyl . It would have been able to observe it if it were more than about 700 km ( 430 mi ) from Ida .
If in a circular orbit at the distance at which it was seen , Dactyl 's orbital period is about 20 hours . Its orbital speed is roughly 10 m / s ( 33 ft / s ) , " about the speed of a fast run or a slowly thrown baseball " .
= = = Age and origin = = =
Dactyl may have originated at the same time as Ida , from the disruption of the Koronis parent body . However , it may have formed more recently , perhaps as ejecta from a large impact on Ida . It is extremely unlikely that it was captured by Ida . Dactyl may have suffered a major impact around 100 million years ago , which reduced its size .
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= Trobairitz =
The trobairitz ( Occitan pronunciation : [ tɾuβajˈɾits ] ) were Occitan female troubadours of the 12th and 13th centuries , active from around 1170 to approximately 1260 . The word trobairitz was first used in the 13th @-@ century romance Flamenca . It comes from the Provençal word trobar , the literal meaning of which is " to find " , and the technical meaning of which is " to compose " . The word trobairitz is used very rarely in medieval Occitan , as it does not occur in lyrical poetry , grammatical treatises , or in the biographies of the trobairitz or troubadours . Trobairitz composed , wrote verses , and performed for the Occitan noble courts . They are exceptional in musical history as the first known female composers of Western secular music ; all earlier known female composers wrote sacred music . The trobairitz were part of courtly society , as opposed to their lower class counterparts the joglaressas . Although troubadours sometimes came from humble origins — Bernart de Ventadorn may have been the son of a castle 's baker — the trobairitz were nobly born . The most important trobairitz are Alamanda de Castelnau , Azalais de Porcairagues , Maria de Ventadorn , Tibors , Castelloza , Garsenda de Proença , Gormonda de Monpeslier , and the Comtessa de Diá .
= = Position in medieval society = =
Throughout the 13th century , women of the court were expected to be able to sing , play instruments , and write jocs partis , or partimen ( a debate or dialogue in the form of a poem ) . The cultivation of these womanly skills may have led to the writings of the trobairitz .
The trobairitz may also have arisen due the power women held in southern France during the 12th and 13th centuries . Women had far more control over land ownership , and Occitan society was far more accepting of women than were most other societies of the time . During the Crusades many men were away , which left women with more administrative responsibility , and thus , power . Nevertheless , this society was not " feminist " , nor was fin ' amor , which exalted women while at the same time circumscribing many aspects of their lives and behavior .
There is difficulty in labeling the trobairitz as either amateurs or professionals . The distinction between these two roles was complicated in the medieval era , since professionals were generally lower class , and amateurs had as much time as professionals to devote to their craft . Joglaresse were lower class , professional composers far less respected than the trobairitz .
Both troubadours and trobairitz wrote of fin ' amors , or courtly love . Women were generally the subject of the writings of troubadours , however : " No other group of poets give women so exalted a definition within so tightly circumscribed a context of female suppression . " The tension between the suppression of women present in the poetry of the troubadours and similar themes in the poetry of the trobairitz is a major source of discussion for modern commentators . Trobairitz poetry pertaining to love tended to offer a less idealized conception of the subject than the poetry of their male counterparts , with a more conversational and less flourished style of writing intended to more closely emulate a more grounded vision of relationships . The trobairitz wrote in the canso ( strophic song ) and tenso ( debate poem ) genres . Besides cansos and tensos , trobairitz also wrote sirventes ( political poems ) , planh ( lament ) , salut d ’ amor ( a love letter not in strophic form ) , alba ( dawn songs ) , and balada ( dance songs ) . Judging by what survives today , the trobairitz wrote no pastorelas or malmariee songs , unlike their troubadour counterparts . Furthermore , in keeping with the troubadour tradition , the trobairitz closely linked the action of the singing to the action of loving . Comtessa de Dia demonstrates this in her poem Fin ioi me don 'alegranssa , stating that " Fin ioi me dona alegranssa / per qu 'eu chan plus gaiamen , " translated as " Happiness brings me pure joy / which makes me sing more cheerfully . "
= = Attribution = =
The number of works attributed to the trobairitz is estimated at thirty @-@ two songs , but ranges anywhere from 23 to 46 . There are a number of reasons why an exact number is not known . In the courtly love tradition it was common for poems to be written as an exchange of letters , or a debate , as in a tenso . Some of these may have been originally written by one poet ; however , some were originally an actual exchange of epistles , later gathered together in a manuscript . Some of these were between men , and some were between a man and a woman . Some modern editors attribute these solely to the man who originated the exchange , and some attribute them to both the man and the woman involved . There is a long history of attributing these solely to men , even when all evidence points to the contrary .
Since poetry was highly stylized , it is difficult to determine when a poet speaking as a woman actually was a woman , or a man speaking as a woman . This adds to the difficulty of attribution , especially of anonymous writers . There is some debate as to whether or not the poems by the trobairitz represent genuine feminine voices , since they worked within the highly circumscribed conventions of the troubadours . Matilda Bruckner suggests that the trobairitz " spoke in her own voice as channeled through the voices of many others " . By manipulating the strict constructs of troubadour lyric , the trobairitz were able to create their own " fictions of the female voice " .
There is one notable instance where clear attribution is given to a woman , Bieiris de Romans ( also given as Beatritz ) , but the subject of the poem is another woman , Na Maria . In the poem " Na Maria " Beatritz expresses her love for Maria in the traditional fin ' amors style , both in terms of physical longing and courtly admiration . This poem , if not clearly marked as by a woman , would be assumed to be by a man . Some controversy surrounds the works of the Bieiris de Romans , as scholars have suggested that her canso expresses " lesbian desire . " The troubadour would typically speak to the domna ( woman ) ; the fact that the lyrical dialogue takes place exclusively between one woman and another is an extreme rarity .
= = List of trobairitz works = =
= = = Anonymous = = =
Bona domna , un conseill vos deman
= = = Attributed = = =
Alais Iselda and Carenza : Na Carenza al bel cors avinen
Alamanda de Castelnau
Almucs de Castelnau and Iseut de Capio : Domna n ’ Almucs , si @-@ us plages
Azalais d 'Altier
Azalais de Porcairagues
Beatriz de Diá
Beatritz de Romans : Na Maria , pretz e fina valors
Castelloza
Clara d 'Anduza
Felipa
Garsenda de Proença : Vos qe ’ m semblatz dels corals amadors
Gaudairença : Coblas e dansas ( not extant )
Gormonda de Monpeslier
Guillelma de Rosers
Domna H.
Lambarda
Maria de Ventadorn : Gui d 'Uisel , be.m pesa de vos
Tibors de Sarenom
Ysabella
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= Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben =
Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben ( Norwegian : Ny @-@ Ålesund flyplass , Hamnerabben ; ICAO : ENAS ) is an airport serving the research community of Ny @-@ Ålesund in Svalbard , Norway . The airport is owned by Kings Bay , who also owns the company town . The only flights available are to Svalbard Airport , Longyear , operated two to four times a week by Lufttransport using Dornier Do 228 aircraft . The services are organized as corporate charters and tickets are only available after permission from Kings Bay .
Between 1925 and 1928 , Ny @-@ Ålesund saw four air expeditions to the North Pole , two of which required the construction of an airship hangar and mast . The first proposal for an airport in Ny @-@ Ålesund was launched in 1956 by Norsk Polar Navigasjon , who proposed an airport at Kvadehuksletta . Soviet protests against the airport caused the Norwegian authorities to oppose the plans , which were laid to rest in the early 1960s . Construction at Hamnerabben started in 1965 following the decision to build Kongsfjord Telemetry Station . The airport first hosted service to temporary landing strips near Longyearbyen , but from 1975 served Svalbard Airport . Lufttransport started flights with helicopters in the 1980s , but from 1989 has flown with fixed @-@ wing aircraft .
= = History = =
= = = Early aviation in Ny @-@ Ålesund = = =
Ny @-@ Ålesund was established as a mining company town by Kings Bay in 1916 . Between 1925 and 1928 , four attempts were made to reach the North Pole by air from Ny @-@ Ålesund . In May 1925 , Roald Amundsen used Ny @-@ Ålesund as a base for two flying boats , but the expedition failed to come closer than 88 degrees north . On 9 May 1926 , Floyd Bennett and Richard E. Byrd used Ny @-@ Ålesund as both the starting and landing for their expedition . Although they claimed to have reached the pole , there is strong evidence that they could not have accomplished this . On 11 May , Amundsen and Umberto Nobile 's airship Norge left Ny @-@ Ålesund and traveled via the North Pole to Alaska . This is regarded as the first successful expedition to the North Pole . After two short skirmishes , Nobile 's airship Italia left Ny @-@ Ålesund on 23 May 1928 to reach the North Pole , but crashed on the return .
The flying boats did not require any specific infrastructure , although they had to be brought by ship to Ny @-@ Ålesund , where they were assembled . They took off from a manually groomed air strip on snow . For the airship expeditions , a hangar and a mast were needed . Twenty @-@ two carpenters arrived in October 1925 along with supplies on SS Alekto . Materials were transported to the site by railway after a track had been laid to the site from the port . The 35 @-@ meter ( 115 ft ) tall steel mast was completed in December . The wooden hangar was 110 by 34 meters ( 361 by 112 ft ) with a height of 30 meters ( 98 ft ) . It was covered in 10 @,@ 000 square meters ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of tarp . The hangar was completed on 15 February 1926 .
Mining ceased in Ny @-@ Ålesund in 1929 ; it was taken up again in 1941 , but because of the Second World War the town was evacuated the following year . From 1946 , the Royal Norwegian Air Force started serving Ny @-@ Ålesund with their Consolidated PBY Catalina amphibian aircraft . The aircraft were able to land if there was no ice on the fjord and lighting and weather permitted it . The first flight took place on 10 May and consisted of post drops . No further flights were carried out until 1949 ; one of the flights that year was an air ambulance operation . The service also dropped post at the other Norwegian settlements in Svalbard . In 1961 , the Catalinas were replaced with Grumman HU @-@ 16B Albatross aircraft .
= = = Kvadehuksletta proposal = = =
The first proposal for an airport serving Ny @-@ Ålesund was launched by the brothers Einar Sverre Pedersen and Gunnar Sverre Pedersen . Einar worked as chief navigator in the Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) and was instrumental in developing the airline routes over the North Pole . He envisioned that the airport in Svalbard could serve as an emergency landing aerodrome for intercontinental flights , and proposed that the Norwegian trunk airline service be extended to Svalbard .
The brothers went on an expedition to Spitsbergen in 1956 to conduct further surveys . Their initial observations concluded that Kvadehussletta , the outermost part of Brøggerhalvøya , was the best @-@ suited place for a major airport . They initially planned for a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ meter ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) long runway , which could easily be expanded to 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Hotellneset and Adventdalen , both close to Longyearbyen , were rejected because the areas were too small and due to poor weather conditions .
The brothers presented the idea to the Government of Norway and SAS , but neither party was interested in investing in an airport . They contacted Kings Bay and asked the company to lease or purchase land to build the airport . The company was positive , but required that the airport remained under Norwegian ownership and regulations . On 22 October 1958 , negotiations started with Vestlandske Flyselskap to start an airline service from the mainland to Svalbard . Financing of the airport was in part to be secured through a Hilton hotel , which would provide accommodation for tourists , and the " Roald Amundsen Institute , " a planned research station .
Although the brothers received initial support from the government , the Soviet Union officially protested the airport on 5 November 1958 . They claimed it could be used as an air force base — and thus would be a violation of the Svalbard Treaty — and pointed out that planning was partially financed with American military funding and that Gunnar was a military officer . From then on the Norwegian government started actively opposing the airport . At first they asked the company to cease operations , then asked the American military to cut funding . They also instructed all government @-@ owned companies to not allow an airport to be built on their ground . The government also used Gunnar 's military rank to hinder him , to limited extent , from pursuing the plans . The Aviation Act , which required all airports to have a concession to operate , came into effect from 1961 , effectively stopping the plans .
= = = Hamnerabben = = =
Following the 1962 mining accident and the subsequent Kings Bay Affair , Ny @-@ Ålesund was transformed from a mining town to a research outpost . The need for an airport to support commercial activity in Ny @-@ Ålesund arose in 1965 with the construction of Kongsfjord Telemetry Station . The Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research needed to have an aviation connection with Longyearbyen to send magnetic tapes with the downloaded data to Germany . A road was built from the settlement to Hamnerabben , the site of the telemetry station . The top of the hill was sufficiently flat that a runway could be constructed . It was built by giving a 850 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) long straight section of the road a width of 40 meters ( 130 ft ) . Waste oil was poured on the gravel to bind it . A smaller road was built to the north of the runway to allow road transport while the runway was in use .
The airport was largely used to fly to Longyearbyen , although a limited number of flights were undertaken to the mainland . In addition to magnetic tapes , the aircraft were used to transport personnel and cargo , particularly during winter . Services were originally operated by Ski- og Sjøfly , but were later taken over by Svalbard @-@ Fly , both of which had their Cessna 185 aircraft stationed in Ny @-@ Ålesund . On 3 June 1970 , a miner with a fractured skull was transported by ship from Longyearbyen to Ny @-@ Ålesund and sent on board a Piper PA @-@ 31 Navajo to the mainland for treatment . After the telemetry station closed in 1974 , the airport was taken over by Kings Bay . During this period , Longyearbyen was served by a planed section of tundra in Adventdalen .
Svalbard Airport , Longyear , opened in 1975 , allowing better facilities and connection with scheduled flights to the mainland . At the same time , Lufttransport established itself at Svalbard Airport . During the summer of 1975 , the Norwegian Polar Institute stationed two helicopters at Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport to support their expeditions . During the late 1970s there was little winter activity in Ny @-@ Ålesund , but the air strip was kept operational for the few groups of researchers who did visit . A radio line repeater was installed at Kongsvegpasset in 1980 , resulting in Ny @-@ Ålesund receiving a telephone connection . A radio beacon was subsequently installed at the airport .
During the 1980s , the services were gradually taken over by Lufttransport , who used both small aircraft and helicopters . These gradually became more regular and became de facto scheduled services every fortnight . Lufttransport replaced the helicopter service with a two @-@ engine five @-@ seat aircraft in 1989 , which cut the cost of transport significantly . In 1993 , Widerøe established itself at Svalbard Airport and flew services to Ny @-@ Ålesund , but this only lasted the one season . In 1996 , Lufttransport and Kings Bay made an agreement that the airline would fly once per week during the winter and up to five times per week during the summer . The airline would use a Dornier Do 228 , which was also used for flights from Longyearbyen to Svea Airport for Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulkompani .
= = Facilities = =
Ny @-@ Ålesund Airport , Hamnerabben , is located at Hamnerabben , 0 @.@ 65 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 20 km ; 0 @.@ 75 mi ) west of the main settlement of Ny @-@ Ålesund . It consists of a single 808 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 651 ft ) long and 30 @-@ meter ( 98 ft ) wide gravel runway . It is located at 40 meters ( 130 ft ) elevation and aligned 12 / 30 . The airport has a single 30 @-@ by @-@ 75 @-@ meter ( 98 by 246 ft ) apron . The airport has aerodrome flight information service but lacks terminal and hangar facilities .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
The only airline to provide service to and from Hamnerabben is Lufttransport , which operates 16 @-@ seat Dornier Do 228 aircraft to Svalbard Airport , Longyear . The airline provides two flights per week during the winter and four flights per week during the summer . All departures are charter flights organized by Kings Bay and tickets are only available through the company . Occasional ad hoc charter flights are also sometimes operated . At Longyearbyen , connections are provided onwards to Tromsø Airport and Oslo Airport , Gardermoen .
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= Louis Braille =
Louis Braille ( / ˈbreɪl / , listen ; French : [ lwi bʁaj ( ə ) ] ; 4 January 1809 – 6 January 1852 ) was a French educator and inventor of a system of reading and writing for use by the blind or visually impaired . His system remains known worldwide simply as braille .
Blinded in both eyes as a result of an early childhood accident , Braille mastered his disability while still a boy . He excelled in his education and received scholarship to France 's Royal Institute for Blind Youth . While still a student there , he began developing a system of tactile code that could allow blind people to read and write quickly and efficiently . Inspired by the military cryptography of Charles Barbier , Braille constructed a new method built specifically for the needs of the blind . He presented his work to his peers for the first time in 1824 .
In adulthood , Braille served as a professor at the Institute and enjoyed an avocation as a musician , but he largely spent the remainder of his life refining and extending his system . It went unused by most educators for many years after his death , but posterity has recognized braille as a revolutionary invention , and it has been adapted for use in languages worldwide .
= = Early life = =
Louis Braille was born in Coupvray , France , a small town about twenty miles east of Paris . He and his three elder siblings – Monique Catherine ( b.1793 ) , Louis @-@ Simon ( b.1795 ) , and Marie Céline ( b.1797 ) – lived with their parents , Simon @-@ René and Monique , on three hectares of land and vineyards in the countryside . Simon @-@ René maintained a successful enterprise as a leatherer and maker of horse tack .
As soon as he could walk , Braille spent time playing in his father 's workshop . At the age of three , the child was toying with some of the tools , trying to make holes in a piece of leather with an awl . Squinting closely at the surface , he pressed down hard to drive the point in , and the awl glanced across the tough leather and struck him in one of his eyes . A local physician bound and patched the affected eye and even arranged for Braille to be met the next day in Paris by a highly respected surgeon , but no treatment could save the damaged organ . In agony , the young boy suffered for weeks as the wound became severely infected ; an infection which then spread to his other eye , likely due to sympathetic ophthalmia.a
Louis Braille survived the torment of the infection but by the age of five he was completely blind in both eyes . Due to his young age , Braille did not realize at first that he had lost his sight , and often asked why it was always dark . His devoted parents made great efforts – quite uncommon for the era – to raise their youngest child in a normal fashion , and he prospered in their care . He learned to navigate the village and country paths with canes his father hewed for him , and he grew up seemingly at peace with his disability . Braille 's bright and creative mind impressed the local teachers and priests , and he was accommodated with higher education .
= = Education = =
Braille studied in Coupvray until the age of ten . Because of his combination of intelligence and diligence , Braille was permitted to attend one of the first schools for blind children in the world , the Royal Institute for Blind Youth , since renamed to the National Institute for Blind Youth in Paris . Braille , the last of the family 's children to leave the household , departed for the school in February 1819 . At that time the Royal Institute was an underfunded , ramshackle affair , but it provided a relatively stable environment for blind children to learn and associate together .
= = = Haüy system = = =
The children were taught how to read by a system devised by the school 's founder , Valentin Haüy . Not blind himself , Haüy was a committed philanthropist who devoted his life to helping the blind . He designed and manufactured a small library of books for the children using a technique of embossing heavy paper with the raised imprints of Latin letters . Readers would trace their fingers over the text , comprehending slowly but in a traditional fashion which Haüy could appreciate .
Braille was helped by the Haüy books , but he also despaired over their lack of depth : the amount of information kept in such books was necessarily small . Because the raised letters were made in a complex artisanal process using wet paper pressed against copper wire , the children could not hope to " write " by themselves . So that the young Louis could send letters back home , Simon @-@ René provided him with an alphabet fashioned from bits of thick leather . It was a slow and cumbersome process , but the boy could at least trace the letters ' outlines and write his first sentences .
The handcrafted Haüy books all came in uncomfortable sizes and weights . They were laboriously constructed , exquisitely delicate , and greatly expensive to obtain : when Haüy 's school first opened , it had a total of three books . Despite their drawbacks , Haüy promoted their use with zeal . To him , the books presented a new and handsome system which would be readily approved by those with eyesight . Certainly no better method yet existed for the blind to read , and the books seemed – to the sighted – to offer the best achievable results . Braille and his schoolmates , however , could detect all too well the books ' crushing limitations . Nonetheless , Haüy 's well @-@ intentioned efforts still provided a breakthrough achievement – the recognition of the sense of touch as a workable strategy for sightless reading . Haüy 's only personal limitation was that he was " talking to the fingers [ with ] the language of the eye . "
= = = Teacher and musician = = =
Braille read the Haüy books repeatedly , and he was equally attentive to the oral instruction offered by the school . He proved to be a highly proficient student and , after he had exhausted the school 's curriculum , he was immediately asked to remain as a teacher 's aide . By 1833 , he was elevated to a full professorship . For much of the rest of his life , Braille stayed at the Institute where he taught history , geometry , and algebra .
Braille 's ear for music enabled him to become an accomplished cellist and organist in classes taught by Jean @-@ Nicholas Marrigues . Later in life , his musical talents led him to play the organ for churches all over France . A devout Catholic , Braille held the position of organist in Paris at the Church of Saint @-@ Nicolas @-@ des @-@ Champs from 1834 to 1839 , and later at the Church of Saint @-@ Vincent @-@ de @-@ Paul .
= = Braille system = =
Braille was determined to fashion a system of reading and writing that could bridge the critical gap in communication between the sighted and the blind . In his own words : " Access to communication in the widest sense is access to knowledge , and that is vitally important for us if we [ the blind ] are not to go on being despised or patronized by condescending sighted people . We do not need pity , nor do we need to be reminded we are vulnerable . We must be treated as equals – and communication is the way this can be brought about . "
= = = Origins = = =
In 1821 , Braille learned of a communication system devised by Captain Charles Barbier of the French Army . Some sources depict Braille learning about it from a newspaper account read to him by a friend , while others say the officer , aware of its potential , made a special visit to the school . In either case , Barbier willingly shared his invention called " night writing " which was a code of dots and dashes impressed into thick paper . These impressions could be interpreted entirely by the fingers , letting soldiers share information on the battlefield without having light or needing to speak . The captain 's code turned out to be too complex to use in its original military form , but it inspired Braille to develop a system of his own .
= = = Design = = =
Braille worked tirelessly on his ideas , and his system was largely completed by 1824 , when he was fifteen years old . From Barbier 's night writing , he innovated by simplifying its form and maximizing its efficiency . He made uniform columns for each letter , and he reduced the twelve raised dots to six . He published his system in 1829 , and by the second edition in 1837 had discarded the dashes because they were too difficult to read . Crucially , Braille 's smaller cells were capable of being recognized as letters with a single touch of a finger .
Braille created his own raised @-@ dot system by using an awl , the same kind of implement which had blinded him . In the process of designing his system , he also designed an ergonomic interface for using it , based on Barbier 's own slate and stylus tools . By soldering two metal strips across the slate , he created a secure area for the stylus which would keep the lines straight and readable .
By these modest means , Braille constructed a robust communication system . " It bears the stamp of genius " wrote Dr. Richard Slating French , former director of the California School for the Blind , " like the Roman alphabet itself . "
= = = Musical adaptation = = =
The system was soon extended to include braille musical notation . Passionate about his own music , Braille took meticulous care in its planning to ensure that the musical code would be " flexible enough to meet the unique requirements of any instrument . " In 1829 , he published the first book about his system , Method of Writing Words , Music , and Plain Songs by Means of Dots , for Use by the Blind and Arranged for Them . Ironically this book was first printed by the raised letter method of the Haüy system .
= = = Publications = = =
Braille produced several written works about braille and as general education for the blind . Method of Writing Words , Music , and Plain Songs ... ( 1829 ) was revised and republished in 1837 ; his mathematics guide , Little Synopsis of Arithmetic for Beginners , entered use in 1838 ; and his monograph New Method for Representing by Dots the Form of Letters , Maps , Geometric Figures , Musical Symbols , etc . , for Use by the Blind was first published in 1839 . Many of Braille 's original printed works remain available at the Braille birthplace museum in Coupvray .
= = = Decapoint = = =
New Method for Representing by Dots ... ( 1839 ) put forth Braille 's plan for a new writing system with which blind people could write letters that could be read by sighted people . Called decapoint , the system combined his method of dot @-@ punching with a new specialized grill which Braille devised to overlay the paper . When used with an associated number table ( also designed by Braille and requiring memorization ) , the grill could permit a blind writer to faithfully reproduce the standard alphabet .
After the introduction of decapoint , Braille gave assistance to his friend Pierre @-@ François @-@ Victor Foucault , who was working on the development of his Raphigraphe , a device that could emboss letters in the manner of a typewriter . Foucault 's machine was hailed as a great success and was exhibited at the World 's Fair in Paris in 1855 .
= = Later life = =
Although Braille was admired and respected by his pupils , his writing system was not taught at the Institute during his lifetime . The successors of Valentin Haüy , who had died in 1822 , showed no interest in altering the established methods of the school , and indeed , they were actively hostile to its use . Dr. Alexandre François @-@ René Pignier , headmaster at the school , was dismissed from his post after he had a history book translated into braille .
Braille had always been a sickly child , and his condition worsened in adulthood . A persistent respiratory illness , long believed to be tuberculosis , dogged him , and by the age of forty , he was forced to relinquish his position as a teacher . When his condition reached mortal danger , he was admitted to the infirmary at the Royal Institution , where he died in 1852 , two days after he had reached the age of forty @-@ three .
= = Legacy = =
Through the overwhelming insistence of the blind pupils , Braille 's system was finally adopted by the Institute in 1854 , two years after his death . The system spread throughout the French @-@ speaking world , but was slower to expand in other places . However , by the time of the first all @-@ European conference of teachers of the blind in 1873 , the cause of braille was championed by Dr. Thomas Rhodes Armitage and thereafter its international use increased rapidly . By 1882 , Dr. Armitage was able to report that " There is now probably no institution in the civilized world where braille is not used except in some of those in North America . " Eventually even these holdouts relented : braille was officially adopted by schools for the blind in the United States in 1916 , and a universal braille code for English was formalized in 1932 .
New variations in braille technology continue to grow , including such innovations as braille computer terminals ; RoboBraille email delivery service ; and Nemeth Braille , a comprehensive system for mathematical and scientific notation . Almost two centuries after its invention , braille remains a system of powerful and enduring utility .
= = = Honors and tributes = = =
The immense personal legacy of Louis Braille was described in a 1952 essay by T.S. Eliot :
Braille 's childhood home in Coupvray is a listed historic building and houses the Louis Braille Museum . A large monument to him was erected in the town square which was itself renamed Braille Square . On the centenary of his death , his remains were moved to the Panthéon in Paris . In a symbolic gesture , Braille 's hands were left in Coupvray , reverently buried near his home .
Statues and other memorials to Louis Braille can be found around the world . He has been commemorated in postage stamps worldwide , and the asteroid 9969 Braille was named for him in 1992 . The Encyclopædia Britannica lists him among the " 100 Most Influential Inventors Of All Time " .
The 200th anniversary of Braille 's birth in 2009 was celebrated throughout the world by exhibitions and symposiums about his life and achievements . Among the commemorations , Belgium and Italy struck 2 @-@ euro coins , India struck a 2 @-@ rupee coin , and the USA struck a one dollar coin , all in Braille 's honor .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Because of his accomplishments as a young boy , Braille holds a special place as a hero for children , and he has been the subject of a large number of works of juvenile literature . Other appearances in the arts include the American TV special Young Heroes : Louis Braille ( 2010 ) ; the French TV movie Une lumière dans la nuit ( 2008 ) ( released in English as The Secret of Braille ) ; and the dramatic play Braille : The Early Life of Louis Braille ( 1989 ) by Lola and Coleman Jennings . In music , Braille 's life was subject of the song called " Merci , Louis " , composed by the Halifax singer @-@ songwriter Terry Kelly , chair of the Canadian Braille Literacy Foundation .
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= Paper Hearts =
" Paper Hearts " is the tenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 15 , 1996 . It was written by Vince Gilligan , directed by Rob Bowman , and featured guest appearances by Tom Noonan , Rebecca Toolan and Vanessa Morley . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to , but conversant with , the series ' wider mythology . " Paper Hearts " was viewed by 16 @.@ 59 million people in its initial broadcast , and received positive reviews , with critics praising Noonan 's guest role .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , and the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , Mulder and Scully find that a child killer ( Tom Noonan ) who Mulder had helped to apprehend several years earlier had claimed more victims than he had confessed to ; and in the resulting investigation , learn that the killer is now claiming to have killed Mulder 's sister Samantha .
Gilligan came up with the concept for " Paper Hearts " when thinking about the series ' longest running storyline , the abduction of Samantha Mulder ; he came up with a story questioning whether Samantha had not been abducted by aliens , but was rather murdered by a child killer instead . " Paper Hearts " was written specifically with Tom Noonan in mind for the role of Roche , and was amongst the first television work the actor had done .
= = Plot = =
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) dreams of a red light that leads him to the corpse of a young girl buried in a park in Manassas , Virginia . When he awakens , he heads to the park and finds the girl 's skeleton . The girl was determined to have been murdered by John Lee Roche ( Tom Noonan ) , a serial killer who murdered thirteen girls throughout the 1980s ; his modus operandi was cutting a heart out of the clothes of each victim . Mulder had captured Roche by deducing that he committed the murders while traveling as a vacuum cleaner salesman . Roche 's hearts were never found , although he confessed to all of the murders .
Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) autopsy of the skeleton finds that the victim died in 1975 , suggesting that Roche 's killing spree started much earlier than the FBI had previously thought . The agents search Roche 's old car , where they discover sixteen cut @-@ out hearts . Mulder and Scully subsequently visit Roche in prison , hoping to learn the identities of the remaining two victims . Roche , however , tries to play mind games with Mulder . That night Mulder dreams of the night of Samantha 's abduction , seemingly showing that his sister was abducted by Roche rather than aliens .
The next day , Mulder asks Roche where he was the night Samantha was abducted . Roche claims he was on Martha 's Vineyard and had sold a vacuum cleaner to Mulder 's father . Mulder later finds the vacuum in his mother 's house . After convincing Walter Skinner to grant them further access to Roche , the agents question the killer and are told the location of one of his remaining victims . He also claims exactly what happened the night of Samantha 's abduction . An autopsy of the body reveals it does not belong to Samantha . Roche tells Mulder the final body is Samantha 's , but says that he will only reveal where it is if Mulder takes him to the scene of her abduction . Mulder secretly releases Roche from prison and brings him to Martha 's Vineyard .
Upon arriving at his family 's old summer house , Roche explains exactly what happened the night of Samantha 's abduction . However , Mulder tells him that the house was bought by his father after Samantha 's abduction , convincing him that Roche is not telling the truth . Mulder plans to bring Roche back to prison , but — following another dream about Samantha — awakens to find Roche gone , with his badge , gun , and phone stolen .
Using Mulder 's credentials , Roche kidnaps a girl in Swampscott , Massachusetts whom he met on his flight with Mulder to Boston . Scully and Skinner arrive the next day and the agents head to the site of Roche 's old apartment in Revere . They find him with the girl in an abandoned bus nearby . Roche holds the gun on the girl and tells Mulder that he 'll never know for sure whether the last victim is Samantha or not if he kills him . Mulder is then forced to shoot Roche , as he starts to pull on the trigger of the stolen gun . In his office Mulder stares at the final cloth heart and puts it away , unsure of whether it belonged to Samantha or not .
= = Production = =
" Paper Hearts " was written specifically with Tom Noonan in mind for the role of Roche , and was amongst the first television work the actor had done . Writer Vince Gilligan came up with the concept for the episode when thinking about the series ' longest running storyline , the abduction of Samantha Mulder . Gilligan came up with a story questioning whether Samantha had not been abducted by aliens , but was rather murdered by a child killer instead . He decided to help convince Fox Mulder of this through a series of prophetic dreams . The laser lights in Mulder 's dreams were influenced by Gilligan 's experience with laser holograms while he was a film student . The laser was supposed to be the color blue , but was changed to red in production to reduce costs . Wanting to include some kind of fetish for the killer , Gilligan settled on having Roche cut heart shaped fragments from his victim 's clothing , thinking that having him mutilate his victims ' bodies would be going too far .
Guest actor Tom Noonan , who played the killer John Lee Roche , recalled filming the scene in which his character is introduced , playing basketball in prison . Noonan , a capable basketball player , was asked to " downplay " how well he could play ; although he regretted not being able to play against David Duchovny , who had played basketball for Princeton University . Episode writer Vince Gilligan and director Rob Bowman assert that Duchovny 's successful basketball shot in this scene was filmed in just one take , without special effects . While the episode was the eighth produced in the season , it was the tenth aired , having been delayed to free up production resources for the two part episodes " Tunguska " and " Terma " . The episode 's climactic scene was filmed in a " bus graveyard " in Surrey , British Columbia , a location which had been scouted months previously with the intention of eventually including it in an episode of the series ; although filming at the location did not even last a full day despite the long wait to use it .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Paper Hearts " premiered on the Fox network on December 15 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 12 , 1997 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 16 @.@ 59 million people , which represented 16 % of the viewing audience during that time .
Both Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny consider this among the best episodes of the fourth season . Composer Mark Snow was nominated for an Emmy Award for the music he produced for this episode . He said of the episode 's music , " It was a different kind of texture for the show . Light , magic , nothing terribly threatening " . Snow received many requests for a recording of the music used at the end of the episode .
Website IGN named " Paper Hearts " their sixth favorite " standalone " episode of the show , calling it " creepy and unsettling " , and claiming Noonan 's character was " one of the most disturbing villains to make an appearance in the series " . Noonan 's acting has also been praised by Vince Gilligan , who says the " understated " manner in which Roche is portrayed " sends chills down [ his ] spine every time " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff reviewed the episode positively , rating it an A. He felt that Noonan 's performance was " terrific " , noting that the actor " makes Roche into one of the series ' great human monsters " ; and believed that the episode 's premise was important to developing the character of Mulder further . The website later named the episode the sixth best example of a television dream sequence , noting that it " suggest [ s ] how this methodical man [ Mulder ] might puzzle over cold cases in his subconscious " . The article also complimented the entry 's metaphor that laser pointers were Mulder 's mind that pointed " out bits of evidence his conscious brain missed all those many years ago . " Starpulse named it the second best episode of the series .
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= Retreat of glaciers since 1850 =
The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier @-@ melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gasses is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid @-@ latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses .
Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear .
The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas .
The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .
= = Glacier mass balance = =
The mass balance , or difference between accumulation and ablation ( melting and sublimation ) , of a glacier is crucial to its survival . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , resulting in changes in mass balance . A glacier with a sustained negative balance loses equilibrium and retreats . A sustained positive balance is also out of equilibrium and will advance to reestablish equilibrium . Currently , nearly all glaciers have a negative mass balance and are retreating .
Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low @-@ elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler , the disappearance of the lowest portion decreases overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . If the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the climate and will melt away without a colder climate and or an increase in frozen precipitation .
Methods for measuring retreat include staking terminus location , global positioning mapping , aerial mapping and laser altimetry . The key symptom of disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . This indicates a diminishment of the accumulation zone . The result is marginal recession of the accumulation zone margin , not just of the terminus . In effect , the glacier no longer has a consistent accumulation zone and without an accumulation zone cannot survive . For example , Easton Glacier in Washington state , U.S. will likely shrink to half its size but at a slowing rate of reduction and stabilize at that size despite the warmer temperature over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier in Montana , U.S. will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow @-@ covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , is melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with minimal altitude range are most likely to fall into disequilibrium with the climate .
= = Middle latitude glaciers = =
Middle latitude glaciers are located either between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle , or between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle . Both areas support glacier ice from mountain glaciers , valley glaciers and even smaller icecaps , which are usually located in higher mountainous regions . All are located in mountain ranges , notably the Himalayas ; the Alps ; the Pyrenees ; Rocky Mountains and Pacific Coast Ranges of North America ; the Patagonian Andes in South America ; and mountain ranges in New Zealand . Glaciers in these latitudes are more widespread and tend to be greater in mass the closer they are to the polar regions . They are the most widely studied over the past 150 years . As with examples located in the tropical zone , virtually all the glaciers in the mid @-@ latitudes are in a state of negative mass balance and are retreating .
= = = Eastern hemisphere = = =
= = = = Europe = = = =
In France all six of the major glaciers in that country are in retreat . On Mont Blanc , the highest peak in the Alps , the Argentière Glacier has receded 1 @,@ 150 m ( 3 @,@ 770 ft ) since 1870 . Other Mont Blanc glaciers have also been in retreat , including the Mer de Glace , which is the largest glacier in France at 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) in length but retreated 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) between 1994 and 2008 . The glacier has retreated 2 @,@ 300 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) since the end of the Little Ice Age . The Bossons Glacier once extended from the summit of Mont Blanc at 4 @,@ 807 m ( 15 @,@ 771 ft ) to an elevation of 1 @,@ 050 m ( 3 @,@ 440 ft ) in 1900 . By 2008 Bossons Glacier had retreated to a point that was 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level .
Other researchers have found that glaciers across the Alps appear to be retreating at a faster rate than a few decades ago . In a paper published in 2009 by the University of Zurich , the Swiss glacier survey of 89 glaciers found 76 retreating , 5 stationary and 8 advancing from where they had been in 1973 . The Trift Glacier had the greatest recorded retreat , losing 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) of its length between the years 2003 and 2005 . The Grosser Aletsch Glacier is the largest glacier in Switzerland and has been studied since the late 19th century . Aletsch Glacier retreated 2 @.@ 8 km ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) from 1880 to 2009 . This rate of retreat has also increased since 1980 , with 30 % , or 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , of the total retreat occurring in the last 20 % of the time period .
The Morteratsch Glacier in Switzerland has had one of the longest periods of scientific study with yearly measurements of the glacier 's length commencing in 1878 . The overall retreat from 1878 to 1998 has been 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) with a mean annual retreat rate of approximately 17 m ( 56 ft ) per year . This long @-@ term average was markedly surpassed in recent years with the glacier receding 30 m ( 98 ft ) per year during the period between 1999 – 2005 . Similarly , of the glaciers in the Italian Alps , only about a third were in retreat in 1980 , while by 1999 , 89 % of these glaciers were retreating . In 2005 , the Italian Glacier Commission found that 123 glaciers in Lombardy were retreating . A random study of the Sforzellina Glacier in the Italian Alps indicated that the rate of retreat from 2002 to 2006 was much higher than in the preceding 35 years . To study glaciers located in the alpine regions of Lombardy , researchers compared a series of aerial and ground images taken from the 1950s through the early 21st century and deduced that between the years 1954 @-@ 2003 the mostly smaller glaciers found there lost more than half of their area . Repeat photography of glaciers in the Alps indicates that there as been significant retreat since studies commenced .
Though the glaciers of the Alps have received more attention from glaciologists than in other areas of Europe , research indicates that glaciers in northern Europe are also retreating . Since the end of World War II , Storglaciären in Sweden has undergone the longest continuous mass balance study in the world conducted from the Tarfala research station . In the Kebnekaise Mountains of northern Sweden , a study of 16 glaciers between 1990 and 2001 found that 14 glaciers were retreating , one was advancing and one was stable . In Norway , glacier studies have been performed since the early 19th century , with systematic surveys undertaken regularly since the 1990s . Inland glaciers have had a generally negative mass balance , whereby during the 1990s , maritime glaciers showed a positive mass balance and advanced . The maritime advances have been attributed to heavy snowfall in the period 1989 @-@ 1995 . However , reduced snowfall since has caused most Norwegian glaciers to retreat significantly . A survey of 31 Norwegian glaciers in 2010 indicated that 27 were in retreat , one had no change and three advanced . Similarly , in 2013 , of 33 Norwegian glaciers surveyed , 26 were retreating , four showed no change and three advanced .
Engabreen Glacier in Norway , an outlet glacier of the Svartisen ice cap , had several advances in the 20th century , though it retreated 200 m ( 660 ft ) between 1999 and 2014 . Brenndalsbreen glacier retreated 56 m ( 184 ft ) between the years 2000 and 2014 , while the Rembesdalsskåka glacier , which has retreated 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) since the end of the Little Ice Age , retreated 200 m ( 660 ft ) between 1997 @-@ 2007 . The Briksdalsbreen glacier retreated 230 m ( 750 ft ) between 1996 and 2004 with 130 m ( 430 ft ) of that in the last year of that study ; the greatest annual retreat recorded on that glacier since studies began there in 1900 . This figure was exceeded in 2006 with five glaciers retreating over 100 m ( 330 ft ) from the fall of 2005 to the fall of 2006 . Four outlets from the Jostedalsbreen ice cap , the largest body of ice in continental Europe , Kjenndalsbreen , Brenndalsbreen , Briksdalsbreen and Bergsetbreen had a frontal retreat of more than 100 m ( 330 ft ) . Overall , from 1999 to 2005 , Briksdalsbreen retreated 336 metres ( 1 @,@ 102 ft ) . Gråfjellsbrea , an outlet glacier of the Folgefonna ice cap , had a retreat of almost 100 m ( 330 ft ) .
In the Spanish Pyrenees , recent studies have shown important losses in extent and volume of the glaciers of the Maladeta massif during the period 1981 – 2005 . These include a reduction in area of 35 @.@ 7 % , from 2 @.@ 41 km2 ( 600 acres ) to 0 @.@ 627 km2 ( 155 acres ) , a loss in total ice volume of 0 @.@ 0137 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0033 cu mi ) and an increase in the mean altitude of the glacial termini of 43 @.@ 5 m ( 143 ft ) . For the Pyrenees as a whole 50 – 60 % of the glaciated area has been lost since 1991 . The Balaitus , Perdigurero and La Munia glaciers have disappeared in this period . Monte Perdido Glacier has shrunk from 90 hectares to 40 hectares .
As initial cause for glacier retreat in the alps since 1850 , a decrease of the glaciers albedo , caused by industrial black carbon can be identified . According to a report , this may have accelerated the retreat of glaciers in Europe which otherwise may have continued to expand until approximately the year 1910 .
= = = = Siberia and the Russian Far East = = = =
Siberia is typically classified as a polar region , owing to the dryness of the winter climate and has glaciers only in the high Altai Mountains , Verkhoyansk Range , Cherskiy Range and Suntar @-@ Khayata Range , plus possibly a few very small glaciers in the ranges near Lake Baikal , which have never been monitored and may have completely disappeared since 1989 . Between the years 1952 and 2006 , the glaciers found in the Aktru Basin region shrank by 7 @.@ 2 percent . This shrinkage has been primarily in the ablation zone of the glaciers , with recession of several hundred meters being observed for some glaciers . The Altai region has also experienced an overall temperature increase of 1 @.@ 2 degrees Celsius in the last 120 years according to a report from 2006 , with most of that increase occurring since the late 20th century .
In the more maritime and generally wetter Russian Far East , Kamchatka , exposed during winter to moisture from the Aleutian Low , has much more extensive glaciation totaling around 906 km2 ( 350 sq mi ) with 448 known glaciers as of 2010 . Despite generally heavy winter snowfall and cool summer temperatures , the high summer rainfall of the more southerly Kuril Islands and Sakhalin in historic times melt rates have been too high for a positive mass balance even on the highest peaks . In the Chukotskiy Peninsula small alpine glaciers are numerous , but the extent of glaciation , though larger than further west , is much smaller than in Kamchatka , totalling around 300 square kilometres ( 120 sq mi ) .
Details on the retreat of Siberian and Russian Far East glaciers less adequate than in most other glaciated areas of the world . There are several reasons for this , the principal one being that since the collapse of Communism there has been a large reduction in the number of monitoring stations . Another factor is that in the Verkhoyansk and Cherskiy Ranges it was thought glaciers were absent before they were discovered during the 1940s , whilst in ultra @-@ remote Kamchatka and Chukotka , although the existence of glaciers was known earlier , monitoring of their size dates back no earlier than the end of World War II . Nonetheless , available records do indicate a general retreat of all glaciers in the Altai Mountains with the exception of volcanic glaciers in Kamchatka . Sakha ’ s glaciers , totaling seventy square kilometers , have shrunk by around 28 percent since 1945 reaching several percent annually in some places , whilst in the Altai and Chukotkan mountains and non @-@ volcanic areas of Kamchatka , the shrinkage is considerably larger .
= = = = Asia = = = =
The Himalayas and other mountain chains of central Asia support large glaciated regions . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 glaciers can be found in the greater Himalayas , with double that number in the Hindu Kush and Karakoram and Tien Shan ranges , and comprise the largest glaciated region outside the poles . These glaciers provide critical water supplies to arid countries such as Mongolia , western China , Pakistan , Afghanistan and India . As with glaciers worldwide , those of the greater Himalayan region are experiencing a decline in mass , and researchers claim that between the early 1970s and early 2000s , there had been a 9 percent reduction in ice mass . Change in temperature has led to melting and the formation and expansion of glacial lakes which could cause an increase in the number of glacial lake outburst floods ( GLOFs ) . If the present trends persist the ice mass will gradually be reduced , and will affect the availability of water resources , though water loss is not expected to cause problems for many decades .
In the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan 28 of 30 glaciers examined retreated significantly between 1976 – 2003 , with an average retreat of 11 m ( 36 ft ) per year . One of these glaciers , the Zemestan Glacier , retreated 460 m ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) during this period , not quite 10 % of its 5 @.@ 2 km ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) length . In examining 612 glaciers in China between 1950 and 1970 , 53 % of the glaciers studied were retreating . After 1990 , 95 % of these glaciers were measured to be retreating , indicating that retreat of these glaciers was becoming more widespread . Glaciers in the Mount Everest region of the Himalayas are all in a state of retreat . The Rongbuk Glacier , draining the north side of Mount Everest into Tibet , has been retreating 20 m ( 66 ft ) per year . In the Khumbu region of Nepal along the front of the main Himalaya of 15 glaciers examined from 1976 – 2007 all retreated significantly and the average retreat was 28 m ( 92 ft ) per year . The most famous of these , the Khumbu Glacier , retreated at a rate of 18 m ( 59 ft ) per year from 1976 – 2007 . In India , the Gangotri Glacier retreated 1 @,@ 147 m ( 3 @,@ 763 ft ) between the years 1936 and 1996 with 850 m ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) of that retreat occurring in the last 25 years of the 20th century . However , the glacier is still over 30 km ( 19 mi ) long . In Sikkim , 26 glaciers examined between the years 1976 and 2005 were retreating at an average rate of 13 @.@ 02 m ( 42 @.@ 7 ft ) per year . Overall , glaciers in the Greater Himalayan region that have been studied are retreating an average of between 18 and 20 m ( 59 and 66 ft ) annually . The only region in the Greater Himalaya that has seen glacial advances is in the Karakoram Range and only in the highest elevation glaciers , but this has been attributed possibly increased precipitation as well as to the correlating glacial surges , where the glacier tongue advances due to pressure build up from snow and ice accumulation further up the glacier . Between the years 1997 and 2001 , 68 km ( 42 mi ) long Biafo Glacier thickened 10 to 25 m ( 33 to 82 ft ) mid @-@ glacier , however it did not advance .
With the retreat of glaciers in the Himalayas , a number of glacial lakes have been created . A growing concern is the potential for GLOFs researchers estimate 21 glacial lakes in Nepal and 24 in Bhutan pose hazards to human populations should their terminal moraines fail . One glacial lake identified as potentially hazardous is Bhutan 's Raphstreng Tsho , which measured 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) long , 0 @.@ 96 km ( 0 @.@ 60 mi ) wide and 80 m ( 260 ft ) deep in 1986 . By 1995 the lake had swollen to a length of 1 @.@ 94 km ( 1 @.@ 21 mi ) , 1 @.@ 13 km ( 0 @.@ 70 mi ) in width and a depth of 107 m ( 351 ft ) . In 1994 a GLOF from Luggye Tsho , a glacial lake adjacent to Raphstreng Tsho , killed 23 people downstream .
Glaciers in the Ak @-@ shirak Range in Kyrgyzstan experienced a slight loss between 1943 and 1977 and an accelerated loss of 20 % of their remaining mass between 1977 and 2001 . In the Tien Shan mountains , which Kyrgyzstan shares with China and Kazakhstan , studies in the northern areas of that mountain range show that the glaciers that help supply water to this arid region , lost nearly 2 km3 ( 0 @.@ 48 cu mi ) of ice per year between 1955 and 2000 . The University of Oxford study also reported that an average of 1 @.@ 28 % of the volume of these glaciers had been lost per year between 1974 and 1990 .
The Pamirs mountain range located primarily in Tajikistan , has approximately eight thousand glaciers , many of which are in a general state of retreat . During the 20th century , the glaciers of Tajikistan lost 20 km3 ( 4 @.@ 8 cu mi ) of ice . The 70 km ( 43 mi ) long Fedchenko Glacier , which is the largest in Tajikistan and the largest non @-@ polar glacier on Earth , retreated 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) between the years 1933 and 2006 , and lost 44 km2 ( 17 sq mi ) of its surface area due to shrinkage between the years 1966 and 2000 . Tajikistan and neighboring countries of the Pamir Range are highly dependent upon glacial runoff to ensure river flow during droughts and the dry seasons experienced every year . The continued demise of glacier ice will result in a short @-@ term increase , followed by a long @-@ term decrease in glacial melt water flowing into rivers and streams .
= = = = Oceania = = = =
In New Zealand , mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890 , with an acceleration since 1920 . Most have measurably thinned and reduced in size , and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation as the 20th century progressed . Between 1971 – 75 Ivory Glacier receded 30 m ( 98 ft ) from the glacial terminus , and about 26 % of its surface area was lost . Since 1980 numerous small glacial lakes formed behind the new terminal moraines of several of these glaciers . Glaciers such as Classen , Godley and Douglas now all have new glacial lakes below their terminal locations due to the glacial retreat over the past 20 years . Satellite imagery indicates that these lakes are continuing to expand . There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers , including the Tasman , Ivory , Classen , Mueller , Maud , Hooker , Grey , Godley , Ramsay , Murchison , Therma , Volta and Douglas Glaciers . The retreat of these glaciers has been marked by expanding proglacial lakes and terminus region thinning . The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976 – 2014 is 34 percent of the total .
Several glaciers , notably the much @-@ visited Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers on New Zealand 's West Coast , have periodically advanced , especially during the 1990s , but the scale of these advances is small when compared to 20th @-@ century retreat . Both are more than 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) shorter than a century ago . These large , rapidly flowing glaciers situated on steep slopes have been very reactive to small mass @-@ balance changes . A few years of conditions favorable to glacier advance , such as more westerly winds and a resulting increase in snowfall , are rapidly echoed in a corresponding advance , followed by equally rapid retreat when those favorable conditions end . The glaciers that have been advancing in a few locations in New Zealand have been doing so due to transient local weather conditions , which have brought more precipitation and cloudier , cooler summers since 2002 .
= = = Western hemisphere = = =
North American glaciers are primarily located along the spine of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada , and the Pacific Coast Ranges extending from northern California to Alaska . While Greenland is geologically associated with North America , it is also a part of the Arctic region . Apart from the few tidewater glaciers such as Taku Glacier , in the advance stage of their tidewater glacier cycle prevalent along the coast of Alaska , virtually all of those in North America are in a state of retreat . This rate has increased rapidly since around 1980 , and overall each decade since has seen greater rates of retreat than the preceding one . There are also small remnant glaciers scattered throughout the Sierra Nevada mountains of California and Nevada .
= = = = Cascade Range = = = =
The Cascade Range of western North America extends from southern British Columbia in Canada to northern California . Excepting Alaska , about half of the glacial area in the U.S. is contained within the over 700 glaciers of the North Cascades , a portion of those located between the Canadian border and I @-@ 90 in central Washington . These contain much water as is found in all the lakes and reservoirs in the rest of the state , and provide much of the stream and river flow in the dry summer months , approximating some 870 @,@ 000 m3 ( 1 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 cu yd ) .
As recently as 1975 many North Cascade glaciers were advancing due to cooler weather and increased precipitation that occurred from 1944 to 1976 . By 1987 the North Cascade glaciers were retreating and the pace had increased each decade since the mid @-@ 1970s . Between 1984 and 2005 the North Cascade glaciers lost an average of more than 12 @.@ 5 metres ( 41 ft ) in thickness and 20 – 40 percent of their volume .
Glaciologists researching the North Cascades found that all 47 monitored glaciers are receding while four glaciers — Spider Glacier , Lewis Glacier , Milk Lake Glacier and David Glacier — have disappeared completely since 1985 . The White Chuck Glacier ( near Glacier Peak ) is a particularly dramatic example . The glacier area shrank from 3 @.@ 1 km2 ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) in 1958 to 0 @.@ 9 km2 ( 0 @.@ 35 sq mi ) by 2002 . Between 1850 and 1950 , the Boulder Glacier on the southeast flank of Mount Baker retreated 8 @,@ 700 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . William Long of the United States Forest Service observed the glacier beginning to advance due to cooler / wetter weather in 1953 . This was followed by a 743 metres ( 2 @,@ 438 ft ) advance by 1979 . The glacier again retreated 450 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) from 1987 to 2005 , leaving barren terrain behind . This retreat has occurred during a period of reduced winter snowfall and higher summer temperatures . In this region of the Cascades , winter snowpack has declined 25 % since 1946 , and summer temperatures have risen 0 @.@ 7 ° C ( 1 @.@ 2 ° F ) during the same period . The reduced snowpack has occurred despite a small increase in winter precipitation — thus , it reflects warmer winter temperatures leading to rainfall and melting on glaciers even during the winter . As of 2005 , 67 % of the North Cascade glaciers observed are in disequilibrium and will not survive the continuation of the present climate . These glaciers will eventually disappear unless temperatures fall and frozen precipitation increases . The remaining glaciers are expected to stabilize , unless the climate continues to warm , but will be much reduced in size .
= = = = U.S. Rocky Mountains = = = =
On the sheltered slopes of the highest peaks of Glacier National Park in Montana , the eponymous glaciers are diminishing rapidly . The area of each glacier has been mapped for decades by the National Park Service and the U.S. Geological Survey . Comparing photographs from the mid @-@ 19th century with contemporary images provides ample evidence that they have retreated notably since 1850 . Repeat photography since clearly show that glaciers such as Grinnell Glacier are all retreating . The larger glaciers are now approximately a third of their former size when first studied in 1850 , and numerous smaller glaciers have disappeared completely . Only 27 % of the 99 km2 ( 38 sq mi ) area of Glacier National Park covered by glaciers in 1850 remained covered by 1993 . Researchers believe that by the year 2030 , the vast majority of glacial ice in Glacier National Park will be gone unless current climate patterns reverse their course . Grinnell Glacier is just one of many glaciers in Glacier National Park that have been well documented by photographs for many decades . The photographs below clearly demonstrate the retreat of this glacier since 1938 .
The semiarid climate of Wyoming still manages to support about a dozen small glaciers within Grand Teton National Park , which all show evidence of retreat over the past 50 years . Schoolroom Glacier is located slightly southwest of Grand Teton is one of the more easily reached glaciers in the park and it is expected to disappear by 2025 . Research between 1950 and 1999 demonstrated that the glaciers in Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest and Shoshone National Forest in the Wind River Range shrank by over a third of their size during that period . Photographs indicate that the glaciers today are only half the size as when first photographed in the late 1890s . Research also indicates that the glacial retreat was proportionately greater in the 1990s than in any other decade over the last 100 years . Gannett Glacier on the northeast slope of Gannett Peak is the largest single glacier in the Rocky Mountains south of Canada . It has reportedly lost over 50 % of its volume since 1920 , with almost half of that loss occurring since 1980 . Glaciologists believe the remaining glaciers in Wyoming will disappear by the middle of the 21st century if the current climate patterns continue .
= = = = Canadian Rockies and Coast and Columbia Mountains = = = =
In the Canadian Rockies , glaciers are generally larger and more widespread than to the south in the Rocky Mountains . One of the more accessible in the Canadian Rockies is the Athabasca Glacier , which is an outlet glacier of the 325 km2 ( 125 sq mi ) Columbia Icefield . The Athabasca Glacier has retreated 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) since the late 19th century . Its rate of retreat has increased since 1980 , following a period of slow retreat from 1950 to 1980 . The Peyto Glacier in Alberta covers an area of about 12 km2 ( 4 @.@ 6 sq mi ) , and retreated rapidly during the first half of the 20th century , stabilized by 1966 , and resumed shrinking in 1976 .
The Illecillewaet Glacier in British Columbia 's Glacier National Park ( Canada ) , part of the Selkirk Mountains ( west of the Rockies ) has retreated 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) since first photographed in 1887 .
In Garibaldi Provincial Park in Southwestern British Columbia over 505 km2 ( 195 sq mi ) , or 26 % , of the park , was covered by glacier ice at the beginning of the 18th century . Ice cover decreased to 297 km2 ( 115 sq mi ) by 1987 – 1988 and to 245 km2 ( 95 sq mi ) by 2005 , 50 % of the 1850 area . The 50 km2 ( 19 sq mi ) loss in the last 20 years coincides with negative mass balance in the region . During this period all nine glaciers examined have retreated significantly .
= = = = Alaska = = = =
There are thousands of glaciers in Alaska but only few have been named . The Columbia Glacier near Valdez in Prince William Sound has retreated 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) in the last 25 years . Its calved icebergs partially caused the Exxon Valdez oil spill , when the tanker changed course to avoid the ice tips . The Valdez Glacier is in the same area , and though it does not calve , has also retreated significantly . " A 2005 aerial survey of Alaskan coastal glaciers identified more than a dozen glaciers , many former tidewater and calving glaciers , including Grand Plateau , Alsek , Bear , and Excelsior Glaciers that are rapidly retreating . Of 2 @,@ 000 glaciers observed , 99 % are retreating . " Icy Bay in Alaska is fed by three large glaciers — Guyot , Yahtse , and Tyndall Glaciers — all of which have experienced a loss in length and thickness and , consequently , a loss in area . Tyndall Glacier became separated from the retreating Guyot Glacier in the 1960s and has retreated 24 km ( 15 mi ) since , averaging more than 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) per year .
The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1946 . On the west side of the ice field , the terminus of the Mendenhall Glacier , which flows into suburban Juneau , Alaska , has retreated 580 m ( 1 @,@ 900 ft ) . Of the nineteen glaciers of the Juneau Icefield , eighteen are retreating , and one , the Taku Glacier , is advancing . Eleven of the glaciers have retreated more than 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) since 1948 — Antler Glacier , 5 @.@ 4 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) ; Gilkey Glacier , 3 @.@ 5 km ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) ; Norris Glacier , 1 @.@ 1 km ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) and Lemon Creek Glacier , 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) . Taku Glacier has been advancing since at least 1890 , when naturalist John Muir observed a large iceberg calving front . By 1948 the adjacent fjord had filled in , and the glacier no longer calved and was able to continue its advance . By 2005 the glacier was only 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from reaching Taku Point and blocking Taku Inlet . The advance of Taku Glacier averaged 17 m ( 56 ft ) per year between 1988 and 2005 . The mass balance was very positive for the 1946 – 88 period fueling the advance ; however , since 1988 the mass balance has been slightly negative , which should in the future slow the advance of this mighty glacier .
Long @-@ term mass balance records from Lemon Creek Glacier in Alaska show slightly declining mass balance with time . The mean annual balance for this glacier was − 0 @.@ 23 m ( 0 @.@ 75 ft ) each year during the period of 1957 to 1976 . Mean annual balance has been increasingly negatively averaging − 1 @.@ 04 m ( 3 @.@ 4 ft ) per year from 1990 to 2005 . Repeat glacier altimetry , or altitude measuring , for 67 Alaska glaciers find rates of thinning have increased by more than a factor of two when comparing the periods from 1950 to 1995 ( 0 @.@ 7 m ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) per year ) and 1995 to 2001 ( 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) per year ) . This is a systemic trend with loss in mass equating to loss in thickness , which leads to increasing retreat — the glaciers are not only retreating , but they are also becoming much thinner . In Denali National Park , all glaciers monitored are retreating , with an average retreat of 20 m ( 66 ft ) per year . The terminus of the Toklat Glacier has been retreating 26 m ( 85 ft ) per year and the Muldrow Glacier has thinned 20 m ( 66 ft ) since 1979 . Well documented in Alaska are surging glaciers that have been known to rapidly advance , even as much as 100 m ( 330 ft ) per day . Variegated , Black Rapids , Muldrow , Susitna and Yanert are examples of surging glaciers in Alaska that have made rapid advances in the past . These glaciers are all retreating overall , punctuated by short periods of advance .
= = = = Andes and Tierra del Fuego = = = =
A large region of population surrounding the central and southern Andes of Argentina and Chile reside in arid areas that are dependent on water supplies from melting glaciers . The water from the glaciers also supplies rivers that have in some cases been dammed for hydroelectric power . Some researchers believe that by 2030 , many of the large ice caps on the highest Andes will be gone if current climate trends continue . In Patagonia on the southern tip of the continent , the large ice caps have retreated a 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) since the early 1990s and 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) since the late 19th century . It has also been observed that Patagonian glaciers are receding at a faster rate than in any other world region . The Northern Patagonian Ice Field lost 93 km2 ( 36 sq mi ) of glacier area during the years between 1945 and 1975 , and 174 km2 ( 67 sq mi ) from 1975 to 1996 , which indicates that the rate of retreat is increasing . This represents a loss of 8 % of the ice field , with all glaciers experiencing significant retreat . The Southern Patagonian Ice Field has exhibited a general trend of retreat on 42 glaciers , while four glaciers were in equilibrium and two advanced during the years between 1944 and 1986 . The largest retreat was on O 'Higgins Glacier , which during the period 1896 – 1995 retreated 14 @.@ 6 km ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) . The Perito Moreno Glacier is 30 km ( 19 mi ) long and is a major outflow glacier of the Patagonian ice sheet , as well as the most visited glacier in Patagonia . Perito Moreno Glacier is in equilibrium , but has undergone frequent oscillations in the period 1947 – 96 , with a net gain of 4 @.@ 1 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) . This glacier has advanced since 1947 , and has been essentially stable since 1992 . Perito Moreno Glacier is one of three glaciers in Patagonia known to have advanced , compared to several hundred others in retreat . The two major glaciers of the Southern Patagonia Icefield to the north of Moreno , Upsala and Viedma Glacier have retreated 4 @.@ 6 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) in 21 years and 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) in 13 years respectively . In the Aconcagua River Basin , glacier retreat has resulted in a 20 % loss in glacier area , declining from 151 km2 ( 58 sq mi ) to 121 km2 ( 47 sq mi ) . The Marinelli Glacier in Tierra del Fuego has been in retreat since at least 1960 through 2008 .
= = Tropical glaciers = =
Tropical glaciers are located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn , in the region that lies 23 ° 26 ′ 22 ″ north or south of the equator . Strictly , a tropical glacier is located within the astronomical tropics ; the area where the annual temperature variation is less than the daily variation , and is within the oscillation area of the Intertropical Convergence Zone .
Tropical glaciers are the most uncommon of all glaciers for a variety of reasons . Firstly , the regions are the warmest part of the planet . Secondly , the seasonal change is minimal with temperatures warm year round , resulting in a lack of a colder winter season in which snow and ice can accumulate . Thirdly , few taller mountains exist in these regions upon which enough cold air exists for the establishment of glaciers . Overall , tropical glaciers are smaller than those found elsewhere and are the most likely glaciers to show rapid response to changing climate patterns . A small temperature increase of only a few degrees can have almost immediate and adverse effect on tropical glaciers .
Near the Equator , ice is still found in East Africa , the Andes of South America and New Guinea . The retreat of equatorial glaciers has been documented via maps and photographs covering the period from the late 1800s to nearly the present . 99 @.@ 64 % of tropical glaciers are in Andean mountains of South America , 0 @.@ 25 % on the African glaciers of Rwenzori , Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro , and 0 @.@ 11 % in the Irian Jaya region in New Guinea .
= = = Africa = = =
Almost the entirety of Africa is located within tropical and subtropical climate zones . Its glaciers are found only in two isolated ranges and the Ruwenzori Range . Kilimanjaro , at 5 @,@ 895 m ( 19 @,@ 341 ft ) , is the highest peak on the continent . Since 1912 the glacier cover on the summit of Kilimanjaro has apparently retreated 75 % , and the volume of glacial ice is now 80 % less than it was a century ago due to both retreat and thinning . In the 14 @-@ year period from 1984 to 1998 , one section of the glacier atop the mountain receded 300 m ( 980 ft ) . A 2002 study determined that if current conditions continue , the glaciers atop Kilimanjaro will disappear sometime between 2015 and 2020 . A March 2005 report indicated that there is almost no remaining glacial ice on the mountain , and it is the first time in 11 @,@ 000 years that barren ground has been exposed on portions of the summit . Researchers reported Kilimanjaro 's glacier retreat was due to a combination of increased sublimation and decreased snow fall .
The Furtwängler Glacier is located near the summit of Kilimanjaro . Between 1976 and 2000 , the area of Furtwängler Glacier was cut almost in half , from 113 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) to 60 @,@ 000 m2 ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . During fieldwork conducted early in 2006 , scientists discovered a large hole near the center of the glacier . This hole , extending through the 6 m ( 20 ft ) remaining thickness of the glacier to the underlying rock , was expected to grow and split the glacier in two by 2007 .
To the north of Kilimanjaro lies Mount Kenya , which at 5 @,@ 199 m ( 17 @,@ 057 ft ) is the second tallest mountain on the continent . Mount Kenya has a number of small glaciers that have lost at least 45 % of their mass since the middle of the 20th century . According to research compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) , there were eighteen glaciers atop Mount Kenya in 1900 , and by 1986 only eleven remained . The total area covered by glaciers was 1 @.@ 6 km2 ( 0 @.@ 62 sq mi ) in 1900 , however by the year 2000 only about 25 % , or 0 @.@ 4 km2 ( 0 @.@ 15 sq mi ) remained . To the west of Mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya , the Ruwenzori Range rises to 5 @,@ 109 m ( 16 @,@ 762 ft ) . Photographic evidence indicates a marked reduction in glacially covered areas over the past century . In the 35 @-@ year period between 1955 and 1990 , glaciers on the Rwenzori Mountains receded about 40 % . It is expected that due to their proximity to the heavy moisture of the Congo region , the glaciers in the Ruwenzori Range may recede at a slower rate than those on Kilimanjaro or in Kenya .
= = = South America = = =
A study by glaciologists of two small glaciers in South America reveals another retreat . More than 80 % of all glacial ice in the northern Andes is concentrated on the highest peaks in small plains of approximately 1 km2 ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ) in size . A 1992 to 1998 observation of the Chacaltaya Glacier in Bolivia and Antizana Glacier in Ecuador indicate that between 0 @.@ 6 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) and 1 @.@ 9 m ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) of ice was lost per year on each glacier . Figures for Chacaltaya show a loss of 67 % of its volume and 40 % of its thickness over the same period . Chacaltaya Glacier has lost 90 % of its mass since 1940 and is expected to disappear altogether sometime between 2010 and 2015 . Antizana is also reported to have lost 40 % of its surface area between 1979 and 2007 . Research also indicates that since the mid @-@ 1980s , the rate of retreat for both of these glaciers has been increasing . In Colombia , the glaciers atop Nevado del Ruiz have lost more than half their area in the last 40 years . Further south in Peru , the Andes are at a higher altitude overall , and there are approximately 722 glaciers covering an area of 723 km2 ( 279 sq mi ) .
Research in the region has been less extensive but indicates an overall recline of 7 % between 1977 and 1983 . The Quelccaya Ice Cap is the largest tropical icecap in the world , and all of the outlet glaciers from the icecap are retreating . In the case of Qori Kalis Glacier , which is one of Quelccayas ' outlet glaciers , the rate of retreat had reached 155 m ( 509 ft ) per year during the three @-@ year period of 1995 to 1998 . The melting ice has formed a large lake at the front of the glacier since 1983 , and bare ground has been exposed for the first time in thousands of years .
= = = Oceania = = =
Jan Carstensz 's 1623 report of glaciers covering the equatorial mountains of New Guinea was originally met with ridicule , but in the early 20th century at least five subranges of the Maoke Mountains ( meaning " Snowy Mountains " ) were indeed still found to be covered with large ice caps . Due to the location of the island within the tropical zone , there is little to no seasonal variation in temperature . The tropical location has a predictably steady level of rain and snowfall , as well as cloud cover year round , and there has been no noticeable change in the amount of moisture which has fallen during the 20th century .
In 1913 , 4 @,@ 550 m ( 14 @,@ 930 ft ) high Prins Hendrik peaks ( now Puncak Yamin ) was named and reported to have " eternal " snow , but this observation was never repeated . The ice cap of 4 @,@ 720 m ( 15 @,@ 490 ft ) Wilhelmina Peaks , which reached below 4 @,@ 400 m ( 14 @,@ 400 ft ) in 1909 , vanished between 1939 and 1963 . The Mandala / Juliana ice cap disappeared in the 1990s. and the Idenburg glacier on Ngga Pilimsit dried up in 2003 . This leaves only the remnants of the once continuous icecap on New Guinea 's highest mountain , Mount Carstensz with the 4 @,@ 884 m ( 16 @,@ 024 ft ) high Puncak Jaya summit , which is estimated to have had an area of 20 km2 ( 7 @.@ 7 sq mi ) in 1850 .
For this mountain there is photographic evidence of massive glacial retreat since the region was first extensively explored by airplane in 1936 in preparation for the peak 's first ascent ( see e.g. [ 1 ] ) . Between then and 2010 , the mountain lost 80 percent of its ice — two @-@ thirds of which since another scientific expedition in the 1970s . That research between 1973 and 1976 showed glacier retreat for the Meren Glacier of 200 m ( 660 ft ) while the Carstensz Glacier lost 50 m ( 160 ft ) . The Northwall Firn , the largest remnant of the icecap that once was atop Puncak Jaya , has itself split into two separate glaciers after 1942 . IKONOS satellite imagery of the New Guinean glaciers indicated that by 2002 only 2 @.@ 1 km2 ( 0 @.@ 81 sq mi ) glacial area remained , that in the two years from 2000 to 2002 , the East Northwall Firn had lost 4 @.@ 5 % , the West Northwall Firn 19 @.@ 4 % and the Carstensz 6 @.@ 8 % of their glacial mass , and that sometime between 1994 and 2000 , the Meren Glacier had disappeared altogether . An expedition to the remaining glaciers on Puncak Jaya in 2010 discovered that the ice on the glaciers there is about 32 metres ( 105 ft ) thick and thinning at a rate of 7 metres ( 23 ft ) annually . At that rate , the remaining glaciers are expected to last only to the year 2015 .
= = Polar regions = =
Despite their proximity and importance to human populations , the mountain and valley glaciers of tropical and mid @-@ latitude glaciers amount to only a small fraction of glacial ice on the Earth . About 99 percent of all freshwater ice is in the great ice sheets of polar and subpolar Antarctica and Greenland . These continuous continental @-@ scale ice sheets , 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) or more in thickness , cap much of the polar and subpolar land masses . Like rivers flowing from an enormous lake , numerous outlet glaciers transport ice from the margins of the ice sheet to the ocean .
= = = Iceland = = =
The northern Atlantic island nation of Iceland is home to Vatnajökull , which is the largest ice cap in Europe . The Breiðamerkurjökull glacier is one of Vatnajökull 's outlet glaciers , and receded by as much as 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) between 1973 and 2004 . In the early 20th century , Breiðamerkurjökull extended to within 250 m ( 820 ft ) of the ocean , but by 2004 its terminus had retreated 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) further inland . This glacier retreat exposed a rapidly expanding lagoon , Jökulsárlón , which is filled with icebergs calved from its front . Jökulsárlón is 110 m ( 360 ft ) deep and nearly doubled its size between 1994 and 2004 . Mass @-@ balance measurements of Iceland 's glaciers show alternating positive and negative mass balance of glaciers during the period 1987 – 95 , but the mass balance has been predominantly negative since . On Hofsjökull ice cap , mass balance has been negative each year from 1995 – 2005 .
Most of the Icelandic glaciers retreated rapidly during the warm decades from 1930 to 1960 , slowing down as the climate cooled during the following decade , and started to advance after 1970 . The rate of advance peaked in the 1980s , after which it slowed down until about 1990 . As a consequence of rapid warming of the climate that has taken place since the mid @-@ 1980s , most glaciers in Iceland began to retreat after 1990 , and by 2000 all monitored non @-@ surge type glaciers in Iceland were retreating . An average of 45 non @-@ surging termini were monitored each year by the Icelandic Glaciological Society from 2000 – 2005 .
= = = Canada = = =
The Canadian Arctic islands contain the largest area and volume of land ice on Earth outside of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets and is home to a number of substantial ice caps , including Penny and Barnes ice caps on Baffin Island , Bylot Ice Cap on Bylot Island , and Devon Ice Cap on Devon Island . Glaciers in the Canadian Arctic were near equilibrium between 1960 and 2000 , losing 23 Gt of ice per year between 1995 and 2000 . Since this time , Canadian Arctic glaciers have experienced a sharp increase in mass loss in response to warmer summer temperature , losing 92 Gt per year between 2007 and 2009 .
Other studies show that between 1960 and 1999 , the Devon Ice Cap lost 67 km3 ( 16 cu mi ) of ice , mainly through thinning . All major outlet glaciers along the eastern Devon Ice Cap margin have retreated from 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) since 1960 . On the Hazen Plateau of Ellesmere Island , the Simmon Ice Cap has lost 47 % of its area since 1959 . If the current climatic conditions continue , the remaining glacial ice on the Hazen Plateau will be gone around 2050 . On August 13 , 2005 , the Ayles Ice Shelf broke free from the north coast of Ellesmere Island . The 66 km2 ( 25 sq mi ) ice shelf drifted into the Arctic Ocean . This followed the splitting of the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf in 2002 . The Ward Hunt has lost 90 % of its area in the last century .
= = = Northern Europe = = =
Arctic islands north of Norway , Finland and Russia have all shown evidence of glacier retreat . In the Svalbard archipelago , the island of Spitsbergen has numerous glaciers . Research indicates that Hansbreen ( Hans Glacier ) on Spitsbergen retreated 1 @.@ 4 km ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) from 1936 to 1982 and another 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) during the 16 @-@ year period from 1982 to 1998 . Blomstrandbreen , a glacier in the King 's Bay area of Spitsbergen , has retreated approximately 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) in the past 80 years . Since 1960 the average retreat of Blomstrandbreen has been about 35 m ( 115 ft ) a year , and this average was enhanced due to an accelerated rate of retreat since 1995 . Similarly , Midre Lovenbreen retreated 200 m ( 660 ft ) between 1977 and 1995 . In the Novaya Zemlya archipelago north of Russia , research indicates that in 1952 there was 208 km ( 129 mi ) of glacier ice along the coast . By 1993 this had been reduced by 8 % to 198 km ( 123 mi ) of glacier coastline .
= = = Greenland = = =
In Greenland , glacier retreat has been observed in outlet glaciers , resulting in an increase of the ice flow rate and destabilization of the mass balance of the ice sheet that is their source . The net loss in volume and hence sea level contribution of the Greenland Ice Sheet ( GIS ) has doubled in recent years from 90 km3 ( 22 cu mi ) to 220 km3 ( 53 cu mi ) per year . Researchers also noted that the acceleration was widespread affecting almost all glaciers south of 70 N by 2005 . The period since 2000 has brought retreat to several very large glaciers that had long been stable . Three glaciers that have been researched — Helheim Glacier , Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier , and Jakobshavn Isbræ — jointly drain more than 16 % of the Greenland Ice Sheet . In the case of Helheim Glacier , researchers used satellite images to determine the movement and retreat of the glacier . Satellite images and aerial photographs from the 1950s and 1970s show that the front of the glacier had remained in the same place for decades . In 2001 the glacier began retreating rapidly , and by 2005 the glacier had retreated a total of 7 @.@ 2 km ( 4 @.@ 5 mi ) , accelerating from 20 m ( 66 ft ) per day to 35 m ( 115 ft ) per day during that period .
Jakobshavn Isbræ in west Greenland , a major outlet glacier of the Greenland Ice Sheet , has been the fastest moving glacier in the world over the past half century . It had been moving continuously at speeds of over 24 m ( 79 ft ) per day with a stable terminus since at least 1950 . In 2002 the 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) long floating terminus of the glacier entered a phase of rapid retreat , with the ice front breaking up and the floating terminus disintegrating and accelerating to a retreat rate of over 30 m ( 98 ft ) per day . On a shorter timescale , portions of the main trunk of Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier that were flowing at 15 m ( 49 ft ) per day from 1988 to 2001 were measured to be flowing at 40 m ( 130 ft ) per day in the summer of 2005 . Not only has Kangerdlugssuaq retreated , it has also thinned by more than 100 m ( 330 ft ) .
The rapid thinning , acceleration and retreat of Helheim , Jakobshavns and Kangerdlugssuaq glaciers in Greenland , all in close association with one another , suggests a common triggering mechanism , such as enhanced surface melting due to regional climate warming or a change in forces at the glacier front . The enhanced melting leading to lubrication of the glacier base has been observed to cause a small seasonal velocity increase and the release of meltwater lakes has also led to only small short term accelerations . The significant accelerations noted on the three largest glaciers began at the calving front and propagated inland and are not seasonal in nature . Thus , the primary source of outlet glacier acceleration widely observed on small and large calving glaciers in Greenland is driven by changes in dynamic forces at the glacier front , not enhanced meltwater lubrication . This was termed the Jakobshavns Effect by Terence Hughes at the University of Maine in 1986 . Indeed , a study published in 2015 on glacial underwater topography at 3 sites found cavities , due to warm subglacial water intrusion , which has been identified as a possible dominant force for ablation ( surface erosion ) . Thus , suggests ocean temperature controls ice sheet surface runoff at specific sites . These findings also show that models underestimate the sensitivity of Greenland glaciers to ocean warming and resulting ice sheet runoff . Hence , without better modelling , new observations suggest that past projections of sea level rise attribution from the Greenland Ice Sheet require upward revision .
= = = Antarctica = = =
Antarctica is intensly cold and arid . Most of the world 's freshwater ice is contained within its sheets . Its most dramatic example of glacier retreat is the loss of large sections of the Larsen Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula . The recent collapse of Wordie Ice Shelf , Prince Gustav Ice Shelf , Mueller Ice Shelf , Jones Ice Shelf , Larsen @-@ A and Larsen @-@ B Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula has raised awareness of how dynamic ice shelf systems are .
The Antarctic sheet is the largest known single mass of ice . It covers almost 14 million km2 and some 30 million km3 of ice . Around 90 % of the fresh water on the planet 's surface is held in this area and if melted would raise sea levels by 58 metres . The continent @-@ wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at > 0 @.@ 05 ° C / decade since 1957 .
The Antarctic sheet is divided by the Transantarctic Mountains into two unequal sections known as the East Antarctic ice sheet ( EAIS ) and the smaller West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . The EAIS rests on a major land mass but the bed of the WAIS is , in places , more than 2 @,@ 500 metres below sea level . It would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . The WAIS is classified as a marine @-@ based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea .
Ice shelves are not stable when surface melting occurs , and the collapse of Larsen Ice Shelf has been caused by warmer melt season temperatures that have led to surface melting and the formation of shallow ponds of water on the ice shelf . The Larsen Ice Shelf lost 2 @,@ 500 km2 ( 970 sq mi ) of its area from 1995 to 2001 . In a 35 @-@ day period beginning on January 31 , 2002 , about 3 @,@ 250 km2 ( 1 @,@ 250 sq mi ) of shelf area disintegrated . The ice shelf is now 40 % the size of its previous minimum stable extent . In 2015 a study concluded that the remaining Larsen B ice @-@ shelf will disintegrate by the end of the decade , based on observations of faster flow and rapid thinning of glaciers in the area . Jones Ice Shelf had an area of 35 km2 ( 14 sq mi ) in the 1970s but by 2008 it had disappeared . Wordie Ice Shelf has gone from an area of 1 @,@ 500 km2 ( 580 sq mi ) in 1950 to 1 @,@ 400 km2 ( 540 sq mi ) in 2000 . Prince Gustav Ice Shelf has gone from an area of 1 @,@ 600 km2 ( 620 sq mi ) to 1 @,@ 100 km2 ( 420 sq mi ) in 2008 . After their loss the reduced buttressing of feeder glaciers has allowed the expected speed @-@ up of inland ice masses after shelf ice break @-@ up . The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica ( an area of roughly 487 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 188 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and about 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) across : about the size of France ) . Wilkins Ice Shelf is another ice shelf that has suffered substantial retreat . The ice shelf had an area of 16 @,@ 000 km2 ( 6 @,@ 200 sq mi ) in 1998 when 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 sq mi ) was lost that year . In 2007 and 2008 significant rifting developed and led to the loss of another 1 @,@ 400 km2 ( 540 sq mi ) of area and some of the calving occurred in the Austral winter . The calving seemed to have resulted from preconditioning such as thinning , possibly due to basal melt , as surface melt was not as evident , leading to a reduction in the strength of the pinning point connections . The thinner ice then experienced spreading rifts and breakup . This period culminated in the collapse of an ice bridge connecting the main ice shelf to Charcot Island leading to the loss of an additional 700 km2 ( 270 sq mi ) between February and June 2009 .
Dakshin Gangotri Glacier , a small outlet glacier of the Antarctic ice sheet , receded at an average rate of 0 @.@ 7 m ( 2 @.@ 3 ft ) per year from 1983 to 2002 . On the Antarctic Peninsula , which is the only section of Antarctica that extends well north of the Antarctic Circle , there are hundreds of retreating glaciers . In one study of 244 glaciers on the peninsula , 212 have retreated an average of 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) from where they were when first measured in 1953 . Pine Island Glacier , an Antarctic outflow glacier that flows into the Amundsen Sea . A study from 1998 concluded that the glacier thinned 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) ± 0 @.@ 9 m ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) per year and retreated a total of 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) in 3 @.@ 8 years . The terminus of the Pine Island Glacier is a floating ice shelf , and the point at which it starts to float retreated 1 @.@ 2 km ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) per year from 1992 to 1996 . This glacier drains a substantial portion of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .
A study published in 2014 found , rapid grounding line retreat in the years 1992 @-@ 2011 . Based on a study from 2005 , the greatest retreat was seen in Sjogren Glacier , which is now 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) further inland than where it was in 1953 . There are 32 glaciers that were measured to have advanced ; however , these glaciers showed only a modest advance averaging 300 m ( 980 ft ) per glacier , which is significantly smaller than the massive retreat observed . Thwaites Glacier , which has also shown evidence of thinning , has been referred to as the weak underbelly of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . A study published in 2014 found rapid grounding line retreat in the years 1992 @-@ 2011 . Totten Glacier , is a large glacier draining a major portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet . A study in 2008 concluded that Totten Glacier is currently losing mass . A study published in 2015 concluded that Totten Glacier , has the largest contribution of ice thinning rate on the East Antarctic continent , and that the thinning is driven by enhanced basal melting , because of ocean processes , and affected by polynya activity . Additionally , warm Circumpolar Deep Water , has been observed during summer and winter months at the nearby continental shelf below 400 to 500 meters of cool Antarctic Surface Water .
= = Effects of glacier retreat = =
The continued retreat of glaciers will have a number of different quantitative effects . In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months , a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff . A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished . This situation is particularly acute for irrigation in South America , where numerous artificial lakes are filled almost exclusively by glacial melt . Central Asian countries have also been historically dependent on the seasonal glacier melt water for irrigation and drinking supplies . In Norway , the Alps , and the Pacific Northwest of North America , glacier runoff is important for hydropower .
Some of this retreat has resulted in efforts to slow down the loss of glaciers in the Alps . To retard melting of the glaciers used by certain Austrian ski resorts , portions of the Stubai and Pitztal Glaciers were partially covered with plastic . In Switzerland plastic sheeting is also used to reduce the melt of glacial ice used as ski slopes . While covering glaciers with plastic sheeting may prove advantageous to ski resorts on a small scale , this practice is not expected to be economically practical on a much larger scale .
Many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on glacier @-@ fed waters to ensure the cold water habitat to which they have adapted . Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce , and this is especially true with salmon and cutthroat trout . Reduced glacial runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive . Alterations to the ocean currents , due to increased freshwater inputs from glacier melt , and the potential alterations to thermohaline circulation of the World Ocean , may affect existing fisheries upon which humans depend as well .
One major concern is the increased risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods ( GLOF ) , which have in the past had great effect on lives and property . Glacier meltwater left behind by the retreating glacier is often held back by moraines that can be unstable and have been known to collapse if breached or displaced by earthquakes , landslides or avalanches . If the terminal moraine is not strong enough to hold the rising water behind it , it can burst , leading to a massive localized flood . The likelihood of such events is rising due to the creation and expansion of glacial lakes resulting from glacier retreat . Past floods have been deadly and have resulted in enormous property damage . Towns and villages in steep , narrow valleys that are downstream from glacial lakes are at the greatest risk . In 1892 a GLOF released some 200 @,@ 000 m3 ( 260 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of water from the lake of the Glacier de Tête Rousse , resulting in the deaths of 200 people in the French town of Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains . GLOFs have been known to occur in every region of the world where glaciers are located . Continued glacier retreat is expected to create and expand glacial lakes , increasing the danger of future GLOFs .
The potential for major sea level rise depends mostly on a significant melting of the polar ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica , as this is where the vast majority of glacial ice is located . If all the ice on the polar ice caps were to melt away , the oceans of the world would rise an estimated 70 m ( 230 ft ) . Although previously it was thought that the polar ice caps were not contributing heavily to sea level rise ( IPCC 2007 ) , recent studies have confirmed that both Antarctica and Greenland are contributing 0 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) a year each to global sea level rise . The fact that the IPCC estimates did not include rapid ice sheet decay into their sea level predictions makes it difficult to ascertain a plausible estimate for sea level rise but recent studies find that the minimum sea level rise will be around 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) by 2100 .
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= Livermorium =
Livermorium is a synthetic superheavy element with symbol Lv and atomic number 116 . It is an extremely radioactive element that has only been created in the laboratory and has not been observed in nature . The element is named after the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the United States , which collaborated with the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna , Russia to discover livermorium in 2000 . The name of the laboratory honors the city of Livermore , California where it is located , which in turn was named after the rancher and landowner Robert Livermore . The name was adopted by IUPAC on May 30 , 2012 . Four isotopes of livermorium are known , with mass numbers between 290 and 293 inclusive ; the longest @-@ lived among them is livermorium @-@ 293 with a half @-@ life of about 60 milliseconds .
In the periodic table , it is a p @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 16 as the heaviest chalcogen , although it has not been confirmed to behave as the heavier homologue to the chalcogen polonium . Livermorium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues ( oxygen , sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and polonium ) , although it should also show several major differences from them .
= = History = =
= = = Unsuccessful synthesis attempts = = =
In late 1998 , Polish physicist Robert Smolańczuk published calculations on the fusion of atomic nuclei towards the synthesis of superheavy atoms , including ununoctium and livermorium . His calculations suggested that it might be possible to make these two elements by fusing lead with krypton under carefully controlled conditions .
In 1999 , researchers at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory made use of these predictions and announced the discovery of livermorium and ununoctium , in a paper published in Physical Review Letters , and very soon after the results were reported in Science . The researchers reported to have performed the reaction
86
36Kr + 208
82Pb → 293
118Uuo + n → 289
116Lv + α
The following year , they published a retraction after researchers at other laboratories were unable to duplicate the results and the Berkeley lab itself was unable to duplicate them as well . In June 2002 , the director of the lab announced that the original claim of the discovery of these two elements had been based on data fabricated by principal author Victor Ninov .
= = = Discovery = = =
Livermorium was first synthesized on July 19 , 2000 , when scientists at Dubna ( JINR ) bombarded a curium @-@ 248 target with accelerated calcium @-@ 48 ions . A single atom was detected , decaying by alpha emission with decay energy 10 @.@ 54 MeV to an isotope of flerovium . The results were published in December 2000 .
248
96Cm + 48
20Ca → 296
116Lv * → 293
116Lv + 3 1
0n → 289
114Fl + α
The daughter flerovium isotope had properties matching those of a flerovium isotope first synthesized in June 1999 , which was originally assigned to 288Fl , implying an assignment of the parent livermorium isotope to 292Lv . Later work in December 2002 indicated that the synthesized flerovium isotope was actually 289Fl , and hence the assignment of the synthesized livermorium atom was correspondingly altered to 293Lv .
= = = Road to confirmation = = =
Two further atoms were reported by the institute during their second experiment during April – May 2001 . In the same experiment they also detected a decay chain which corresponded to the first observed decay of flerovium in December 1998 , which had been assigned to 289Fl . No flerovium isotope with the same properties as the one found in December 1998 has ever been observed again , even in repeats of the same reaction . Later it was found that 289Fl have different decay properties and that the first observed flerovium atom may have been its nuclear isomer 289mFl . The observation of 289mFl in this series of experiments may indicate the formation of a parent isomer of livermorium , namely 293mLv , or a rare and previously unobserved decay branch of the already @-@ discovered state 293Lv to 289mFl . Neither possibility is certain , and research is required to positively assign this activity .
The team repeated the experiment in April – May 2005 and detected 8 atoms of livermorium . The measured decay data confirmed the assignment of the first @-@ discovered isotope as 293Lv . In this run , the team also observed the isotope 292Lv for the first time . In further experiments from 2004 to 2006 , the team replaced the curium @-@ 248 target with the lighter curium isotope curium @-@ 245 . Here evidence was found for the two isotopes 290Lv and 291Lv .
In May 2009 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party reported on the discovery of copernicium and acknowledged the discovery of the isotope 283Cn . This implied the de facto discovery of the livermorium @-@ 291 isotope , from the acknowledgment of the data relating to its granddaughter 283Cn , although the livermorium data was not absolutely critical for the demonstration of copernicium 's discovery . Also in 2009 , confirmation from Berkeley and the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) in Germany came for the flerovium isotopes 286 to 289 , immediate daughters of the four known livermorium isotopes . In 2011 , IUPAC evaluated the Dubna team experiments of 2000 – 2006 . Whereas they found the earliest data ( not involving 291Lv and 283Cn ) inconclusive , the results of 2004 – 2006 were accepted as identification of livermorium , and the element was officially recognized as having been discovered .
In recent years , the synthesis of livermorium has been separately confirmed in two other laboratories .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , livermorium is sometimes called eka @-@ polonium . In 1979 IUPAC recommended that the placeholder systematic element name ununhexium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uuh ) be used until the discovery of the element was confirmed and a name was decided . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who called it " element 116 " , with the symbol of ( 116 ) or even simply 116 .
According to IUPAC recommendations , the discoverer or discoverers of a new element have the right to suggest a name . The discovery of livermorium was recognized by the Joint Working Party ( JWP ) of IUPAC on 1 June 2011 , along with that of flerovium . According to the vice @-@ director of JINR , the Dubna team originally wanted to name element 116 moscovium , after the Moscow Oblast in which Dubna is located . The name livermorium and the symbol Lv were adopted on May 23 , 2012 after an approval process by the IUPAC . The name recognises the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , within the city of Livermore , California , USA , which collaborated with JINR on the discovery . The city in turn is named after the American rancher Robert Livermore , a naturalized Mexican citizen of English birth .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Nuclear stability and isotopes = = =
Livermorium is expected to be near an island of stability centered on copernicium ( element 112 ) and flerovium ( element 114 ) . The reasons for the presence of this island are still not well understood . Due to the expected high fission barriers , any nucleus within this island of stability exclusively decays by alpha decay and perhaps some electron capture and beta decay . While the known isotopes of livermorium do not actually have enough neutrons to be on the island of stability , they can be seen to approach the island as in general , the heavier isotopes are the longer @-@ lived ones .
Superheavy elements are produced by nuclear fusion . These fusion reactions can be divided into " hot " and " cold " fusion , depending on the excitation energy of the compound nucleus produced . In hot fusion reactions , very light , high @-@ energy projectiles are accelerated toward very heavy targets ( actinides ) , giving rise to compound nuclei at high excitation energy ( ~ 40 – 50 MeV ) that may either fission or evaporate several ( 3 to 5 ) neutrons . In cold fusion reactions ( which use heavier projectiles , typically from the fourth period , and lighter targets , usually lead and bismuth ) , the produced fused nuclei have a relatively low excitation energy ( ~ 10 – 20 MeV ) , which decreases the probability that these products will undergo fission reactions . As the fused nuclei cool to the ground state , they require emission of only one or two neutrons . Hot fusion reactions tend to produce more neutron @-@ rich products because the actinides have the highest neutron @-@ to @-@ proton ratios of any elements that can presently be made in macroscopic quantities .
Important information could be gained regarding the properties of superheavy nuclei by the synthesis of more livermorium isotopes , specifically those with a few neutrons more or less than the known ones – 286Lv , 287Lv , 288Lv , 289Lv , 294Lv , and 295Lv . This is possible because there are many reasonably long @-@ lived isotopes of curium that can be used to make a target . The light isotopes can be made by fusing curium @-@ 243 with calcium @-@ 48 . They would undergo a chain of alpha decays , ending at transactinide isotopes that are too light to achieve by hot fusion and too heavy to be produced by cold fusion .
The synthesis of 294Lv and 295Lv could be accomplished by fusing the heavy curium isotope curium @-@ 250 with calcium @-@ 48 . The cross section of this nuclear reaction would be about 1 picobarn . After a few alpha decays , these livermorium isotopes would reach nuclides at the line of beta stability . Additionally , electron capture may also become an important decay mode in this region , allowing affected nuclei to reach the middle of the island . For example , 295Lv would alpha decay to 291Fl , which would undergo successive electron capture to 291Uut and then 291Cn which is expected to be in the middle of the island of stability and have a half @-@ life of about 1200 years , affording the most likely hope of reaching the middle of the island using current technology . A drawback is that the decay properties of superheavy nuclei this close to the line of beta stability are largely unexplored .
Other possibilities to synthesize nuclei on the island of stability include quasifission ( partial fusion followed by fission ) of a massive nucleus . Such nuclei tend to fission , expelling doubly magic or nearly doubly magic fragments such as calcium @-@ 40 , tin @-@ 132 , lead @-@ 208 , or bismuth @-@ 209 . Recently it has been shown that the multi @-@ nucleon transfer reactions in collisions of actinide nuclei ( such as uranium and curium ) might be used to synthesize the neutron @-@ rich superheavy nuclei located at the island of stability , although formation of the lighter elements nobelium or seaborgium is more favored . One last possibility to synthesize isotopes near the island is to use controlled nuclear explosions to create a neutron flux high enough to bypass the gaps of instability at 258 – 260Fm and at mass number 275 ( atomic numbers 104 to 108 ) , mimicking the r @-@ process in which the actinides were first produced in nature and the gap of instability around radon bypassed . Some such isotopes ( especially 291Cn and 293Cn ) may even have been synthesized in nature , but would have decayed away far too quickly ( with half @-@ lives of only thousands of years ) and be produced in far too small quantities ( about 10 − 12 the abundance of lead ) to be detectable as primordial nuclides today outside cosmic rays .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
In the periodic table , livermorium is a member of group 16 , the chalcogens , in the periodic table , below oxygen , sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and polonium . Every previous chalcogen has six electrons in its valence shell , forming a valence electron configuration of ns2np4 . In livermorium 's case , the trend should be continued and the valence electron configuration is predicted to be 7s27p4 ; therefore , livermorium will have some similarities to its lighter congeners . Differences are likely to arise ; a large contributing effect is the spin – orbit ( SO ) interaction — the mutual interaction between the electrons ' motion and spin . It is especially strong for the superheavy elements , because their electrons move much faster than in lighter atoms , at velocities comparable to the speed of light . In relation to livermorium atoms , it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels ( stabilizing the corresponding electrons ) , but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four . The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect , and the effect " tearing " the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called subshell splitting . Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 ⁄ 2 and 3 ⁄ 2 for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively : the 7p1 / 2 subshell acts as a second inert pair , though not as inert as the 7s electrons , while the 7p3 / 2 subshell can easily participate in chemistry . For many theoretical purposes , the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p2
1 / 27p2
3 / 2 .
The inert pair effects in livermorium should be even stronger than for polonium and hence the + 2 oxidation state becomes more stable than the + 4 state , which would be stabilized only by the most electronegative ligands ; this is reflected in the expected ionization energies of livermorium , where there are large gaps between the second and third ionization energies ( corresponding to the breaching of the unreactive 7p1 / 2 shell ) and fourth and fifth ionization energies . Indeed , the 7s electrons are expected to be so inert that the + 6 state will not be possible to attain . The melting and boiling points of livermorium are expected to continue the trends down the chalcogens ; thus livermorium should melt at a higher temperature than polonium , but boil at a lower temperature . It should also be denser than polonium ( Lv : 12 @.@ 9 g / cm3 ; α @-@ Po : 9 @.@ 2 g / cm3 ) . The electron of the hydrogen @-@ like livermorium atom ( oxidized so that it only has one electron , Lv115 + ) is expected to move so fast that it has a mass 1 @.@ 86 times that of a stationary electron , due to relativistic effects . For comparison , the figures for hydrogen @-@ like polonium and tellurium are expected to be 1 @.@ 26 and 1 @.@ 080 respectively .
= = = Chemical = = =
Livermorium is projected to be the fourth member of the 7p series of chemical elements and the heaviest member of group 16 ( VIA ) in the Periodic Table , below polonium . While it is the least theoretically studied of the 7p elements , its chemistry is expected to be quite similar to that of polonium . The group oxidation state of + 6 is known for all the chalcogens apart from oxygen which lacks available d @-@ orbitals for expansion of its octet and is itself one of the strongest oxidizing agents among the chemical elements . Oxygen is thus limited to a maximum + 2 state , exhibited in the fluoride OF2 . The + 4 state is known for sulfur , selenium , tellurium , and polonium , undergoing a shift in stability from reducing for sulfur ( IV ) and selenium ( IV ) through being the most stable state for tellurium ( IV ) to being oxidizing in polonium ( IV ) . This suggests a decreasing stability for the higher oxidation states as the group is descended due to the increasing importance of relativistic effects , especially the inert pair effect . The most stable oxidation state of livermorium should thus be + 2 , with a rather unstable + 4 state . The + 2 state should be about as easy to form as it is for beryllium and magnesium , and the + 4 state should only be achieved with strongly electronegative ligands , such as in livermorium ( IV ) fluoride ( LvF4 ) . The + 6 state should not exist at all due to the very strong stabilization of the 7s electrons , making the valence core of livermorium only four electrons . The lighter chalcogens are also known to form a − 2 state as oxide , sulfide , selenide , telluride , and polonide ; due to the destabilization of livermorium 's 7p3 / 2 subshell , the − 2 state should be very unstable for livermorium , whose chemistry should be essentially cationic , though the larger subshell and spinor energy splittings of livermorium as compared to polonium should stabilize Lv2 − slightly .
Livermorane ( LvH2 ) would be the heaviest chalcogen hydride and the heaviest homolog of water ( the lighter ones being H2S , H2Se , H2Te , and PoH2 ) . Polane ( polonium hydride ) is a more covalent compound than most metal hydrides because polonium straddles the border between metals and metalloids and has some nonmetallic properties : it is intermediate between a hydrogen halide like hydrogen chloride ( HCl ) and a metal hydride like stannane ( SnH4 ) . Livermorane should continue this trend : it should be a hydride rather than a livermoride , but would still be a covalent molecular compound . Spin @-@ orbit interactions are expected to make the Lv – H bond longer than expected simply from periodic trends alone , and make the H – Lv – H bond angle larger than expected : this is theorized to be because the unoccupied 8s orbitals are relatively low in energy and can hybridize with the valence 7p orbitals of livermorium . This is the first molecule to be studied in detail to display this phenomenon , dubbed " supervalent hybridization " , although it was earlier predicted that the same phenomenon would occur with elements 156 – 164 , which would use 7d – 9s – 9p1 / 2 hybridizations despite only the 7d ( and occasionally 9s ) orbitals being partially filled . The heavier livermorium dihalides are predicted to be linear , but the lighter ones are predicted to be bent .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of livermorium has not yet been established . In 2011 , experiments were conducted to create ununtrium , flerovium , and ununpentium isotopes in the reactions between calcium @-@ 48 projectiles and targets of americium @-@ 243 and plutonium @-@ 244 . The targets included lead and bismuth impurities and hence some isotopes of bismuth and polonium were generated in nucleon transfer reactions . This , while an unforeseen complication , could give information that would help in the future chemical investigation of the heavier homologs of bismuth and polonium , which are respectively ununpentium and livermorium . The produced nuclides bismuth @-@ 213 and polonium @-@ 212m were transported as the hydrides 213BiH3 and 212mPoH2 at 850 ° C through a quartz wool filter unit held with tantalum , showing that these hydrides were surprisingly thermally stable , although their heavier congeners UupH3 and LvH2 would be expected to be less thermally stable from simple extrapolation of periodic trends in the p @-@ block . Further calculations on the stability and electronic structure of BiH3 , UupH3 , PoH2 , and LvH2 are needed before chemical investigations take place . Ununpentium and livermorium are expected to be volatile enough as pure elements for them to be chemically investigated in the near future , a property livermorium would then share with its lighter congener polonium . The chief barrier to their chemical investigation at present is the lack of known isotopes of these elements which are long @-@ lived enough .
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= American white ibis =
The American white ibis ( Eudocimus albus ) is a species of bird in the ibis family , Threskiornithidae . It is found from North Carolina via the Gulf Coast of the United States south through most of the coastal New World tropics . This particular ibis is a medium @-@ sized bird with an overall white plumage , bright red @-@ orange down @-@ curved bill and long legs , and black wing tips that are usually only visible in flight . Males are larger and have longer bills than females . The breeding range runs along the Gulf and Atlantic Coast , and the coasts of Mexico and Central America . Outside the breeding period , the range extends further inland in North America and also includes the Caribbean . It is also found along the northwestern South American coastline in Colombia and Venezuela . Populations in central Venezuela overlap and interbreed with the scarlet ibis . The two have been classified by some authorities as a single species .
Their diet consists primarily of small aquatic prey , such as insects and small fishes . Crayfish are its preferred food in most regions , but it can adjust its diet according to the habitat and prey abundance . Its main foraging behavior is probing with its beak at the bottom of shallow water to feel for and capture its prey . It does not see the prey .
During the breeding season , the American white ibis gathers in huge colonies near water . Pairs are predominantly monogamous and both parents care for the young , although males tend to engage in extra @-@ pair copulation with other females to increase their reproductive success . Males have also been found to pirate food from unmated females and juveniles during the breeding season .
Human pollution has affected the behavior of the American white ibis via an increase in the concentrations of methylmercury , which is released into the environment from untreated waste . Exposure to methylmercury alters the hormone levels of American white ibis , affecting their mating and nesting behavior and leading to lower reproduction rates .
= = Taxonomy = =
The American white ibis was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae , where it was given the binomial name of Scolopax albus . The species name is the Latin adjective albus " white " . Alternative common names that have been used include Spanish curlew and white curlew . English naturalist Mark Catesby mistook immature birds for a separate species , which he called the brown curlew . Local creole names in Louisiana include bec croche and petit flaman .
Johann Georg Wagler gave the species its current binomial name in 1832 when he erected the new genus Eudocimus , whose only other species is the scarlet ibis ( E. ruber ) . There has long been debate on whether the two should be considered subspecies or closely related species , and the American Ornithologists ' Union considers the two to be a superspecies as they are parapatric . The lack of observed hybrids was a large factor in the view that the species were separate .
However , in a field study published in 1987 , researchers Cristina Ramo and Benjamin Busto found evidence of interbreeding in a population where the ranges of the scarlet and white ibises overlap along the coast and in the Llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela . They observed individuals of the two species mating and pairing , as well as hybrid ibises with pale orange plumage , or white plumage with occasional orange feathers ; their proposal that these birds be classified as a single species , has been followed by least one field guide . Hybrid ibises have also been recorded in Florida , where the scarlet ibis has been introduced into wild populations of American white ibis . Birds of intermediate to red plumage have persisted for generations .
Ornithologists James Hancock and Jim Kushlan also consider the two to be a single species , with the differences in plumage , size , skin coloration and degree of bill darkening during breeding season forming the diagnostic characters . They have proposed the populations recontacted in northwestern South America after a period of separation , and that the color difference is likely due to the presence of an enzyme that allows uptake of pigment in the diet . They have questioned whether white @-@ plumaged birds of South America are in fact part of the ruber rather than the albus taxon , and acknowledge that more investigation is needed to determine this .
= = Description = =
The white plumage and pink facial skin of adult American white ibises are distinctive . Adults have black wingtips that are usually only visible in flight . In non @-@ breeding condition the long downcurved bill and long legs are bright red @-@ orange . During the first ten days of the breeding season , the skin darkens to a deep pink on the bill and an almost purple @-@ tinted red on the legs . It then fades to a paler pink , and the tip of the bill becomes blackish . It is difficult to determine the sex of an adult American white ibis from its external appearance , since the sexes have similar plumage . However , there is sexual dimorphism in size and proportion as males are significantly larger and heavier than females and have longer and stouter bills . A study of the American white ibis in southern Florida yielded weight ranges of 872 @.@ 9 to 1 @,@ 261 g ( 1 @.@ 924 to 2 @.@ 780 lb ) for males and 592 @.@ 7 to 861 @.@ 3 g ( 1 @.@ 307 to 1 @.@ 899 lb ) for females , with average weights of 1 @,@ 036 @.@ 4 g ( 2 @.@ 285 lb ) for males and 764 @.@ 5 g ( 1 @.@ 685 lb ) for females . The length of adult female and male birds ranges from 53 to 70 cm ( 21 to 28 in ) with a 90 to 105 cm ( 35 to 41 in ) wingspan . Among standard measurements , American white ibis measure 20 @.@ 5 – 31 cm ( 8 @.@ 1 – 12 @.@ 2 in ) along each wing , have a tail measurement of 9 @.@ 3 – 12 @.@ 2 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 8 in ) , a tarsus of 6 @.@ 75 – 11 @.@ 3 cm ( 2 @.@ 66 – 4 @.@ 45 in ) and a culmen of 11 – 16 @.@ 9 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) .
The newly hatched American white ibis is covered with purple down feathers , deepening to dark brown or black on the head and wings . The chest is often bare and there can be a white tuft on the head . The irises are brown . The exposed skin is pinkish initially , apart from the tip of the bill which is dark gray , but turns gray within a few days of hatching . The bill is short and straight at birth and has an egg tooth which falls off between days five and nine , and develops three black rings from around day six , before turning gray by around six weeks of age . The gray to sandy gray brown juvenile plumage appears between weeks two and six , and face and bill become pink a few weeks later , while the legs remain gray . The irises have turned slate @-@ gray by this stage . Once fledged , the juvenile American white ibis has largely brown plumage and only the rump , underwing and underparts are white . The legs become light orange . As it matures , white feathers begin appearing on the back and it undergoes a gradual molt to obtain the white adult plumage . This is mostly complete by the end of the second year , although some brown feathers persist on the head and neck until the end of the third year . Juvenile birds take around two years to reach adult size and weight .
Like other species of ibis , the American white ibis flies with neck and legs outstretched , often in long loose lines or V formations — a 1986 field study in North Carolina noted over 80 % of adult ibis doing so , while juveniles rapidly took up the practice over the course of the summer . The resulting improvement in aerodynamics may lower energy expenditure . These lines fly in an undulating pattern as they alternately flap and glide . Soaring in a circular pattern is also seen . Heights of 500 to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 300 ft ) may be reached as birds glide over flights of 20 km ( 12 mi ) or more . More commonly , birds fly between 60 and 100 m ( 200 and 330 ft ) above the ground , gliding or flapping at a rate of around 3 @.@ 3 wingbeats a second .
The main call of the American white ibis is a honking sound , transcribed as urnk , urnk , or hunk , hunk . The call is used in flight , courtship or when disturbed . Birds also utter a muted huu @-@ huu @-@ huu call while foraging , and make a squealing call in courtship . Young in the nest give a high @-@ pitched zziu as a begging call .
= = = Similar species = = =
Immature American white and scarlet ibises are very difficult to tell apart , although scarlet ibises tend to have darker legs and bare skin around the face . An immature American white ibis could be mistaken for an immature glossy ibis , but the latter is wholly dark brown and lacks the white belly and rump . The adult is distinguishable from the wood stork , which is much larger and its wings have more black on them .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The American white ibis is most common in Florida , where over 30 @,@ 000 have been counted in a single breeding colony . It also occurs throughout the Caribbean , on both coasts of Mexico ( from Baja California southwards ) and Central America , and as far south as Columbia and Venezuela . The non @-@ breeding range extends further inland , reaching north to Virginia , and west to eastern Texas .
The species is known to wander , and has been sighted , sometimes in small flocks , in states far out of its usual range .
In North America , breeding takes place along the Atlantic coast , from the Carolinas south to Florida and thence west along the Gulf Coast . Laguna Cuyutlán is an isolated and regionally important wetland in the state of Colima on México 's west coast where a breeding colony has been recorded . American white ibises are not faithful to the sites where they breed , and large breeding colonies composed of ten thousand birds or more can congregate and disband in one or two breeding seasons . Breeding populations across its range have fluctuated greatly with wholesale movement between states . Until the 1940s , the species only bred in large numbers in Florida , mostly within the Everglades . Drought conditions elsewhere in the United States led to over 400 @,@ 000 American white ibis breeding there in the 1930s . In the 1950s and 1960s , large colonies appeared in Alabama , Louisiana , and then North and South Carolina and the Gulf Coast of Florida , and finally Texas in the 1970s . Then , between the 1970s and early 1990s , breeding colonies declined and disappeared in South Carolina and Florida , and greatly increased in Louisiana , and North Carolina . Colonies last between one and seventeen years , their longevity related to size and quality of nearby wetlands . The longest @-@ lasting are associated with wetlands over 800 km2 ( 310 sq mi ) in size . Degradation of wetland or breeding sites are reasons for abandonment . The population of American white ibises in a colony at Pumpkinseed Island in Georgetown County , South Carolina dropped from 10 @,@ 000 to zero between 1989 and 1990 as Hurricane Hugo had inundated nearby freshwater foraging areas with salt water .
The American white ibis is found in a variety of habitats , although shallow coastal marshes , wetlands and mangrove swamps are preferred . It is also commonly found in muddy pools , on mudflats and even wet lawns . Populations that are away from the coast and shoreline , particularly in southern Florida , often reside in other forms of wetlands such as marshes , ponds and flooded fields . In summer , these move to more coastal and estuarine habitats as inland waterways become flooded with summer rains and the ibis find the water levels too deep to forage effectively .
= = = Fossil record = = =
Remains similar to the American white ibis have been found in Middle Pliocene deposits of the Bone Valley formation in central Florida , and Lower Pliocene deposits of the Yorktown Formation at Lee Creek in North Carolina . Two species , one living and one extinct , have been recovered from the Talara Tar Seeps in northern coastal Peru . Eudocimus peruvianus was described from a tarsometatarsus that differed slightly from E. albus , whose remains were also found there . Remains of neither species are common in the beds . The tar seeps have been dated at 13 @,@ 900 years old . The American white ibis is still found in Peru .
= = Behavior = =
A field study late in the Florida nesting season revealed that on an average day , adult American white ibis spent 10 @.@ 25 hours looking for food , 0 @.@ 75 hours flying , 13 hours resting , roosting , and attending to their nests . Much of the time roosting is spent preening , biting and working their feathers with their long bills , as well as rubbing the oil glands on the sides of their heads on back plumage . American white ibis generally only preen themselves , not engaging in allopreening unless part of courtship behavior . Bathing often takes place before preening ; ibis squat in water 5 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) deep and flick water over themselves with each wing in succession . Hundreds of birds may bathe together around the time of courtship .
The American white ibis is territorial , defending the nesting and display sites against intruders . Agonistic or threat displays include lunging forward with the bill in a horizontal posture , and standing upright and snapping the bill opposite another bird engaging in the same display . Birds also lunge and bite , often holding onto an opponent 's head or wings .
= = = Breeding and lifespan = = =
The American white ibis pairs up in spring and breeds in huge colonies , often with other waterbird species . Nesting begins as soon as suitable foraging and nesting habitat is available . The female selects the site , usually in the branches of a tree or shrub , which is often over water , and builds the nest , and males assist by bringing nest material . Anywhere from one to five eggs are typically laid , with two or three being the most common . The eggs are matt pale blue @-@ green in color with brown splotches and measure 5 @.@ 8 cm × 3 @.@ 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 in × 1 @.@ 5 in ) and weigh on average 50 @.@ 8 g ( 1 @.@ 79 oz ) . Clutch sizes are usually lower in coastal colonies as compared to inland colonies , although there are no statistically significant differences in the fledging rate of both colonies . Throughout the mating and incubation period , the male undergoes a period of starvation to stay close to the nest and aggressively defend his nest and mate from both predators and other ibises in preference to foraging for food . In the 2006 breeding season , a non @-@ breeding adult female was observed to be tending to multiple nests that belonged to other American white ibises — the first time the behavior has been documented for this species .
Although the American white ibis is predominantly monogamous and both sexes provide parental care to their young , the male often flies off to engage in extra pair copulation with other nesting females after mating with its primary female partner . These extra @-@ pair copulations are usually done after the within @-@ pair copulations , and make up about 45 % of all total matings , although only about 15 % of all extra @-@ pair copulations are successful . By not restricting the number of females it copulates with , the male is able to increase its reproductive success considerably . Although females are receptive towards extra @-@ pair copulations , male mate @-@ guarding greatly reduces the rate of successful female involvement in attempted extra @-@ pair copulations by other males .
The breeding success of the American white ibis is sensitive to the hydrological conditions of the ecosystem such as rainfall and water levels . Low and decreasing water levels predict good prey accessibility . Water level reversals , where levels rise in the breeding season , disperse prey and impact on foraging success . Nest numbers and average clutch sizes are smaller in periods of reduced prey availability . The success rate of parents raising one or more young to 20 days of age ranges widely from 5 to 70 % of nests , and varies greatly between nearby colonies . American white ibis parents have been known to supplement their chicks ' diet with items such as cockroaches and rotting food from human garbage in poorer years , when fish and crayfish are more scarce . Studies have also shown that years with higher nesting numbers had significantly faster spring drying rates of water bodies than years with low nesting numbers . This is because faster drying rates means that there are fewer fish and increased available area where crayfish can be hunted . This highlights the fact that American white ibises do not use probability of nesting failure as a key factor in determining nesting sites but instead , rely on other criteria such as prey availability and nest @-@ site predation rates . The draining of wetlands in south Florida has also impacted on species that forage in shallow water such as the American white ibis , and its increase in numbers is a key indicator of restoration of habitat within the Everglades .
The main cause of nest failure among the species is due to nest abandonment , the leading cause of which is inundation from extremely high tides . Parents abandoned 61 % of all nesting starts either during or immediately after extremely high tides . The eggs float out of the flooded nests , or get washed out into the sea by wave action . Incubating parents usually abandon the nest when the water or tidal levels reaches 3 to 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) above the bottom of the nest cup . Nevertheless , there have been instances where the parents have been observed to transport their eggs to another nest in an attempt to salvage some eggs . However , despite the fact that some nesting sites face high chance of tidal damage every breeding season , American white ibises still continue to nest in these areas because of other favorable conditions such as abundant nearby food sources and low egg predation rates .
The eggs hatch after about three weeks and the young are attended by both parents . Males are present around the nest for most of the day , and females most of the night . The parents exchange nest duties in the morning and in the evening . Most of the feeding of the chicks occurs during the period where they swap nesting duties . Little feeding is done in the period of the day that is between the two duty swaps and no feeding is done between midnight and 6 a.m. Chick mortality is highest in the first twenty days post hatching , with anywhere from 37 to 83 % of hatchlings surviving to three weeks of age in the Everglades . During periods of food limitations and starvation events , the American white ibis tends to exhibit sex @-@ dependent pre @-@ fledgling mortality . For many bird species that have sexually dimorphic nestlings , mortality rates are higher for larger @-@ sized male nestlings as a result of the parents ' inability to meet its greater nutritional needs . However , in the case of the American white ibis , the male nestlings actually have a lower mortality rate as compared to the females despite being on average 15 % greater in mass as compared to its female counterparts . Although current research has yet to discover the underlying factors to why the males tend to have better survival rates under such conditions , it is suspected that the parents tend to feed the larger male nestlings first because they are either perceived by the parents to have a higher chance of survival , or , being generally larger , the male nestlings simply out @-@ compete the small females for food .
Bird predators may seize anywhere from 7 % to 75 % of the progeny in a breeding colony . The fish crow ( Corvus ossifragus ) is common raider of American white ibis nests , accounting for up to 44 % of egg loss in a field study at Battery Island , North Carolina . Other predators of eggs and young include the boat @-@ tailed grackle ( Quiscalus major ) , black @-@ crowned night heron ( Nycticorax nycticorax ) , gulls , and possibly vultures , as well as the common opossum ( Didelphis marsupialis ) , raccoon ( Procyon lotor ) , and rat snakes ( Elaphe species ) . Egg predation rates of the American white ibis decline with nest age owing to increased nest attentiveness by the parents , especially during the last week of incubation . High nest densities and reduced synchrony increase egg predation rates because of the increased opportunities afforded by the longer incubation times , as well as the greater availability of nests available for predation .
The American white ibis begins breeding in its third summer , although birds in captivity may breed as young as nine or ten months of age . The oldest member of the species recorded in captivity was over 20 years of age , and a wild bird has been picked up 16 years and 4 months after being banded .
= = = Diet = = =
The American white ibis prefers to eat crayfish and other crustaceans , but also takes aquatic insects and small fish . Outside the nesting season , the diet is highly variable , as abundance and types of prey depend on the both region and habitat . In Los Llanos , located on the border of Columbia and Venezuela , the most frequent prey are insects , such as fly larvae and beetles . Generally in North America the main prey are crustaceans , mostly crayfish . In the Everglades and cypress swamps , the diet is primarily made up of crayfish , while those that feed in willow ponds eat predominantly fish . American white ibises that feed in mangrove swamps focus on crabs . The tactile nature of the ibis 's probing for food in mud means that it catches prey that are too slow to evade the ibis once located by its bill . In the Everglades , this means that crayfish make up a large part of the diet , but a more diverse array of invertebrates are taken in coastal areas . Although crayfish are sought by foraging ibises , prey switching to fish does occur if fish are found in great abundance . It is unclear whether the fish are more easily caught if overcrowded , or whether sheer numbers of fish mean that ibises are catching them instead of crayfish — normally , fish are more agile than crayfish and hence elude the ibis 's bill more easily . Fish are a more energy @-@ rich source of food for the American white ibis . In the breeding season , American white ibises in a colony at Pumpkinseed Island travelled further to forage in freshwater wetlands and catch crayfish , than nearby saltwater areas where fiddler crabs predominated , indicating their benefit was worth the extra energy expended in fetching them for their young . This travel results in the wholesale transport of nutrients across the landscape by the colony ; in a successful breeding year the colony at Pumpkinseed Island was estimated to have contributed a third as much phosphorus to the neighboring estuary as other environmental processes .
The American white ibis is found in mixed @-@ species foraging flocks with the glossy ibis ( Plegadis falcinellus ) in flooded fields , and the two species select different food items with little overlap ; the former foraging for crabs and aquatic insects and the latter feeding mainly on grain . The wood stork is also found in the same habitat in Florida , but hunts larger prey and a higher percentage of fish , so there is little overlap . In the Llanos , where American white ibis coexist with the scarlet ibis , their diets differ , the former consuming more bugs , fish and crustaceans , while the latter eat a much higher proportion of beetles . The willet ( Tringa semipalmata ) has been observed trailing American white ibis and catching prey disturbed by them , and even kleptoparasitizing ( stealing ) from them , in J. N. " Ding " Darling National Wildlife Refuge on Sanibel Island in Florida . An isolated event of intraspecific predation in juvenile American white ibis has been observed , where a juvenile attacked and consumed a chick from another nest .
= = = Foraging = = =
During the summer , the American white ibis roams along the coast of tidal flats and mangrove swamps as the inland marshes are usually flooded . However , as the water level recedes in the fall , populations at the coast shift their foraging area inland , to inland marshes and swamplands . It has become more common in urban landscapes in Florida since the late 1990s , and is one of a number of wetland @-@ dependent bird species which forages in man @-@ made ponds on golf courses in the southwest of the state .
The American white ibis is a tactile , nonvisual forager , which limits its ability to choose from a wide variety of prey . For the most part , the American white ibis forages for food by tactile probing . It wades slowly through shallow water and sticks its long , downcurved bill into the substrate of the water body with its bill held at around 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) agape at the tip , and sweeps its long bill back and forth across the bottom to pick out suitable food items . Birds may also probe when standing still . Groping with a wide open bill is a technique used by ibis in deeper water when alone , as is head swinging , in which the ibis swings its wide open bill widely in open water . Others copy this type of foraging if they see one ibis doing it . On land , the American white ibis locates prey by sight and pecks , and does not have to insert its bill into the substrate . The American white ibis seeks small prey when other birds are around , as it needs time to break up larger food items into smaller pieces to eat , and other predators such as herons and egrets often take the opportunity to rob the ibis of its catch . Along with the scarlet ibis , the species coexists with another five species of ibis in the Llanos in Venezuela . American white ibis males are aggressive to and take prey items from smaller ibises , but the smaller females are more often the victims of this behavior .
Juveniles have lower foraging efficiency compared to adults and in most feeding flocks , the juveniles are usually outnumbered by the adults . They usually tend to stay close to one another and forage for food together at the peripheral region of the group . During the breeding season , adult male ibises have been recorded raiding other parent ibises who are feeding their young in the colony . The raiders force their bill down the throat of the victim — either the parent about to disgorge their food or recently fed young — and extract the ball of food . This behavior allows the otherwise starving adult males to obtain food without having to spend long periods of time away from the nest , and prevent its female mate copulating with another male ibis , which would reduce its own reproductive success . Females and juveniles almost never try to drive off the larger and more aggressive pirating males , but instead try to avoid or move away from them . This pirating behavior is less common between two male ibises as the males will actively fight off the pirate . The explanation of the species ' sexual dimorphism of body size is unclear , because no differences between the sexes in feeding success rates or the foraging behavior have been observed and , as males are larger , they need more food than females .
= = Parasites and mortality = =
Causes of death of adult ibis are not well known . Alligators could feasibly prey on nesting ibises but there has been little research in the area . A flock of fifty adult American white ibis were killed in a fire in the Everglades . The corpses were found in a dense swathe of cattail ( Typha angustifolia ) , which suggested they had taken shelter there . It is unclear why they had not been able to fly away from the fire , but one hypothesis was that they had been foraging for insects disturbed by the fire .
A total of 51 species of parasitic worm have been recovered from the American white ibis , predominantly from the gastrointestinal system and particularly the small intestine . These include Cestoda ( tapeworms ) , Acanthocephala ( thorny headed worms ) , Nematoda ( roundworms ) , Digenea and Spirurida . Several roundworm and spirurid species have been found in the lining of the gizzard . Nematodes are more prevalent in American white ibis from freshwater habitats , and cestodes more frequent in those from saltwater areas . One nematode found in adult birds , Skrjabinoclavia thapari , is borne in the fiddler crab as an intermediate host , while the thorny headed worm species Southwellina dimorpha is carried in crayfish and infests both adult and juvenile ibis .
Parasitic protozoa of the genus Sarcocystis have been recovered from the smooth muscles of adult American white ibis , and another species , Haemoproteus plataleae , has been recovered from the blood of adults and nestlings , and can hence be transmitted before the young leave the nest . The larvae of two species of mite of the family Hypoderidae , Phalacrodectes whartoni and Neoattialges eudocimae , have been recovered from under the skin . Two species of the louse suborder Mallophaga , Plegadiphilus eudocimus and Ardeicola robusta , also parasitise the bird .
= = Status = =
The American white ibis is classed as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List . The population consists of 150 @,@ 000 mature adults , and is stable , although some populations have unknown trends . A partial survey of under 50 % of the North American population published in 2007 found an almost six @-@ fold increase in the last four decades . The estimated breeding range is huge , at 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 km2 ( 460 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Fluctuating breeding populations and high mobility of colonies make estimating the population difficult . Attempted censuses of breeding colonies across Texas , Louisiana , Florida , and the Carolinas yielded a count of 166 @,@ 000 breeding birds in 2001 , and 209 @,@ 000 in 2004 . The conservation status has been listed in two states — it is a Species of Special Concern in Florida , and a species of Moderate Conservation Concern in Alabama . The preservation of colony sites and freshwater foraging areas is important to maintaining populations ; however , the highly mobile nature of breeding colonies makes this challenging .
= = = Human impact = = =
John James Audubon reported that the American white ibis was hunted and sold in Louisiana , and mainly eaten by American Indians . It had orange flesh and a strong fishy taste . Elsewhere , the flesh has been described as appealing on account of the crayfish diet , and both members of the genus Eudocimus have been hunted , which has been responsible for decline , across their range . Crawfish farmers in Louisiana have also shot them for foraging in crawfish ponds . Overall , the impact of hunting is not thought to be major .
The pollutant methylmercury is a globally distributed neurotoxin and an endocrine system disruptor . In the Everglades ecosystem , human pollution has led to increased concentrations of methylmercury , which have impacted the behaviors of the American white ibis . Hormone levels in males are affected , leading to a decrease in the rates of key courtship behavior , and fewer approaches by females during the mating season . In addition , methylmercury also increased male @-@ male pairing behaviors by 55 % . Both the chemically induced " homosexual " behavior and the diminished ability to attract females by males have reduced reproduction rates in affected populations . Exposure of American white ibises to methylmercury causes reduced foraging efficiency and it also makes them more likely to abandon nests owing to the disruptive effect of the pollutant on the bird 's hormone systems , which in turn affects parental care behavior . Tests on captive birds have not shown a decreased survival of American white ibis exposed to methylmercury .
= = In culture = =
Native American folklore held that the bird was the last to seek shelter before a hurricane , and the first to emerge afterwards . The bird was thus a symbol for danger and optimism .
The University of Miami adopted the American white ibis as its official athletics mascot in 1926 , and the yearbook was known as The Ibis from that year . The mascot was initially known as Ibis before adopting the name Sebastian in 1957 . It was named after San Sebastian Hall , a residence hall on campus , which sponsored an Ibis entry in the college 's homecoming celebration .
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= H @-@ 13 ( Michigan county highway ) =
H @-@ 13 is a county @-@ designated highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan that runs north – south for approximately 36 @.@ 2 miles ( 58 @.@ 3 km ) between Nahma Junction in Delta County and the Munising area in Alger County . The highway is also signed as Federal Forest Highway 13 ( FFH @-@ 13 ) , a Federal Forest Highway between Nahma Junction and Wetmore . The roadway runs through rural national forest lands providing access to several campgrounds and parks . The area contains several lakes as well . The Forest Highway System dates back to the 1920s , and an earthen roadway was present along the route of FFH @-@ 13 by the 1930s . It was paved by the late 1940s and added to the county @-@ designated highway system in the 1970s . A section of H @-@ 13 in Alger County originally continued north to Miners Castle , but the roadway designation was truncated in the first decade of the 21st century .
= = Route description = =
H @-@ 13 / FFH @-@ 13 starts at an intersection with US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) west of Moss Lake . The roadway runs north crossing a line of the Canadian National Railway . It heads through the Hiawatha National Forest , running parallel to the Sturgeon River . H @-@ 13 / FFH @-@ 13 crosses the river near the Flowing Well National Forest Campground on a T @-@ beam bridge built in 1941 . The road meanders from there northeasterly through rural Delta County forests , passing to the west of Dana and Skeels lakes and crossing several small streams . It crosses into the southeastern corner of Alger County near Straits Lake . The road continues northeasterly and then meanders back and forth along the Alger – Schoolcraft county line in an area dotted with several lakes .
H @-@ 13 / FFH @-@ 13 crosses east into Schoolcraft County completely and provides access to the Pete 's Lake National Forest Campground near the lake of the same name . The road shifts back westerly to follow the county line near the Widewaters National Forest Campground ; from here north the forest highway will follow the county line north to the northwestern corner of Schoolcraft County . Along the way , H @-@ 13 meets the southern terminus of the unsigned H @-@ 09 . Once the road crosses back into Alger County completely , it provides access to Wagner Falls State Park and passes Hanley Field , a private airport south of Wetmore . The forest highway crosses another branch of the Canadian National Railway south of the junction with M @-@ 28 / M @-@ 94 in Wetmore . At that junction , the FFH @-@ 13 designation ends and H @-@ 13 continues north as a gravel surface along Connors Road through Munising Township . The county road ends at the intersection with H @-@ 58 ( Munising – Van Meer – Shingleton Road ) in the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore . As a county @-@ designated highway , H @-@ 13 is maintained by the county road commissions of Delta , Alger and Schoolcraft counties ( DCRC , ACRC and SCRC respectively ) with support for the FFH @-@ 13 segment as part of the Forest Highway System that is funded and administered by the United States Forest Service and the Federal Highway Administration . H @-@ 13 / FFH @-@ 13 forms a major north – south artery for the Hiawatha National Forest .
= = History = =
The Forest Highway System was created by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 . An earthen road was present along the route of H @-@ 13 by the middle of 1936 . Later that year , the segment along the Alger – Schoolcraft county line was built as a gravel road , and Miners Castle Road was upgraded to gravel as well . Additional segments were under construction in 1940 in Delta County and south of Wetmore . During World War II , the gravel surface was downgraded to earth along Miners Castle Road . The rest of the modern H @-@ 13 was paved in 1948 or 1949 .
The county @-@ designated highway system was created around October 5 , 1970 , when the state approved the system . The H @-@ 13 designation debuted in 1972 between Nahma Junction and H @-@ 58 ; H @-@ 13 turned east and ran concurrently with H @-@ 58 before turning north on Miners Castle Road . The northernmost segment was paved in 1987 , completing the paving along the entire route . The H @-@ 58 concurrency was removed in 2004 when the northern segment of H @-@ 13 along Miners Castle Road was redesignated H @-@ 11 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Double Seven Day scuffle =
The Double Seven Day scuffle was a physical altercation on July 7 ( 7 / 7 ) , 1963 , in Saigon , South Vietnam . The secret police of Ngô Đình Nhu — the brother of President Ngô Đình Diệm — attacked a group of journalists from the United States who were covering protests held by Buddhists on the ninth anniversary of Diệm 's rise to power . Peter Arnett of the Associated Press ( AP ) was punched on the nose , and the quarrel quickly ended after David Halberstam of The New York Times , being much taller than Nhu 's men , counterattacked and caused the secret police to retreat . Arnett and his colleague , the Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning journalist and photographer Malcolm Browne , were later accosted by police at their office and taken away for questioning on suspicion of attacking police officers .
After their release , the journalists went to the US embassy in Saigon to complain about their treatment at the hands of Diệm 's officials and asked for US government protection . Their appeals were dismissed , as was a direct appeal to the White House . Through the efforts of US Ambassador Frederick Nolting , the assault charges laid against the journalists were subsequently dropped . Vietnamese Buddhists reacted to the incident by contending that Diệm 's men were planning to assassinate monks , while Madame Nhu repeated earlier claims that the US government had been trying to overthrow her brother @-@ in @-@ law .
Browne took photographs of Arnett 's bloodied face , which were published in newspapers worldwide . This drew further negative attention to the behaviour of the Diệm régime amidst the backdrop of the Buddhist crisis .
= = Background = =
The incident occurred during a period of popular unrest by the Buddhist majority against the Roman Catholic rule of Diệm . Buddhist discontent had grown since the Huế Phật Đản shootings on May 8 , 1963 . The government decided to selectively invoke a law , prohibiting the display of religious flags , by banning the use of the Buddhist flag on Vesak , the birthday of Gautama Buddha . One week earlier , the Vatican flag had been flown at a celebration for Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục , Diệm 's brother . The Buddhists defied the ban , flying their flags on Vesak and holding a demonstration , which was ended with government gunfire and eight deaths . The killings sparked nationwide protests by South Vietnam 's Buddhist majority against the policies of Diệm 's regime . The Buddhists demanded that Diệm give them religious equality , but with their demands unfulfilled , the protests increased in magnitude . The most notable of these was the self @-@ immolation of Thích Quảng Đức on June 11 , which was iconically photographed by the media and became a negative symbol of the Diệm régime .
Known as Double Seven Day , July 7 was the ninth anniversary of Diệm 's 1954 ascension to Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam . In October 1955 , following a fraudulent referendum , Diệm established the Republic of Vietnam , generally known as South Vietnam , and declared himself President . The night of July 6 , 1963 , had started in a festive mood as Diệm awarded decorations to military officers at a ceremony . Among those in the audience were Generals Trần Văn Đôn and Dương Văn Minh , the Chief of Staff of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and the Presidential Military Advisor , respectively . They had returned from observing SEATO military exercises in Thailand , where they had been informed about the regional disquiet over Diem 's policies towards the Buddhists .
= = Incident = =
American pressmen had been alerted to an upcoming Buddhist demonstration to coincide with Double Seven Day at Chanatareansey Pagoda in the north of Saigon . The group , which included Arnett , Browne , David Halberstam , Neil Sheehan of United Press International , and CBS 's Peter Kalischer waited outside the building with their equipment . After an hour @-@ long religious ceremony , the Buddhists filed out of the pagoda into a narrow alley along a side street , where they were blocked and ordered to stop by plain @-@ clothed policemen . The Buddhists did not resist , but Arnett and Browne began taking photos of the confrontation . The police , who were loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu , thereupon punched Arnett in the nose , knocked him to the ground , kicked him with their pointed @-@ toe shoes , and broke his camera . Halberstam , who won a Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of the Buddhist crisis , was a tall man , standing around 20 centimetres ( 8 in ) taller than the average Vietnamese policeman . He waded into the fracas swinging his arms , reportedly saying " Get back , get back , you sons of bitches , or I 'll beat the shit out of you ! " Nhu 's men ran away without waiting for a Vietnamese translation , but not before Browne had clambered up a power pole and taken photos of Arnett 's bloodied face . The police smashed Browne 's camera , but his photographic film survived the impact . The other journalists were jostled and rocks were thrown at them . Photos of Arnett 's bloodied face were circulated in US newspapers and caused further ill @-@ feeling towards Diệm 's regime , with the images of the burning Thích Quảng Đức on the front pages still fresh in the minds of the public .
Diệm 's address on Double Seven Day worsened the mood of Vietnamese society . He stated that the " problems raised by the General Association of Buddhists have just been settled . " He reinforced perceptions that he was out of touch by attributing any lingering problems to the " underground intervention of international red agents and Communist fellow travelers who in collusion with fascist ideologues disguised as democrats were surreptitiously seeking to revive and rekindle disunity at home while arousing public opinions against us abroad " . The remark about fascists was seen as a reference to the conspiratorial Đại Việt Quốc dân đảng who had long been enemies of Diem , but his address attacked all those who had criticised him in the past . He no longer trusted anyone outside his family and considered himself to be a martyr .
= = Reaction = =
The indignant reporters stridently accused the Diệm regime of causing the altercation , whereas the police claimed that the journalists threw the first punch . Embassy official John Mecklin noted that even Diem 's media officials were privately skeptical about the veracity of the testimony of Nhu 's men . In a heated meeting at the embassy , the press corps demanded that William Trueheart , the acting US Ambassador to South Vietnam in the absence of the vacationing Frederick Nolting , deliver a formal protest to Diệm on behalf of the American government . Trueheart angered them by refusing to do so and blaming both sides for the confrontation . In his report to Washington , Trueheart asserted that the uniformed policemen had tacitly helped their plainclothed counterparts , but he also had " no doubt that [ the ] reporters , at least once [ the ] fracas had started , acted in [ a ] belligerent manner towards [ the ] police " . Trueheart contended that since the journalists had a long history of bad blood with the Diem regime , their word could not be taken over that of the Vietnamese police .
Since the embassy was unwilling to provide government protection against police aggression , the journalists appealed directly to the White House . Browne , Halberstam , Sheehan and Kalischer wrote a letter to US President John F. Kennedy , asserting that the regime had begun a full @-@ scale campaign of " open physical intimidation to prevent the covering of news which we feel Americans have a right to know " . The protests did not garner any Presidential sympathy for the journalists , but instead resulted in trouble from their media employers . UPI 's Tokyo office criticised Sheehan for trying to " make Unipress policy " on his own when " Unipress must be neutral , neither pro @-@ Diem , pro @-@ Communist or pro @-@ anybody else " . Emanuel Freedman , the foreign editor of The New York Times reprimanded Halberstam , writing : " We still feel that our correspondents should not be firing off cables to the President of the United States without authorization . "
The incident provoked reactions from both the Buddhists and the Diệm regime . A monk called on the US embassy to send a military unit from the American advisors already present in Vietnam to Xá Lợi Pagoda , the main Buddhist temple in Saigon and the organisational hub of the Buddhist movement . The monk claimed that the attack on Arnett indicated that Xá Lợi 's monks were targets of assassination by Nhu 's men , something that Trueheart rejected , turning down the protection request . Xá Lợi and other Buddhist centers across the country were raided a month later by Special Forces under the direct control of the Ngo family . On the part of the South Vietnamese government , the de facto first lady Madame Nhu used her English @-@ language mouthpiece newspaper , the Times of Vietnam , to accuse the United States of supporting the failed coup attempt against Diem in 1960 .
= = Arrest and interrogation = =
Later on during the day of the altercation , the police collected Browne and Arnett from the AP bureau in Saigon and took the pair to what they described as a " safe house " . The police interrogators said that they would be arrested but were unspecific about the charges . One charge was that of assaulting two police officers , but the interrogators hinted that more serious offences such as organising illegal demonstrations were being considered . The officers conversed among themselves in French , a language which the reporters did not speak , but Arnett thought that they mentioned the word espionage . After four hours of questioning , the pair were charged with assault . Browne and Arnett in turn filed charges against the police over the altercation , and demanded compensation for the damage to their photographic equipment . Arnett and Browne were temporarily released in the evening , after which the whole Saigon press corps stormed the US embassy .
Browne and Arnett were called in for five hours of questioning on the following day . Arnett was accompanied by a British embassy official who , reflecting Arnett 's New Zealand citizenship , provided consular assistance on behalf of Wellington . In the end , Diem agreed to have the charges against Browne and Arnett dropped after hours of heated argument with US Ambassador Frederick Nolting , who had returned from his vacation .
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= Freedom Planet =
Freedom Planet is a two @-@ dimensional platform video game created by independent developer GalaxyTrail , a studio set up for the project by designer Stephen DiDuro . The player controls one of three anthropomorphic animal protagonists : the dragon Lilac , the wildcat Carol , or the basset hound Milla . Aided by the duck @-@ like Torque , the player attempts to defeat the evil Lord Brevon , who plans to conquer the galaxy . While the game focuses on fast @-@ paced platforming , its levels are interspersed with slower action scenes .
Freedom Planet began development as a Sonic the Hedgehog fangame , but DiDuro lost interest in creating a derivative work and reconceived the project as his own intellectual property . He visited the website DeviantArt to recruit artist Ziyo Ling , who replaced the existing cast of characters with her own . Lilac , originally a hedgehog , became a dragon ; antagonist Doctor Eggman was replaced by Brevon ; and the Sonic series ' ring @-@ based health system was abandoned . Further changes were suggested by fans and incorporated throughout development . Freedom Planet was developed in Denmark and the United States and its art direction has East Asian influences : its background visuals were inspired by medieval Chinese art , and the game 's title is written in katakana .
The game was released for Microsoft Windows , first as a demo in August 2012 , then — after a successful Kickstarter campaign and a few delays — as a full game via Steam on July 21 , 2014 . A version for the Wii U console was announced in March 2015 , but was postponed that August due to a troublesome glitch ; however , the game was finally released successfully on October 1 , 2015 . Freedom Planet has been widely compared to the Sega Genesis Sonic games . Critics praised its gameplay , aesthetics , and balance of Sonic elements with original content , but were more mixed on its pacing and length .
= = Gameplay = =
Freedom Planet is a 2D platform and action game featuring anthropomorphized animal characters and 16 @-@ bit style graphics mimicking the look of games released for the Sega Genesis , particularly the Sonic the Hedgehog series . The game puts players in the role of one of the available playable characters as they traverse each level , fighting through enemies and obstacles before facing a boss at the end . Players have a health meter , which can be replenished by collecting red leaves , and a regenerative energy meter used to perform each character 's unique special moves . Players can earn extra lives by collecting enough blue crystals found throughout the level , or by rescuing creatures trapped in cages . Players can also obtain various types of shields , some of which often bonus attributes such as invulnerabilty to fire or the ability to breathe underwater , and invincibility power @-@ ups . Also hidden through the levels are cards , which unlock bonus content such as music and concept art , and bonus tokens which allows access to a bonus game at the end of the level .
The game currently has three playable characters ; Lilac the dragon , Carol the wildcat , and Milla the dog . In addition to melee attacks that can be used to attack enemies , each character has a unique array of moves which allow them to traverse the environment in different ways . Lilac can perform a double @-@ jump attack and can launch herself into an air dash , allowing her to bounce off walls and reach high areas . Carol is able to curl into a spin @-@ attack while running and can climb up walls . By picking up gas canisters , Carol can bring out her motorcycle , which can double @-@ jump and ride up vertical walls . Milla can throw gelatinous cubes and put up an offensive shield , combining the two to perform a Shield Blast , and flap her ears to reach high areas . Players can play through the main game in one of two ways ; Adventure , which tells the game 's story through the perspective of a chosen character , and Classic , in which the levels are played in order without any story cutscenes . They can also select Time Attack to try and play through completed levels in the quickest time possible . At launch , only Lilac and Carol are playable in Adventure mode , but additional playable characters and Adventure campaigns will be released through downloadable content . These include Torque , who can fire a blaster in multiple directions , and Spade , who attacks using playing cards .
= = Plot = =
The game begins as Sash Lilac and Carol Tea — an anthropomorphic dragon and wildcat , respectively — rescue a duck @-@ billed creature named Torque after his spacecraft crash lands . At Torque 's request , the three set out to protect a powerful relic called the Kingdom Stone . This involves them in a conflict between three nations on their planet : Shuigang , a country militarized by its new king , Dail ; Shang Mu , led by the wealth @-@ obsessed Mayor Zao ( / ˈzaʊ / or / ˈʒaʊ / ) ; and Shang Tu , whose Royal Magister is unprepared for war . Lilac and Carol rush to the Kingdom Stone 's shrine but are waylaid by the Shang Tu officers General Gong and Neera Li , who doubt that the Stone is threatened . The protagonists arrive just as the Stone is stolen by Spade , a henchman of Zao . After the shrine collapses , Carol is separated from Lilac and pinned by rubble , but she is saved by the timid basset hound Milla ( / ˈmiːlə / ) Basset .
That night , Torque tells Lilac , Carol , and Milla that he is an alien sent to apprehend the intergalactic warlord Arktivus Brevon , whose spacecraft wrecked on the planet . Brevon has invaded Shuigang , murdered its king , and brainwashed Dail to be his servant . He intends to steal the Stone to power his ship . The protagonists decide to reclaim the Stone from Zao , but they are accosted en route by Spade and by Brevon 's assistant Serpentine . The delays give Dail and Brevon 's forces time to steal the relic . Afterwards , Zao sends the protagonists as emissaries to Shang Tu to discuss an alliance against Shuigang . They are detained by the Magister upon their arrival , as Neera blames them for the Stone 's original disappearance . Torque is acquitted when Lilac falsely pleads guilty . She , Carol , and Milla quickly break out of jail to reunite with Torque , only to see him captured by Brevon and Serpentine .
Carol quarrels with Lilac and storms off . Feeling guilty , Lilac sends Milla to find her and then goes by herself to save Torque from Brevon 's nearby base , but she is captured and tortured by Brevon . Meanwhile , Carol and Milla ally with Spade to storm the base , where they rescue Torque and Lilac . However , they are all separated in the ensuing conflict . Neera finds Lilac , arrests her , and brings her back to Shang Tu , where the Magister determines that she is innocent and reveals that Zao is challenging Shuigang for the Stone . Lilac rejoins her friends and convinces Shang Mu and Shang Tu to unite against Dail and Brevon 's army . During the battle , Brevon announces that his ship is repaired , and Lilac , Milla , and Carol board it . The team combats Brevon 's minions , including a mutated Serpentine . Brevon captures Milla and turns her into a grotesque monster that attacks the other protagonists , who are forced to render her unconscious . Enraged , Lilac and Carol attack and defeat Brevon , but the Kingdom Stone is destroyed in the process . Shortly after the battle , Milla awakens in a medical tent and sees the sky lit up by swirling , crystalline energy released from the Kingdom Stone . The three kingdoms resolve to harness the Stone 's power and share it equally , thereby bringing an end to the war . Torque says goodbye to Lilac , Carol , and Milla and returns to space .
= = Development and release = =
Freedom Planet was conceived by American game designer and programmer Stephen DiDuro , who founded the independent developer GalaxyTrail to create the project . The soundtrack was composed by DiDuro in collaboration with user Shane " Blue Warrior " Ellis of VGMusic.com and user Leila " Woofle " Wilson from Fur Affinity . Although it is an original intellectual property , Freedom Planet was first developed as a Sonic fangame : it contained rings , and Doctor Eggman was the villain . DiDuro decided that the Sonic affiliation would hold back the game and attempted without success to design his own characters . Afterward , he received permission from the Chinese artist Ziyo Ling — whom he had found on the art website DeviantArt — to use her characters Lilac , Carol , and Milla in his game .
Viewers of early footage from the developing product encouraged DiDuro to separate it further from Sonic , so he replaced rings with red leaves and altered the characters ' abilities . Ziyo had drawn Lilac as a hedgehog , but DiDuro redesigned the character to be a dragon . Lilac 's wall @-@ jump ability was based on a similar game mechanic from Ristar . Originally , her level of energy was to be dependent on her speed , but this proved too difficult to control .
While Freedom Planet was developed in Denmark and the United States , its art direction was influenced by medieval East Asian art , particularly that of China . The game 's visuals reference modern science fiction and fantasy as well . Much of the text in the game world is written in Chinese characters , and the title text is subtitled in Japanese katakana as Furīdamu Puranetto ( フリーダム ・ プラネット ) . However , no Japanese @-@ language version of the game has been released .
Freedom Planet was first released as a demo for Microsoft Windows in August 2012 . After a full version of the game was funded through Kickstarter , it was taken to Steam Greenlight and approved for Steam . Its release was first projected for early 2014 , then delayed to June 30 . Shortly before that date , it was delayed again to July 19 : the developers wanted to promote the game at a convention in Miami , Florida , and to avoid competition from the heavily discounted products in Steam 's Summer Sale . The game was released , after a third delay , on July 21 . To advertise the game , GalaxyTrail created branded T @-@ shirts , and Lilac was included as an easter egg in the 2013 game Sonic : After the Sequel . DiDuro considered and rejected the idea of developing an Android version of Freedom Planet , but he is saving money to port the game to the PlayStation Vita . The game was released on the website GOG.com in late 2014 . GalaxyTrail also developed versions for Mac OS X and Linux , which were released on Steam on April 17 , 2015 .
On March 9 , 2015 , Stephen DiDuro announced through Twitter that a version of the game for Nintendo 's Wii U console was planned for release on the eShop online store for late 2015 , later specified as August 13 . A demo was released as part of a promotion titled " Nindies @ home " , wherein players were invited to try out several upcoming Wii U games between June 15 and June 22 . On July 28 , however , GalaxyTrail confirmed that production of the final version of the game was taking longer than expected , suggesting that the game 's actual release would be later . DiDuro announced the cause of the delay on August 18 : the Wii U version had been set back by a " console @-@ freezing bug " , which would postpone the Wii U release indefinitely until the issue was fixed . He later explained that the bug had taken so long to detect because it only occurred in retail versions of the console , which had prevented GalaxyTrail and Nintendo from learning of the issue . The bug required a hard reset of the system to address the problem , which could potentially cause damage to the Wii U hardware . However , the bug was eventually fixed , and the game was successfully released on the eShop on October 1 ; customers who had tried out the game 's demo were rewarded with a 15 @-@ percent discount .
Downloadable content ( DLC ) is being created for the game . The first packs , which add Torque as a playable character and an adventure story for Milla , was released for computers in December 2015 , with a Wii U update yet to be announced . Additional DLC , which will make Spade a playable character , will be released in 2016 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
Tony Ponce of Destructoid felt positively about the demo for Freedom Planet ; he found it " nice to see a well @-@ established style or formula applied to a new world with original characters " . Similarly , Eurogamer 's Jeffrey Matulef described the game 's preview as " an indie Sonic @-@ esque platformer done right " , and he enjoyed the redesigned health system . Dominic Tarison of IndieStatik , whom GalaxyTrail gave an exclusive demo build featuring Milla , complimented the game 's " new and unfamiliar configuration " of elements from classic 16 @-@ bit games . However , he felt that it " maybe adheres a little too closely to 16 @-@ bit limits , especially in the amount of viewable gameplay area . " John Polson of IndieGames.com believed that " the spectacles like loops and wall runs ... [ are not ] as magical to do or watch " as in Sonic games , but he nonetheless concluded that " every platformer fan " ought to download the demo .
Nathan Grayson of Kotaku praised the demo for its balance of Genesis Sonic elements and original content : he described the product as " a love letter to classic Sonic , except when it 's not " . He also praised the game 's enemies , and , while he experienced minor control issues , guessed that they may have resulted from his use of an Xbox 360 controller instead of a keyboard . He found the game 's pacing to be slower than that of the Genesis Sonic games because of the added combat sequences , which sacrificed the feeling of " getting into a groove with a classic Sonic level " , though felt that this gave the player " time to look around , take in the sights , and think , ' Hey , I want to explore that ' " . He concluded that the game 's sense of speed was " solid " . Grayson was , however , critical of the voice acting , exclaiming " Yikes " .
Ponce strongly praised the visuals , which he found pleasant to the eye because of their light outlines , though he criticized the bland foreground design . Polson noted minor audio and visual flaws , most notably the recycling of sound effects from Genesis Sonic games , but he lauded the game 's music . Tarison praised the music and visuals , as well as the varied designs of the environments and playable characters .
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
Jahanzeb Khan of Hardcore Gamer felt that it was a worthy successor to the 1994 game Sonic 3 & Knuckles — which he considered the series ' pinnacle — and that it was " perhaps the most Sonic game to have come out since 1994 , one that feels like a true evolution and more importantly a resounding step forward . " Jonatan Allin of the Danish version of Eurogamer , who had not enjoyed any Sonic games since the Genesis era , concurred with Khan . Polygon 's Griffin McElroy argued that Freedom Planet successfully performs " a difficult balancing act , borrowing and transforming elements from games like Sonic the Hedgehog and Rocket Knight Adventures without coming off as derivative " . McElroy and Pablo Taboada of the Spanish @-@ language website MeriStation both compared the game to the work of developer Treasure . Taboada lamented the game 's obscurity and suggested that , had Treasure obtained the rights to Sonic and released Freedom Planet as an official sequel , it would have been more popular .
Khan commented that the levels " never feel like they 're over too soon nor do they drag on unnecessarily " , and he appreciated the setpiece moments such as " explosive chase / escape sequences , maze like labyrinths , traps , and even shoot- ' em @-@ up style shooting segments " . Taboada was mixed on the game 's brevity : he thought it was suitable for speedrunning but unsatisfying for those seeking a deeper experience . By contrast , Japanese website 4Gamer stated that the game 's quirks allowed one to play extensively without boredom , and Taboada enjoyed the large , Metroidvania @-@ style levels .
Regarding the game 's visuals , Taboada said , " Técnicamente es excelso " ( technically , it is excellent ) . He praised the colorful and detailed backgrounds , expressive character animations , sound effects , and music . Khan agreed : he commented that " every inch of it exud [ es ] artistic diversity with high resolution sprites that resemble the quality of yesteryear " . He called the audio a " nice mix of catchy chiptune style melodies with infectious synthetic beats " . Both Khan and 4Gamer were intrigued by the game 's East Asian visual style . Taboada believed that each character was likeable and interesting to play . Allin found himself unexpectedly captivated by the story , which he guessed many players would miss due to impatience with cutscenes .
= = Sequel = =
In December 25 , 2015 , GalaxyTrail announced Freedom Planet 2 is in development . With the goal of " defin [ ing ] Freedom Planet 's identity as a franchise , " the characters underwent a design overhaul . In contrast to the original title , it is being built using the Unity framework . The game is slated for release on PC and various Nintendo platforms at a later date .
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= Battle of Suoi Chau Pha =
The Battle of Suoi Chau Pha ( 6 August 1967 ) was fought during the Vietnam War between Australian troops and the Viet Cong . The battle took place during Operation Ballarat , an Australian search and destroy operation in the eastern Hat Dich area , north @-@ west of Nui Dat in Phuoc Tuy province . Following a covert insertion the day before which had caught a number of Viet Cong sentries by surprise , A Company , 7th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment ( 7 RAR ) had patrolled forward unaware of the presence of a large Viet Cong main force unit nearby . Clashing with a reinforced company from the Viet Cong 3rd Battalion , 274th Regiment , a classic encounter battle ensued between two forces of roughly equal size . Fought at close quarters in dense jungle amid a heavy monsoon rain , both sides suffered heavy casualties as neither was able to gain an advantage . Finally , after a battle lasting several hours , the Australian artillery proved decisive and the Viet Cong were forced to withdraw , dragging many of their dead from the battlefield after having suffered crippling losses .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
By the second half of 1967 the Viet Cong seemed to have melted away in Phuoc Tuy province , abandoning many of their bunker systems and avoiding the main roads and towns . The Battle of Long Tan and Operation Bribie had weakened the communist forces in the province , while further operations had restricted their movement and logistics . This prompted the commander of the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) — Brigadier Stuart Graham — to speculate that the Viet Cong may have fled to the border , perhaps leaving the province altogether . Graham reasoned that a succession of operations in the south @-@ east of the province and the completion of the barrier minefield at Dat Do meant that no single , sizable threat remained to the populated areas of Phuoc Tuy .
The Australians had continued to operate independently within Phuoc Tuy province , and while the war had become a series of big unit search and destroy operations in a war of attrition for the Americans , they had pursued their own counter @-@ insurgency campaign . Regardless , differences of opinion between Australian and American methods had produced friction , and increasingly impatient with the Australian approach , in early 1967 the Commander US MACV , General William Westmoreland , had complained to the Commander Australian Forces Vietnam , Major General Tim Vincent , demanding a more aggressive approach . However , the Australians were convinced that deliberate patrolling techniques were more effective in separating communist forces from the population in the villages while working towards slowly extending government control , and such urgings went largely unheeded .
The highway to Xuyen Moc in the east had been reopened by the Australians in March and April , and with the Viet Cong 275th Regiment believed to have been severely weakened following Long Tan , a series of operations aimed at destroying the Viet Cong 274th Regiment were subsequently launched by 1 ATF . Australian assessments of the Viet Cong 275th Regiment were seemingly reinforced by its unsuccessful attempt to ambush a convoy from US 11th Armoured Cavalry Regiment ( 11 ACR ) on 2 December 1966 . Meanwhile , after Westmoreland had again pressed Vincent on what he saw as the limited results achieved by Australian tactics , a large joint US @-@ Australian operation was mounted against the May Tao mountains in Phuoc Tuy , moving against the communist bases in the area . The largest search and destroy operation mounted by the Australians to that point , Operation Paddington ( 9 – 15 July ) was carried out in co @-@ operation with American and South Vietnamese units based in Bien Hoa province , and targeted the Viet Cong 5th Division .
Mounted on a large scale under American command and involving nearly 15 @,@ 000 troops , Paddington failed to result in significant contact , in spite of the employment of well co @-@ ordinated search techniques and blocking forces . A large number of Viet Cong camps , bunkers and storage areas were however uncovered and destroyed , resulting in significant disruption to the communist logistic system . Under the overall command of Major General George G. O 'Connor , commander US 9th Infantry Division , allied forces for Operation Paddington included the US 1st Brigade , 9th Infantry Division , the 2nd Battalion , US 47th Infantry Regiment ( Mechanised ) , the US 11th Armoured Cavalry Regiment , Task Force B Marine Corps ( RVN ) and the 1st Australian Task Force , as well as various supporting arms including two artillery batteries and more than a thousand armoured vehicles and helicopters . Viet Cong casualties included 92 killed , including 31 by 1 ATF for the loss of one Australian killed and another wounded . Nonetheless , the results were disappointing for the Australians , and the Viet Cong continued to elude them .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Opposing forces = = =
Based at Nui Dat in the III Corps Tactical Zone as part of US II Field Force , Vietnam , 1 ATF now included two infantry battalions plus armour , aviation , engineers and artillery support , with total Australian troop strength in Vietnam reaching 6 @,@ 300 men . Logistic arrangements were provided by the 1st Australian Logistic Support Group based at the port of Vung Tau . The 5th and 6th Battalions , Royal Australian Regiment ( 6 RAR ) subsequently returned to Australia in May and June 1967 , and were replaced by the 2nd and 7th Battalions , Royal Australian Regiment ( 7 RAR ) . Meanwhile , Viet Cong units operating in the province in early 1967 included Main Forces from the Viet Cong 5th Division , which consisted of the 274th Regiment and 275th Regiment , each of three infantry battalions under the command of Senior Colonel Nguyen The Truyen . Supporting this force were a number of artillery , engineer , medical and logistic units . Group 89 ( Artillery ) was equipped with recoilless rifles , medium mortars and heavy machine @-@ guns . Local Forces included D445 Provincial Mobile Battalion , a provincial unit normally operating in the south of the province and in Long Khanh , while guerrilla forces included two companies in the Chau Duc district , one in Long Dat and a platoon in Xuyen Moc ; in total around 4 @,@ 500 men .
Despite the optimistic Australian assessments of Viet Cong capability , rather than having left Phuoc Tuy the communists were more likely reinforcing and consolidating in preparation for future operations , avoiding battle with the Australians in order to preserve their strength . Regardless , D445 Battalion had suffered heavy casualties and posed a diminished threat , while the headquarters of the Viet Cong 5th Division was located near the northern border , west of the May Tao mountains , with its fighting formations widely dispersed . The Viet Cong 275th Regiment was reported to have moved north to War Zone D for retraining and refitting , and the Viet Cong 274th Regiment had moved from its scattered locations in the north @-@ west Hat Dich to replace it in the north @-@ east of the province , and was now operating in unfamiliar terrain . Meanwhile , casualties , illness and poor local recruitment meant they were now largely reliant on reinforcements from North Vietnam . Unsure of the next move , the Viet Cong 5th Division adopted a cautious posture , with only the 1st Battalion , 275th Regiment remaining in the May Tao mountains while the 274th Regiment dispersed east of Route 2 for the remainder of the month .
= = = Planning and preliminary operations = = =
The province now seemed secure and Graham saw the opportunity to continue pacification on a more methodical basis in Phuoc Tuy . Planning to attack the remaining Viet Cong where they were most vulnerable , the Australians returned to interdicting communist supply lines and bases , with 2 RAR conducting two search and destroy operations to the east of Dat Do — Operation Cairns in late @-@ July followed by Operation Atherton in mid @-@ August , both of which resulted in only minor contact . Meanwhile , the Hat Dich area had been quiet since US forces had swept of the area as part of Operation Akron ( 9 – 29 June ) , and Australian intelligence assessed that it was free of Viet Cong main force combat units . By late @-@ July communist rear services units and other supporting units were believed to have begun moving back into the area , in an attempt to rehabilitate their base areas that had been destroyed in the earlier fighting . Yet in reality the location of communist forces was largely unknown to the Australians . In mid @-@ July , the Viet Cong 274th Regiment — now believed to be commanded by Ut Thoi — had been forced to move from the Hat Dich towards its north @-@ eastern base areas due to Operation Paddington and Australian signals intelligence had been able to effectively track the regiment 's movement due to the location of its transmitter . However , 1 ATF intelligence officers had then lost track of the unit .
Operation Ballarat was subsequently planned to assess the extent of the Viet Cong 's efforts to re @-@ establish their supply lines and to repair bunkers and camps in the eastern Hat Dich that had been destroyed by previous operations . The concept of operations envisioned 7 RAR , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Eric Smith , creating a series of company patrol bases , from which platoon fighting patrols would gather intelligence on Viet Cong activities . An ambush plan would then be developed . The twelve @-@ day battalion search and destroy operation subsequently commenced on 4 August 1967 , within AO Lion , 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) north @-@ west of Nui Dat . In an attempt to achieve surprise the rifle companies moved into their respective areas of operation by foot , rather than by helicopter , carrying five days rations and supplies to reduce the need for resupply and the likelihood of detection by the Viet Cong . With stealth considered key to the operation it was intended that any bunkers and camps located during the patrol phase of the operation would not be destroyed until after the ambush phase . Regardless , the Australians expected only to encounter rear guard elements .
Fire Support Base Giraffe was subsequently established with the new 105 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) M2A2 Howitzers of 106th Field Battery and 81 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) mortars from Mortar Platoon , 7 RAR providing indirect fire support , while elements of the Australian Reinforcement Holding Unit provided protection . Further support was provide by 155 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) M109 self @-@ propelled medium guns from the US 2 / 35th Artillery Regiment , while American 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) and 175 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) heavy artillery were also available if required . Meanwhile , elements of 1st Field Squadron , Royal Australian Engineers had been tasked with clearing Route 2 of vegetation and rubber north of Nui Dat and D Company , 2 RAR was attached for the operation , providing security for the engineers and additional protection to the fire support base in conjunction with a troop of M113 armoured personnel carriers from A Squadron , 3rd Cavalry Regiment which would support the infantry during the day .
= = Battle = =
= = = Insertion and patrolling , 5 – 6 August = = =
A Company , 7 RAR had already been patrolling in the Hat Dich since 3 August when the orders for the operation were issued . Utilising an insertion technique perfected by the Special Air Service Regiment they were subsequently re @-@ supplied early on the evening of 5 August , with the supplies successfully unloaded and the helicopters departing within three minutes . The covert infiltration of the infantry companies went undetected , and on the morning of 6 August A Company began to patrol towards the intended site of their initial patrol base . Under the command of Major Ewart O 'Donnell , by @-@ mid morning the Australians were approximately 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) east of Phu My . At 10 : 40 , moving north @-@ west with 2 Platoon leading , the Australians crossed a creek , the Suoi Chau Pha , and shortly afterwards located a fresh track which had only recently been used . O 'Donnell ordered the lead platoon into ambush positions astride the track , while he moved forward to conduct a reconnaissance . Minutes later two Viet Cong sentries walked into the ambush with their weapons slung , and they were killed instantly by a short burst from an M60 machine @-@ gun , likely surprised by the silent insertion of the Australians .
The incident alerted the remainder of the Australians and the company prepared for action . Considering it unlikely that the dead men had been alone , O 'Donnell assessed that the remainder of a Viet Cong squad was located somewhere further along the track and he subsequently requested artillery fire to block any escape , while 2 Platoon was ordered to sweep forward . Under the command of Second Lieutenant Graham Ross , 2 Platoon commenced its advance before coming under automatic fire 100 metres ( 110 yd ) along the track by a Viet Cong squad which then went to ground after the Australians returned fire . Attempting to take the initiative , Ross began to manoeuvre for a quick attack , moving two sections to the high ground on the right flank , while the third section provided fire support . Meanwhile , the Viet Cong force , which turned out to be larger than first thought by the Australians , also attempted a flanking manoeuvre , moving one squad into a defensive position while two squads moved to their left flank . Deploying to the high ground at about the same time the two assault groups came face to face and a fierce fire @-@ fight followed at close range , with both sides throwing grenades in an attempt to gain the initiative . Two Australians were killed and several more were wounded in the initial clashes .
2 Platoon was in trouble and the Australians were forced to fight hard in order to survive , with numerous acts of heroism on both sides . Repeatedly exposing himself to the fire to throw grenades and to direct his platoon 's fire , Ross dragged two of his wounded men to safety during the fighting and despite being wounded in the leg by shrapnel he refused to be treated until the other wounded had received first aid . Meanwhile , Private Dennis Bathersby , although wounded in the right arm , remained behind his M60 throwing two grenades with his left arm and only withdrawing in order to drag another wounded Australian to safety . Finally , after his right arm went numb , Ross ordered Bathersby to hand over his machine @-@ gun and he was evacuated to the rear . Elsewhere , Private Keith Downward , one of the forward scouts , after edging forward to within 10 metres ( 11 yd ) then single handedly charged one of the Viet Cong machine @-@ guns , killing the operator and capturing the weapon before then dragging a wounded Australian soldier out of danger despite himself being wounded . Amid the chaos , a wasp nest in a nearby tree was disturbed , and a number of Australians were so badly stung that they were incapacitated and also needed to be evacuated .
= = = Move and counter @-@ move , 6 August 1967 = = =
O 'Donnell attempted to probe the Viet Cong flank , and after locating it on the high ground he committed 1 Platoon — under Second Lieutenant Rod Smith — to conduct a right flanking attack . Beginning at 11 : 30 the Australian assault soon ran into another Viet Cong platoon conducting a similar manoeuvre , and they became involved in an intense battle at close quarters with each side blocking the manoeuvre of the other . A heavy monsoon rain began , drenching the men as they faced each other at a range of just 30 metres ( 33 yd ) , with seven Viet Cong machine @-@ guns facing six Australian machine @-@ guns at the height of the battle as the two Viet Cong platoons clashed with two Australian platoons . The Australians suffered heavily , losing two section commanders killed and a dozen men wounded in the first few minutes . The fighting continued for another two hours as both forces traded shots , with neither the Australians nor the Viet Cong able to achieve a decisive advantage .
A Company 's forward observer , Lieutenant Neville Clark , a Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) officer , had moved to the forward platoon and proceeded to calmly direct artillery from the guns at Fire Support Base Giraffe on to the Viet Cong . Meanwhile , the Viet Cong attempted to use " hugging tactics " to remain in close contact under the artillery barrage , while utilising rockets , grenades , machine @-@ guns and small arms to inflict casualties on the Australians . Finally , with the communists massing for an all @-@ out attack Clark adjusted the artillery to within 50 metres ( 55 yd ) of his own position , disregarding his own safety in order to break up the attack . Firing from over 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) away , the Australian 105 mm howitzers were nearly at their 11 @,@ 000 @-@ metre ( 12 @,@ 000 yd ) maximum range , yet they proved to be highly accurate and the rounds caused heavy casualties among the assaulting troops as they stood up to charge the Australian positions , while a few Australians were also slightly wounded after one of the rounds struck a tree . In total , the 106th Field Battery and the supporting American battery of the US 2 / 35th Artillery Battalion fired 1 @,@ 026 rounds in support of A Company during the fighting , while American 8 @-@ inch and 175 mm heavy artillery fired another 156 rounds . A number of airstrikes had also supported the Australians .
By 14 : 30 the Viet Cong commander finally made the decision to withdraw , with the artillery deciding the battle in favour of the Australians . O 'Donnell had commanded the battle with cool resolve under constant fire throughout , setting the standard for his men and on one occasion he had run 30 metres ( 33 yd ) through heavy fire to drag a wounded medic to safety . Withdrawing through the barrage and a number of airstrikes called in to pursue them , the Viet Cong proceeded to drag their dead from the battlefield , having suffered crippling casualties . B Company , 7 RAR was subsequently inserted by helicopter into blocking positions to the north , however they made no contact and were unable to prevent the withdrawal . Numerous blood trails were later found as the Australians attempted to follow up the Viet Cong .
Meanwhile , even as the battle had continued the evacuation of the Australian casualties had begun , with a number of Iroquois helicopters from No. 9 Squadron , Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) under Squadron Leader Jim Cox , flying through heavy ground fire to complete the dust @-@ off . Hindered by artillery fire and the dense foliage the operation proved difficult and Cox 's aircraft was hit by heavy machine @-@ gun fire , wounding him and an orderly on board . Safely landing the damaged aircraft he then directed the operation by radio from the ground . Among the worst of the casualties was Sergeant Alexander Sutherland , from 2 Platoon . Losing an eye and suffering heavy blood loss from multiple shrapnel wounds after a Viet Cong rocket exploded within a metre of him , he was evacuated to 8 Field Ambulance in Vung Tau with no pulse . His left leg later amputated , his wounds were so bad he had to be given a general anaesthetic each time his bandages were changed . Making a miraculous recovery however , he was personally recommended for the US Medal of Honor by Westmoreland for his resolute spirit , although this was later reduced to a lesser Australian award . Many casualties were beyond help however , and the battalion chaplain was inserted by winch from a helicopter to administer last rites .
On the basis of documents captured by the Australians during the battle the Viet Cong were identified as being from C12 Company , 3rd Battalion , 274th Regiment , probably assisted by the battalion Reconnaissance Platoon and a number of local force guides . It was assessed that at least a second company had helped in the recovery of many of the Viet Cong dead . Later , during operations the following day , a recently occupied battalion @-@ sized camp was subsequently located about 900 metres ( 980 yd ) from the site of the battle , and it was considered likely that the Viet Cong company had fought the vigorous action in order the delay the Australians and enable the withdrawal of the remainder of the battalion from their base camp . Meanwhile , elements of the Chau Duc District Company were also believed to be located in the area .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
Australian casualties had been heavy with five killed , one died of wounds and 20 wounded . Meanwhile , the extent of Viet Cong casualties were difficult to assess , as most had been removed from the battlefield by the communists as they had during previous battles . A sweep of the area by the Australians subsequently resulted in the recovery of a further five dead Viet Cong , however drag marks and extensive blood trails indicated that they had suffered heavily , with perhaps another 33 killed or wounded in the contact . A further 200 casualties were estimated to have occurred from artillery and mortar fire , as well as a number of airstrikes . Terry Burstall , in his controversial book Vietnam – The Australian Dilemma , lists these casualties as " possibles " only , questioning the efficacy of the Australian reporting . However Burstall 's agenda and research methodology have been widely criticised , and official records make it clear that five bodies were indeed counted , while a further five bodies were observed but not recovered . Among the dead were one officer , believed to have been the platoon commander , and two non @-@ commissioned officers . Also recovered were a light machine @-@ gun , a 40 mm recoilless rifle and three AK @-@ 47 assault rifles , while other weapons , a quantity of rice and a battalion @-@ sized bunker system were subsequently also captured .
= = = Assessment = = =
A classic encounter battle , the action had been fought between two forces of roughly equal size in the heavy monsoon rain at close quarters . Both companies had deployed to the high ground at around the same time in a bid to outflank the other , with the Australian infantry skilfully using their supporting artillery while the Viet Cong had attempted to nullify the Australian tactics by remaining in close contact . Ultimately , the artillery had decided the outcome in favour of the Australians however , and the Viet Cong had been forced to withdraw with heavy casualties . In this way the fighting bore many similarities to the victory twelve months earlier at Long Tan , yet it remained largely unheralded in Australia . Eight Australian soldiers received gallantry awards for their actions , including Military Crosses to O 'Donnell , Ross and Clark , while Sutherland was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal . A number of awards were also made to the RAAF pilots and aircrew , including Cox who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . Meanwhile , the bravery evident by the Viet Cong during the battle had also made an impression on the Australians , who later acknowledged their tight fire discipline and the skilfulness of their battle drills and tactics which they found to be similar to those used by the Australians themselves .
A month after disappearing the Viet Cong 274th Regiment had emerged without warning and had caught 7 RAR by surprise , with the unexpected presence of a Viet Cong Main Force regiment in the Hat Dich forcing the Australians to change their tactics for the remainder of Operation Ballarat . The Australians became more cautious as a result and while 7 RAR continued its search and destroy mission , only two companies patrolled while the other two remained on standby in fire support bases nearby to provide support if required . Additional artillery support was also made available , with 161st Field Battery , Royal New Zealand Artillery airlifted into Fire Support Base Giraffe . Meanwhile , Graham placed 2 RAR on standby to fly into the area if needed and US forces were also positioned to the north . In this manner Ballarat continued until 16 August , however there was only minor contact which resulted in two more Viet Cong killed , two wounded and one captured for no further loss to the Australians .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Australian operations in Phuoc Tuy province continued throughout the remainder of 1967 , and although they were largely successful at the tactical level , the Viet Cong continued to be able to enter most of the villages in the province , and were causing increasingly heavy Allied casualties with mines lifted from the controversial barrier minefield laid by the Australians . Operation Santa Fe , a further large @-@ scale joint US @-@ Australian operation , took place between October and November , but it too ended with only limited success in comparison to the resources committed . Meanwhile , despite allegations of corruption and ballot rigging by the ruling military junta , South Vietnam 's presidential elections in September had been unhampered by security concerns and were largely considered successful , with 83 percent of eligible voters turning out nationwide ; in Phuoc Tuy this number was higher still at over 90 percent . Graham believed that the large public turnout in Phuoc Tuy had been due to the long @-@ term effects of Australian operations in the province which had increased the population 's sense of security . As a result , 1 ATF now turned its attention to expanding its area of operations .
However , with the war approaching a stalemate strategically , the Australians were substantially reinforced following the trend of further American troop increases , with a third infantry battalion arriving in December , while a squadron of Centurion tanks and additional Iroquois helicopters were added in early 1968 . Total Australian strength in Vietnam grew to over 8 @,@ 000 men , its highest level during the war , effectively doubling the combat power available to the task force commander . Likewise , American military strength in Vietnam had risen to 486 @,@ 000 men while South Vietnamese forces had expanded to 643 @,@ 000 by the end of the year . In spite of this build up North Vietnamese strength in South Vietnam also increased growing to 278 @,@ 000 men , and although communist strategy remained fundamentally one of protracted war , preparations for a strategic offensive had reached an advanced stage . Culminating in the Tet Offensive in early 1968 , the offensive would aim to provoke a popular general uprising among the South Vietnamese people against the government and its American supporters and would take the form of a massive simultaneous surprise attack on population centres throughout South Vietnam . 1 ATF would be heavily involved in the fighting during Tet , deploying astride communist lines of communication in support of American and South Vietnamese forces defending the Long Binh @-@ Bien Hoa complex north @-@ east of Saigon during Operation Coburg , while also repelling repeated Viet Cong attacks against Ba Ria and Long Dien in Phuoc Tuy province .
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= Patrik Berger =
Patrik Berger ( Czech pronunciation : [ ˈpatrɪk ˈbɛrɡr ̩ ] ; born 10 November 1973 ) is a retired Czech footballer . He started his career in his own country with Slavia Prague and spent a season in Germany playing for Borussia Dortmund . He moved to England in 1996 , where he spent seven years with Liverpool , winning six trophies in his time there . This was followed by spells at Portsmouth , Aston Villa and Stoke City . He spent the last two years of his career back in his native Czech Republic playing for Sparta Prague .
Internationally , Berger played in two major tournaments for the Czech Republic . He played an important part in his nation 's Euro 1996 campaign , scoring in the final as the Czech Republic finished runners @-@ up to Germany . He took a 17 @-@ month break from the national team between 1997 and 1998 after a dispute with manager Dušan Uhrin , returning to the setup following Uhrin 's departure from the post . His second and final major tournament was Euro 2000 , but due to suspension and his country 's early exit , he only played one game . He retired from the national team in 2002 at the age of 28 with a total of 44 senior international caps and 18 goals .
Capable of occupying midfield and forward positions , Berger became noted for his powerful strikes , surging runs , and strong left foot . Berger was beset with injuries throughout his career and received specialist treatment in the United States . He retired on 6 January 2010 due to knee injuries .
= = Personal life = =
Berger was born in Prague , Czechoslovakia . His uncle is the Czech footballer Jan Berger . He married wife Jaroslava , and has two children , son Patrik and daughter Valentýnka . He gained a British passport in 2001 after having spent five years playing club football in England . This enabled him to play without needing a work permit , which he had previously required due to the Premier League 's rules on non @-@ EU players .
= = Club career = =
= = = Prague and Dortmund = = =
He began his footballing career as a youth player at Sparta Prague in 1989 , securing a professional contract two years later with rivals Slavia Prague . Establishing himself as a senior regular , Berger competed in Europe and earned selection for Czechoslovakia and , following its establishment , the Czech Republic .
After 90 league games and 24 goals , Berger was purchased by Ottmar Hitzfeld 's Borussia Dortmund in 1995 for a reported £ 500 @,@ 000 . In August 1995 he played in the DFL @-@ Supercup , as Dortmund beat Borussia Mönchengladbach to win the title . While Dortmund went on to win the Bundesliga title in the 1995 – 96 season , Berger was frequently used as a substitute , making 12 of his 25 league appearances from the bench . Hitzfeld preferred to employ Berger as a defensive midfielder as he considered him to be most suited to the role .
Liverpool 's interest in Berger was stimulated by the performances of the Czech Republic during Euro 1996 , organised in England , where he scored a penalty in the final . The club approached both Berger and Karel Poborský , who elected to transfer to Manchester United after the competition 's conclusion . Berger did accept Liverpool 's contract offer and completed his transfer in August 1996 for £ 3 @.@ 25 million .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Berger and his family settled in Southport , Merseyside , where they resided near retired players Kenny Dalglish and Alan Hansen . Debuting as a substitute in a 2 – 1 home win against Southampton on 7 September 1996 , Berger performed well in his first month with the club , endearing him to supporters and earning praise from colleagues . In his second match , he replaced Stan Collymore as half time substitute , going on to score two goals in a 3 – 0 win against Leicester City . A second double was registered against Chelsea in the latter 's 5 – 1 defeat at Anfield , which he followed with a fifth goal in four games in a Cup Winners ' Cup match against MYPA . The series of displays were recognised in October 1996 with the FA 's Player of the Month award for September .
First @-@ team opportunities became limited in Berger 's second season . Despite scoring a hat @-@ trick against Chelsea in October 1997 , he often found himself named as a substitute . His dissatisfaction at manager Roy Evans placed his Liverpool career in jeopardy . Evans criticised Berger 's perceived indifference to teamwork and publicly expressed a willingness to sell after he refused to be used as a substitute against Bolton Wanderers in March 1998 . Berger was linked with a move away from Liverpool in May 1998 , with Italian club A.S. Roma , the manager of which was his countryman Zdeněk Zeman , and Portuguese club Benfica both mentioned as possible destinations . The appointment of Gérard Houllier as co @-@ manager before the 1998 – 99 season and subsequent departure of Evans proved to be pivotal in Berger 's decision to remain with the club .
Playing regularly in his first season under Houllier 's reign , Berger scored nine goals and improved as a player . An injury sustained in a 4 – 3 defeat to Leeds United in November 2000 rendered Berger unavailable for much of the 2000 – 01 season and required specialist treatment in the United States from knee surgeon Richard Steadman . By March 2001 , Berger had recovered and he went on to feature in the final of both the UEFA Cup and the FA Cup , with Liverpool winning both trophies . In the 2001 FA Cup Final he provided the assist for Michael Owen to score the deciding goal against Arsenal .
He appeared in the 2001 FA Charity Shield , coming on as a substitute as Liverpool won the competition . He then underwent knee surgery in August 2001 , ruling him out of the 2001 UEFA Super Cup .
Recurring injuries between 2001 and 2003 continued to disrupt Berger 's career and deprived him of a presence in the first team , resulting in his decision to leave Liverpool after the expiration of his contract following the conclusion of the 2002 – 03 season . Berger had been confined to the bench for the duration of his final season when selected , limiting him to four appearances . He left Liverpool , having scored 35 goals during his seven seasons with the club .
= = = Portsmouth = = =
Newly promoted to the Premier League , Portsmouth manager Harry Redknapp signed Berger on a free transfer . Redknapp said of the deal : " Patrik 's [ sic ] a quality player , free - and the type of player who 'll bring good experience to Portsmouth . I had a bit of competition for him but he 's looked round the area and is very happy to join us . " Berger made his first appearance for Portsmouth on the opening day against Aston Villa ; he scored the club 's second goal . Berger scored the winning goal in Portsmouth 's victory over his former club Liverpool in October 2003 . A month later , he set up the first and fourth Portsmouth goals and scored the fifth in Portsmouth 's 6 – 1 win against Leeds United . On Boxing Day 2003 , Berger helped Portsmouth to a 2 – 0 win against Tottenham , scoring both goals of the game from free kicks , the first of which was scored from 35 yards ( 32 m ) . Berger underwent an operation upon his knee in February 2004 , forcing him to miss the remainder of the season .
Berger started the 2004 – 05 season with note , scoring August 's contender for Goal of the Season against Charlton Athletic . His second goal of the campaign came in a 3 – 1 win away to Crystal Palace , striking from 25 yards ( 23 m ) . October 2004 saw his final league goal for Portsmouth in a 2 – 2 away draw at Norwich , scoring a 25 @-@ yard free kick .
The club endured a difficult end to the season , winning just once in a period of 12 matches , which prompted the appointment of Alain Perrin as Portsmouth 's new manager . Berger was one of a number of players including Steve Stone and Shaka Hislop whose contracts were due to expire in the summer . Portsmouth successfully avoided relegation close to the end of the season , following a 2 – 0 loss away at Manchester City on 30 April . In spite of Portsmouth having retained their Premier League status , Berger then joined Aston Villa on a two @-@ year @-@ deal , citing manager David O 'Leary as the main reason for choosing Villa .
= = = Aston Villa = = =
Berger was hampered by injury during his early Villa career , making few league appearances . During the first part of his second season , he only played two matches under new manager Martin O 'Neill . In November 2006 he was sent to Championship side Stoke City on loan until 4 January 2007 , following a fine of two weeks ' wages for refusing to play in a reserve game . During his time at Stoke , he started just one match and took part in a further six as a substitute . Following his return from Stoke , Berger was commended by O 'Neill on his fitness and on 7 April 2007 , Berger started his first game for Villa since October 2005 . He marked this occasion by scoring a goal in a 2 – 1 victory against Blackburn Rovers . Berger scored again on 5 May 2007 in the penultimate game of the season against Sheffield United . On 28 May 2007 , Berger agreed to sign a one @-@ year contract extension with Aston Villa .
Berger was injured in the pre @-@ season of the 2007 – 08 Premier League , keeping him out of league matches until October 2007 . He then suffered a recurrence of the same injury and was ruled out for a further period of time . On 6 May 2008 , Berger was told he had played his last game for Aston Villa after urging captain Gareth Barry to move to Liverpool . This came just days after manager Martin O 'Neill claimed he was " desperate " to keep Barry following interest from Premier League rivals Chelsea and Liverpool . At the end of his contract Berger was released by the club , having appeared in just 29 league matches in three seasons .
= = = Return to Prague = = =
On 29 May 2008 , Berger returned to Prague as a free agent , signing a two @-@ year contract with boyhood club Sparta Prague , also becoming captain of the club for the 2008 – 09 Gambrinus liga . In November 2008 , Berger scored a hat @-@ trick against SK Kladno in a 5 – 0 Sparta victory . Sparta went on to finish the season in second place , thus ensuring qualification for the following season 's UEFA Champions League tournament . Berger was the club 's top league goalscorer with six goals .
During the 2009 – 10 season , Berger played just two league matches before undergoing more knee surgery . On 6 January 2010 he announced his retirement after failing to recover from a ligament injury .
= = = Post @-@ professional career = = =
Berger continued playing football on an amateur basis in August 2010 for sixth @-@ tier Czech Republic side Dolní Chabry . At the age of 40 he was still playing for the side .
= = International career = =
Berger represented the youth teams of Czechoslovakia from the under @-@ 15 level , working his way up through under @-@ 16 , under @-@ 17 and under @-@ 18 between 1988 and 1991 . For these junior teams he had a record of a total of six goals in 49 appearances . During this time he won the 1990 UEFA European Under @-@ 16 Football Championship with the under @-@ 16 side , scoring in the final against Yugoslavia .
Berger made his senior international debut on 23 March 1993 in a FIFA World Cup qualifier for Czechoslovakia against Cyprus , which ended 1 – 1 . In October 1995 he scored the second goal in a must @-@ win qualification match for Euro 1996 against Belarus , which the Czechs won 2 – 0 . In his first 12 international appearances , Berger totalled eight goals .
Berger was part of the Czech Republic team who took part in Euro 1996 , being singled out as the only player in the squad with the potential to become a " major international star " . In spite of this , Martin Frýdek was preferred to Berger in the starting lineup for the first match against Germany . Berger went on to play in all of his nation 's matches in the tournament , famously scoring in the final from the penalty spot to give the Czech Republic a 1 – 0 lead against Germany . However , the Czech Republic ultimately lost on the golden goal rule in extra time .
Between 1997 and 1998 , Berger boycotted the Czech national team due to a conflict with head coach Dušan Uhrin . He returned to the national set @-@ up after a 17 @-@ month absence following the appointment of Jozef Chovanec as Uhrin 's replacement . He made a notable return to the national team , scoring two goals from free kicks in a qualification match against Estonia .
The next major international tournament Berger took part in was Euro 2000 . Having been suspended for his nation 's first two matches after being sent off in a qualifier against the Faroe Islands , Berger played just one match . Berger announced his retirement from international football in March 2002 at the age of 28 . He finished his career having made a total of 44 appearances for national teams , including 42 for the Czech Republic and 2 for Czechoslovakia . He scored a total of 18 international goals , all for the Czech Republic .
= = Style of play = =
Berger played mainly as an attacking midfielder , also being known as a winger . He became noted for his powerful strikes , surging runs , and strong left foot . Team @-@ mate at Liverpool Steven Gerrard said of Berger that " he was the best left @-@ footed striker of a ball I have seen " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Czech Republic 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Player = = =
Borussia Dortmund
Bundesliga : 1995 – 96
DFL @-@ Supercup : 1995
Liverpool
FA Cup : 2000 – 01
League Cup : 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03
FA Charity Shield : 2001
UEFA Cup : 2000 – 01
UEFA Super Cup : 2001
= = = Individual = = =
Czech Footballer of the Year : 1996 ( shared with Karel Poborský )
Golden Ball : 1999
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= Lodewijk van den Berg =
Lodewijk van den Berg ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈloːdəʋɛik fɑn dɛm ˈbɛrx ] ; born March 24 , 1932 ) is a Dutch American chemical engineer , specializing in crystal growth , who flew on a 1985 Space Shuttle Challenger mission as a Payload Specialist .
He was the first Dutch @-@ born astronaut , a fact that is often ignored in the Netherlands because he was a naturalized American and no longer a Dutch citizen at the time of flight . He is married and has two children . As of 2014 , he resides in Florida and works as a chief scientist at the Constellation Technology Corporation .
= = Education and early career = =
Van den Berg was born on March 24 , 1932 , in Sluiskil , Netherlands . Van den Berg was educated in the Netherlands where he attended the Delft University of Technology from 1949 to 1961 and earned his Engineer 's degree in chemical engineering . He then moved to the United States to continue studying at the University of Delaware , where he obtained a MSc degree in applied science , followed by a PhD degree in 1974 , also in applied science .
After he had completed his doctoral study , he was offered a job at EG & G Corporation Energy Measurements in Goleta , California , to work on crystal growth . EG & G was a defense contractor of the United States government and dealt with sensitive information and science . In 1975 , this required Van den Berg to become a naturalized U.S. citizen . Van den Berg gathered years of research and management experience in the preparation of crystalline materials — in particular , the growth of single crystals of chemical compounds , and the investigation of associated defect chemistry and electronic properties . He became an international authority on vapor growth techniques with an emphasis on mercuric iodide crystals and its application in the nuclear industry as gamma ray detectors . During his work at EG & G , Van den Berg asked NASA for permission to conduct crystal growth experiments in space , which NASA approved .
= = Spaceflight = =
= = = Selection = = =
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG & G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight . The experiment required an in @-@ flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut , than it would be the other way around . NASA asked EG & G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist . Van den Berg and his chief , Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names . Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list , joking with Van den Berg that due to his age , huge glasses and little strength , he would probably be dropped during the first selection round ; but at least they would have eight names . Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list , but didn 't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario .
The first selection round , consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question , which Van den Berg easily passed . The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed , while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues . He was now part of the final two , and NASA always trains two astronauts , a prime and a back @-@ up . In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut , much to his own surprise . When he went into space he was 53 years old , making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts .
= = = STS @-@ 51B = = =
Van den Berg was assigned as Payload Specialist on STS @-@ 51B Challenger ( April 29 – May 6 , 1985 ) . STS @-@ 51B , the Spacelab @-@ 3 mission , was launched from the Kennedy Space Center , Florida , and returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base , California . It was the first operational Spacelab mission . The seven @-@ man crew aboard Challenger conducted investigations into crystal growth , drop dynamics leading to containerless material processing , atmospheric trace gas spectroscopy , solar and planetary atmospheric simulation , cosmic rays , and laboratory @-@ animal and human medical monitoring .
As a co @-@ investigator of the Vapor Crystal Growth System ( VCGS ) experiment , Van den Berg was responsible for the crystal growth aspects of the VCGS experiment . He had intimate knowledge of VCGS and Fluid Experiment System ( FES ) hardware , and had participated in all major design and science reviews of those systems .
By the end of the mission , Van den Berg had traveled over 2 @.@ 9 million miles in 110 Earth orbits , and logged over 168 hours in space .
= = Career after NASA = =
After returning to Earth , Van den Berg continued to work on crystal growth experiments at EG & G in California and he became the head for the section of materials science . At a later time he moved to Florida to become a chief scientist at the Constellation Technology Corporation . At age 72 , he continued to work up to 40 hours a week and grow crystals , a process he compares to gardening . The crystals he grows ( Mercuric Iodide crystals ) are used to make precision detectors for nuclear radiation . These detectors are used in medical applications , by the defense industry and the International Atomic Energy Agency .
He visits the Netherlands every two years , and was the subject of a short 2004 documentary by Netwerk called : The `forgotten astronaut` .
= = Asteroid = =
On September 28 , 2007 the main belt asteroid 11430 ( 9560 P @-@ L ) was named after him and is now known as 11430 Lodewijkberg . The asteroid was discovered October 17 , 1960 by Cornelis Johannes van Houten and Ingrid van Houten @-@ Groeneveld at Leiden Observatory , where they were studying photographic plates taken by Tom Gehrels using the Palomar Observatory 's Samuel Oschin telescope .
= = Academic publications ( incomplete ) = =
" Fabrication of mercuric iodide radiation detectors " , Lodewijk van den Berg and Ron D. Vigil , Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators , Spectrometers , Detectors and Associated Equipment , Volume 458 , Issues 1 @-@ 2 , 1 February 2001 , Pages 148 @-@ 151
" Improved yield of high resolution mercuric iodide gamma @-@ ray spectrometers " , Vernon Gerrish and Lodewijk van den Berg , Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A : Accelerators , Spectrometers , Detectors and Associated Equipment , Volume 299 , Issues 1 @-@ 3 , 20 December 1990 , Pages 41 @-@ 44
" Vapor growth of HgI2 by periodic source or crystal temperature oscillation " , by M. Schieber ∗ , W.F. Schnepple , L. Van den Berg . Journal of Crystal Growth , Volume 33 , Issue 1 , April 1976 , Pages 125 – 135
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= Wrigley Square =
Wrigley Square is a public square located in the northwest section of Millennium Park in the Historic Michigan Boulevard District of the Loop area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . The square is located at the southeast corner of the intersection of East Randolph Street and North Michigan Avenue . It contains the Millennium Monument , a nearly full @-@ sized replica of the semicircle of paired Roman Doric @-@ style columns ( called a peristyle ) that originally sat in this area of Grant Park , near Michigan Avenue and Randolph Street , between 1917 and 1953 . The square also contains a large lawn and a public fountain .
= = Detail = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Today , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
The square is a tree @-@ lined section of Millennium Park with a large lawn . The area broadcasts free wifi wireless technology . The square has earned a reputation as an outdoor culture spot by hosting a wide range of cultural events such as local and international art and photography exhibitions , as well as occasional live musical performances . This reputation is reminiscent of the earlier neo @-@ classical meeting place . When Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley dedicated the square , it was dedicated to the donors , known as the Founders Group , who funded Millennium Park .
In 2005 , Millennium Park was marked for updates and improvements . Benches were to be added to the 56 original benches . Landscape architect Kathryn Gustafson designed 14 new 320 @-@ pound ( 145 @.@ 1 kg ) , aluminum “ Maggie benches ” benches in Millennium Park , mostly in Wrigley square , in honor of Mayor Daley ’ s wife .
The square was intended to serve as an exhibit space for outdoor sculpture as well as small cultural performances , according to Christopher Perille , vice president of the Wrigley Square Foundation . The square 's peristyle monument is in remembrance of the corporation , foundations , and individuals who made Millennium Park possible .
An architectural model of Wrigley Square and Millennium Monument , designed by O 'Donnell , Wicklund , Pigozzi and Peterson Architects , Inc . ( OWP & P ) in 2000 , is on display at the Harold Washington Library Center .
= = = Original peristyle = = =
In 1917 , the original peristyle was designed by renowned Chicago planner Edward H. Bennett , who was Daniel Burnham 's partner in the Plan of Chicago and who was known for designing the nearby Buckingham Fountain . It was located in Grant Park in the same location as the current Wrigley Square . The original peristyle rose to 40 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) and had a diameter of 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) . The original was made of concrete , which did not stand up to the Lake Michigan lakefront weather . In 1953 it was razed to make way for the Grant Park North Garage . The original peristyle was on a promenade with balustrades .
= = = Millennium Monument = = =
A gift from the William Wrigley , Jr . Company , the limestone replica peristyle rises to a height of nearly 40 feet ( 12 @.@ 2 m ) ( one source says the columns were planned to rise to 36 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) ) , restoring a classical elegance to Grant Park . The William Wrigley , Jr . Foundation contributed $ 5 million to the monument , and the entire square , which cost $ 5 million to build , was named in its honor . The Millennium Monument is a tribute to the individual , corporate and foundation benefactors of Millennium Park . The pedestal of the peristyle is inscribed with the names of the 115 financial donors ( including Oprah Winfrey ) who made the 91 contributions of at least $ 1 million each to help pay for Millennium Park . The New York Times describes the pedestal as French marble , but other sources mention the use of French limestone . These 115 donors are referred to as the founders of Millennium Park in official park brochures published by the City of Chicago and distributed at the visitor 's centers as well as in other press accounts . Their contributions not only paid for the construction of the park , but also provide for its ongoing conservation .
The David Dillon and Michael Patrick Sullivan ( of OWP & P ) design is based on original drawings by Bennett found in the Chicago Park District 's archive .
The naming rights of the space belong to Wm . Wrigley Jr , the foundation that created the world ’ s famous chewing gum . Wrigley Company officials , including William Wrigley , Jr . II , wanted to contribute to Millennium Park , and the historic aspect of the peristyle was attractive to them partly because the original peristyle was constructed around the same time as the Wrigley Building , the corporate headquarters located a few blocks to the north , and because the classical architectural styles of both are similar .
The 24 paired , fluted columns are the same height as the original peristyle . However , the structure was scaled down to an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) diameter in order to accommodate the accessible ramp that runs behind the monument . Each of the limestone columns is cut from an Indiana quarry and made of five 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 997 @.@ 9 kg ; 157 @.@ 1 st ) sections reinforced by steel rods and plates . The fountain in front of the monument is a bronze @-@ cast replica of the finials that adorn the Wrigley Building . The brass spout was made from a mold of a terra cotta finail on the Wrigley Building .
The front of the monument has a dedication plaque ( pictured left ) . In addition , on the reverse side in approximately the same location , the monument has a special plaque commemorating John H. Bryan 's contribution as the head of fundraising for the Park .
The original model of the Millennium Monument was the starting point of the Peristyle appearance in Chicago . To this day , it is said to not compare to the once “ commanding presence ” that once stood in its place , before being demolished and replaced with an underground parking garage . The new monument was downsized by approximately 15 % to accommodate a wheel @-@ chair ramp for the disabled in a tight space . It also includes a “ classical ” take on the original , incorporating a fountain at the base of the limestone , Doric , column monument . The monument , despite being relatively small in comparison to the rest of Grant Park , makes it presence known as the central focus to shape Wrigley Square and the surrounding landscape . Wrigley Square is unique for its fountain that , unlike Buckingham Fountain , which is fenced off , remains open with a circular ledge to allow park @-@ goers the freedom to sit next to the open water to enjoy the atmosphere .
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= Homologous recombination =
Homologous recombination is a type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two similar or identical molecules of DNA . It is most widely used by cells to accurately repair harmful breaks that occur on both strands of DNA , known as double @-@ strand breaks . Homologous recombination also produces new combinations of DNA sequences during meiosis , the process by which eukaryotes make gamete cells , like sperm and egg cells in animals . These new combinations of DNA represent genetic variation in offspring , which in turn enables populations to adapt during the course of evolution . Homologous recombination is also used in horizontal gene transfer to exchange genetic material between different strains and species of bacteria and viruses .
Although homologous recombination varies widely among different organisms and cell types , most forms involve the same basic steps . After a double @-@ strand break occurs , sections of DNA around the 5 ' ends of the break are cut away in a process called resection . In the strand invasion step that follows , an overhanging 3 ' end of the broken DNA molecule then " invades " a similar or identical DNA molecule that is not broken . After strand invasion , the further sequence of events may follow either of two main pathways discussed below ( see Models ) ; the DSBR ( double @-@ strand break repair ) pathway or the SDSA ( synthesis @-@ dependent strand annealing ) pathway . Homologous recombination that occurs during DNA repair tends to result in non @-@ crossover products , in effect restoring the damaged DNA molecule as it existed before the double @-@ strand break .
Homologous recombination is conserved across all three domains of life as well as viruses , suggesting that it is a nearly universal biological mechanism . The discovery of genes for homologous recombination in protists — a diverse group of eukaryotic microorganisms — has been interpreted as evidence that meiosis emerged early in the evolution of eukaryotes . Since their dysfunction has been strongly associated with increased susceptibility to several types of cancer , the proteins that facilitate homologous recombination are topics of active research . Homologous recombination is also used in gene targeting , a technique for introducing genetic changes into target organisms . For their development of this technique , Mario Capecchi , Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies were awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine ; Capecchi and Smithies independently discovered applications to mouse embryonic stem cells , however the highly conserved mechanisms underlying the DSB repair model , including uniform homologous integration of transformed DNA ( gene therapy ) , were first shown in plasmid experiments by Orr @-@ Weaver , Szostack and Rothstein . Researching the plasmid @-@ induced DSB , using γ @-@ irradiation in the 1970 's @-@ 1980 's , led to later experiments using endonucleases ( e.g. I @-@ SceI ) to cut chromosomes for genetic engineering of mammalian cells , where nonhomologous recombination is more frequent than in yeast .
= = History and discovery = =
In the early 1900s , William Bateson and Reginald Punnett found an exception to one of the principles of inheritance originally described by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s . In contrast to Mendel 's notion that traits are independently assorted when passed from parent to child — for example that a cat 's hair color and its tail length are inherited independent of each other — Bateson and Punnett showed that certain genes associated with physical traits can be inherited together , or genetically linked . In 1911 , after observing that linked traits could on occasion be inherited separately , Thomas Hunt Morgan suggested that " crossovers " can occur between linked genes , where one of the linked genes physically crosses over to a different chromosome . Two decades later , Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton demonstrated that chromosomal crossover occurs during meiosis , the process of cell division by which sperm and egg cells are made . Within the same year as McClintock 's discovery , Curt Stern showed that crossing over — later called " recombination " — could also occur in somatic cells like white blood cells and skin cells that divide through mitosis .
In 1947 , the microbiologist Joshua Lederberg showed that bacteria — which had been assumed to reproduce only asexually through binary fission — are capable of genetic recombination , which is more similar to sexual reproduction . This work established E. coli as a model organism in genetics , and helped Lederberg win the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Building on studies in fungi , in 1964 Robin Holliday proposed a model for recombination in meiosis which introduced key details of how the process can work , including the exchange of material between chromosomes through Holliday junctions . In 1983 , Jack Szostak and colleagues presented a model now known as the DSBR pathway , which accounted for observations not explained by the Holliday model . During the next decade , experiments in Drosophila , budding yeast and mammalian cells led to the emergence of other models of homologous recombination , called SDSA pathways , which do not always rely on Holliday junctions .
= = In eukaryotes = =
Homologous recombination ( HR ) is essential to cell division in eukaryotes like plants , animals , fungi and protists . In cells that divide through mitosis , homologous recombination repairs double @-@ strand breaks in DNA caused by ionizing radiation or DNA @-@ damaging chemicals . Left unrepaired , these double @-@ strand breaks can cause large @-@ scale rearrangement of chromosomes in somatic cells , which can in turn lead to cancer .
In addition to repairing DNA , homologous recombination also helps produce genetic diversity when cells divide in meiosis to become specialized gamete cells — sperm or egg cells in animals , pollen or ovules in plants , and spores in fungi . It does so by facilitating chromosomal crossover , in which regions of similar but not identical DNA are exchanged between homologous chromosomes . This creates new , possibly beneficial combinations of genes , which can give offspring an evolutionary advantage . Chromosomal crossover often begins when a protein called Spo11 makes a targeted double @-@ strand break in DNA . These sites are non @-@ randomly located on the chromosomes ; usually in intergenic promoter regions and preferentially in GC @-@ rich domains These double @-@ strand break sites often occur at recombination hotspots , regions in chromosomes that are about 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 base pairs in length and have high rates of recombination . The absence of a recombination hotspot between two genes on the same chromosome often means that those genes will be inherited by future generations in equal proportion . This represents linkage between the two genes greater than would be expected from genes that independently assort during meiosis .
= = = Timing within the mitotic cell cycle = = =
Double @-@ strand breaks can be repaired through homologous recombination or through non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) . NHEJ is a DNA repair mechanism which , unlike homologous recombination , does not require a long homologous sequence to guide repair . Whether homologous recombination or NHEJ is used to repair double @-@ strand breaks is largely determined by the phase of cell cycle . Homologous recombination repairs DNA before the cell enters mitosis ( M phase ) . It occurs during and shortly after DNA replication , in the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle , when sister chromatids are more easily available . Compared to homologous chromosomes , which are similar to another chromosome but often have different alleles , sister chromatids are an ideal template for homologous recombination because they are an identical copy of a given chromosome . In contrast to homologous recombination , NHEJ is predominant in the G1 phase of the cell cycle , when the cell is growing but not yet ready to divide . It occurs less frequently after the G1 phase , but maintains at least some activity throughout the cell cycle . The mechanisms that regulate homologous recombination and NHEJ throughout the cell cycle vary widely between species .
Cyclin @-@ dependent kinases ( CDKs ) , which modify the activity of other proteins by adding phosphate groups to ( that is , phosphorylating ) them , are important regulators of homologous recombination in eukaryotes . When DNA replication begins in budding yeast , the cyclin @-@ dependent kinase Cdc28 begins homologous recombination by phosphorylating the Sae2 protein . After being so activated by the addition of a phosphate , Sae2 uses its endonuclease activity to make a clean cut near a double @-@ strand break in DNA . This allows a three @-@ part protein known as the MRX complex to bind to DNA , and begins a series of protein @-@ driven reactions that exchange material between two DNA molecules .
= = = Models = = =
Two primary models for how homologous recombination repairs double @-@ strand breaks in DNA are the double @-@ strand break repair ( DSBR ) pathway ( sometimes called the double Holliday junction model ) and the synthesis @-@ dependent strand annealing ( SDSA ) pathway . The two pathways are similar in their first several steps . After a double @-@ strand break occurs , the MRX complex ( MRN complex in humans ) binds to DNA on either side of the break . Next a resection , in which DNA around the 5 ' ends of the break is cut back , is carried out in two distinct steps . In the first step of resection , the MRX complex recruits the Sae2 protein . The two proteins then trim back the 5 ' ends on either side of the break to create short 3 ' overhangs of single @-@ strand DNA . In the second step , 5 ' → 3 ' resection is continued by the Sgs1 helicase and the Exo1 and Dna2 nucleases . As a helicase , Sgs1 " unzips " the double @-@ strand DNA , while Exo1 and Dna2 's nuclease activity allows them to cut the single @-@ stranded DNA produced by Sgs1 .
The RPA protein , which has high affinity for single @-@ stranded DNA , then binds the 3 ' overhangs . With the help of several other proteins that mediate the process , the Rad51 protein ( and Dmc1 , in meiosis ) then forms a filament of nucleic acid and protein on the single strand of DNA coated with RPA . This nucleoprotein filament then begins searching for DNA sequences similar to that of the 3 ' overhang . After finding such a sequence , the single @-@ stranded nucleoprotein filament moves into ( invades ) the similar or identical recipient DNA duplex in a process called strand invasion . In cells that divide through mitosis , the recipient DNA duplex is generally a sister chromatid , which is identical to the damaged DNA molecule and provides a template for repair . In meiosis , however , the recipient DNA tends to be from a similar but not necessarily identical homologous chromosome . A displacement loop ( D @-@ loop ) is formed during strand invasion between the invading 3 ' overhang strand and the homologous chromosome . After strand invasion , a DNA polymerase extends the end of the invading 3 ' strand by synthesizing new DNA . This changes the D @-@ loop to a cross @-@ shaped structure known as a Holliday junction . Following this , more DNA synthesis occurs on the invading strand ( i.e. , one of the original 3 ' overhangs ) , effectively restoring the strand on the homologous chromosome that was displaced during strand invasion .
= = = = DSBR pathway = = = =
After the stages of resection , strand invasion and DNA synthesis , the DSBR and SDSA pathways become distinct . The DSBR pathway is unique in that the second 3 ' overhang ( which was not involved in strand invasion ) also forms a Holliday junction with the homologous chromosome . The double Holliday junctions are then converted into recombination products by nicking endonucleases , a type of restriction endonuclease which cuts only one DNA strand . The DSBR pathway commonly results in crossover , though it can sometimes result in non @-@ crossover products ; the ability of a broken DNA molecule to collect sequences from separated donor loci was shown in mitotic budding yeast using plasmids or endonuclease induction of chromosomal events . Because of this tendency for chromosomal crossover , the DSBR pathway is a likely model of how crossover homologous recombination occurs during meiosis .
Whether recombination in the DSBR pathway results in chromosomal crossover is determined by how the double Holliday junction is cut , or " resolved " . Chromosomal crossover will occur if one Holliday junction is cut on the crossing strand and the other Holliday junction is cut on the non @-@ crossing strand ( in Figure 4 , along the horizontal purple arrowheads at one Holliday junction and along the vertical orange arrowheads at the other ) . Alternatively , if the two Holliday junctions are cut on the crossing strands ( along the horizontal purple arrowheads at both Holliday junctions in Figure 4 ) , then chromosomes without crossover will be produced .
= = = = SDSA pathway = = = =
Homologous recombination via the SDSA pathway occurs in cells that divide through mitosis and meiosis and results in non @-@ crossover products . In this model , the invading 3 ' strand is extended along the recipient DNA duplex by a DNA polymerase , and is released as the Holliday junction between the donor and recipient DNA molecules slides in a process called branch migration . The newly synthesized 3 ' end of the invading strand is then able to anneal to the other 3 ' overhang in the damaged chromosome through complementary base pairing . After the strands anneal , a small flap of DNA can sometimes remain . Any such flaps are removed , and the SDSA pathway finishes with the resealing , also known as ligation , of any remaining single @-@ stranded gaps .
During mitosis , the major homologous recombination pathway for repairing DNA double @-@ strand breaks appears to be the SDSA pathway ( rather than the DSBR pathway ) . The SDSA pathway produces non @-@ crossover recombinants ( Figure 4 ) . During meiosis non @-@ crossover recombinants also occur frequently and these appear to arise mainly by the SDSA pathway as well . Non @-@ crossover recombination events occurring during meiosis likely reflect instances of repair of DNA double @-@ strand damages or other types of DNA damages .
= = = = SSA pathway = = = =
The single @-@ strand annealing ( SSA ) pathway of homologous recombination repairs double @-@ strand breaks between two repeat sequences . The SSA pathway is unique in that it does not require a separate similar or identical molecule of DNA , like the DSBR or SDSA pathways of homologous recombination . Instead , the SSA pathway only requires a single DNA duplex , and uses the repeat sequences as the identical sequences that homologous recombination needs for repair . The pathway is relatively simple in concept : after two strands of the same DNA duplex are cut back around the site of the double @-@ strand break , the two resulting 3 ' overhangs then align and anneal to each other , restoring the DNA as a continuous duplex .
As DNA around the double @-@ strand break is cut back , the single @-@ stranded 3 ' overhangs being produced are coated with the RPA protein , which prevents the 3 ' overhangs from sticking to themselves . A protein called Rad52 then binds each of the repeat sequences on either side of the break , and aligns them to enable the two complementary repeat sequences to anneal . After annealing is complete , leftover non @-@ homologous flaps of the 3 ' overhangs are cut away by a set of nucleases , known as Rad1 / Rad10 , which are brought to the flaps by the Saw1 and Slx4 proteins . New DNA synthesis fills in any gaps , and ligation restores the DNA duplex as two continuous strands . The DNA sequence between the repeats is always lost , as is one of the two repeats . The SSA pathway is considered mutagenic since it results in such deletions of genetic material .
= = = = BIR pathway = = = =
During DNA replication , double @-@ strand breaks can sometimes be encountered at replication forks as DNA helicase unzips the template strand . These defects are repaired in the break @-@ induced replication ( BIR ) pathway of homologous recombination . The precise molecular mechanisms of the BIR pathway remain unclear . Three proposed mechanisms have strand invasion as an initial step , but they differ in how they model the migration of the D @-@ loop and later phases of recombination .
The BIR pathway can also help to maintain the length of telomeres ( regions of DNA at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes ) in the absence of ( or in cooperation with ) telomerase . Without working copies of the telomerase enzyme , telomeres typically shorten with each cycle of mitosis , which eventually blocks cell division and leads to senescence . In budding yeast cells where telomerase has been inactivated through mutations , two types of " survivor " cells have been observed to avoid senescence longer than expected by elongating their telomeres through BIR pathways .
Maintaining telomere length is critical for cell immortalization , a key feature of cancer . Most cancers maintain telomeres by upregulating telomerase . However , in several types of human cancer , a BIR @-@ like pathway helps to sustain some tumors by acting as an alternative mechanism of telomere maintenance . This fact has led scientists to investigate whether such recombination @-@ based mechanisms of telomere maintenance could thwart anti @-@ cancer drugs like telomerase inhibitors .
= = In bacteria = =
Homologous recombination is a major DNA repair process in bacteria . It is also important for producing genetic diversity in bacterial populations , although the process differs substantially from meiotic recombination , which repairs DNA damages and brings about diversity in eukaryotic genomes . Homologous recombination has been most studied and is best understood for Escherichia coli . Double @-@ strand DNA breaks in bacteria are repaired by the RecBCD pathway of homologous recombination . Breaks that occur on only one of the two DNA strands , known as single @-@ strand gaps , are thought to be repaired by the RecF pathway . Both the RecBCD and RecF pathways include a series of reactions known as branch migration , in which single DNA strands are exchanged between two intercrossed molecules of duplex DNA , and resolution , in which those two intercrossed molecules of DNA are cut apart and restored to their normal double @-@ stranded state .
= = = RecBCD pathway = = =
The RecBCD pathway is the main recombination pathway used in many bacteria to repair double @-@ strand breaks in DNA , and the proteins are found in a broad array of bacteria . These double @-@ strand breaks can be caused by UV light and other radiation , as well as chemical mutagens . Double @-@ strand breaks may also arise by DNA replication through a single @-@ strand nick or gap . Such a situation causes what is known as a collapsed replication fork and is fixed by several pathways of homologous recombination including the RecBCD pathway .
In this pathway , a three @-@ subunit enzyme complex called RecBCD initiates recombination by binding to a blunt or nearly blunt end of a break in double @-@ strand DNA . After RecBCD binds the DNA end , the RecB and RecD subunits begin unzipping the DNA duplex through helicase activity . The RecB subunit also has a nuclease domain , which cuts the single strand of DNA that emerges from the unzipping process . This unzipping continues until RecBCD encounters a specific nucleotide sequence ( 5 ' -GCTGGTGG @-@ 3 ' ) known as a Chi site .
Upon encountering a Chi site , the activity of the RecBCD enzyme changes drastically . DNA unwinding pauses for a few seconds and then resumes at roughly half the initial speed . This is likely because the slower RecB helicase unwinds the DNA after Chi , rather than the faster RecD helicase , which unwinds the DNA before Chi . Recognition of the Chi site also changes the RecBCD enzyme so that it cuts the DNA strand with Chi and begins loading multiple RecA proteins onto the single @-@ stranded DNA with the newly generated 3 ' end . The resulting RecA @-@ coated nucleoprotein filament then searches out similar sequences of DNA on a homologous chromosome . The search process induces stretching of the DNA duplex , which enhances homology recognition ( a mechanism termed conformational proofreading ) . Upon finding such a sequence , the single @-@ stranded nucleoprotein filament moves into the homologous recipient DNA duplex in a process called strand invasion . The invading 3 ' overhang causes one of the strands of the recipient DNA duplex to be displaced , to form a D @-@ loop . If the D @-@ loop is cut , another swapping of strands forms a cross @-@ shaped structure called a Holliday junction . Resolution of the Holliday junction by some combination of RuvABC or RecG can produce two recombinant DNA molecules with reciprocal genetic types , if the two interacting DNA molecules differ genetically . Alternatively , the invading 3 ’ end near Chi can prime DNA synthesis and form a replication fork . This type of resolution produces only one type of recombinant ( non @-@ reciprocal ) .
= = = RecF pathway = = =
Bacteria appear to use the RecF pathway of homologous recombination to repair single @-@ strand gaps in DNA . When the RecBCD pathway is inactivated by mutations and additional mutations inactivate the SbcCD and ExoI nucleases , the RecF pathway can also repair DNA double @-@ strand breaks . In the RecF pathway the RecQ helicase unwinds the DNA and the RecJ nuclease degrades the strand with a 5 ’ end , leaving the strand with the 3 ’ end intact . RecA protein binds to this strand and is either aided by the RecF , RecO , and RecR proteins or stabilized by them . The RecA nucleoprotein filament then searches for a homologous DNA and exchanges places with the identical or nearly identical strand in the homologous DNA .
Although the proteins and specific mechanisms involved in their initial phases differ , the two pathways are similar in that they both require single @-@ stranded DNA with a 3 ’ end and the RecA protein for strand invasion . The pathways are also similar in their phases of branch migration , in which the Holliday junction slides in one direction , and resolution , in which the Holliday junctions are cleaved apart by enzymes . The alternative , non @-@ reciprocal type of resolution may also occur by either pathway .
= = = Branch migration = = =
Immediately after strand invasion , the Holliday junction moves along the linked DNA during the branch migration process . It is in this movement of the Holliday junction that base pairs between the two homologous DNA duplexes are exchanged . To catalyze branch migration , the RuvA protein first recognizes and binds to the Holliday junction and recruits the RuvB protein to form the RuvAB complex . Two sets of the RuvB protein , which each form a ring @-@ shaped ATPase , are loaded onto opposite sides of the Holliday junction , where they act as twin pumps that provide the force for branch migration . Between those two rings of RuvB , two sets of the RuvA protein assemble in the center of the Holliday junction such that the DNA at the junction is sandwiched between each set of RuvA . The strands of both DNA duplexes — the " donor " and the " recipient " duplexes — are unwound on the surface of RuvA as they are guided by the protein from one duplex to the other .
= = = Resolution = = =
In the resolution phase of recombination , any Holliday junctions formed by the strand invasion process are cut , thereby restoring two separate DNA molecules . This cleavage is done by RuvAB complex interacting with RuvC , which together form the RuvABC complex . RuvC is an endonuclease that cuts the degenerate sequence 5 ' - ( A / T ) TT ( G / C ) -3 ' . The sequence is found frequently in DNA , about once every 64 nucleotides . Before cutting , RuvC likely gains access to the Holliday junction by displacing one of the two RuvA tetramers covering the DNA there . Recombination results in either " splice " or " patch " products , depending on how RuvC cleaves the Holliday junction . Splice products are crossover products , in which there is a rearrangement of genetic material around the site of recombination . Patch products , on the other hand , are non @-@ crossover products in which there is no such rearrangement and there is only a " patch " of hybrid DNA in the recombination product .
= = = Facilitating genetic transfer = = =
Homologous recombination is an important method of integrating donor DNA into a recipient organism 's genome in horizontal gene transfer , the process by which an organism incorporates foreign DNA from another organism without being the offspring of that organism . Homologous recombination requires incoming DNA to be highly similar to the recipient genome , and so horizontal gene transfer is usually limited to similar bacteria . Studies in several species of bacteria have established that there is a log @-@ linear decrease in recombination frequency with increasing difference in sequence between host and recipient DNA .
In bacterial conjugation , where DNA is transferred between bacteria through direct cell @-@ to @-@ cell contact , homologous recombination helps integrate foreign DNA into the host genome via the RecBCD pathway . The RecBCD enzyme promotes recombination after DNA is converted from single @-@ strand DNA – in which form it originally enters the bacterium – to double @-@ strand DNA during replication . The RecBCD pathway is also essential for the final phase of transduction , a type of horizontal gene transfer in which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus . Foreign , bacterial DNA is sometimes misincorporated in the capsid head of bacteriophage virus particles as DNA is packaged into new bacteriophages during viral replication . When these new bacteriophages infect other bacteria , DNA from the previous host bacterium is injected into the new bacterial host as double @-@ strand DNA . The RecBCD enzyme then incorporates this double @-@ strand DNA into the genome of the new bacterial host .
= = = Bacterial transformation = = =
Natural bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from a donor bacterium to a recipient bacterium , where both donor and recipient are ordinarily of the same species . Transformation , unlike bacterial conjugation and transduction , depends on numerous bacterial gene products that specifically interact to perform this process . Thus transformation is clearly a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer . In order for a bacterium to bind , take up and integrate donor DNA into its resident chromosome by homologous recombination , it must first enter a special physiological state termed competence . The RecA / Rad51 / DMC1 gene family plays a central role in homologous recombination during bacterial transformation as it does during eukaryotic meiosis and mitosis . For instance , the RecA protein is essential for transformation in Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus pneumoniae , and expression of the RecA gene is induced during the development of competence for transformation in these organisms .
As part of the transformation process , the RecA protein interacts with entering single @-@ stranded DNA ( ssDNA ) to form RecA / ssDNA nucleofilaments that scan the resident chromosome for regions of homology and bring the entering ssDNA to the corresponding region , where strand exchange and homologous recombination occur . Thus the process of homologous recombination during bacterial transformation has fundamental similarities to homologous recombination during meiosis .
= = In viruses = =
Homologous recombination occurs in several groups of viruses . In DNA viruses such as herpesvirus , recombination occurs through a break @-@ and @-@ rejoin mechanism like in bacteria and eukaryotes . There is also evidence for recombination in some RNA viruses , specifically positive @-@ sense ssRNA viruses like retroviruses , picornaviruses , and coronaviruses . There is controversy over whether homologous recombination occurs in negative @-@ sense ssRNA viruses like influenza .
In RNA viruses , homologous recombination can be either precise or imprecise . In the precise type of RNA @-@ RNA recombination , there is no difference between the two parental RNA sequences and the resulting crossover RNA region . Because of this , it is often difficult to determine the location of crossover events between two recombining RNA sequences . In imprecise RNA homologous recombination , the crossover region has some difference with the parental RNA sequences – caused by either addition , deletion , or other modification of nucleotides . The level of precision in crossover is controlled by the sequence context of the two recombining strands of RNA : sequences rich in adenine and uracil decrease crossover precision .
Homologous recombination is important in facilitating viral evolution . For example , if the genomes of two viruses with different disadvantageous mutations undergo recombination , then they may be able to regenerate a fully functional genome . Alternatively , if two similar viruses have infected the same host cell , homologous recombination can allow those two viruses to swap genes and thereby evolve more potent variations of themselves .
Homologous recombination is the proposed mechanism whereby the DNA virus human herpesvirus @-@ 6 integrates into human telomeres .
When two or more viruses , each containing lethal genomic damage , infect the same host cell , the virus genomes can often pair with each other and undergo homologous recombinational repair to produce viable progeny . This process , known as multiplicity reactivation , has been studied in several bacteriophages , including phage T4 . Enzymes employed in recombinational repair in phage T4 are functionally homologous to enzymes employed in bacterial and eukaryotic recombinational repair . In particular , with regard to a gene necessary for the strand exchange reaction , a key step in homologous recombinational repair , there is functional homology from viruses to humans ( i. e. uvsX in phage T4 ; recA in E. coli and other bacteria , and rad51 and dmc1 in yeast and other eukaryotes , including humans ) . Multiplicity reactivation has also been demonstrated in numerous pathogenic viruses .
= = Effects of dysfunction = =
Without proper homologous recombination , chromosomes often incorrectly align for the first phase of cell division in meiosis . This causes chromosomes to fail to properly segregate in a process called nondisjunction . In turn , nondisjunction can cause sperm and ova to have too few or too many chromosomes . Down 's syndrome , which is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 , is one of many abnormalities that result from such a failure of homologous recombination in meiosis .
Deficiencies in homologous recombination have been strongly linked to cancer formation in humans . For example , each of the cancer @-@ related diseases Bloom 's syndrome , Werner 's syndrome and Rothmund @-@ Thomson syndrome are caused by malfunctioning copies of RecQ helicase genes involved in the regulation of homologous recombination : BLM , WRN and RECQ4 , respectively . In the cells of Bloom 's syndrome patients , who lack a working copy of the BLM protein , there is an elevated rate of homologous recombination . Experiments in mice deficient in BLM have suggested that the mutation gives rise to cancer through a loss of heterozygosity caused by increased homologous recombination . A loss in heterozygosity refers to the loss of one of two versions — or alleles — of a gene . If one of the lost alleles helps to suppress tumors , like the gene for the retinoblastoma protein for example , then the loss of heterozygosity can lead to cancer .
Decreased rates of homologous recombination cause inefficient DNA repair , which can also lead to cancer . This is the case with BRCA1 and BRCA2 , two similar tumor suppressor genes whose malfunctioning has been linked with considerably increased risk for breast and ovarian cancer . Cells missing BRCA1 and BRCA2 have a decreased rate of homologous recombination and increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation , suggesting that decreased homologous recombination leads to increased susceptibility to cancer . Because the only known function of BRCA2 is to help initiate homologous recombination , researchers have speculated that more detailed knowledge of BRCA2 's role in homologous recombination may be the key to understanding the causes of breast and ovarian cancer .
= = Evolutionary Conservation = =
While the pathways can mechanistically vary , the ability of organisms to perform homologous recombination is universally conserved across all domains of life . Based on the similarity of their amino acid sequences , homologs of a number of proteins can be found in multiple domains of life indicating that they evolved a long time ago , and have since diverged from common ancestral proteins .
RecA recombinase family members are found in almost all organisms with RecA in bacteria , Rad51 and DMC1 in eukaryotes , RadA in archaea , and UvsX in T4 phage .
Related single stranded binding proteins that are important for homologous recombination , and many other processes , are also found in all domains of life .
Rad54 , Mre11 , Rad50 , and a number of other proteins are also found in both archaea and eukaryotes .
= = = The RecA Recombinase Family = = =
The proteins of the RecA recombinase family of proteins are thought to be descended from a common ancestral recombinase . The RecA recombinase family contains RecA protein from bacteria , the Rad51 and Dmc1 proteins from eukaryotes , and RadA from archaea , and the recombinase paralog proteins . Studies modeling the evolutionary relationships between the Rad51 , Dmc1 and RadA proteins indicate that they are monophyletic , or that they share a common molecular ancestor . Within this protein family , Rad51 and Dmc1 are grouped together in a separate clade from RadA . One of the reasons for grouping these three proteins together is that they all possess a modified helix @-@ turn @-@ helix motif , which helps the proteins bind to DNA , toward their N @-@ terminal ends . An ancient gene duplication event of a eukaryotic RecA gene and subsequent mutation has been proposed as a likely origin of the modern RAD51 and DMC1 genes .
The proteins generally share a long conserved region known as the RecA / Rad51 domain . Within this protein domain are two sequence motifs , Walker A motif and Walker B motif . The Walker A and B motifs allow members of the RecA / Rad51 protein family to engage in ATP binding and ATP hydrolysis .
= = = Meiosis specific proteins = = =
The discovery of Dmc1 in several species of Giardia , one of the earliest protists to diverge as a eukaryote , suggests that meiotic homologous recombination — and thus meiosis itself — emerged very early in eukaryotic evolution . In addition to research on Dmc1 , studies on the Spo11 protein have provided information on the origins of meiotic recombination . Spo11 , a type II topoisomerase , can initiate homologous recombination in meiosis by making targeted double @-@ strand breaks in DNA . Phylogenetic trees based on the sequence of genes similar to SPO11 in animals , fungi , plants , protists and archaea have led scientists to believe that the version Spo11 currently in eukaryotes emerged in the last common ancestor of eukaryotes and archaea .
= = Technological applications = =
= = = Gene targeting = = =
Many methods for introducing DNA sequences into organisms to create recombinant DNA and genetically modified organisms use the process of homologous recombination . Also called gene targeting , the method is especially common in yeast and mouse genetics . The gene targeting method in knockout mice uses mouse embryonic stem cells to deliver artificial genetic material ( mostly of therapeutic interest ) , which represses the target gene of the mouse by the principle of homologous recombination . The mouse thereby acts as a working model to understand the effects of a specific mammalian gene . In recognition of their discovery of how homologous recombination can be used to introduce genetic modifications in mice through embryonic stem cells , Mario Capecchi , Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies were awarded the 2007 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine .
Advances in gene targeting technologies which hijack the homologous recombination mechanics of cells are now leading to the development of a new wave of more accurate , isogenic human disease models . These engineered human cell models are thought to more accurately reflect the genetics of human diseases than their mouse model predecessors . This is largely because mutations of interest are introduced into endogenous genes , just as they occur in the real patients , and because they are based on human genomes rather than rat genomes . Furthermore , certain technologies enable the knock @-@ in of a particular mutation rather than just knock @-@ outs associated with older gene targeting technologies .
= = = Protein engineering = = =
Protein engineering with homologous recombination develops chimeric proteins by swapping fragments between two parental proteins . These techniques exploit the fact that recombination can introduce a high degree of sequence diversity while preserving a protein 's ability to fold into its tertiary structure , or three @-@ dimensional shape . This stands in contrast to other protein engineering techniques , like random point mutagenesis , in which the probability of maintaining protein function declines exponentially with increasing amino acid substitutions . The chimeras produced by recombination techniques are able to maintain their ability to fold because their swapped parental fragments are structurally and evolutionarily conserved . These recombinable " building blocks " preserve structurally important interactions like points of physical contact between different amino acids in the protein 's structure . Computational methods like SCHEMA and statistical coupling analysis can be used to identify structural subunits suitable for recombination .
Techniques that rely on homologous recombination have been used to engineer new proteins . In a study published in 2007 , researchers were able to create chimeras of two enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of isoprenoids , a diverse class of compounds including hormones , visual pigments and certain pheromones . The chimeric proteins acquired an ability to catalyze an essential reaction in isoprenoid biosynthesis — one of the most diverse pathways of biosynthesis found in nature — that was absent in the parent proteins . Protein engineering through recombination has also produced chimeric enzymes with new function in members of a group of proteins known as the cytochrome P450 family , which in humans is involved in detoxifying foreign compounds like drugs , food additives and preservatives .
= = = Cancer therapy = = =
Cancer cells with BRCA mutations have deficiencies in homologous recombination , and drugs to exploit those deficiencies have been developed and used successfully in clinical trials . Olaparib , a PARP1 inhibitor , shrunk or stopped the growth of tumors from breast , ovarian and prostate cancers caused by mutations in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes , which are necessary for HR . When BRCA1 or BRCA2 is absent , other types of DNA repair mechanisms must compensate for the deficiency of HR , such as base @-@ excision repair ( BER ) for stalled replication forks or non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) for double strand breaks . By inhibiting BER in an HR @-@ deficient cell , olaparib applies the concept of synthetic lethality to specifically target cancer cells . While PARP1 inhibitors represent a novel approach to cancer therapy , researchers have cautioned that they may prove insufficient for treating late @-@ stage metastatic cancers . Cancer cells can become resistant to a PARP1 inhibitor if they undergo deletions of mutations in BRCA2 , undermining the drug 's synthetic lethality by restoring cancer cells ' ability to repair DNA by HR .
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= Ronnie Mann =
Ronnie Mann ( born 12 October 1986 ) is an English professional mixed martial artist who competes in the featherweight division . A professional MMA competitor since 2003 , Mann has mostly fought in England and Japan .
Mann is a veteran of the former top English organisation Cage Rage Championships and was a quarter @-@ finalist in the Sengoku Featherweight Grand Prix in 2009 , losing to Hatsu Hioki . Mann is also the current Shark Fights Featherweight champion , after defeating Doug Evans in September 2010 .
= = Mixed martial arts career = =
= = = Background and early career = = =
Mann grew up in Cheltenham , England . Mann also idolised Marco Ruas and Royce Gracie as a youngster after being introduced to the Ultimate Fighting Championship . Mann began taking Muay Thai lessons at the age of 11 and participated in jiu @-@ jitsu and kickboxing tournaments at the age of 13 . Mann competed in his first amateur fight at the age of 16 and turned professional a year later . In Japan , he fought under the name of Ronnie Ushiwaka , his mother 's maiden name . ( His Mothers Maiden Name was Promlert ( THAI ) Mann 's professional mixed martial arts career began in November 2003 with a win over Andy Dicks . A few months later , Mann made his Shooto debut , at Shooto Holland where he won via triangle choke after 56 seconds . Staying in Holland , Mann won a further fight , knocking his opponent out in under two minutes . Mann then recorded five successive submission victories .
= = = Domestic prominence = = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Mann signed with top domestic organisation , Cage Rage and made his promotional debut at the Cage Rage : Contenders 1 event against Ashleigh Grimshaw . Mann later stated that the fight was one of his toughest , especially after being hit with an early low blow . The organisation , at the time , adopted the " open guard rule , " allowing fighters to stomp on each other . At the end of the third round , the fight was declared a draw , despite Mann feeling that he had the better of the fight , after a knockdown in the first round and a triangle choke attempt in the second round .
Mann later joined the Cage Gladiators promotion in England and made his promotional debut at Cage Gladiators 2 , against Denas Banevicius , winning via submission ( strikes ) at 1 : 42 of the first round . Three months later , Mann returned at Cage Gladiators 3 , defeating Chris Freeborn via submission ( triangle choke ) at 2 : 46 of the first round .
At Cage Rage 20 , in a rematch with Ashleigh Grimshaw , whom Mann had earlier drawn with , Mann controlled the stand @-@ up and the top position on the floor . Towards the end of the fight , Grimshaw attempted a comeback , utilising ground @-@ and @-@ pound offense , though Mann was declared the winner via unanimous decision after three rounds .
Mann 's next fight ( and third in the Cage Rage organisation ) was against top domestic prospect , Robbie Olivier . The fight saw both fighters neutralise the other 's ground game . In the stand @-@ up , Mann was regarded as being unusually tentative , which gave Olivier the opportunity to take him to the floor , where again , neither fighter was able to advance position or do anything of note . After three rounds , Olivier was declared the winner via unanimous decision .
At Cage Rage 24 , Mann faced Jordan Miller , who took the fight at short notice . Mann was able to take Miller down almost immediately in the fight and took a rear naked choke . Mann dominated from that point and soon after , transitioned to a triangle choke after just 53 seconds of the first round .
After this , Cage Rage became defunct and Mann re @-@ joined Cage Gladiators , immediately competing against Frederic Fernandez for the Cage Gladiators World Featherweight Championship at the Cage Gladiators 6 event . Mann was able to utilise his wrestling skills again , dominating the takedowns , neutralising his opponent . Mann was able to take the unanimous decision after effective striking , leading Sherdog to once again label him " a star in the making . "
Mann was then scheduled to face future World Extreme Cagefighting standout Brad Pickett , though the fight was later cancelled after Pickett suffered a broken arm defending a high kick .
Mann instead took a fight in Croatia , defeating Ivica Djebic via TKO ( injury ) . Returning to Cage Gladiators at the Cage Gladiators 8 event , Mann defeated Steve McCombe via submission ( choke ) in the first round .
= = = Sengoku = = =
Mann then signed with Sengoku Raiden Championship in Japan , to participate in their Featherweight Grand Prix . In the opening round , Mann faced Tetsuya Yamada and defeated him via unanimous decision ( 30 – 29 , 30 – 29 , 30 – 29 ) . During the first round of the fight , Mann was able to land powerful punches , before falling into a deep kneebar attempt from Yamada . After escaping , Mann was able to gain top position to end the first round . The second round saw Yamada attempt a standing Kimura , which was fought off by Mann , who was later able to take down Yamada twice , whilst fighting off a second kimura attempt . The final round saw poor kickboxing attempts by Yamada , which was countered by two takedowns . Finally , Mann looked to utilise an ankle lock , which was reversed into another kneebar by Yamada . After the third round ended , Mann was declared the winner via decision .
In the quarter finals of the tournament , Mann faced early tournament favourite , Hatsu Hioki who had previously defeated World Extreme Cagefighting veteran Chris Manuel . Mann weighed in at 142 @.@ 6 lbs , whilst Hioki , who was unbeaten in his last seven fights , weighed in at 143 @.@ 3 lbs . Mann stated that " [ I ] plan for an exciting and explosive fight . "
During the fight , Mann was able to land several successful punches , before Hioki took Mann down with a trip , where he was able to land knees and execute a D 'arce choke . After scrambling to avoid an armbar attempt , Mann fell to a triangle choke , tapping out at 3 : 09 of the first round . After the fight , Mann stated " I started off well , standing up , but I fell into his game . Fell into his trap . The punches were only small punches , but it was the triangle that was slowly coming on , so in the end , I tapped . "
After his elimination from the Featherweight Grand Prix , Mann competed in his third fight in Sengoku against Shigeki Osawa , who Sherdog labelled a talented young prospect . After three rounds , Mann was victorious , via unanimous decision .
= = = Move to North America = = =
Mann still had one more fight left on his Sengoku contract and also expressed a desire to join World Extreme Cagefighting and eventually fight Featherweight Champion Jose Aldo .
Despite his contract with Sengoku , Mann went on to make his North American debut against Doug Evans on 11 September 2010 at Shark Fights 13 . The bout saw Mann hit Evans with multiple combinations and low kicks , before utilising a flying knee . Evans counter @-@ attacked with takedowns , which he kept up into the final round . Mann won the bout via split decision ( 47 – 48 , 48 – 47 , 48 – 47 ) to become the new Shark Fights Featherweight champion .
= = = Bellator Fighting Championships = = =
On 17 February , it was announced Mann had signed with Bellator Fighting Championships . He had his first fight for the promotion against Josh Arocho at Bellator 42 . Mann was able to dominate the fight with superior wrestling and won the fight via unanimous decision ( 30 @-@ 25 , 30 @-@ 27 , 30 @-@ 27 ) .
That win earned Mann a place in the Bellator 2011 Summer Series Featherweight Tournament where he faced Adam Schindler at Bellator 46 in his quarter final match @-@ up . Mann stuffed all attempts from the wrestler to take the fight to the ground before he scored a stunning first round KO win with a right uppercut left hook combination which dropped Schindler before swarming on him with hammerfists to leave him unconscious on the mat .
Mann faced Pat Curran in the Featherweight tournament semifinals at Bellator 47 . He lost the fight via unanimous decision .
Mann fought Kenny Foster at Bellator 53 for a spot in the next Featherweight tournament . He dominated the stand @-@ up but then got taken down which gave him the opportunity to finish via submission ( triangle choke ) in the first round .
Mann was defeated by Mike Corey via unanimous decision ( 29 @-@ 28 , 29 @-@ 28 , 29 @-@ 28 ) in the Bellator Season Six Featherweight Tournament . In the first round he dropped Corey twice , but was outwrestled in the next two to lose the decision .
= = = Cage Warriors = = =
On 6 June 2013 Cage Warriors announced that they signed Mann to a five fight deal . He is scheduled to meet Jose Luis Zapater at Cage Warriors 57 . And he would go on to defeat Zapater by way of TKO ( punches ) in the 1st round .
He next fought Marat Pekov at Cage Warriors Fight Night 9 on 25 October 2013 . He won the fight via unanimous decision .
Mann faced Marcelo Costa at Cage Warriors 68 on 3 May 2014 . Mann lost the fight via rear naked choke in the second round .
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Shark Fights
Shark Fights Featherweight Championship ( One time )
= = Mixed martial arts record = =
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= Man Enters the Cosmos =
Man Enters the Cosmos is a cast bronze sculpture by Henry Moore located on the Lake Michigan lakefront outside the Adler Planetarium in the Museum Campus area of downtown Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . The planetarium , which is both a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places , is located in the Near South Side community area of Chicago . Moore 's sculpture is a functional bowstring equatorial sundial created in 1980 measuring approximately 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . The sundial was formerly located slightly further south at the steps of the main entry plaza to the Planetarium , but it now sits directly on the lakefront . The work is a later copy of a composition first created in the 1960s for the offices of The Times newspaper at Printing House Square in London , and according to the Henry Moore Foundation is titled Sundial 1965 @-@ 66 .
= = Details = =
The sundial has two plaques on its base . The one on the left is a commemorative one discussing the benefactor and purpose of the sculpture . The benefactor of the sculpture was the B.F. Ferguson Monument fund , which has commissioned several works of art throughout Chicago . Many of the Ferguson fund 's commissioned works , such as the Fountain of the Great Lakes , are housed in and on the grounds of the Art Institute of Chicago or elsewhere in Grant Park . The purpose of the commission was to recognize the space exploration program . The plaque on the right is an equation of time table to correct for the time differences caused by the axial tilt of the Earth as well as its orbital eccentricity . As the plaque indicates with an additional correction , the equation of time table does not correct for daylight saving time .
Like most of Moore 's work completed after 1954 , this was a modeled sculpture instead of a direct carving . The sculpture is composed of two bronze semicircles , one set inside and at right angles to the other and a slim bronze rod that extends from one end of the outer semicircle to the other that serves as the gnomon ( indicator ) . The bowstring equatorial sundial derives its name from the appearance of the shadow @-@ casting gnomon , which resembles a bow string . The shadow of the rod projects onto the inner semicircle , which serves as the dial face ( or dial plate ) , to mark the time of day when there is sufficient sunlight to produce shadows .
Over the course of the year different sections of the rod serve as the style , which is the part of the gnomon that indicates the time by casting its shadow on the dial face . At the summer solstice , when the Sun is highest ( farthest above the equatorial plane ) , the style is closest to the top of the rod , and at the winter solstice , when the Sun is lowest , it is closest to the bottom . At the equinoxes , when the Sun is on the equatorial plane , the style is exactly in the center of the length of the rod . The style of the equatorial sundial is parallel to the Earth 's axis of rotation .
This type of sundial is known as an equatorial sundial because the plane of the dial face is parallel to the Earth 's equatorial plane . Two primary examples of modified equatorial sundials are bowstring equatorial and armillary dials . Both of these modified equatorial sundials can be read year @-@ round on the same surface , regardless of whether the Sun is above or below the equatorial plane whereas a standard equatorial sundial changes sides with each equinox and is virtually unreadable near the equinoxes when the Sun is located on the equatorial plane .
Between 1997 and 1999 , The Adler Planetarium added a sky pavilion to the original 1930 architecture . When it did so , the roads were moved and the sundial was moved to its current location . The move was performed by contractors of the Adler Planetarium in two phases . First , the sculpture was removed and placed in storage to make way for the current roadway . It was later moved to its current position after the new roadway was built and the old roadway was replaced with a walkway . Now , a u @-@ turn in Solidarity Drive runs through the original location of the sundial , and the sundial is located on the walkway that replaced the previous roadway that went around the planetarium . The new location and the u @-@ turn can be seen on a Museum Campus map . This construction was contemporaneous with the $ 100 million project that reconfigured of traffic around the Museum Campus and caused Lake Shore Drive to be moved during the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Moore in Chicago = =
When Moore was alive , he took pride in viewing his sculptures in the open @-@ air environment . He once said he would prefer to see his sculptures in any open landscape than in even the most beautiful buildings he knew . Including this sculpture , Moore has a total of four public sculptures that are listed in the Smithsonian Institution 's Research Information System ( SIRIS ) on display outdoors , in Chicago . All of them are bronze . His Nuclear Energy is situated on the campus of the University of Chicago at the site of the first self @-@ sustaining nuclear reaction , which is listed in the National Register of Historic Places . The site is also listed as a National Historic Landmark , and Chicago Landmark . Other Chicago works include Large Interior Form , which is located in the north garden at the Art Institute of Chicago , and Reclining Figure , which is on loan to the University of Chicago and which is located in the Cochrane @-@ Woods Art Center courtyard . The Henry Moore Foundation lists several other indoor Chicago works at locations such as the Art Institute of Chicago and The Smart Museum .
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= Never Been Kissed ( Glee ) =
" Never Been Kissed " is the sixth episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ eighth episode overall . It was written by Brad Falchuk , directed by Bradley Buecker and premiered on Fox on November 9 , 2010 . In " Never Been Kissed " , the glee club members are assigned a boys against girls singing competition . The bullying of club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) intensifies , but he meets a new ally in Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) , the lead singer of a rival glee club . Puck ( Mark Salling ) is released from juvenile detention and forms a friendship with Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) , and football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) is hurt when she learns that several of the students are visualizing her to quell their amorous moods .
The episode began a story arc about bullying which spanned the remainder of the season . It coincided with a spate of suicides among bullied youths , which reportedly gave the cast and crew additional inspiration to do their best work . Six songs were covered — four in the form of two mash @-@ ups — and all were released as singles which charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . Critics were less enthused by the mash @-@ ups than the other performances ; Criss 's cover of " Teenage Dream " was particularly well @-@ received , and became the first Glee single to top the Billboard Digital Songs chart .
10 @.@ 99 million US viewers watched " Never Been Kissed " . It was one of six episodes that were submitted to the judges for Glee 's nomination in the Outstanding Comedy Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . Jones received an Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series nomination for her work on the show , and submitted this episode for judging . Reviewers approved of her performance but were very critical of her storyline and polarized by the plotting of the bullying story , though they generally approved of the episode 's Puck and Artie sub @-@ plot .
= = Plot = =
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) announces the second New Directions boys against girls singing competition . He later sees a shaken Kurt Hummel in the hallway — he had been slammed against a locker by school bully Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) — and takes Kurt to his office to recover . Kurt criticizes both the school 's failure to act against homophobic bullying and the lack of challenge in the club 's competition ; Will decides to modify the assignment to have the teams perform songs by groups of the opposite gender . Kurt is happier with the new spin , but the other boys are unreceptive to his ideas for their team . Puck is especially dismissive , and suggests that he go spy on the Dalton Academy Warblers , one of their competitors at the forthcoming Sectionals round of show choir competition . The girls ' team decides on and sings a mash @-@ up of " Start Me Up / Livin ' on a Prayer " .
Kurt visits Dalton Academy , an all @-@ boys private school , and watches the Warblers perform " Teenage Dream " . He is befriended by lead singer Blaine Anderson , who is also gay and encourages Kurt to stand up for himself . The next time he is attacked by Karofsky , Kurt confronts him in the boys ' locker room , and as the argument intensifies he is kissed by Karofsky , which leaves Kurt stunned . After Kurt tells Blaine of this , he and Kurt later try to talk to Karofsky about the difficulties and confusion his homosexual feelings must be causing him , but he denies that anything happened and soon returns to bullying Kurt .
Puck has been granted early release from juvenile detention on the condition that he performs community service . He picks Artie Abrams , a paraplegic , to fulfill that service , and the two busk in the school courtyard . They sing a duet of " One Love / People Get Ready " while Puck surreptitiously intimidates their schoolmates into giving donations . He then helps Artie get back together with Brittany Pierce ( Heather Morris ) , by setting up a double date with them and Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) . Puck 's caseworker Joan Martin ( Michael Hyatt ) had believed he was working to rehabilitate gang members , and tells him he will have to return to the detention center unless he finds an alternative type of service . Puck admits to Artie that despite his bravado , he was miserable when locked up and does not want to return ; Artie convinces him to complete the required real community service and offers to tutor him in school .
Some members of New Directions , who need to cool their arousal while making out , discover that picturing football coach Shannon Beiste is very effective . When she finds out about their technique , Beiste is deeply hurt and submits her resignation . Will attempts to convince her to stay , and gives her a friendly kiss when she admits she has never been kissed . He then invites Beiste to watch the boys ' competition performance ; they apologize , dedicate their mash @-@ up of " Stop ! In the Name of Love / Free Your Mind " to her , and win her forgiveness .
= = Production = =
" Never Been Kissed " was written by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , directed by Bradley Buecker , and premiered on November 9 , 2010 . It launched a story arc about bullying , which Glee co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy had been building to for a season and a half . He explained that he wanted Kurt to reach a point where he would not accept the abusive treatment he received any more , and planned to follow the developments through the rest of the year , as all of the other characters were affected . The revelation that Karofsky 's antagonism stemmed from his own homosexual feelings was based on a personal acquaintance of Murphy 's . After the episode had been written , a spate of suicides occurred around the nation among teenage victims of bullying , which Murphy said added extra significance to " Never Been Kissed " and " ignite [ d ] the cast and the crew to do their best and push themselves with the story . "
The episode introduced Criss as Blaine , a gay member of a rival glee club , the Dalton Academy Warblers . In September 2010 , a casting call was released for an actor to portray a " cute , charismatic , gay high school junior " who would lead a competing glee club . Criss had auditioned for Glee several times before , once for the role of Finn Hudson . The character breakdown for Blaine was the first he believed he had a chance of securing , and indeed his audition was successful . Blaine was introduced primarily as a mentor to Kurt . Criss explained , " At this point , Kurt 's [ sexuality ] has been such a sense of discord in his life . Blaine finds [ being gay ] empowering . He embraces who he is , and sees Kurt [ struggling with ] the same things that he had to deal with , and I think he wants to impart that knowledge . " Murphy described Blaine as a character with " great self @-@ loathing " and regret for having run away from his own tormentors ; he intended this to form part of his story arc for the season , as Blaine tries to set right some past mistakes . Neither he nor Criss knew whether Blaine would eventually become Kurt 's boyfriend — a role originally intended for new club member Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) until the producers decided to change Sam to heterosexual and paired him with Quinn — but based on the characters ' chemistry and the " immediate outcry " from fans who wanted to see them as a couple , Murphy later decided to pair them romantically .
Other recurring characters who appeared were glee club members Sam and Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , jock bully Dave Karofsky , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , students Jacob Ben Israel ( Josh Sussman ) and Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) , and Coach Shannon Beiste . Although Beiste 's physical appearance was used as comedy in the episode , Jones was not offended ; she called it hysterical , said " it serves a purpose for the message " and hoped " maybe it will make people think outside of the show . " Murphy intended her storyline to highlight the fact that bullying can be damaging without necessarily being overt . He stated : " Th [ e ] episode is completely about accountability . If you can change any young impressionable minds and make them aware of the consequences of their actions and all different forms of cruelty , I think that ’ s a great , great gift . " Telly Leung and Titus Makin , Jr. guest starred as Wes and David respectively , two additional members of the Dalton Academy Warblers . Hyatt guest starred as Joan Martin , Puck 's probation officer .
The episode featured cover versions of " Teenage Dream " by Katy Perry , " One Love / People Get Ready " by Bob Marley & the Wailers , and mash @-@ ups of The Rolling Stones ' " Start Me Up " with Bon Jovi 's " Livin ' on a Prayer " , and The Supremes ' " Stop ! In the Name of Love " with En Vogue 's " Free Your Mind " . All of the songs performed were released as singles , available for download , and " Teenage Dream " and " One Love / People Get Ready " are featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . " Teenage Dream " was later also included as the opening track on the seventh soundtrack album , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers . The background vocals of " Teenage Dream " were provided by collegiate a cappella group the Beelzebubs from Tufts University .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
During its original broadcast , " Never Been Kissed " was watched by 10 @.@ 99 million American viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . Its rating was a season low to that point ; however , Glee was the top @-@ rated show for the night of broadcast in all under @-@ 50 categories . It was the most @-@ viewed scripted show of the week amongst adults 18 – 49 , and ranked twenty @-@ first amongst all viewers . In Australia , the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 081 million viewers , a decline from previous weeks , which was attributed by David Dale of The Sydney Morning Herald to many regular viewers being away on Schoolies week . In Canada , 1 @.@ 97 million viewers watched the episode , placing twelfth for the week . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 64 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 20 million on E4 , and 438 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , which made it the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Accolades = = =
Glee was nominated in the Outstanding Comedy Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards : " Never Been Kissed " was one of six episodes submitted for consideration , paired with the season 's fourth episode , " Duets " . Jones received an Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series nomination for her work on Glee 's second season , and submitted her performance in the episode for final judging .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Never Been Kissed " received mixed reviews from critics , who were polarized by Kurt 's storyline . While CNN 's Lisa Respers France thought it was Glee 's best episode thus far and IGN 's Robert Canning rated it 9 out of 10 , which signifies an outstanding episode , Linda Holmes of National Public Radio dismissed it as " one of the most facile and emotionally inauthentic episodes the show has ever produced " , and Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club deemed it a failure on " almost every level . " The Huffington Post 's Leah Anthony Libresco found it an " extraordinarily counterproductive " response to the string of teenage gay suicides in early 2010 . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle and James Poniewozik of Time approved of the storyline in principle — the former opined that Glee 's willingness to raise mainstream awareness of such issues was " incredibly courageous " , and the latter appreciated that it would span a multi @-@ episode arc — but both were critical of its depiction in practice .
Many elements of the plot were highlighted as being problematic . Holmes felt that Karofsky 's swift transition from bullying to kissing Kurt was absurd and " emotionally unsound " . Libresco disapproved of Will for treating Kurt 's upset as the key problem , rather than the unchecked bullying which provoked it . She found Blaine 's advice to Kurt " misleading and dangerous " , especially the suggestion that targeted children should be held responsible for confronting their attackers and putting themselves at risk of further injury , rather than for protecting themselves . VanDerWerff and Poniewozik were critical of Dalton Academy : the former found its tolerance unrealistic and the latter was disappointed that Glee declined to depict a flawed high school tackling bullying in favor of creating " an almost otherworldly paradise " . Poniewozik also noted that the storyline was inherently flawed , as the show had previously treated bullying in a light @-@ hearted manner , but opined that its saving grace was the focus it placed on Colfer , " probably the strongest actor with the most interesting character among the Glee kids " .
Further praise for Colfer 's performance came from Canning and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack , who approved of the episode for its depiction of there being no simple solution to the bullying . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times commented that it was testament to the writers and cast that Karofsky 's kiss startled the audience as much as it did Kurt , and commended the transitioning of Karofsky from a faceless jock into " a nuanced character with a back story and hidden motives of his own . " MTV 's Aly Semigran wrote that , should the episode inspire a single teenager to have courage in the face of discrimination , or re @-@ consider bullying , it would be an impressive accomplishment .
The Beiste storyline was met with criticism . Reiter questioned why Beiste was made to look to high school students to " gauge her own desirability " , an element she found " hazy and creepy " . Poniewozik criticized the depiction of Beiste as an object of pity , and felt that Will 's behavior was worse than the students ' when he acted with " amazing condescension " and kissed her . Both Poniewozik and Semigran disliked the way viewers were made complicit in Beiste 's humiliation by being invited to laugh at her expense , and Holmes criticized Glee for denying Beiste dignity , with the observation that such a plot would never have been given to Kurt . VanDerWerff commented negatively on the way Glee plays up Beiste 's " masculine nature " while simultaneously lecturing viewers against mocking her . He called the kiss " somehow both heartfelt and completely horrifying " . Canning praised Jones in her " best performance this season " , as well as Beiste 's " raw and real " confession to Will .
The Puck sub @-@ plot received generally positive reviews . Poniewozik called it the " best and most authentic of the night " , with praise for Salling 's performance , and Canning felt that it served well as a comical break from the episode 's other storylines . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair enjoyed the additional depth given to Puck , and he , Stack and New York 's Rebecca Milzoff commented positively on Puck 's budding friendship with Artie . VanDerWerff deemed it the episode 's " least objectionable " storyline , though wrote that the awkward inclusion of their duet , the abruptness of Artie 's feelings for Brittany , and the " forced nature " of the scene in which Puck confesses that he does not want to return to juvenile detention all " conspired to keep the storyline from lifting off . "
= = = Music and performances = = =
Reviews of the episode 's musical numbers were also mixed , with the mash @-@ ups less favorably received than the other performances . Canning felt that the songs intruded on the storytelling . Hankinson wrote that the mash @-@ ups were " shoehorned in [ to an ] already over @-@ stuffed hour " , and Emily Yahr of The Washington Post said they served " no real purpose " .
BuddyTV 's Jen Harper enjoyed the harmonies and simple arrangement of " One Love / People Get Ready " , and Anthony Benigno of the Daily News gave it an " A " , with praise for the vocals . Stack graded it " B- " . He called it a " nice performance " , but incongruous in context , a concern shared by Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone , who preferred Salling 's rendition of " Only the Good Die Young " in the episode " Grilled Cheesus " .
Perry expressed approval of the cover of her song , " Teenage Dream " , through the social networking website Twitter . Harper found the choreography uncomfortable viewing , and Hanh Nguyen of Zap2it agreed that the performers appeared to be " rockin ' out a bit too much to it " , but felt that the song worked " remarkably well " overall . Futterman deemed it the best song of the episode , and appreciated that it was more understated than numbers performed by rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline during the show 's first season . Stack went further and called the performance one of his favorites on Glee ; he enjoyed the choreography and arrangement and graded it " A + " . Benigno again gave the song an " A " ; he called it " flawless " and an improvement on Perry 's original . In December 2012 , TV Guide named the rendition one of Glee 's best performances .
The girls ' Bon Jovi – Rolling Stones mash @-@ up was received favorably by Stack and Milzoff — the former graded it " A " , the latter called it " brash and fun " , and both writers appreciated the black leather costumes . While Harper also liked the costumes and the energetic performance , she felt it " paled in comparison " to the last mash @-@ up the girls performed , in the season one episode " Vitamin D " . Futterman commented that the costumes and choreography overwhelmed the vocals , to the point of being " a little too Miley and not enough Glee " . Benigno called the song a " cacophony " and gave it his lowest performance grade of the episode , a " D " . He suggested that Glee had been responsible for " reviving the mashup fad " , but hoped the girls ' performance would serve to end it again . The boys ' Supremes – En Vogue mash @-@ up was graded " A " by Stack , who liked the combination of artists . Harper preferred the girls ' costumes but felt the boys gave the better performance , while Futterman found it overly @-@ sentimental in context , but also preferred it to the girls ' song . Benigno gave it a " C " , and commented , " Not quite the debacle the previous mash @-@ up was , but given how fantastic this episode was , the sendoff should 've been better . "
= = = Chart history = = =
All four of the cover versions featured debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and appeared on other musical charts . On the Hot 100 , the show 's rendition of " Teenage Dream " debuted at number eight , and sold 55 @,@ 000 downloads on its first day and a total of 214 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , the best first @-@ day and first @-@ week sales numbers for any Glee Cast single . It was the first Glee single to top Billboard 's Digital Songs chart , and debuted at number ten on the Canadian Hot 100 . " Teenage Dream " was also the first single since the pilot 's " Don 't Stop Believin ' " to be certified gold in the US . The other three songs on the Hot 100 were " Start Me Up / Livin ' on a Prayer " at number thirty @-@ one , which also made number twenty @-@ two on the Canadian Hot 100 ; " Stop ! In the Name of Love / Free Your Mind " at number thirty @-@ eight , which also made number twenty @-@ eight on the Canadian Hot 100 ; and " One Love / People Get Ready " at number forty @-@ one , which also made number thirty @-@ two on the Canadian Hot 100 .
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= Wet season =
The rainy season , or monsoon season , is the time of year when most of a region 's average annual rainfall occurs . It usually lasts one or more months . The term " green season " is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities . Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics .
Under the Köppen climate classification , for tropical climates , a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) or more . In contrast to areas with savanna climates and monsoon regimes , Mediterranean climates have wet winters and dry summers . Dry and rainy months are characteristic of tropical seasonal forests : in contrast to tropical rainforests , which do not have dry or wet seasons , since their rainfall is equally distributed throughout the year . Some areas with pronounced rainy seasons will see a break in rainfall mid @-@ season , when the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough moves to higher latitudes in the middle of the warm season .
When the wet season occurs during a warm season , or summer , precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon and early evening . In the wet season , air quality improves , fresh water quality improves , and vegetation grows substantially , leading to crop yields late in the season . Rivers overflow their banks , and some animals retreat to higher ground . Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases . The incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures , particularly in tropical areas . Some animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wet season . Often , the previous dry season leads to food shortages in the wet season , as the crops have yet to mature .
= = Character of the rainfall = =
In areas where the heavy rainfall is associated with a wind shift , the wet season is known as the monsoon . Rainfall in the wet season is mainly due to daytime heating which leads to diurnal thunderstorm activity within a pre @-@ existing moist airmass , so the rain mainly falls in late afternoon and early evening in savannah and monsoon regions . Further , much of the total rainfall each day occurs in the first minutes of the downpour , before the storms mature into their stratiform stage . Most places have only one wet season , but areas of the tropics can have two wet seasons , because the monsoon trough , or Intertropical Convergence Zone , can pass over locations in the tropics twice per year . However , since rain forests have rainfall spread evenly through the year , they do not have a wet season .
It is different for places with a Mediterranean climate . In the western United States , during the cold season from September – May , extratropical cyclones from the Pacific Ocean move inland into the region due to a southward migration of the jet stream during the cold season . This shift in the jet stream brings much of the annual precipitation to the region , and sometimes also brings heavy rain and strong low pressure systems . The peninsula of Italy has weather very similar to the western United States in this regard .
= = Areas affected = =
Areas with a savanna climate in Sub @-@ Saharan Africa , such as Ghana , Burkina Faso , Darfur , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Botswana have a distinct rainy season . Also within the savanna climate regime , Florida and South Texas have a rainy season . Monsoon regions include Southeast Asia ( including Indonesia and Philippines ) , northern sections of Australia 's North , Polynesia , Central America , western and southern Mexico , the Desert Southwest of the United States , southern Guyana , portions of northeast Brazil .
Northern Guyana has two wet seasons : one in early spring and the other in early winter . In western Africa , there are two rainy seasons across southern sections , but only one across the north . Within the Mediterranean climate regime , the west coast of the United States and the Mediterranean coastline of Italy , Greece , and Turkey experience a wet season in the winter months . Similarly , the wet season in the Negev desert of Israel extends from October through May . At the boundary between the Mediterranean and monsoon climates lies the Sonoran desert , which receives the two rainy seasons associated with each climate regime .
The wet season is known by many different local names throughout the world . For example , in Mexico it is known as " storm season " . Different names are given to the various short " seasons " of the year by the Aboriginal tribes of Northern Australia : the wet season typically experienced there from December to March is called Gudjewg . The precise meaning of the word is fairly disputable , although it is widely accepted to relate to the severe thunderstorms , flooding , and abundant vegetation growth commonly experienced at this time .
= = Effects = =
In tropical areas , when the monsoon arrives , high daytime high temperatures drop and overnight low temperatures increase . During the wet season , a combination of heavy rainfall and , in some places such as Hong Kong , an onshore wind , improve air quality . In Brazil , the wet season is correlated with weaker trade winds off the ocean . The pH level of water becomes more balanced due to the charging of local aquifers during the wet season . Water also softens , as the concentration of dissolved materials reduces during the rainy season . Erosion is also increased during rainy periods . Arroyos that are dry at other times of the year fill with runoff , in some cases with water as deep as 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Leaching of soils during periods of heavy rainfall depletes nutrients . The higher runoff from land masses affects nearby ocean areas , which are more stratified , or less mixed , due to stronger surface currents forced by the heavy rainfall runoff .
= = = Floods = = =
High rainfall can cause widespread flooding , which can lead to landslides and mudflows in mountainous areas . Such floods cause rivers to burst their banks and submerge homes . The Ghaggar @-@ Hakra River , which only flows during India 's monsoon season , can flood and severely damage local crops . Floods can be exacerbated by fires during the previous dry season , which cause soils which are sandy or composed of loam to become hydrophobic , or water repellent . In various ways governments may help people deal with wet season floods . Flood plain mapping identifies which areas are more prone to flooding . Instructions on controlling erosion through outreach are also provided by telephone or the internet .
= = Life adaptations = =
= = = Humans = = =
The wet season is the main period of vegetation growth within the Savanna climate regime . However , this also means that wet season is a time for food shortages before crops reach their full maturity . This causes seasonal weight changes for people in developing countries , with a drop occurring during the wet season until the time of the first harvest , when weights rebound . Malaria incidence increases during periods of high temperature and heavy rainfall .
= = = Animals = = =
Cows calve , or give birth , at the beginning of the wet season . The onset of the rainy season signals the departure of the Monarch butterfly from Mexico . Tropical species of butterflies show larger dot markings on their wings to fend off possible predators and are more active during the wet season than the dry season . Within the tropics and warmer areas of the subtropics , decreased salinity of near shore wetlands due to the rains causes an increase in crocodile nesting . Other species , such as the arroyo toad , spawn within the couple of months after the seasonal rains . Armadillos and rattlesnakes seek higher ground .
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= McLaren MP4 @-@ 30 =
The McLaren MP4 @-@ 30 was a Formula One racing car designed by Tim Goss and Neil Oatley for McLaren to compete in the 2015 Formula One season . The car was driven by 2005 and 2006 World Drivers ' Champion Fernando Alonso , who returned to McLaren eight years after he last drove for the team and 2009 World Champion Jenson Button . Kevin Magnussen , who drove for the team in 2014 , temporarily stood in for Alonso after a test accident . Additional testing and development work was carried out by Magnussen , Stoffel Vandoorne and Oliver Turvey . The car was the first built by McLaren since the MP4 / 7A — which contested the 1992 season — to be powered by a Honda engine , known as the RA615H , after McLaren ended their twenty @-@ year partnership with Mercedes at the end of the 2014 season .
The car was nicknamed the " size zero Formula One car " by the team for its distinct sharply tapered rear end , which was achieved by designing the Honda engine to operate at higher temperatures than other engines . At the end of the season , the car recorded a best finish of fifth place at the Hungarian Grand Prix , and had scored just twenty @-@ seven points , leaving McLaren ninth in the World Constructors ' Championship . Button and Alonso were classified in sixteenth and seventeenth positions respectively , in the World Drivers ' Championship , while Magnussen was not formally classified , as he did not start the one race that he entered . This made 2015 the most difficult season in Formula One that the team had endured in thirty @-@ five years , as a string of technical problems and retirements compromised the car 's performance . An analysis of the project pointed towards failure in communication between McLaren and Honda , Honda under @-@ estimating the technology required for the engine , and critical faults in the engine 's design , as the cause of the team 's problems .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Design team = = =
Having developed the McLaren MP4 @-@ 29 in 2014 , Tim Goss and Neil Oatley returned to design and build the MP4 @-@ 30 . Peter Prodromou , who previously worked for McLaren between 1991 and 2006 , was recruited back to the team from Red Bull Racing — where he had served as the team 's Head of Aerodynamics — to aid in designing the MP4 @-@ 30 and to oversee the team 's trackside operations alongside former Sauber designer Matt Morris .
The RA615H engine was developed at Honda 's Automobile Research and Development facilities in Utsunomiya in Tochigi Prefecture — the same facility used to develop the Honda Civic WTCC for use in the World Touring Car Championship and the Honda NSX @-@ GT to compete in the Japanese Super GT championship — with the project led by Yasuhisa Arai .
= = = Early development = = =
Honda had previously competed in Formula One as a constructor when they purchased British American Racing in 2006 , before selling the team to Brawn GP ahead of the 2009 season . With the sport introducing a brand @-@ new engine formula in 2014 and Mercedes , their engine @-@ supplier , establishing their own team , McLaren sought a new engine supplier with a view to a long @-@ term relationship . The partnership with Honda was first announced in May 2013 , and the RA615H engine spent the next eighteen months in development . The team used Mercedes ' PU106A Hybrid engine in the McLaren MP4 @-@ 29 throughout the 2014 season .
Development of the McLaren MP4 @-@ 30 started with the McLaren MP4 @-@ 29H / 1X1 , a variation of the MP4 @-@ 29 that was developed to test the new engine . The car made appearances at test sessions at the Silverstone and Yas Marina Circuits , where it was driven by McLaren 's testing and development driver Stoffel Vandoorne . The testing programme of the MP4 @-@ 29H / 1X1 was limited by technical problems with the engine that prevented significant running and the chassis was shelved following its appearance at Yas Marina , with the team carrying the engine over to the MP4 @-@ 30 chassis ahead of the first pre @-@ season test of the 2015 season at Jerez de la Frontera . The car was the first of the 2015 entries to pass its mandatory crash tests , getting final approval from the FIA in December 2014 .
= = = Pre @-@ season testing = = =
The MP4 @-@ 30 made its début at the first pre @-@ season test at the Circuito de Jerez . The team endured a difficult start , with the RA615H engine suffering from a series of recurring mechanical faults that restricted the team 's running over the four days , and they finished the test having completed the least amount of mileage among those present . The issues that had plagued the car were not resolved in time for the second test at the Circuit de Barcelona @-@ Catalunya , prompting McLaren to replace some parts supplied by Honda with parts that they had developed independently in 2014 . The team finally managed to get some substantial running in during the final test in Barcelona ; after completing just seven laps on the first day , Jenson Button was able to complete over one hundred on the second . However , with two weeks until the opening race , the longest stint of continuous running that the MP4 @-@ 30 had completed was twelve laps of the Barcelona circuit . This distance — 55 @.@ 8 km ( 34 @.@ 7 mi ) — is less than a quarter of a full Grand Prix distance of 307 @.@ 1 km ( 190 @.@ 8 mi ) .
= = = = Testing accident = = = =
The team 's pre @-@ season preparations were overshadowed by an accident involving Fernando Alonso on the final day of testing that saw Alonso hospitalised with a concussion and ruled out of the third and final test . Kevin Magnussen , McLaren 's test and reserve driver , was drafted in as his replacement for the remainder of the test and the opening round of the season . Alonso later attributed the accident to a steering failure , although McLaren maintained that there was no evidence of a car failure in the telemetry data following the accident .
= = Power unit — Honda RA615H = =
An analysis of the RA615H revealed that Honda had developed the power unit with the 2016 season in mind ; although no substantial revisions to the Technical Regulations had been put forward , the decision was made so that Honda could make a head @-@ start on developing its 2016 engine without wasting time trying to maintain development of a juvenile power unit in 2015 . Furthermore , with McLaren developing the MP4 @-@ 30 to have tight packaging , Honda introduced several radical concepts to the engine that allowed them to develop a smaller engine that weighed just 145 kg ( 320 lb ) and would fit within the confines of the chassis , with the trade @-@ off being that it required additional water cooling to keep temperatures under control .
First , the turbocharger was split and positioned alongside the Motor Generator Unit @-@ Heat ( MGU @-@ H ) — the generator harvesting heat energy from the exhaust manifold used to power the turbine — and positioned within the cylinder banks forming the ' V ' configuration of the engine . In order to make this fit , Honda eschewed the use of a centrifugal fan in its single @-@ stage compressor in favour of using several smaller fans positioned at intervals along a shaft . Although this would limit the ability of the turbocharger to build up the maximum amount of boost pressure , the 100 kg / h fuel flow limit introduced in 2014 minimised the impact of this . The Motor Generator Unit @-@ Kinetic ( MGU @-@ K ) — the generator harvesting energy from the engine spinning while under braking — was positioned in front of the engine to deliver energy directly to the crankshaft , following the convention established with the introduction of the kinetic energy recovery system ( KERS ) in 2009 . The batteries housing the energy harvested by the MGU @-@ H and MGU @-@ K were merged with the Electronic Control Unit and positioned in front of the engine . Both the MGU @-@ H and MGU @-@ K were capable of harvesting 4 megajoules ( 1 @.@ 1 kWh ) of energy per lap . However , under the 2015 regulations , both systems could only deploy 2 megajoules ( 0 @.@ 56 kWh ) of energy per lap .
At the Hungarian Grand Prix , it was noted that Honda had taken the unusual step of giving each engine an individual designation such as " PU18 ' Greyhawk ' " and " PU22 ' Erica ' " .
= = = In @-@ season development = = =
With each engine manufacturer on the 2015 grid being granted some limited scope to develop their engines , McLaren and Honda were given some leeway to develop the RA615H power unit before it was required to be homologated despite having had eighteen months of uninterrupted development prior to the first race . Under the 2015 regulations , the power units were divided into thirty @-@ two areas for development , and Honda were given permission to develop nine over the course of the season . The first engine updates were introduced at the Canadian Grand Prix , aimed at improving the reliability of the motor generator units , but by mid @-@ season , the engine was reported to be producing 120 bhp ( 89 kW ) less power than the Mercedes PU106B Hybrid engine , the benchmark of the 2015 grid .
During preparations for the British Grand Prix , Ron Dennis , the McLaren CEO and Chairman , noted that the team was encouraged by the aerodynamic data they had collected on the chassis , particularly its mid @-@ corner speeds which he claimed were similar to those produced by other teams . He further added that the car 's performance issues could be traced back to a lack of outright power and poor fuel efficiency from the engine . Éric Boullier , the team principal , further suggested that the main problem that the team faced was improving the efficiency of the RA615H 's energy recovery systems , both in harvesting and deploying the additional power , and that by developing these areas , the car could make up several seconds on lap time , enough for the car to compete regularly for podium finishes .
After the engine struggled with reliability issues throughout the first half of the season , Yasuhisa Arai declared himself happy with Honda 's progress following the British Grand Prix and announced that the development focus would switch to improving the performance of the RA615H ahead of the next round of planned updates at the Belgian Grand Prix , with plans for a wider range of updates spread out over the remainder of the season , with the Singapore Grand Prix earmarked as the first race that would be representative of the new engine 's performance . Honda predicted that the updated RA615H would produce enough horsepower to rival the Ferrari 059 / 4 engine . Despite being an average 13 @.@ 3 km / h ( 8 @.@ 3 mph ) slower than the fastest driver through the speed trap over the first half of the season , an analysis of the engine 's performance revealed that it had gradually reduced the deficit to the Renault Energy @-@ F1 2015 . Yasuhisa Arai went on to suggest that the engine had a 25 bhp ( 18 @.@ 6 kW ) advantage over Renault , but was still an estimated 50 bhp ( 37 @.@ 3 kW ) behind Mercedes .
The updates introduced in Belgium included changes to the combustion chamber , intake and exhaust aimed at reducing stress on other engine components to allow them to operate at peak efficiency . An analysis of the team 's mechanical problems further suggested that there was a critical fault in the internal combustion chamber that was having a residual effect on the other components by placing undue stress on them , and an inefficient MGU @-@ H that was using energy faster than it could be harvested with the net effect that the engine would lose up to 160 bhp ( 120 kW ) halfway through a lap . During the race , the car was observed to be harvesting energy at the top of the Kemmel Straight — the fastest point on the circuit — while other cars were deploying their energy at the same place . Despite Arai 's insistence that the RA615H had an advantage over the Renault engine , Fernando Alonso estimated that the car was losing up to three seconds per lap to Mercedes at the Italian Grand Prix and was unable to attack or defend its position against the Renault @-@ powered Scuderia Toro Rosso cars , even with the drag reduction system ( DRS ) deployed . Alonso 's comments came amidst the first public signs of tension between McLaren and Honda with reports that the team had requested that Arai be removed from his position as Project Manager . An analysis of the development carried out by rival manufacturers revealed that both Mercedes and Ferrari had found an additional 40 bhp ( 29 @.@ 8 kW ) over the course of the season through the development of bespoke fuel blends and the reconfiguration of their combustion chambers to promote more efficient fuel burning , offsetting the gains made by Honda .
Honda started to introduce their third and final round of upgrades ahead of the Russian Grand Prix , focusing on the internal combustion engine and associated exhaust parts with the aim of improving the efficiency of the MGU @-@ H and gradually introducing new parts over the next three rounds . The engine ancillaries were reconfigured to allow for better packaging within the chassis , while the axial compressor was replaced with a more conventional — albeit smaller — design . The exhaust wastegate was also updated ahead of planned development for 2016 , with the exhaust outlets reconfigured to improve the engine 's power curve . Honda chose to focus on the internal combustion engine instead of directly addressing the problems with the MGU @-@ H as they felt that the problems could not be adequately addressed with their remaining allowance for in @-@ season development , and instead deferred development of the MGU @-@ H until the end of the season when the restrictions on development would be lifted . The upgrades were given to Alonso , with Button scheduled to receive them two rounds later at the Mexican Grand Prix . The updates were received positively by Alonso , who pointed out that he had been setting lap times that were faster than those recorded by Lewis Hamilton during the opening phase of the race , and that the team had identified the potential to gain two and a half seconds per lap in 2016 through further refining of the engine and by adopting aerodynamic design elements used by other teams . Button was less optimistic , pointing out that the engine would struggle in Mexico as the high altitude of the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez — some 2 @,@ 229 metres ( 7 @,@ 313 @.@ 0 ft ) above sea level — would leave the turbine down on power given the low density of the air . Although the team 's predictions of a difficult weekend were proven true after qualifying , they highlighted the deficit to the leading Mercedes through the less power @-@ dependent sectors of the circuit as being consistently within three tenths of a second , the narrowest the margin had been over the course of the season .
= = = Reception = = =
The RA615H was widely criticised by the wider Formula One community , with the team 's struggles becoming a recurring theme throughout the 2015 season . This criticism was particularly directed at Honda 's Project Manager Yasuhisa Arai and the rigidly compartmentalised structure between the two companies that saw Honda develop the engine independently of and with minimal input from McLaren , and their failure to recruit any engineers from rival engine manufacturers Mercedes , Ferrari and Renault , even after Arai 's acknowledgement that Honda had underestimated the demands of the sport and the technology required to compete . Responding to the criticism , Arai claimed that the " size zero " approach demanded by McLaren — attempting to create a more compact design to fit the tight packaging of the MP4 @-@ 30 chassis — had compromised the overall design of the engine and limited the ability to develop it over the course of the season . Fernando Alonso defended the move , suggesting that Honda 's independent development programme would make it difficult for other manufacturers to copy the RA615H 's design . McLaren CEO Ron Dennis took a broader view , attributing the team 's difficult season to a range of factors — including chassis development and staff morale — rather than the engine performance alone .
Further criticism was directed towards the decision to consciously limit Honda 's involvement in the sport to supplying a single team , with Scuderia Toro Rosso and the embattled Manor Marussia touted as a potential Honda customer to gather additional data . However , the team rejected the criticism , arguing that the infrastructure needed to establish such a partnership would distract from their own campaign , and earmarking the 2017 season as the earliest possible date that an expansion could be considered . With the team revising its performance targets down from podiums to regular points , Éric Boullier acknowledged that the team would be facing a budgetary shortfall for the 2016 season , estimated to be some US $ 23 million ( £ 15 million ) , as the team had originally anticipated finishing fifth rather than ninth in World Constructors ' Championship , and with it , a great share of prize money .
In the build @-@ up to the Japanese Grand Prix , Alonso noted that although addressing the power unit 's shortcomings remained the team 's biggest challenge , he was unhappy with some of their trackside operations , citing a lack of running in Friday practice sessions , under @-@ preparedness in starting procedures and pit stops , and unreliability of other parts — such as the gearbox — as compounding the problems with the engine . After being powerless to defend against repeated overtakes during the race , Alonso was overheard condemning the RA615H as " embarrassing " and a " GP2 engine " over the radio .
Despite Honda alluding to running the engine at its peak performance at the Hungarian Grand Prix , the former driver and Sky Sports commentator Martin Brundle opined that he felt McLaren were pursuing a research and development programme rather than a pure racing programme , and so were looking for different outcomes for the season rather than outright results . With Button qualifying thirteenth for the Russian Grand Prix , half a second behind the Red Bull of Daniil Kvyat , Brundle described the team as having made " their first meaningful progress of the season " . However , three races later and following the upgrade introduced in Mexico , Brundle said that the engine was still down on power , inefficient , and lacking reliability and therefore suffering the same issues that had plagued it since the start of the season .
At the conclusion of the 2015 season , Yasuhisa Arai left his role within the team . He was replaced by Yusuke Hasegawa , the managing director of Honda Research and Development , as Honda focused on development of the RA615H 's successor , the RA616H .
= = Competition history = =
= = = Season review = = =
= = = = Opening rounds = = = =
Two weeks before the Australian Grand Prix , Fernando Alonso withdrew from the race on medical advice following his testing accident . Having driven in Alonso 's stead during pre @-@ season testing , Kevin Magnussen remained with the team for the race . The team endured a difficult start to the season in Melbourne as Button and Magnussen qualified on the final row of the grid , detuning the engine ahead of the race to preserve its reliability ; Button would later be recorded going through the speed trap at 288 km / h ( 179 mph ) , some 21 km / h ( 13 mph ) slower than the fastest car . In a race of attrition , Button was the final classified finisher , in eleventh position , two laps behind the race winner . In doing so , he completed the MP4 @-@ 30 's first full race distance . Magnussen did not make it to the start after his engine failed whilst driving to the grid .
Alonso returned to the team for the Malaysian Grand Prix , where the engine was retuned to operate at a higher level of performance and the team introduced a range of aerodynamic updates including sidepod fins and a new front wing . However , Alonso and Button still qualified on the penultimate row of the grid ahead of the Manor Marussia drivers Roberto Merhi and Will Stevens . Both cars retired from the race with mechanical problems . The team did not score any points during the first round of flyaway races , struggling with poor reliability and a lack of engine performance ; the Chinese Grand Prix was the only race where both cars were classified as finishing . Although Alonso repeated the team 's best finish of eleventh place in Bahrain , any hope of improved performance was arrested with the start of the European season at the next round in Spain , where Button finished sixteenth and Alonso retired with brake problems .
= = = = European season = = = =
Button scored the car 's first points in Monaco , with an eighth @-@ place finish . He later attributed the result to having confidence in the car , noting that he could raise the ride height at the front end of the car and brake heavily without locking the brakes or bottoming out and hitting the road , but without compromising the performance of the car when turning in to the apex of a corner . However , in the following races in Canada and Austria , the team 's struggles came to a head as they were forced to reduce the power output of the engine to levels that had not been used since Australia , and could not therefore provide a competitive package for the long straights and slow corners of the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve and Red Bull Ring . In addition , with their arrival in Austria , both Button and Alonso had used up their quota of engine components for the season , which combined with unscheduled gearbox changes , resulted in both drivers receiving twenty @-@ five place grid penalties . The team also introduced their first major aerodynamic updates for the season , replacing the snub nose of the original design with a squared @-@ off front end similar to the designs of the Williams FW37 and Red Bull RB11 . The rear of the floor was also revised , with a series of slots cut into the body in front of the rear wheels to change the air pressure flowing towards the diffuser . The team only saw limited running as Alonso retired on the opening lap after a collision with Kimi Räikkönen , but they were able to assess the new design at a post @-@ race test . After enduring four consecutive retirements , Alonso scored his first point of the season with a tenth @-@ place finish in Great Britain .
With the Sporting Regulations amended to allow Honda to supply an extra engine without penalty , McLaren opted to use it in Hungary , where the tight confines of the Hungaroring and lower demands on outright power were expected to benefit the MP4 @-@ 30 . Despite further reliability problems preventing the car from reaching the final qualifying session as the team expected , both Button and Alonso expressed satisfaction with the feeling of the chassis and the team 's development , describing it as their best weekend of the season . The team went on to record their first finish with both cars in the points after Alonso finished fifth and Button ninth , and the team went into the summer break with seventeen points , five points behind Sauber in the World Constructors ' Championship .
McLaren deliberately introduced two brand @-@ new engines for both Alonso and Button at the Belgian Grand Prix , effectively moving them to the back of the grid , but allowing them to contest the Italian and Singapore Grands Prix — deemed to be crucial races in assessing the engine 's development — without the risk of a penalty . Despite this plan , the team were forced to take another penalty in Italy when further engine changes were needed , bringing their total use up to nine engines from the original allocation of four . Belgium also saw the team 's second major aerodynamic update : the team added extra fins to the front of the floor to improve air flow under the car , lowered the height of the sidepods and revised the engine cover . The position of the radiator used to cool the energy recovery system was also changed . Both cars completed the Belgian Grand Prix , but once again finished outside the points , one lap down in thirteenth and fourteenth place . Button described the result as " embarrassing " after both cars were classified as finishing behind Sebastian Vettel despite Vettel retiring from the race on the final lap . The team reverted to the longer @-@ specification snub nose for the Italian Grand Prix in order to provide better aerodynamic balance and lower drag on the high @-@ speed Autodromo Nazionale Monza circuit . The change proved to be of little benefit , as both drivers were eliminated in the first qualifying period and struggled throughout the race . Button finished in fourteenth , while Alonso retired with an electrical problem but was classified in eighteenth position as he had completed 90 % of race winner Lewis Hamilton 's race distance . The race marked a milestone of fifty races since McLaren 's last Grand Prix win at the 2012 Brazilian Grand Prix .
= = = = Asian and American rounds = = = =
With the championship returning to Asia for the second round of flyaway races , the team arrived in Singapore confident of scoring points ; despite both cars advancing to the second period of qualifying and running in the top ten throughout the race , both cars retired with gearbox problems . Alonso was forced out after his car kept selecting neutral without input — a problem that affected several drivers ; Button was involved in contact with Pastor Maldonado while trying to pass the slow @-@ moving Alexander Rossi during a safety car restart before his gearbox overheated . After experimenting with a new front wing designed to improve air flow around the front tyres during free practice in Singapore , the team introduced the parts at the next race in Japan one week later . However , the team struggled with tyre pressures ; following Sebastian Vettel 's high @-@ speed tyre blow @-@ out during the Belgian Grand Prix , the FIA introduced a mandatory minimum tyre pressure setting on the advice of tyre supplier Pirelli . For the Japanese Grand Prix , these pressures were raised by 2 psi ( 14 kPa ) compared to the levels used during the 2014 race , which affected the MP4 @-@ 30 's ride height and vertical suspension travel and produced increased understeer . Despite taking advantage of grid penalties that saw them start twelfth and fourteenth respectively , Alonso and Button went on to finish eleventh and sixteenth . With the team acknowledging that the Singapore Grand Prix had represented their final opportunity to score points on merit , their focus shifted to development of their 2016 car over the final leg of the championship . In addition to the engine upgrades Honda brought to Russia , the team sought to use the high @-@ speed and low @-@ degradation characteristics of the Sochi Autodrom circuit to test experimental bodywork parts , including the exhaust configuration . In a race of attrition , both Button and Alonso initially finished in the points , with Button in ninth and Alonso taking tenth until Alonso was given a five @-@ second penalty after the race that relegated him to eleventh place .
In addition to the engine upgrades Honda introduced for the United States Grand Prix , McLaren brought a new aerodynamic package for the MP4 @-@ 30 which revised the front wing to increase downforce , altered the turning vanes to improve air flow over the front splitter , and adopted a concept pioneered by Ferrari to the rear floor designed to reduce the impact of airflow washing over the rear wheels and disrupting the rear diffuser , which in turn opened up a wider range of set @-@ up options for the ride height and rake , or the angle between the front and rear ride height . These updates were designed to bring the MP4 @-@ 30 in line with the designs developed by other teams . With the engine and aerodynamic updates , the team had hoped to compete for points on merit , and while Alonso clashed with Felipe Massa on the opening lap , he was running as high as fifth on the closing stages — and was on course to replicate the team 's best result of the season — before suffering a loss of power and slipping back down the order to finish eleventh . With Alonso out of the points , Button was promoted to sixth . The race also saw what would be the car 's best qualifying performance as Alonso started eleventh , while the six points Button scored saw the team close to within ten points of Sauber in the World Constructors ' Championship . However , the result also meant that McLaren had endured its longest winless streak of fifty @-@ three races , previously set between the 1977 Japanese Grand Prix and the 1981 British Grand Prix . Despite the progress that the team made over the previous rounds , the MP4 @-@ 30 's struggles continued in Mexico , with both drivers eliminated early in qualifying , and Jenson Button setting a new record for grid penalties , changing enough parts to warrant a seventy @-@ place penalty . Alonso retired from the race with an incurable ERS problem that the team had identified the night before and Button finished fourteenth overall .
The team 's struggles continued as the championship moved to Brazil for the penultimate round , with Alonso stopping twice on the circuit during free practice with a recurring engine fault that forced him to miss qualifying . Button and Alonso finished the race in fifteenth and sixteenth place respectively , which became fourteenth and fifteenth when Felipe Massa was disqualified for a tyre pressure irregularity . Button later noted that the speed deficit of the RA615H around the Interlagos circuit relative to the other engines was " scary " despite Honda 's extensive development programme . By the time the season came to a close in Abu Dhabi , McLaren had completely shifted the MP4 @-@ 30 's development so that the car became a testing platform for the 2016 season , with " more than half " of the parts being considered experimental , including a brand @-@ new configuration for the rear suspension geometry . Despite an expected speed deficit on the long straights of the Yas Marina Circuit — with the MP4 @-@ 30 recording speeds some 30 km / h ( 18 @.@ 6 mph ) slower than the fastest cars through the speed trap — and minor contact with Valtteri Bottas in the pits , Button was complimentary of the car in his drive to twelfth , describing it as " the best it had felt all year " . Alonso went on to finish seventeenth after receiving a drive @-@ through penalty for his role in causing a collision with Pastor Maldonado and Felipe Nasr on the opening lap . McLaren used Alonso 's race as a chance to experiment with full and continuous deployment of the RA615H 's Energy Recovery Systems — the first time the team had done so under race conditions — which saw Alonso set the third @-@ fastest lap of the race , less than three tenths of a second slower than the fastest lap of the race recorded by Lewis Hamilton .
= = = Final standings = = =
McLaren finished the season ninth in the World Counstructors ' Championship with twenty @-@ seven points , nine points behind their nearest rivals Sauber . The MP4 @-@ 30 scored points in five of its nineteen starts , with a best result of fifth place in Hungary ; the race was also the only time in which both cars finished inside the points . Jenson Button was the team 's best points scorer with sixteen points to Alonso 's eleven , though Alonso scored the team 's best individual race result in Hungary and qualifying performance , with eleventh in the United States . The result marked Button 's worst individual season since driving for Honda Racing F1 in 2008 , and Alonso 's worst since his début season with Minardi in 2001 .
= = = Retirement from competition = = =
Following its final race in Abu Dhabi , the MP4 @-@ 30 took part in a series of tests organised by tyre supplier Pirelli to assess their planned allotment of tyre compounds for the 2016 season and to give teams the opportunity to acquaint themselves with the new compounds , including four different builds of the brand @-@ new ultrasoft compound . Stoffel Vandoorne resumed testing duties for the team for the duration of the test , where he completed ninety @-@ nine laps and set the fastest time of the test , three tenths of a second faster than the rest of the field and four tenths faster than the fastest time set during the race . The MP4 @-@ 30 made one final appearance before being retired from competition , taking part in wet tyre tests at the Circuit Paul Ricard in preparation for the 2016 season . The car was subsequently replaced by the McLaren MP4 @-@ 31 .
Under rules introduced in 2014 , the MP4 @-@ 30 was declared a " previous car " by the FIA — as were all of the cars that contested the 2015 season — restricting its use in testing and promotional filming as a means of preventing illegal testing given the similarities between the 2015 and 2016 Technical Regulations .
= = Complete Formula One results = =
( key ) ( results in bold indicate pole position ; results in italics indicate fastest lap )
Notes :
† — Driver failed to finish the race , but was classified as they had completed more than 90 % of the winner 's race distance .
‡ — Results adjusted post @-@ race following the application of penalties .
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= Reed v. Town of Gilbert =
Reed v. Town of Gilbert , 576 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2015 ) was a case in which the United States Supreme Court clarified when municipalities may impose content @-@ based restrictions on signage . The case also clarified the level of constitutional scrutiny that should be applied to content @-@ based restrictions on speech . In 2005 , Gilbert , Arizona adopted a municipal sign ordinance that regulated the manner in which signs could be displayed in public areas . The ordinance imposed stricter limitations on signs advertising religious services than signs that displayed " political " or " ideological " messages . When the town 's Sign Code compliance manager cited a local church for violating the ordinance , the church filed a lawsuit in which they argued the town 's sign regulations violated its First Amendment right to the freedom of speech .
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Clarence Thomas held that the town 's sign ordinance imposed content @-@ based restrictions that did not survive strict scrutiny because the ordinance was not narrowly tailored to further a compelling government interest . Justice Thomas also clarified that strict scrutiny should always be applied when a law is content @-@ based on its face . Justice Stephen Breyer and Justice Elena Kagan both wrote opinions concurring in the judgment , in which they argued that content @-@ based regulations should not always automatically trigger strict scrutiny . Although some commentators praised the court 's decision as a victory for " individual liberty " , other commentators criticized the Court 's methodology . Some analysts have also suggested that the case left open several important questions within First Amendment jurisprudence that may be re @-@ litigated in future years .
= = Background = =
= = = Content @-@ based restrictions on speech = = =
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits states from enacting laws that abridge the freedom of speech . Municipal governments may not " restrict expression because of its message , its ideas , its subject matter , or its content " . Laws that regulate speech based on the expressive content of the speech are presumptively unconstitutional ; such restrictions are only permissible when they are narrowly tailored to serve a compelling state interest . For the purposes of the First Amendment , government regulation of speech is considered " content @-@ based " when it targets speech because of ideas or messages that are expressed . Furthermore , some laws may still be considered " content @-@ based " even though they appear to be facially content @-@ neutral . Laws are considered " content @-@ based " if they cannot be " justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech " or if they were adopted " because of disagreement with the message [ the speech ] conveys " .
= = = Gilbert , Arizona municipal sign ordinance = = =
In 2005 , the town of Gilbert , Arizona adopted a municipal sign ordinance that regulated the manner in which signs could be displayed in public areas . Although the ordinance banned the display of most outdoor signs without a permit , twenty three categories of signs were exempt from the permit requirement . Three of those categories were relevant to this case . First , " ideological signs " , which contained " a message or ideas for noncommercial purposes " , could be up to twenty square feet in size and could be placed in any " zoning district " for any length of time . Second , " political signs " , which included content " designed to influence the outcome of an election called by a public body " , could be no larger than thirty two square feet on nonresidential property and sixteen square feet on residential property . Additionally , political signs could only be displayed " up to 60 days before a primary election and up to 15 days following a general election " . Third , “ temporary directional signs relating to a qualifying event " , which directed " pedestrians , motorists , and other passersby " to events hosted by non @-@ profit organizations , could be no larger than six square feet . Additionally , temporary directional signs relating to a qualifying event could be displayed no earlier than twelve hours before the start of a qualifying event and no later than one hour after the end of the event ; these signs could only be displayed in private property or public rights @-@ of @-@ way , but no more than four signs could be placed on a single property at the same time .
= = = Good News Community Church = = =
The named plaintiff , Clyde Reed , is the pastor of Good News Community Church . The church is a " small , cash @-@ strapped entity that own [ ed ] no building " and held services in elementary schools and other buildings in Gilbert , Arizona . On the original docket , the name was Good News Presbyterian Church because according to Reed , the church 's name has actually " vacillated " between that and Good News Community Church . Because the briefs had used " Community " , the District Court used it as well . To advertise their services , the church placed fifteen @-@ to @-@ twenty temporary signs in various locations around Gilbert . The signs would typically include the church 's name as well as the location and time of services . Members of the church " would post the signs early in the day on Saturday and then remove them around midday on Sunday " . However , the town 's Sign Code compliance manager cited the church on two occasions , for exceeding time limits when displaying signs and for failing to include the date of the event on a sign , respectively .
= = = Initial lawsuit = = =
The church filed suit in the United States District Court for the District of Arizona in March 2008 , where they claimed the town " abridged their freedom of speech in violation of the First and Fourteenth Amendments " . The district court first denied the church 's request for a preliminary injunction , and the church then appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . The Ninth Circuit , analyzing the likelihood of success on the merits requirement for a preliminary injunction , affirmed the decision of the district court , holding that the town 's restrictions for temporary directional signs " did not regulate speech on the basis of content " Although the Ninth Circuit conceded that enforcement officers would need to read a sign to determine which portions of the sign ordinance applied to the sign , the Ninth Circuit concluded that this " cursory examination " was not equivalent to " synthesizing the expressive content of the sign " . The Ninth Circuit then remanded the case back to the district court to determine " in the first instance whether the Sign Code ’ s distinctions among temporary directional signs , political signs , and ideological signs nevertheless constituted a content @-@ based regulation of speech . "
= = = Remand and appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States = = =
At a subsequent status conference after the appellate court decision , the parties decided to resolve all the issues on summary judgment , rather than via new preliminary injunction motions . The United States District Court for the District of Arizona granted the Town 's motion for summary judgment . The church then appealed that ruling to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , but the Ninth Circuit affirmed the judgment of the district court , holding the town 's ordinance was content neutral . Citing Hill v. Colorado , the Ninth Circuit ruled that " Gilbert did not adopt its regulation of speech because it disagreed with the message conveyed ” and that the town 's “ interests in regulat [ ing ] temporary signs are unrelated to the content of the sign " . Additionally , the Ninth Circuit concluded that the distinctions between ideological signs , political signs , and temporary directional signs were " based on objective factors relevant to Gilbert ’ s creation of the specific exemption from the permit requirement and do not otherwise consider the substance of the sign ” . Based on its determination that the ordinance was content @-@ neutral , the Ninth Circuit " applied a lower level of scrutiny to the Sign Code " and held it did not violate the First Amendment . The church then appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , which granted certiorari on July 1 , 2014 .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice Clarence Thomas held that the town 's sign ordinance was " content based on its face " in light of the fact that the " restrictions in the Sign Code that apply to any given sign [ depend ] entirely on the communicative content of the sign " . Because the church 's signs were " treated differently from signs conveying other types of ideas " , there was " no need to consider the government ’ s justifications or purposes for enacting the Code to determine whether it is subject to strict scrutiny " . Justice Thomas rejected the Ninth Circuit 's conclusion that the ordinance was content @-@ neutral because the regulations were not based on " disagree [ ment ] with the message conveyed " and the reasons for regulating the various categories of signs were " unrelated to the content of the sign [ s ] " . Rather , he emphasized that " [ a ] law that is content based on its face is subject to strict scrutiny regardless of the government ’ s benign motive , content @-@ neutral justification , or lack of ' animus toward the ideas contained ' in the regulated speech " . Justice Thomas explained that " innocent motives " do not eliminate the danger of censorship , because governments may one day use content @-@ based laws to regulate " disfavored speech " .
Additionally , Justice Thomas rejected the town 's assertion that a law is only content based if it " censor [ s ] or favor [ s ] " specific viewpoints or ideas . The town argued that its sign code was not unconstitutional because it neither endorsed nor suppressed any particular viewpoints or ideas . However , Justice Thomas clarified that a statute is content @-@ based if it singles out a specific subject , even though it may not target ideas or viewpoints within that subject matter . Furthermore , he also rejected the Ninth Circuit 's conclusion that the ordinance was content @-@ neutral because it targeted specific classes of speakers , rather than the content of their speech . Although he recognized that speaker @-@ based restrictions were only " the beginning — not the end — of the inquiry " , Justice Thomas held that " laws favoring some speakers over others demand strict scrutiny when the legislature ’ s speaker preference reflects a content preference " .
Because the ordinance imposed content @-@ based restrictions on free speech , Justice Thomas held that the ordinance would only be constitutional if it survived strict scrutiny . Assuming that the town 's interests of preserving aesthetic appeal and traffic safety were compelling , he concluded that these were " hopelessly underinclusive " because the ordinance allowed for the proliferation of an unlimited number of larger , ideological signs that pose the same threats to aesthetics and traffic as directional signs . In fact , Justice Thomas suggested that a " sharply worded " ideological sign may be more likely to distract drivers than a directional sign . Justice Thomas also suggested that some directional signs " may be essential , both for vehicles and pedestrians , to guide traffic or to identify hazards and ensure safety " . Therefore , Justice Thomas remanded the case for reconsideration in light of the Court 's opinion .
= = = Justice Alito 's concurring opinion = = =
Justice Samuel Alito wrote a separate concurring opinion , in which he was joined by Justice Anthony Kennedy and Justice Sonia Sotomayor . He agreed that content @-@ based regulations present the same dangers as viewpoint @-@ based regulations because content @-@ based regulations " may interfere with democratic self @-@ government and the search for truth " . He also agreed that the town 's ordinance was " replete with content @-@ based distinctions " that were subject to strict scrutiny . However , Justice Alito wrote separately to emphasize that the Court 's opinion would not " prevent cities from regulating signs in a way that fully protects public safety and serves legitimate esthetic objectives " . To support his argument , Justice Alito provided a list of examples of content @-@ neutral sign regulations , including : regulations that target the size of signs , regulations that target the locations at which signs may be placed , regulations distinguishing between lighted and unlighted signs , regulations that distinguish between the placement of signs on public and private property , rules that restrict the total number of signs " per mile of roadway " , and rules that distinguish between freestanding signs and signs that are attached to buildings .
= = = Justice Breyer 's opinion concurring in the judgment = = =
Justice Stephen Breyer wrote an opinion concurring in the judgment , in which he argued that content @-@ based discrimination should be considered a " rule of thumb , rather than as an automatic ' strict scrutiny ' trigger , leading to almost certain legal condemnation " . Justice Breyer conceded that content @-@ based regulations sometimes reveal weaknesses in the government 's rationale for limiting speech , and that content @-@ based regulations interfere with the " free marketplace of idea [ s ] " . However , he also argued that " virtually all government activities involve speech " , and many involve content @-@ based regulations on speech . Therefore , he concluded that a rule triggering strict scrutiny for all cases involving content @-@ based restrictions would be a " recipe for judicial management of ordinary government regulatory activity " . Justice Breyer argued that instead of the automatic trigger , courts should determine the constitutionality of content @-@ based regulations by " examining the seriousness of the harm to speech , the importance of the countervailing objectives , the extent to which the law will achieve those objectives , and whether there are other , less restrictive ways of doing so " . Although he did not believe strict scrutiny should be applied to the town 's sign ordinance , he agreed that the town 's ordinance was unconstitutional because the town did not provide a rational justification for treating some signs differently than other .
= = = Justice Kagan 's opinion concurring in the judgment = = =
Justice Elena Kagan also wrote an opinion concurring in the judgment , in which she was joined by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Justice Stephen Breyer . Like Justice Breyer , Justice Kagan argued that it was not necessary to apply strict scrutiny to all content @-@ based restrictions on speech . She argued that the majority 's opinion would jeopardize too many " entirely reasonable " existing sign ordinances across the country . In light of the court 's opinion , Justice Kagan suggested that municipalities will now be forced to choose between repealing " exemptions that allow for helpful signs on streets and sidewalks " and lifting " sign restrictions altogether and resign [ ing ] themselves to the resulting clutter " . Instead of applying strict scrutiny in every case , Justice Kagan claimed that strict scrutiny is only appropriate when there is a " realistic possibility that official suppression of ideas is afoot " . Likewise , she also claimed that strict scrutiny is not necessary when there is no risk that regulations will " skew the public ’ s debate of ideas " . Applying these principles to this case , Justice Kagan held the ordinance " does not pass strict scrutiny , or intermediate scrutiny , or even the laugh test " because the town did not provide " any sensible basis " for the content @-@ based distinctions within its sign ordinance .
= = Analysis and commentary = =
After the court issued its decision , some commentators praised the Court 's ruling for " further [ ing ] individual liberty by striking down a government ’ s unjustified censorship of protected speech " . David A. Cortman , counsel for Good News Community Church , said the Court 's ruling was an " important victory for all the little guys who have ever found their speech silenced by the strong arm of government " . Likewise , Nina Totenberg reported that one consequence of the Court 's decision is that " the government has much less power to regulate how other people speak . " However , other commentators criticized the majority opinion 's methodology ; Hadley Arkes , for example , wrote that the Court 's decision " revealed the unlovely spectacle of the conservatives talking themselves ever deeper into a genuine moral relativism in the regulation of speech " . Some analysts also claimed the majority 's opinion left open unanswered questions within the Court 's First Amendment jurisprudence . Lyle Denniston , for example , suggested that after the Court issued its decisions in Reed and Walker v. Texas Division , Sons of Confederate Veterans , " the meaning of the First Amendment , in general , became somewhat more confusing " . Eugene Volokh also suggested the Court 's opinion is likely to be litigated again in lower courts .
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= Zaculeu =
Zaculeu or Saqulew is a pre @-@ Columbian Maya archaeological site in the highlands of western Guatemala , about 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) outside of the modern city of Huehuetenango . Occupation at the site dates to the Early Classic period ( AD 250 – 600 ) of Mesoamerican history . Zaculeu was the capital of the Postclassic Mam kingdom , and was conquered by the K 'iche ' Kingdom of Q 'umarkaj . It displays a mixture of Mam and K 'iche ' style architecture .
In AD 1525 the city was attacked by Spanish conquistadors under Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras during a siege that lasted several months . Kayb 'il B 'alam , the city 's last ruler , finally surrendered to the Spanish due to starvation .
The site contains a number of temple @-@ pyramids with talud @-@ tablero style architecture and double stairways . The pyramids and governmental palaces are grouped around a series of large public plazas . The site also holds a ballcourt for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame . The site was originally fortified with walls .
The site was restored by the United Fruit Company in the late 1940s . It is open to tourists and includes a small museum .
= = Etymology and location = =
The name Zaculeu means " white earth " in the Mam , K 'iche ' and Q 'anjob 'al languages , from saq ( adj ) meaning " white " and ulew ( n ) meaning " earth " . In the Mam language , the site is also called Chinabajul .
The archaeological site is located in the present @-@ day village of San Lorenzo on the outskirts of Huehuetenango city , in the Guatemalan department of Huehuetenango . Zaculeu is the main tourist attraction in the Huehuetenango area . Zaculeu is located at an altitude of 1 @,@ 900 metres ( 6 @,@ 200 ft ) above mean sea level , and is bordered by the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes mountain range .
Zaculeu is located in an area of fertile soils close to the Selegua and Viña rivers . The site is situated on a plateau overlooking the Selegua River , which flows to the west of the city . Deep ravines bordering the site to the south and east protected its access . The only access to the site is via a narrow land bridge to the north which unites the plateau to the general level of the valley floor . The Zaculeu plateau measures 11 @,@ 178 square varas ( 4191 square metres ) .
= = History = =
Zaculeu was first occupied in the Early Classic Period ( AD 250 – 600 ) , and the buildings from this era show the architectural influence of the great metropolis of Teotihuacán in the Valley of Mexico . The largest constructions date from the Classic Period ( AD 250 – 900 ) . To these were added other plaza groups and buildings in the Early Postclassic ( AD 900 – 1200 ) and Late Postclassic ( AD 1200 – 1525 ) in an unbroken history . Zaculeu has been used as a ceremonial site by Mam Maya continuously to the present .
Zaculeu came under the influence of central Mexico again in the Late Classic . The architectural influence is so distinct that it suggests that a foreign Mexican elite may have settled at the city and continued in occupation there until the K 'iche ' conquered the site in the Postclassic .
= = = K 'iche ' conquest = = =
The K 'iche ' Kingdom of Q 'umarkaj conquered Zaculeu in the Postclassic . Traditionally that has been calculated as during the 15th century AD based on ethnohistoric accounts . Radiocarbon dating has pushed back the calculations of the K 'iche ' conquests by three centuries , and researchers now say their conquest of the Mam kingdoms may have taken place as early as the 12th century . The city was dominated by the K 'iche ' until the Spanish Conquest of the early 16th century .
The K 'iche ' king Q 'uq 'umatz died in battle against a group of the northern Mam . His son K 'iq 'ab continued where his father had left off and completed the conquest of the people . K 'iq 'ab was ruler when Zaculeu was conquered by the K 'iche . ' This appears to have been a second K 'iche ' conquest of the city , having previously fallen some time earlier . When the K 'iche ' conquered another kingdom , its practice was to place the newly subject kingdom under the control of one of the K 'iche ' noble lineages . Based on the style of Structure 4 , archeologists believe that Zaculeu was likely controlled by the Nija 'ib . ' The Ilocab , who had conquered much of the region , are another possibility . The K 'iche ' tended to place their newly installed ruling elite in a mountain @-@ top fortress securing the population in the valleys below . However , substantial portions of the original Mam population remained in place in the plateau area .
The K 'iche ' rebuilt over earlier Classic period structures in a distinctively K 'iche ' style . The basic K 'iche layout consists of a westward @-@ facing temple with a steep talud @-@ tablero facade , flanked by two unequally sized wings . This was likely to have been the temple of Awilix , patron goddess of the Nija 'ib ' K 'iche ' . A longer palace structure lies to the north , facing southwards and the ballcourt to the southwest . This K 'iche ' layout was somewhat distorted by the reuse of the earlier architecture , because the typical Mam settlement layout was built along an axis running from southeast to northwest . As the K 'iche ' did not completely redesign the entire site along a K 'iche ' pattern , the juxtaposition of Mam- and K 'iche ' -style complexes demonstrates the fusing of the local and intrusive elite lineages .
Excavations have uncovered examples of metalwork at Zaculeu . These were small ornamental pieces . An example is a representation of a butterfly worked from tumbaga , an alloy of gold and copper , dated to the Postclassic period .
= = = Spanish conquest = = =
Although hostilities existed between the Mam and the K 'iche ' of Q 'umarkaj after the rebellion of the Kaqchikel people against their K 'iche ' allies , the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors shifted the political landscape . Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado described how the Mam king Kayb 'il B 'alam was received with great honour in Q 'umarkaj .
At the time of the Spanish Conquest , the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul ( also spelled Chinabjul ) , now the city of Huehuetenango . They retreated to Zaculeu as a refuge during the Spanish attacks because of its fortifications . The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Contreras , brother of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado , in 1525 , with 120 soldiers , and some 2 @,@ 000 Mexican and K 'iche ' allies . The city was defended by Kayb 'il B 'alam commanding some 5 @,@ 000 people ( the chronicles are not clear if this is the number of soldiers or the total population of Zaculeu ) .
After a siege lasting several months , the Mam were reduced to starvation . Kayb 'il B 'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in October 1525 . When the Spanish entered the city , they found 1 @,@ 800 dead Indians , with the survivors eating the corpses of the dead . The Spanish forced the abandonment of Zaculeu after they built the new city of Huehuetenango some 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) away .
= = = Modern history = = =
American explorer John Lloyd Stephens and English architect Frederick Catherwood visited the site in 1840 , at which time the site was a confused jumble of overgrown ruins . Stephens published a description of the archaeological remains a year later . Catherwood did not draw any of the structures due to the poor state of the remains . The two excavated one of the mounds and recovered some ceramic vessels , which Catherwood drew .
On 24 April 1931 , Guatemala declared the site as a National Monument under the name of Tzaculeu . On 23 February 1946 , the site was renamed as Zaculeu . The government gave a license to excavate to the United Fruit Company , which immediately began archaeological excavations and related restorations of the structures under the direction of John M. Dimick . This later included re @-@ coating a number of the buildings with white plaster , as it was known that many were originally finished that way . This has seldom been done in other restorations of Pre @-@ Columbian buildings .
On 12 June 1970 the site was declared a National Precolumbian Monument by accord of the Guatemalan Ministry of Education ( MINEDUC ) .
= = Site description = =
Zaculeu was likely originally developed because of its proximity to the Seleguá River , providing a permanent water supply and transportation waterway , together with its easily defensible hilltop location . Zaculeu has 43 structures . The majority of construction activity took place in one burst in the Early Classic , with minor alterations thereafter . The smaller platforms situated in the plazas were late additions ; they show the influence of central Mexican civilization . The entrance to the site was via a narrow land bridge to the north , which was protected by a fortified structure that occupied three @-@ quarters of the width of the land bridge .
The ceremonial centre of the city consisted of 43 structures clustered in an area of 1 @,@ 400 square metres ( 15 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The architecture at the site includes talud @-@ tablero style buildings with double stairways . The facades of some of the buildings have cylindrical columns , a feature found in other parts of Mesoamerica . Artefacts recovered from the site include items fashioned from turquoise and precious metals . The metal artefacts crafted from gold , silver and copper and their alloys demonstrate the city 's participation in the wider trade networks of the Postclassic Period . These metal artefacts were either influenced by or imported from Mexico and southern Central America .
The structures at Zaculeu were grouped around small plazas and were generally built from masonry , coated with a thick layer of plaster . Fragments bear floral and geometric designs , indicating the structures were originally brightly painted . Stones were undressed and cemented in adobe mortar . No evidence of corbel vaulting has been found and very little in the way of stone sculpture . The architecture completely lacks stone sculpture . Burials from the Early Classic yielded a rich array of finds , but Late Classic burials were accompanied by a lesser variety of grave offerings .
An Early Classic tomb was inserted under the main pyramid at Zaculeu ; it had been tunnelled from the volcanic ash underlying the structure . A broad stairway descended to the tomb from the main plaza . The tomb interior was painted red and the floor was scattered with the remains of more than 100 ceramic vessels . These were crushed when the roof of the tomb collapsed . Also found were the remains of 34 pyrite mirrors of a type similar to those found at Kaminaljuyu . A sizeable quantity of jade was recovered from the tomb , including beads and earplugs . Some of the jade beads had been carved to represent human and parrot faces . The tomb contained the bones of four or more individuals . The ceramic offerings included decorated tripod vessels , polychrome bowls and a polychrome cylindrical vase that had a painted band of hieroglyphs . One ceramic bowl is painted in a negative painting style that is similar to finds from Nebaj .
The site core is laid out around eight plazas . Some of the structures were restored by the United Fruit Company ; most of these border Plazas 1 and 2 . Structures 1 and 2 are pyramid temples . Structures 4 , 6 and 10 are palace structures , long buildings with internal chambers and benches used as residences and for administrative purposes .
= = = Plazas = = =
Plaza 1 is the main plaza at the site . It measures 54 by 38 metres ( 177 by 125 ft ) and is closed on all four sides by pyramid temples .
Plaza 2 is a large plaza at the southeast of the site core , south of Plaza 1 . It is bordered on the southeastern side by Structure 4 , on the northeast by Structure 1 , on the northwest by the ballcourt and on the southwest by Plaza 3 .
Plaza 3 is a small plaza at the southern extreme of the site core , southwest of Plaza 2 and south of the ballcourt .
Plaza 4 is at the northwest side of the site core . It is closed on the northeastern side by Structure 10 , on the southeast by Structure 13 and on the southwest by the ballcourt . Plazas 5 and 6 are located immediately to the west .
Plaza 5 is a small plaza immediately west of Plaza 4 and northwest of the ballcourt . It is divided from Plaza 6 to the northwest by Structure 21 .
Plaza 6 is another small plaza to the west of Plaza 4 . It is enclosed on three sides by a building complex with Structure 21 on the southeast side .
Plaza 7 is a small plaza at the western extreme of the site core , to the west of Plazas 5 and 6 .
Plaza 8 is an enclosed plaza to the southwest of the ballcourt . Structure 2 , a pyramid , closes the northwest side and Structure 3 closes the southeast side .
= = = Structures = = =
Structure 1 is a 39 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) high pyramid on the southeast side of Plaza 1 . It has eight stepped sections topped by a summit shrine . The shrine has three doorways approached via a double stairway rising from the plaza below . The pyramid was rebuilt seven times with the visible remains dating to the Early Postclassic . The earliest phase of construction dates to the Early Classic period .
Structure 2 is a pyramid on the northwest side of the sunken Plaza 8 . It is largely unrestored . Structure 3 lies across the plaza to the southeast . It is a platform with a twin stairway facing northwest onto the plaza .
Structure 3 is on the southeast side of Plaza 8 , facing onto the plaza opposite Structure 2 . It is immediately south of the ballcourt .
Structure 4 is an unusual combination of temple and palace . It is situated on the southeast side of Plaza 2 . The structure consists of a central pyramidal base flanked by two attached range structures . The pyramidal base is topped by a shrine containing three rooms , the final room of the three is circular . The temple has three steep stairways flanked by balustrades . The main stairway ascends directly from the plaza , those on either side are perpendicular to the main stairway . The balustrade of each stairway terminates at the top in a vertical panel . The temple facade is in good condition although the roof of the temple is missing . The range structures are unequal in size and each contains a single long room atop a low platform . The facade of each of these rooms once possessed a row of columns although only stumps remain in situ . This temple @-@ palace is K 'iche ' in style and has been identified with the Nija 'ib ' lineage of the K 'iche ' , being very similar to the Temple of Awilix at Q 'umarkaj . A tomb was excavated in Structure 4 , it consisted of a complete skeleton with associated offerings that included two tripod earthenware bowls , one with duck effigies , a tripod incense burner , a flint knife , nine obsidian knives , five jade beads and some fragments of gold .
Structure 6 is a temple on the northeast side of Plaza 1 . It rises in stepped sections topped by a summit shrine and was accessed via a stairway from the plaza that divided in two near the summit . Only the lower sections of the walls and columns of the shrine remain .
Structure 9 is a large mound on the northwest side of Plaza 1 . The last phase of construction shows evidence of the interruption of construction by the Spanish Conquest . Terraces were absent on three sides of the structure with only the lowest level having been built on the fourth . Early Classic ceramic caches were discovered under Structure 9 .
Structure 10 borders the northeast side of Plaza 4 and is unrestored although some original stonework is evident . It is a very long building accessed via three stairways ascending from the plaza . The structure has been investigated by archaeologists and was found to have multiple doorways opening into a single long room .
Structures 11 and 12 are small platforms in the middle of Plaza 1 . They have both been restored .
Structure 13 is on the southwest side of Plaza 1 , dividing that Plaza from Plaza 2 . It was accessed via a double stairway ascending from Plaza 1 . This double stairway gave access to the first level of the temple structure only ; from there , a wide single stairway continued to the summit shrine . Only the lower sections of the walls and columns of the temple superstructure remain . The earliest phase of construction dates to the Early Classic and consisted of a low platform that supported a perishable superstructure .
Structures 15 and 16 are both low platforms located in Plaza 2 , on an axis running directly northwest across the plaza from the central temple of Structure 4 .
Structure 17 is a pyramidal base in Plaza 2 , to the west of Structures 15 and 16 . It supported two rooms accessed via a double stairway on the northwest side of the temple . The entrance to outermost room once had two columns , although now only the lower portions of the walls and columns remain .
Structure 21 is a low platform in Plaza 5 , it is partially restored and has a stairway on the northwest side .
The Ballcourt consists of Structures 22 and 23 , it was used for the ceremonial Mesoamerican ballgame . It is an I @-@ shaped sunken ballcourt with sloping walls . The two structures forming the sides of the ballcourt once supported buildings , now only the lower sections of their walls remain . The ballcourt is oriented northwest to southeast and is 48 metres ( 157 ft ) long .
Structure 37 is not associated with any of the eight plazas of the site core , standing about 50 metres ( 160 ft ) northeast of Structure 4 and a similar distance east of Structure 1 . It was investigated by archaeologists but has not been restored , although some of the original stonework and plaster coating is visible .
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= Fried chicken =
Fried chicken ( also referred to as Southern fried chicken for the variant in the United States ) is a dish consisting of chicken pieces usually from broiler chickens which have been floured or battered and then pan @-@ fried , deep fried , or pressure fried . The breading adds a crisp coating or crust to the exterior . What separates fried chicken from other fried forms of chicken is that generally the chicken is cut at the joints , and the bones and skin are left intact . Crisp well @-@ seasoned skin , rendered of excess fat , is a hallmark of well made fried chicken .
The first dish known to have been deep fried was fritters , which were popular in the Middle Ages . However , it was the Scottish who were the first to deep fry their chicken . The dish was first brought to the United States by Scottish immigrants . Prior to the Second World War , fried chicken was often very expensive and was only enjoyed on special occasions . In the late 1900s and early 2000s , however , fried chicken has been mass @-@ produced and the price of the dish has gone down significantly .
When being cooked , fried chicken is often divided into smaller pieces . The chicken is then generally covered in a batter , often consisting of ingredients such as eggs or milk . This is used to create a crust on the exterior of the meat . In addition , seasoning is often added at this stage . Once the chicken is ready to be cooked , it is placed in a deep fryer , frying pan or pressure cooker ( depending on the method used ) and fried in lard or a type of oil .
The dish has created a large number of spin @-@ off recipes which are commonly used around the world . For example , Korean fried chicken , a dish which is commonly served as fast food in Korea and is known for being crispier than normal fried chicken . There is also a racial stereotype surrounding fried chicken and African @-@ American people , mostly because it was popular among slaves in the American Civil War .
= = History = =
Fritters have existed in Europe since the middle ages ( from the 5th to the 15th century ) . The Scots had a tradition of deep frying chicken in fat , unlike their English counterparts who baked or boiled chicken . Scottish immigrants to America continued this frying chicken tradition and are responsible for the introduction of it to African slaves . A number of West African cuisines featured dishes where chicken was fried , typically in palm oil , sometimes having been battered before . These would be served on special occasions in some areas , or sometimes sold in the streets as snacks in others . This provided some means of independent economy for enslaved and segregated African @-@ American women , who became noted sellers of poultry ( live or cooked ) as early as the 1730s . Because of this and the expensive nature of the ingredients , it was , despite popular perception , a rare and special dish in the African @-@ American community .
After the development of larger and faster @-@ growing hogs ( due to crosses between European and Asian breeds ) in the 18th and 19th century in the United States , backyard and small @-@ scale hog production provided an inexpensive means of converting waste food , crop waste , and garbage into calories ( in a relatively small space and in a relatively short period of time ) . Many of those calories came in the form of fat and rendered lard . Lard was used for almost all cooking and was a fundamental component in many common homestead foods ( many that today are still regarded as holiday and comfort foods ) like biscuits and pies . The economic / caloric necessity of consuming lard and other saved fats may have led to the popularity of fried foods , not only in the US , but worldwide . In the 19th century cast iron became widely available for use in cooking . The combination of flour , lard , a chicken and a heavy pan placed over a relatively controllable flame became the beginning of today 's fried chicken .
When it was introduced to the American South , fried chicken became a common staple . Later , as the slave trade led to Africans being brought to work on southern plantations , the slaves who became cooks incorporated seasonings and spices that were absent in traditional Scottish cuisine , enriching the flavor . Since most slaves were unable to raise expensive meats , but generally allowed to keep chickens , frying chicken on special occasions continued in the African @-@ American communities of the South . It endured the fall of slavery and gradually passed into common use as a general Southern dish . Since fried chicken traveled well in hot weather before refrigeration was commonplace , it gained further favor in the periods of American history when segregation closed off most restaurants to the black population . Fried chicken continues to be among this region 's top choices for " Sunday dinner " . Holidays such as Independence Day and other gatherings often feature this dish .
Since the American Civil War , traditional slave foods like fried chicken , watermelon , and chitterlings have suffered a strong association with African @-@ American stereotypes and blackface minstrelsy . This was commercialized for the first half of the 20th century by restaurants like Sambo 's and Coon Chicken Inn , which selected exaggerated depictions of blacks as mascots , implying quality by their association with the stereotype . Although also being acknowledged positively as " soul food " today , the affinity that African @-@ American culture has for fried chicken has been considered a delicate , often pejorative issue . While the perception of fried chicken as an ethnic dish has been fading for several decades , with the ubiquity of fried chicken dishes in the US , it persists as a racial stereotype .
Before the industrialization of chicken production , and the creation of broiler breeds of chicken , only young spring chickens ( pullets or cockerels ) would be suitable for the higher heat and relatively fast cooking time of frying , making fried chicken a luxury of spring and summer . Older , tougher birds require longer cooking times at lower temperatures . To compensate for this , sometimes tougher birds are simmered till tender , allowed to cool and dry , and then fried . ( This method is common in Australia . ) Another method is to fry the chicken pieces using a pan fried method . The chicken pieces are then simmered in liquid , usually , a gravy made in the pan that the chicken pieces were cooked in . This process ( of flouring , frying and simmering in gravy ) is known as " smothering " and can be used for other tough cuts of meat , such as swiss steak . Smothered chicken is still consumed today , though with the exception of people who raise their own chickens , or who seek out stewing hens , it is primarily made using commercial broiler chickens .
= = Description = =
Fried chicken has been described as being " crunchy " and " juicy " , as well as " crispy " . In addition , the dish has also been called " spicy " and " salty " . Occasionally , fried chicken is also topped with a chili like paprika , or hot sauce to give it a spicy taste . This is especially common in fast food restaurants and chains such as KFC .
The dish is renowned for being greasy and unhealthy , especially when coming from fast food outlets . Out of the various parts of the animal used in fried chicken , the wings generally tend to contain the most fat , with almost 40 grams ( 0 @.@ 088 lb ) of fat for every 100 grams ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) . However , the average whole fried chicken contains only around 12 % fat , or 12 grams ( 0 @.@ 026 lb ) per every 100 grams ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) . As well as this , 100 grams ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) grams of fried chicken generally contains around 240 calories of energy .
One of the main causes of the large amounts of fat which can be found in fried chicken is the oil which is used to cook it . Vegetable oil , one of the most common oils used to cook fried chicken and other fried foods , consists mainly of fat and a large number of calories .
= = Preparation = =
Generally , chickens are not fried whole ; instead , the chicken is divided into its constituent pieces . The two white meat sections are the breast and the wing from the front of the chicken , while the dark meat sections are the thigh and leg or " drumstick " , are from the rear of the chicken . These pieces are usually subdivided into the wings , the breasts ( the wishbone is often cut out first in home cooking ) , the legs , and the thighs . The ribs are sometimes left on the breast , but commercially they and the back are usually discarded .
To prepare the chicken pieces for frying , they may be coated in a batter of flour and liquid ( and seasonings ) mixed together . The batter can contain ingredients like eggs , milk , and leavening . Alternatively , they may be dredged in flour or a similar dry substance , to coat the meat and to develop a crust . Seasonings such as salt , pepper , cayenne pepper , paprika , garlic powder , onion powder , or ranch dressing mix can be mixed in with the flour . Either process may be preceded by marination or by dipping in milk or buttermilk . As the pieces of chicken cook , some of the moisture that exudes from the chicken is absorbed by the coating of flour and browns along with the flour , creating a flavorful crust . According to Nathan Bailey 's 1736 cookbook , Dictionarium Domesticum , for example , the chicken can be covered in a marinade that consists of the juice of two large fresh lemons , malt vinegar , bay leaves , salt , pepper , ground cloves , and green onions ; it then must be settled in the marinade for three hours before being dipped in the batter that consists of all @-@ purpose flour , white wine , three egg yolks and salt , and then slowly submerged in a deep pot of either oil , lard , or clarified butter over an open fire . It can then be topped with fresh , dried parsley dipped in the same frying oil .
Traditionally , lard is used to fry the chicken , but corn oil , peanut oil , canola oil , or vegetable oil are also frequently used ( although clarified butter may be used as well like in colonial times ) . The flavor of olive oil is generally considered too strong to be used for traditional fried chicken , and its low smoke point makes it unsuitable for use . There are three main techniques for frying chickens : pan frying , deep frying and broasting .
Pan frying ( or shallow frying ) requires a frying pan of sturdy construction and a source of fat that does not fully immerse the chicken . The chicken pieces are prepared as above , then fried . Generally the fat is heated to a temperature hot enough to seal ( without browning , at this point ) the outside of the chicken pieces . Once the pieces have been added to the hot fat and sealed , the temperature is reduced . There is debate as to how often to turn the chicken pieces , with one camp arguing for often turning and even browning , and the other camp pushing for letting the pieces render skin side down and only turning when absolutely necessary . Once the chicken pieces are close to being done the temperature is raised and the pieces are browned to the desired color ( some cooks add small amounts of butter at this point to enhance browning ) . The moisture from the chicken that sticks and browns on the bottom of the pan become the fonds required to make gravy .
Deep frying requires a deep fryer or other device in which the chicken pieces can be completely submerged in hot fat . The process of deep frying is basically placing food fully in oil and then cooking it at a very high temperature . The pieces are prepared as described above . The fat is heated in the deep fryer to the desired temperature . The pieces are added to the fat and a constant temperature is maintained throughout the cooking process .
Broasting uses a pressure cooker to accelerate the process . The moisture inside the chicken becomes steam and increases the pressure in the cooker , lowering the cooking temperature needed . The steam also cooks the chicken through , but still allows the pieces to be moist and tender while maintaining a crisp coating . Fat is heated in a pressure cooker . Chicken pieces are prepared as described above and then placed in the hot fat . The lid is placed on the pressure cooker , and the chicken pieces are thus fried under pressure .
The derivative phrases " country fried " and " chicken fried " often refer to other foods prepared in the manner of fried chicken . Usually , this means a boneless , tenderized piece of meat that has been floured or battered and cooked in any of the methods described above or simply chicken which is cooked outdoors . Chicken fried steak and " country fried " boneless chicken breast are two common examples .
= = Global variants = =
Throughout the world , different seasoning and spices are used to augment the flavor of fried chicken . Because of the versatility of fried chicken , it is not uncommon to flavor the chicken 's crisp exterior with a variety of spices ranging from spicy to savory . Depending on regional market ubiquity , local spice variations may be labeled as distinct from traditional Southern U.S. flavors , or may appear on menus without notation . With access to chickens suitable for frying broadening on a global scale with the advent of industrialized poultry farming , many localities have added their own mark on fried chicken , tweaking recipes to suit local preferences .
= = = North America = = =
Barberton Chicken : also known as Serbian Fried Chicken , created by Serbian immigrants in Barberton , Ohio and has been popularized throughout Ohio .
Buffalo wings : Named for their place of origin , Buffalo , New York , this is one of the few kinds of fried chicken that is not traditionally battered before frying .
Buffalo strips , fingers , crisp wings and boneless wings : using the same cayenne @-@ pepper sauce as Buffalo wings , these chicken products are battered before frying . See also : chicken fingers and chicken nuggets .
Chicken fingers : also known as chicken tenders or chicken strips , this is one of the most common forms of fried chicken , generally pieces of chicken breast ( sometimes with rib meat ) cut into long strips , breaded or battered dipped , and deep fried .
Chicken fries : chicken nuggets in the shape of French fries , popularized by the fast @-@ food chains Burger King and KFC . These may also be referred to as chicken sticks .
Chicken Maryland , a form of pan @-@ fried chicken , often marinated in buttermilk , served with cream gravy and native to the state of Maryland . The recipe spread beyond the United States to the haute cuisine of Auguste Escoffier and , after heavy modification , found a place in the cuisines of Britain and Australia . The dish is made when a pan of chicken pieces and fat , as for pan frying , is placed in the oven to cook , for a majority of the overall cooking time , basically " fried in the oven " .
Chicken nuggets : an industrially reconstituted boneless chicken product invented by Cornell poultry science professor Robert C. Baker in the 1950s .
Popcorn chicken : occasionally known as chicken bites or other similar terms , small morsels of boneless chicken , battered and fried , resulting in little nuggets that resemble popcorn.Popcorn chicken is also occasionally topped with peanuts , or peanut sauce .
Chicken patties : breaded , fried patties of chicken meat used in sandwiches .
Country Fried Chicken : chicken meat that has been coated with flour or breaded , fried and served topped with country cream gravy . Related tangentially to Chicken fried steak .
Chicken and waffles , a combination platter of foods traditionally served at breakfast and dinner in one meal , common to soul food restaurants in the American South and beyond .
Hot chicken : common in the Nashville , Tennessee area , a pan @-@ fried variant of fried chicken coated with lard and cayenne pepper paste .
Fried chicken sandwiches : a bun , biscuit or doughnut which is filled with fried chicken and assorted toppings , popular in Washington , D.C.
= = = Asia = = =
Ayam goreng : various kinds of Indonesian , Singapore and Malaysian dish of chicken deep fried in coconut oil , this Southeast Asian version is absent of batter and richer in spices .
Crispy fried chicken : a dish from the regional Cantonese cuisine of China .
Har Cheong Gai : a Singaporean chicken wings fried in a batter with fermented shrimp paste .
Chicken karaage : a Japanese marinated and fried method of preparing fried chicken .
Salt and pepper chicken : ( 鹹酥雞 or 盐酥鸡 ) Cubes of chicken leg meat marinated and deep @-@ fried , similar to karaage but flavoured with pepper salt and / or five @-@ spice powder . Originating in Taiwanese night markets , it has also been popularized in North American Taiwanese bubble tea restaurants .
Taiwan fried chicken fillet : Chicken fillet prepared in a similar way to salt and pepper chicken , as one large piece eaten in a paper bag . Popular in Taiwanese night markets .
Chicken katsu : ( チキンカツ ) , a Japanese panko @-@ breaded , deep fried chicken cutlet , adapted from tonkatsu , a pork chop variant . Occasionally used in curry .
Korean fried chicken : ( 양념 치킨 ) , fried chicken pieces flavored with Korean ganjang sauce with garlic .
Buldak : fried chicken with Korean seasonings like gochujang .
Prawn paste chicken or " shrimp paste chicken " : popular in Hong Kong @-@ style restaurants in Singapore and Malaysia . Incorporates puréed shrimp and ginger juice into its breading mixture .
Sweet and sour chicken : deep @-@ fried balls of chicken breast in batter .
Toriten : Japanese tempura style fried chicken .
Chicken with chilies : ( 辣子鸡 ) , a Sichuan @-@ style dish with small deep @-@ fried pieces of chicken that are then stir @-@ fried with chilies .
Chicken lollipop : An Indian snack of fried chicken drumettes , coated in a spiced batter and fried .
= = Racial stereotype = =
In the United States , fried chicken has stereotypically been associated with African @-@ Americans . The reasons for this are various . Chicken dishes were popular among slaves before the Civil War , as chickens were generally the only animals slaves were allowed to raise on their own . With the prevalence of such a stereotype being due in large part to minstrel shows and the film Birth of a Nation .
On two occasions the golfer Tiger Woods has been the target of remarks regarding fried chicken . The first occurred in 1997 when golfer Fuzzy Zoeller said that Woods should avoid choosing fried chicken for the Masters champions ' dinner the following year ; the second when golfer Sergio García was asked in a press conference in 2013 whether he would invite Woods to dinner during the U.S. Open to settle their ongoing feud . García said : " We will have him round every night . . . We will serve fried chicken " , which Woods said was " wrong , hurtful and clearly inappropriate " . Both Zoeller and García subsequently apologized to Woods .
In 2009 , a Bangladeshi immigrant to the U.S. renamed his restaurant " Obama Fried Chicken " in honor of recently inaugurated President Barack Obama . Despite controversy at the time , the owner refused to change the name back , and the restaurant continues to operate under this name .
At a dinner during Black History Month , an NBC chef , Leslie Calhoun , served fried chicken . The drummer of the Roots , Questlove , was angered by this and thought it both offensive and ignorant .
In 2012 , Burger King withdrew a commercial which featured Mary J. Blige singing about a crispy chicken wrap , due to the racial stereotypes surrounding fried chicken .
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= Clare Winger Harris =
Clare Winger Harris ( January 18 , 1891 – October 1968 ) was an early science fiction writer whose short stories were published during the 1920s . She is credited as the first woman to publish stories under her own name in science fiction magazines . Her stories often dealt with characters on the " borders of humanity " such as cyborgs .
Harris began publishing in 1926 , and soon became well liked by readers . She sold a total of eleven stories , which were collected in 1947 as Away From the Here and Now . Her gender was a surprise to Gernsback , the editor who first bought her work , as she was the first woman to publish science fiction stories under her own name . Her stories , which often feature strong female characters , have been occasionally reprinted and have received some positive critical response , including a recognition of her pioneering role as a woman writer in a male @-@ dominated field .
= = Life = =
Clare Winger was born on January 18 , 1891 , in Freeport , Illinois and later attended Smith College in Massachusetts . In 1912 she married Frank Clyde Harris . Her husband was an architect and engineer who served in World War I and was chief engineer with the Loudon Machinery Company in Iowa and one of the organizers of the American Monorail Company of Cleveland , Ohio .
Harris gave birth to three sons ( Clyde Winger , born 1915 ; Donald Stover , born 1916 ; and Lynn Thackrey , born 1918 ) . She died in Pasadena , California in 1968 .
Harris wrote her most acclaimed works during the 1920s . In 1930 , she stopped writing to raise and educate her children .
= = Writing career = =
Harris published her first short story , " The Runaway World , " in the July 1926 issue of Weird Tales . In December of that year , she submitted a story for a contest being run by Amazing Stories editor Hugo Gernsback . Harris 's story , " The Fate of the Poseidonia " ( a space opera about Martians who steal earth 's water , placed third . Harris soon became one of Gernback 's most popular writers .
Harris eventually published eleven short stories in pulp magazines , most of them in Amazing Stories ( although she also published in other places such as Science Wonder Quarterly ) .
In 1947 Harris 's short stories were collected under the title Away from the Here and Now . Her stories have also been reprinted in anthologies such as Daughters of Earth : Feminist Science Fiction in the 20th Century ( with a critical essay ) , Sci @-@ Fi Womanthology , Amazing Science Fiction Anthology : The Wonder Years 1926 @-@ 1935 , and Gosh Wow ! Sense of Wonder Science Fiction . She wrote one novel , Persephone of Eleusis : A Romance of Ancient Greece ( 1923 ) .
Harris also wrote one of the first attempts to classify science fiction when , in the August 1931 issue of Wonder Stories , she listed 16 basic science fiction themes , including , " Interplanetary space travel , " " Adventures on other worlds , " and " The creation of synthetic life . "
= = Critical view and influence = =
When Gernback published Harris 's first short story in Amazing Stories , he praised her writing while also expressing amazement that a woman could write good scientifiction ( as science fiction was then called ) , saying " That the third prize winner should prove to be a woman was one of the surprises of the contest , for , as a rule , women do not make good scientification writers , because their education and general tendencies on scientific matters are usually limited . But the exception , as usual , proves the rule , the exception in this case being extraordinarily impressive . "
For many years Harris claimed to have been the first woman science @-@ fiction writer in the United States . While this can be debated ( since Gertrude Barrows Bennett , writing under the pseudonym Francis Stevens , published science fiction stories as early as 1917 ) , Harris is recognized as the first woman to publish stories in science fiction magazines under her own name .
Even though Harris published only a handful of stories , almost all of them have been reprinted over the years . Of these , " The Miracle of the Lily " has been reprinted the most and praised by many critics , with Richard Lupoff saying the story would have " won the Hugo Award for best short story , if the award had existed then . " Lupoff also wrote that " [ w ] hile today 's reader may find her prose creaky and old @-@ fashioned , the stories positively teem with still @-@ fresh and provocative ideas .
" The Fate of the Poseidonia " has also been reprinted a number of times and is credited as an early example of a science fiction story with a heroic female lead character . Other of Harris 's stories are also noted for featuring strong female characters , such as Sylvia , the airplane pilot and mechanic in " The Ape Cycle " ( 1930 ) . Harris also wrote one story utilizing a female point of view ( in 1928 's " The Fifth Dimension " ) .
Because Harris was the first woman published in science fiction magazines , and because of her embrace of female characters and themes , she has been recognized in recent years as a pioneer of women 's and feminist science fiction .
= = = Novels = = =
Persephone of Eleusis : A Romance of Ancient Greece ( 1923 )
= = = Collections = = =
Away from the Here and Now : Stories in Pseudo @-@ Science ( Philadelphia : Dorrance , 1947 )
= = = Short stories = = =
( All stories included in Away from the Here and Now ) .
" A Runaway World " ( Weird Tales , July 1926 )
" The Fate of the Poseidonia " ( Amazing Stories , June 1927 )
" A Certain Soldier " ( Weird Tales , November 1927 )
" The Fifth Dimension " ( Amazing Stories , December 1928 )
" The Menace From Mars " ( Amazing Stories , October 1928 )
" The Miracle of the Lily " ( Amazing Stories , April 1928 )
" The Artificial Man " ( Science Wonder Quarterly , Fall 1929 )
" A Baby on Neptune " with Miles J. Breuer , M.D. ( Amazing Stories , December 1929 )
" The Diabolical Drug " ( Amazing Stories , May 1929 )
" The Evolutionary Monstrosity " ( Amazing Stories Quarterly , Winter 1929 )
" The Ape Cycle " ( Science Wonder Quarterly , Spring 1930 )
= = = Essays = = =
Letter ( Air Wonder Stories , September 1929 )
Letter ( Wonder Stories , August 1931 )
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= Richard Rennison =
Richard Rennison ( 29 October 1889 – 5 August 1969 ) was the last " anvil priest " at Gretna Green , Scotland . Between 1926 and 1940 , he performed " irregular marriages " of couples over the anvil at the Old Blacksmith Shop , where the couple proclaimed that they were single and wanted to get married in front of witnesses . As " anvil priest " , Rennison generally requested a fee of £ 1 , but was known to earn up to £ 20 for a ceremony ( approximately £ 3 @,@ 030 in 2012 ) .
The popularity of the marriages grew whilst he was performing them , to the point that a special committee was formed to look at marriage in Scotland , to which Rennison was called as a witness . By the time " irregular marriages " were outlawed in Scotland by the Marriage ( Scotland ) Act 1939 , Rennison had conducted 5 @,@ 147 ceremonies .
= = Personal life = =
Richard Rennison was born on 29 October 1889 in Shankhouse , Northumberland to coalminer James Rennison and his wife Ann . He spent time working as a " General Dealer " and as a photographer . He also spent time as a Methodist preacher in Tyneside . In 1923 , he married Jessie Little in Nicholforest , Cumberland . The pair moved to Gretna in 1926 , by which time Rennison was describing himself as a saddler , an ironmonger and a boot maker . When he moved to Gretna , he initially set himself up as a saddler and opened a cafe , before being taken on by Hugh Mackie , the manager of the Old Blacksmith 's Shop . Rennison died on 5 August 1969 at Haltwhistle , Northumberland .
= = The last " anvil priest " = =
Before 1940 , marriage in Scotland was based on Celtic customs , rather than Catholic religious customs . As such , marriage only required a couple to agree to be married in front of witnesses . The simplicity of these " irregular marriages " meant that they were used by couples who wished to elope , and Gretna Green became a hotspot for elopement because it was the village in Scotland nearest to the English border . The marriages were provided by the blacksmith as he was certain to be a citizen of Scotland and was easy to find at the forge .
Hugh Mackie purchased the Old Blacksmith 's Shop at Gretna Green in 1890 and resided there as " anvil priest " until 1926 when he was looking to retire and find a replacement . Mackie found Richard Rennison , who had recently joined the community , and by October 1927 , Rennison was presiding over marriages and acting as caretaker of the shop . The shop had ceased any metalwork in 1900 and was solely used for marriage ceremonies . A natural showman , Rennison soon became the resident " anvil priest " and set about marrying people . He would regularly point out that , although he was not a member of the clergy , he could marry people as he was " No Sinner " – the reverse of his surname ! In his first ten years , he married around 2000 couples , the majority of whom were couples between 40 and 60 years old . By 1939 , the number of marriages he had performed had increased past 4000 due to the many young men who wanted to get married before starting their service in World War II .
Marriages at the blacksmith shop were inconsistent during Rennison 's time as " anvil priest " . Although they followed the same pattern , and both parties were to declare in front of witnesses they were single and that one had lived in Scotland for 21 days , there are documented cases where these requirements were not confirmed . At this point , Rennison would strike the hammer on the anvil , and the couple would be married . Rennison 's wife often acted as a witness to the couples getting married , and sometimes performed the ceremonies herself . The marriage fee was supposedly £ 1 , but Rennison would sometimes perform the ceremony for free or however much he was given ; in one case he received £ 20 ( worth approximately £ 3 @,@ 030 in 2012 ) . If witnesses were required , they would be provided at the cost of 2s 6d each .
Rennison travelled to London in 1931 for a " sight @-@ seeing visit " , and he brought the anvil with him to protect it from theft . The anvil never left his side , despite weighing 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) . The Leader @-@ Post suggested that , since the cost of a new anvil was much less than the cost of transporting the old one , this was more likely to be a publicity stunt .
In 1935 , due to the increasing popularity of the Gretna Green " irregular marriages " , a special committee headed by Lord Morison was appointed to look at marriage in Scotland . Rennison gave evidence before the committee in 1936 . There he claimed that he was known as " the Gretna priest " , but did not dress like one and stated that he knew he was not one . He also confirmed that he had been removing the word " priest " from marriage certificates and telling couples that they needed to confirm their marriage with the registrar at Dumfries . The committee 's findings led to the Marriage ( Scotland ) Act 1939 , which outlawed the process of " irregular marriages " . When the new law came into force in 1940 , Rennison had performed 5 @,@ 147 marriages . His role then changed to a symbolic one , " blessing " marriages and acting as caretaker of the forge . He also regularly appeared at court to ensure the marriages he performed were judicially recognised .
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= Finite subdivision rule =
In mathematics , a finite subdivision rule is a recursive way of dividing a polygon or other two @-@ dimensional shape into smaller and smaller pieces . Subdivision rules in a sense are generalizations of fractals . Instead of repeating exactly the same design over and over , they have slight variations in each stage , allowing a richer structure while maintaining the elegant style of fractals . Subdivision rules have been used in architecture , biology , and computer science , as well as in the study of hyperbolic manifolds . Substitution tilings are a well @-@ studied type of subdivision rule .
= = Definition = =
A subdivision rule takes a tiling of the plane by polygons and turns it into a new tiling by subdividing each polygon into smaller polygons . It is finite if there are only finitely many ways that every polygon can subdivide . Each way of subdividing a tile is called a tile type . Each tile type is represented by a label ( usually a letter ) . Every tile type subdivides into smaller tile types . Each edge also gets subdivided according to finitely many edge types . Finite subdivision rules can only subdivide tilings that are made up of polygons labelled by tile types . Such tilings are called subdivision complexes for the subdivision rule . Given any subdivision complex for a subdivision rule , we can subdivide it over and over again to get a sequence of tilings .
For instance , binary subdivision has one tile type and one edge type :
Since the only tile type is a quadrilateral , binary subdivision can only subdivide tilings made up of quadrilaterals . This means that the only subdivision complexes are tilings by quadrilaterals . The tiling can be regular , but doesn 't have to be :
Here we start with a complex made of four quadrilaterals and subdivide it twice . All quadrilaterals are type A tiles .
= = Examples of finite subdivision rules = =
Barycentric subdivision is an example of a subdivision rule with one edge type ( that gets subdivided into two edges ) and one tile type ( a triangle that gets subdivided into 6 smaller triangles ) . Any triangulated surface is a barycentric subdivision complex .
The Penrose tiling can be generated by a subdivision rule on a set of four tile types ( the curved lines in the table below only help to show how the tiles fit together ) :
Certain rational maps give rise to finite subdivision rules . This includes most Lattès maps .
Every prime , non @-@ split alternating knot or link complement has a subdivision rule , with some tiles that do not subdivide , corresponding to the boundary of the link complement . The subdivision rules show what the night sky would look like to someone living in a knot complement ; because the universe wraps around itself ( i.e. is not simply connected ) , an observer would see the visible universe repeat itself in an infinite pattern . The subdivision rule describes that pattern .
The subdivision rule looks different for different geometries . This is a subdivision rule for the trefoil knot , which is not a hyperbolic knot :
And this is the subdivision rule for the Borromean rings , which is hyperbolic :
In each case , the subdivision rule would act on some tiling of a sphere ( i.e. the night sky ) , but it is easier to just draw a small part of the night sky , corresponding to a single tile being repeatedly subdivided . This is what happens for the trefoil knot :
And for the Borromean rings :
= = Subdivision Rules in Higher Dimensions = =
Subdivision rules can easily be generalized to other dimensions . For instance , barycentric subdivision is used in all dimensions . Also , binary subdivision can be generalized to other dimensions ( where hypercubes get divided by every midplane ) , as in the proof of the Heine @-@ Borel theorem .
= = Rigorous definition = =
A finite subdivision rule <formula> consists of the following .
1 . A finite 2 @-@ dimensional CW complex <formula> , called the subdivision complex , with a fixed cell structure such that <formula> is the union of its closed 2 @-@ cells . We assume that for each closed 2 @-@ cell <formula> of <formula> there is a CW structure <formula> on a closed 2 @-@ disk such that <formula> has at least two vertices , the vertices and edges of <formula> are contained in <formula> , and the characteristic map <formula> which maps onto <formula> restricts to a homeomorphism onto each open cell .
2 . A finite two dimensional CW complex <formula> , which is a subdivision of <formula> .
3.A continuous cellular map <formula> called the subdivision map , whose restriction to every open cell is a homeomorphism .
Each CW complex <formula> in the definition above ( with its given characteristic map <formula> ) is called a tile type .
An <formula> -complex for a subdivision rule <formula> is a 2 @-@ dimensional CW complex <formula> which is the union of its closed 2 @-@ cells , together with a continuous cellular map <formula> whose restriction to each open cell is a homeomorphism . We can subdivide <formula> into a complex <formula> by requiring that the induced map <formula> restricts to a homeomorphism onto each open cell . <formula> is again an <formula> -complex with map <formula> . By repeating this process , we obtain a sequence of subdivided <formula> -complexes <formula> with maps <formula> .
Binary subdivision is one example :
The subdivision complex can be created by gluing together the opposite edges of the square , making the subdivision complex <formula> into a torus . The subdivision map <formula> is the doubling map on the torus , wrapping the meridian around itself twice and the longitude around itself twice . This is a four @-@ fold covering map . The plane , tiled by squares , is a subdivision complex for this subdivision rule , with the structure map <formula> given by the standard covering map . Under subdivision , each square in the plane gets subdivided into squares of one @-@ fourth the size .
= = Quasi @-@ isometry properties = =
Subdivision rules can be used to study the quasi @-@ isometry properties of certain spaces . Given a subdivision rule <formula> and subdivision complex <formula> , we can construct a graph called the history graph that records the action of the subdivision rule . The graph consists of the dual graphs of every stage <formula> , together with edges connecting each tile in <formula> with its subdivisions in <formula> .
The quasi @-@ isometry properties of the history graph can be studied using subdivision rules . For instance , the history graph is quasi @-@ isometric to hyperbolic space exactly when the subdivision rule is conformal , as described in the combinatorial Riemann mapping theorem .
= = Applications = =
Islamic Girih tiles in Islamic architecture are self @-@ similar tilings that can be modeled with finite subdivision rules . In 2007 , Peter J. Lu of Harvard University and Professor Paul J. Steinhardt of Princeton University published a paper in the journal Science suggesting that girih tilings possessed properties consistent with self @-@ similar fractal quasicrystalline tilings such as Penrose tilings ( presentation 1974 , predecessor works starting in about 1964 ) predating them by five centuries .
Subdivision surfaces in computer graphics use subdivision rules to refine a surface to any given level of precision . These subdivision surfaces ( such as the Catmull @-@ Clark subdivision surface ) take a polygon mesh ( the kind used in 3D animated movies ) and refines it to a mesh with more polygons by adding and shifting points according to different recursive formulas . Although many points get shifted in this process , each new mesh is combinatorially a subdivision of the old mesh ( meaning that for every edge and vertex of the old mesh , you can identify a corresponding edge and vertex in the new one , plus several more edges and vertices ) .
Subdivision rules were applied by Cannon , Floyd and Parry ( 2000 ) to the study of large @-@ scale growth patterns of biological organisms . Cannon , Floyd and Parry produced a mathematical growth model which demonstrated that some systems determined by simple finite subdivision rules can results in objects ( in their example , a tree trunk ) whose large @-@ scale form oscillates wildly over time even though the local subdivision laws remain the same . Cannon , Floyd and Parry also applied their model to the analysis of the growth patterns of rat tissue . They suggested that the " negatively curved " ( or non @-@ euclidean ) nature of microscopic growth patterns of biological organisms is one of the key reasons why large @-@ scale organisms do not look like crystals or polyhedral shapes but in fact in many cases resemble self @-@ similar fractals . In particular they suggested that such " negatively curved " local structure is manifested in highly folded and highly connected nature of the brain and the lung tissue .
= = Cannon 's conjecture = =
Cannon , Floyd , and Parry first studied finite subdivision rules in an attempt to prove the following conjecture :
Cannon 's conjecture : Every Gromov hyperbolic group with a 2 @-@ sphere at infinity acts geometrically on hyperbolic 3 @-@ space .
Here , a geometric action is a cocompact , properly discontinuous action by isometries . This conjecture was partially solved by Grigori Perelman in his proof of the Geometrization conjecture , which states ( in part ) than any Gromov hyperbolic group that is a 3 @-@ manifold group must act geometrically on hyperbolic 3 @-@ space . However , it still remains to show that a Gromov hyperbolic group with a 2 @-@ sphere at infinity is a 3 @-@ manifold group .
Cannon and Swenson showed that a hyperbolic group with a 2 @-@ sphere at infinity has an associated subdivision rule . If this subdivision rule is conformal in a certain sense , the group will be a 3 @-@ manifold group with the geometry of hyperbolic 3 @-@ space .
= = Combinatorial Riemann Mapping Theorem = =
Subdivision rules give a sequence of tilings of a surface , and tilings give an idea of distance , length , and area ( by letting each tile have length and area 1 ) . In the limit , the distances that come from these tilings may converge in some sense to an analytic structure on the surface . The Combinatorial Riemann Mapping Theorem gives necessary and sufficient conditions for this to occur .
Its statement needs some background . A tiling <formula> of a ring <formula> ( i.e. , a closed annulus ) gives two invariants , <formula> and <formula> , called approximate moduli . These are similar to the classical modulus of a ring . They are defined by the use of weight functions . A weight function <formula> assigns a non @-@ negative number called a weight to each tile of <formula> . Every path in <formula> can be given a length , defined to be the sum of the weights of all tiles in the path . Define the height <formula> of <formula> under <formula> to be the infimum of the length of all possible paths connecting the inner boundary of <formula> to the outer boundary . The circumference <formula> of <formula> under <formula> is the infimum of the length of all possible paths circling the ring ( i.e. not nullhomotopic in R ) . The area <formula> of <formula> under <formula> is defined to be the sum of the squares of all weights in <formula> . Then define
<formula>
<formula> .
Note that they are invariant under scaling of the metric .
A sequence <formula> of tilings is conformal ( <formula> ) if mesh approaches 0 and :
For each ring <formula> , the approximate moduli <formula> and <formula> , for all <formula> sufficiently large , lie in a single interval of the form <formula> ; and
Given a point <formula> in the surface , a neighborhood <formula> of <formula> , and an integer <formula> , there is a ring <formula> in <formula> separating x from the complement of <formula> , such that for all large <formula> the approximate moduli of <formula> are all greater than <formula> .
= = = Statement of theorem = = =
If a sequence <formula> of tilings of a surface is conformal ( <formula> ) in the above sense , then there is a conformal structure on the surface and a constant <formula> depending only on <formula> in which the classical moduli and approximate moduli ( from <formula> for <formula> sufficiently large ) of any given annulus are <formula> -comparable , meaning that they lie in a single interval <formula> .
= = = Consequences = = =
The Combinatorial Riemann Mapping Theorem implies that a group <formula> acts geometrically on <formula> if and only if it is Gromov hyperbolic , it has a sphere at infinity , and the natural subdivision rule on the sphere gives rise to a sequence of tilings that is conformal in the sense above . Thus , Cannon 's conjecture would be true if all such subdivision rules were conformal .
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= Ash Crimson =
Ash Crimson ( アッシュ ・ クリムゾン , Asshu Kurimuzon ) is a video game character in The King of Fighters fighting game series developed by SNK Playmore . His first appearance was in The King of Fighters 2003 as leader of its Hero Team . Ash , a teenager , participates in the series ' fighting tournaments . He employs a personal fighting style that involves pyrokinesis with green flames . Despite being the series ' protagonist since its third story arc , Ash 's behavior is generally antagonistic and he tries to steal powers from several recurring characters , leaving them powerless . His identity and intentions are further explored in the most @-@ recent title , The King of Fighters XIII , and he has been featured in print adaptations and a drama CD based on the games .
SNK Playmore staff created Ash as an evil main character , in contrast to previous main characters . His moves have been reworked in every game in which he has appeared , gaining new techniques as a result of his actions or modified to balance the character roster . Critical response to Ash has been largely negative due to his androgynous appearance and his technique . In interviews and press releases , video game publisher UTV Ignition Entertainment noted that he was unpopular with Western gamers and his design was better suited to Japanese fans .
= = Appearances = =
Introduced in The King of Fighters 2003 , Ash leads the New Hero Team of Duo Lon and Shen Woo which participates in a new King of Fighters tournament . After the tournament , he ambushes host Chizuru Kagura and steals her powers , telling Iori Yagami he will be his next opponent . In The King of Fighters XI , the character teams up with Oswald and Shen Woo . At the game 's end Ash leaves his teammates to fight each other , after disclosing that Oswald 's price for joining him was finding a drug he can only obtain after defeating their pharmacist 's enemy : Shen Woo . He later finds a berserker , Iori , defeats him and steals his powers . When Ash 's comrade Elisabeth Blanctorche accuses him of abandoning his original mission and becoming obsessed with power , he leaves after saying that Kyo Kusanagi will be his next victim . Ash also appears as an available fighter in the KOF : Maximum Impact 2 update KOF Maximum Impact Regulation A and The King of Fighters XII , games without a storyline .
In The King of Fighters XIII Ash is the only character not part of a team , and it is learned that he works for Those From the Past ( seen in 2003 and XI ) . However , he has a conflict with organization leader Saiki at the end of the game . Ash is the final boss in The King of Fighters XIII as " Ash driven insane by the Spiral of Blood " ( 血の螺旋に狂うアッシュ , Chi no Rasen ni Kuruu Asshu ) ( also known as Evil Ash ) with power stolen from Saiki , who is trying to possess him . He ultimately sacrifices himself to destroy Saiki .
Ash has made appearances in various other King of Fighters media as well . In the fourth chapter of the anime The King of Fighters : Another Day , he sets fire to a city to lure Kyo into a trap . He is also prominent in the manhua adaptations of The King of Fighters 2003 by Wing Yang and King Tung . In the 2003 tournament , Ash 's team is defeated in the final but later helps defeat the demon Mukai . Although he is not part of the recurring tournament in The King of Fighters XII manhua , he briefly confronts Kyo in an attempt to steal his powers . Ash also appears in the CD drama KOF : Mid Summer Struggle , which has a mock King of Fighters tournament . Outside The King of Fighters , the character appears in a dating sim part of the Days of Memories series .
= = Creation and development = =
Ash was designed as an " attractive evil character " , in contrast to previous King of Fighters heroes . The supervising designer created the character as desired , with few changes since conception . When The King of Fighters 2003 was released and Ash introduced , the staff did not want to disclose information about him , instead telling fans to look forward to his " exploits . " His canonical height is 178cm ( 5 ' 10 " ) and he weighs 59kg ( 130 lbs ) . According to a staff member , Falcoon , the goal was to make Ash an ambiguous protagonist who made players " feel bad " for cheering for him . Although Falcoon did not design the character , he added details while illustrating him . Due to Ash 's late appearance in The King of Fighters 2003 , the staff joked that teammate Shen Woo seemed more like the series ' main character than Ash did . For The King of Fighters XIII , producer Kei Yamamoto wanted gamers who had played previous titles with Ash to consider the character 's motivation and whether they could relate to him . One of three reasons for the title of KOF : Maximum Impact 2 Regulation " A " was Ash 's introduction to the spin @-@ off series . Falcoon called the character " really wild " because of his role in the series and his personality . Nona ( another artist in charge ) said that of the original King of Fighters characters , he liked Ash and looked forward to his development .
In The King of Fighters XII Ash was the character the staff worked on the most , reworking his movements and speech to be more consistent with the rest of the cast . The King of Fighters XIII producer Kei Yamamoto jokingly called him a character players could use to " show off " . His EX version in the game makes more multiple hits than his regular form , and the " disgusting " style of his " Genie " ( ジェニー ) move is said to fit his character . Since his introduction , Ash has acquired new moves in accordance with his action in the series . After The King of Fighters 2003 Ash gained Chizuru Kagura 's " Germinar " ( ジェルミナール ) , a move allowing him to steal his opponents ' special moves . After defeating Iori Yagami , the character acquired the " Fructidor " ( テルミドール ) Neo Max move ( his strongest attack in The King of Fighters XIII ) . During the game 's development , the staff considered returning Fructidor 's animation style to an earlier version they had tested .
= = Reception = =
Ash Crimson 's character had a mixed reception in video @-@ game publications . When he was introduced , GameSpy 's Christian Nutt called him a " clone " of Guile from the Street Fighter series because of their similar movesets but Ash 's team was praised as new characters with new elements in the series . Lucas M. Thomas of IGN wrote that a major fan complaint was the character 's strength in the games , which made him one of the strongest opponents despite an apparent lack of effort . According to Thomas , Ash is " nothing if not strange " and the writer lamented his many appearances in the KOF 2003 manhua compared with more @-@ popular characters . When playable characters for the arcade version of The King of Fighters XIII were introduced , Anime News Network 's Todd Ciolek speculated about Ash 's lack of teammates and wondered if he was alone because " no one likes Ash now . " Marissa Meli of UGO Networks ranked Ash sixteenth on a list of " The Most Androgynous Video Game Characters " , with Meli jokingly attributing his androgynous appearance to a desire by Japanese designers to confuse Western gamers about their sexuality . Although he called Ash 's voice one of " Gaming 's Top 10 Deepest Voices " , Dan Howdle of Now Gamer referred to him as a female character and writers for Game Informer joked about their surprise at the discovery that Ash is a male character . After UTV Ignition Entertainment polled fans to choose an artbox for console versions of The King of Fighters XII , the company announced that Ash 's unpopularity reduced the number of potential covers to two ( featuring Kyo and Iori ) .
In an interview with Ignition Entertainment director of business development Shane Bettehausen , Alex Lucard of Diehard GameFan said that North American SNK fans detested Ash and complained about his inclusion in The King of Fighters XII without a storyline while popular series characters were overlooked . Bettehausen defended the character , calling him " nuanced and improved " and his moves " incredibly effective " . In June 2009 , Stephen Totilo of Kotaku interviewed Bettehausen , who asked him while Totilo was playing to guess Ash 's gender . When Totilo said the character was female , Betehausen called KOF " progressive " in introducing a cross @-@ dressing character and said that fans were apparently " warming up to him " . On Destructoid , Jonathan Holmes praised Ash 's character as " defying traditional gender roles while kicking some ass " and called him " the perfect mascot for the KoF series as a whole . " Merchandising related to Ash 's appearance has also been released .
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= Cunard Building =
Not to be confused with the 1921 Cunard Building ( New York City )
The Cunard Building is a Grade II * listed building in Liverpool , England . It is located at the Pier Head and along with the neighbouring Liver Building and Port of Liverpool Building is one of Liverpool 's Three Graces , which line the city 's waterfront . It is also part of Liverpool 's UNESCO designated World Heritage Maritime Mercantile City .
It was designed by William Edward Willink and Philip Coldwell Thicknesse and was constructed between 1914 and 1917 . The building 's style is a mix of Italian Renaissance and Greek Revival , and its development has been particularly influenced by Italian palace design . The building is noted for the ornate sculptures that adorn its sides .
The building was , from its construction until the 1960s , the headquarters of the Cunard Line , and the building still retains the name of its original tenants . It was also home to Cunard 's passenger facilities for trans @-@ Atlantic journeys that departed from Liverpool . Today , the building is owned by the Merseyside Pension Fund and is home to numerous public and private sector organisations . It is located directly opposite from Albion House , the former headquarters of White Star Line .
= = History = =
In 1914 the Cunard Steamship Company commissioned the construction of new headquarters for the company . Cunard 's expansion had meant that they had outgrown their previous offices , which were also in Liverpool , and the site chosen for construction was at the former George 's Dock , in between the Liver Building and Port of Liverpool Building . The building was designed by the architects William Edward Willink and Philip Coldwell Thicknesse and was inspired by the grand palaces of Renaissance Italy . It was constructed by Holland , Hannen & Cubitts between 1914 and 1917 , with Arthur J. Davis , of Mewes and Davis , acting as consultant on the project .
In 1934 the Cunard Steamship Company merged with the White Star Line to form Cunard White Star Line , which became the largest passenger steamship company in the world , helping to make Liverpool one of the most important centres of the British trans @-@ Atlantic ocean liner industry . The Cunard building subsequently acted as the central headquarters for the newly merged firm , with both administrative and ship @-@ designing facilities located within the building . Many ships and liners were developed and designed at the Cunard Building , including the RMS Queen Mary and RMS Queen Elizabeth . Given that Liverpool was a major trans @-@ Atlantic port and due to the building 's proximity to the River Mersey , the lower floors of the Cunard Building were allocated to provide space for cruise liner passengers , both prior to and after sailing . Within the building there were passenger facilities including separate waiting rooms for first , second and third class passengers , a booking hall , luggage storage space , and a currency exchange . The building also provided facilities for both land and sea based Cunard employees . During the Second World War , the sub @-@ basement level of the Cunard Building was used as an air raid shelter for workers in the building and also for those from adjacent premises . The basement levels also served as the central Air Raid Precautions headquarters for the City of Liverpool during the war . Additional reinforced steel joists were fitted to further strengthen the basement in case of a direct hit on the building .
The building remained the headquarters of Cunard until the 1960s , when they decided to relocate their UK operations to Southampton on England 's south coast and their global headquarters to New York . Cunard subsequently sold the building to Prudential plc in 1969 . In 1965 the Cunard Building was awarded Grade II * listed building status by the English Heritage . Initially , it was listed together with the Liver Building and Port of Liverpool Building under Pier Head , but in 1985 each building gained its own listing . In November 2001 the building was sold to the Merseyside Pension Fund , an organisation that provides pension services to public sector workers in Liverpool . Today , the building provides a range of office accommodation for a variety of public and private sector organisations , including Government Office North West . In November 2008 it was announced that the building managers had appointed the local architects firm Buttress Fuller Alsop Williams to draw up a conservation plan to preserve the building . The plan involved collaboration with English Heritage and the Local Authority Conservation Officer and would be used to control any modification and repairs made to the building .
In October 2013 Liverpool City Council approved the acquisition of the Cunard Building for use as offices and as a cruise liner terminal . The council projected that the building would accommodate 1000 staff relocated from Millennium House and leases in the Capital Building , saving an estimated £ 1 @.@ 3 million . The anticipated use as cruise terminal however had to be abandoned due to the high costs associated with security and border control .
= = Architectural design = =
The Cunard Building 's architectural style can be generally described as a mix of Italian Renaissance and Greek Revival , with a degree of Beaux @-@ Arts influence on the building 's structural form . Willink and Caldwell 's designs were heavily influenced by the work of Italian architect Baldassare Peruzzi and more broadly Italian Renaissance palace design in general , with the Farnese Palace in Rome believed to have been particularly influential . Despite the strong Italian influence , the architects chose to introduce Greek style for the details around the building itself and , as the building itself is larger than the Italian palaces that provided its inspiration , its structural form was prominently based upon American Beaux @-@ Arts buildings such as those in New York .
The Cunard Building is approximately rectangular in shape , with nine bays on the east and west sides , and seventeen bays on the north and south sides . However , as it was constructed after the Liver Building and Port of Liverpool Building on either side of it , space limitations meant that the east ( landward ) side was actually built 30 foot ( 9 m ) wider than the west . The central bays on each side provide the main entrance points into the building . Each entrance consists or a large panelled oak door , adorned by a pair of fluted columns and with a coffered ceiling . The Cunard Building stands six storeys tall and has two basement levels . Due to its construction on the site of the former George 's Dock , part of the original dock wall is still visible in the eastern boundary of the first basement level .
The frame of the building was constructed from reinforced concrete , which was then clad in Portland stone . Several highly detailed sculptures adorn the outside of the building , including ones of Britannia and Neptune , as well as others representing peace , war , and storms . There are also sculptures of the Zodiac and the coat of arms of the United Kingdom 's allies during the First World War . Another series of sculptures on the building depict different races from around the world , which reflect the global operations of the Cunard company . Marble was used to furnish several parts of the inside of the building , particularly on the ground floor corridors that link the north and south entrances . It was imported from several locations in Italy and Greece , including Attica , Carrara , and Arni Alto .
As the initial usage of the Cunard Building was mixed , there are a variety of features within the building that reflect the original purposes of different areas within . Initially , Cunard 's administration facilities were located on the upper floors and due to the necessity for large amounts of light in the design facilities , these rooms where developed to include both toplights in the roof and also large windows to maximise the amount of natural light . Another feature are the high quality ornate fittings that are present in what would have been the former first class passenger lounge , which is located on the first floor . These fitting are also in the former board room , which is located in a ' commanding ' position on the fifth floor , overlooking the river below .
One of the most notable features of the Cunard Building are the large basement and sub @-@ basement levels that initially acted as storage facilities for both the Company 's property and also the luggage of passengers . Coal was also stored in the basement , with a small railway track providing a link to the boiler room , which was used to heat the building . Many original features of the basement still exist , including the timber baggage racks , ship logs and other maritime documents . Several secure vaults , which in the past were used to store the most valuable passenger items , are still used today to hold historic documents , drawings and blueprints relating to the Cunard Building and also some of Cunard 's Liners , such as the RMS Queen Mary .
= = Cunard War Memorial = =
The Cunard War Memorial is located on the west side of the Cunard Building and was erected in memory of the Cunard employees who were killed during the First World War , and later the Second World War . A Grade II listed monument , it was designed by Arthur Davis , who acted as consultant during the construction of the Cunard Building itself . It was erected around 1920 , although it wasn 't officially unveiled until 1921 , by the Earl of Derby , Edward Stanley . Prior to being located at the Pier Head , the monument had been exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts in London .
The monument consists of a large bronze statue that sits atop a Doric style column , which is itself raised above the ground by a pedestal base . The statue was sculpted by Henry Alfred Pegram , whilst John Stubbs & Sons provided the stonework . Due the architects wishes that the monument be in keeping with the design of the Cunard Building , Davis designed the memorial to match the Greek features of building . The figure on top is of man , who is said to represent victory , standing above the prow of a Roman ship . Around him there are other naval references including ropes , anchors , and shells . After the Second World War , the monument become dedicated to all Cunard employees who died in both wars . An inscription on the side of the memorial reads " pro patria " , which is Latin for , " for one 's country " .
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= Destination : Imagination =
" Destination : Imagination " is a television special of the animated television series Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends . The plot of the special follows Frankie , who becomes trapped in a huge , mysterious world where she is treated like royalty but forced not to leave . Bloo , Mac , Coco , Eduardo , and Wilt journey through the world to rescue her , facing perils and challenges along the way .
Written by Lauren Faust and Tim McKeon , " Destination : Imagination " was directed by Rob Renzetti and series creator Craig McCracken . The plot was conceived after the crew decided that they wanted to make an episode with adventure , featuring the characters going out on a large quest of sorts . Due to the dark and serious storytelling approach used , the special came out " edgier " than most episodes of Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends .
The special originally broadcast on Cartoon Network on November 27 , 2008 , on Thanksgiving Day . It was well received and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming One Hour or More ) . It was also nominated for two Annie Awards — one for Best Animated Television Production Produced for Children and another for McCracken and Renzetti 's directing .
= = Plot summary = =
During the pouring rain , a mother and father leave a heavily chained toy box at the doorstep of Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends with instructions to not be opened . The next day , Frankie has grown outraged about her job as the house caretaker ; Mr. Herriman has been giving her endless chores to take care day after day without thanking her for any of it . When Frankie discovers the box left on the doorstep , Herriman instructs her to leave it in the attic . In a fit of anger toward Herriman , she intentionally ignores the instructions given in the box and peeks inside it . She falls inside , only to discover it is a vast world filled with anthropomorphic toys and delectable treats . She hears and sympathizes with a young boy 's voice ( Max Burkholder ) , later revealed to be the imaginary friend named World ( given the name by the crew of the show ) , who has been living alone in the toy chest since his family left the box at Foster 's .
Frankie adores the world and goes to visit it every day , being treated like royalty by the voice . But one day , when she goes to leave , the friend refuses to allow her and locks every exit in the castle they are abiding in . Bloo , Mac , Coco , Eduardo , and Wilt become curious with her sudden disappearance . They go up to the attic and enter the toy box , discovering for themselves the vast world that resides in it . They ask around a small town if anyone has seen a woman of Frankie 's description but nobody responds . A group of weeble policemen discover they have entered the world and chase after them , but the gang are saved by a heroic man . He tries to warn them that their pursuit of Frankie will lead through extremely dangerous environments , but they are determined to rescue her . Mr. Herriman , in the meantime , is outraged by Frankie 's disappearance and attempts to find a replacement for her , but to no avail .
After failing to cross a musical and colorful bridge , the gang falls into a pit where sticky material becomes their zombie @-@ like doppelgangers and moves to chase them . They escape through a Super Mario World @-@ like environment and go to the house of a toy dog , where they are set up for a trap to eat crumpets with sleeping powder . Mac does not eat the crumpets ( since the sleeping powder was thought to be powdered sugar , and he can 't eat sugar without temporarily losing his mind ) and is able to save the others . As they try to escape , they discover that the heroic man and several others they have met on their journey are all controlled by a single face — World — who can animate and control seemingly anything he latches onto . World is trapped on an apple and the gang leaves it at a desert ; but latches on a horse , truly the guise of Mac and the gang rides by , and World is able to move once more . It gallops off to the castle , where the gang find Frankie and attempt to save her . However , Frankie reveals that World never kidnapped her , she was staying of her own free will and is happy to be away from the work at Foster 's and Mr. Herriman 's constant nagging . The friends then plead with Frankie to come home insisting that they need her to take care of them . She believes their pleas to be selfish and storms off as she is " sick of taking care of everyone and everything without never even receiving a word of thanks , an ounce of help , or a tiny little smidgen of respect " . They attempt to console her , but World gasses them and they fall asleep . When they awaken , they find themselves in a fake version of Foster 's created by World , who shrank them into it .
Frankie begins to hear their tiny voices calling to her and , though World tries to distract her from it , she finally discovers her friends . World finally becomes upset and scolds Frankie of planning to leave him alone in the toy box forever . She calms him down enough to befriend and unshrink the gang , but Mr. Herriman bursts in , having gotten into the toy box and somehow past the gang 's obstacles , and harshly scolds World before preparing to take the gang home and leave World to " think long and hard about what you 've done " . World 's world falls to pieces until it 's nothing but a white void . World becomes angry and unstable and turns into a chimera @-@ like creature to attack them all ( made of the remaining refuse of his world ) . The gang manages to escape the toy box . Frankie climbs out as well and tries to convince everyone to let World out of the box . Herriman finally yields and releases World from the box , due to a realization of his long misjudgement of Frankie and newfound appreciation for her during her absence . World gets happy already and shouts that he 's free and everyone is really confused , Frankie 's answer is : " Well , think of it this way : Imagine if you were able to have anything you wanted , except one thing , but that one thing is what you wanted more than anything else . For him , that thing is a friend . That 's all he wanted ; that 's what he was trying to protect . So I brought him here . Here he can have all the friends in the world ! I mean come on , isn 't friendship what Foster 's is all about ? " Instantaneously Bloo shouts , " No , it 's all about me ! " promptly Herriman slaps him with a glove , to the delight of everyone else .
World adapts to the new environment and lives as a stuffed rag doll in the home . Herriman , having learned a valuable lesson from the experience , creates a new Fair Chore Act to divide the chores between the imaginary friends and thus give Frankie a well @-@ deserved break from her job . All the imaginary friends in the house are free to travel in and out of the toy box , where they enjoy themselves ( they go to the toy box in a style similar to the show 's theme ) , with the last to enter being World and Frankie , the latter of who shout out " BOOYAH ! "
During the post credits scene , Madame Foster returns from her vacation only to be greeted by an empty house and wonders where everyone is .
= = Production = =
" Destination : Imagination " was co @-@ written by Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends co @-@ creator Lauren Faust along with Tim McKeon . Other series co @-@ founder Craig McCracken directed it along with Rob Renzetti . The special was conceived by the four , along with Darrick Bachman , Edward Baker , Vaughn Tada , and Alex Kirwan , as a means of creating an adventure story , to " send the gang on a fantastic quest . "
The character of World was created as a means to have an imaginary friend that was an entire world instead of the usual " sentient being that you hang out with . " Baker suggested that the character should be portrayed as a young child , which McCracken agreed because it brought originality to the story , and allowed him to " be more emotional , to not understand the bigger picture , to be confused and vulnerable and like a kid , to throw a fit when they don 't get their way . "
The special was written with the goal of " telling the story in the most honest and sincere way . " The writers attempted to continue the tense and unpleasant relationship between Frankie and Mr. Herriman , which they had begun developing since the series began , but approaching it in a believable and sensible fashion . With the heavy plot running through the special , the writers tried to use Bloo and his companions as a means to add humor into it . They wrote Bloo to be more obnoxious and demanding than previously , but did not want him to be cruel or malicious .
A lot of the special was more " edgy " and dark than what had been done previously on Foster 's Home for Imaginary Friends . A major reason behind this was the peril , danger , and conflict that constructed the plot so heavily . McCracken explains , " When we start a show one of the first things we think about is tone , is this a goofy one , is it a serious one , whatever it may be we stay true to that tone . This one had some higher stakes so we let it naturally unfold that way . "
= = Reception = =
" Destination : Imagination " was originally broadcast on Thanksgiving Day , November 27 , 2008 , on Cartoon Network , at 8 : 00 P.M. EST . It followed an afternoon @-@ long marathon of the animated series Chowder and a My Gym Partner 's A Monkey Thanksgiving special entitled " A Thanksgiving Carol " . The first special for the series , entitled " Good Wilt Hunting , " had also aired on Thanksgiving , back in 2006 . At the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , the special won the award for " Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming One Hour or More ) " , winning over Spike TV 's Afro Samurai : Resurrection . It was nominated for two Annie Awards for Best Animated Television Production Produced for Children and Directing for an Animated Television Production or Short Form . The special lost both to Nickelodeon 's Avatar : The Last Airbender .
" Destination : Imagination " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Newsarama reporter Steve Fritz called it " one of the best and — well — most imaginative chapters , ever . " Fritz praised Tom Kane and Grey DeLisle 's performance as Mr. Herriman and Frankie , calling it " stellar , " along with the dark and " edgy " undertones of the special .
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= Chevrolet Volt =
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug @-@ in hybrid manufactured by General Motors , also marketed in rebadged variants as the Holden Volt in Australia and New Zealand , and with a different fascia as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom and as the Opel Ampera in the remainder of Europe .
Sales of the 2011 Volt began in the U.S. in mid @-@ December 2010 followed by various European countries and other international markets in 2011 . Global combined Volt / Ampera family sales totaled over 110 @,@ 000 unit by the end of March 2016 , with the U.S. as the leading market with over 96 @,@ 600 Volts delivered through May 2016 . Canada is the world 's second largest market with almost 6 @,@ 400 Volts sold through May 2016 . About 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Ampera cars had been sold in Europe as of December 2015 , with the Netherlands leading the European region with almost 5 @,@ 000 Amperas and over 1 @,@ 000 Volts registered . The Volt / Ampera family of vehicles is the world 's all @-@ time best @-@ selling plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle as of March 2016 .
The Volt operates as a pure battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity drops to a predetermined threshold from full charge . From there its internal combustion engine powers an electric generator to extend the vehicle 's range as needed . When the engine is running it may be periodically mechanically linked ( by a clutch ) to a planetary gear set , and hence the output drive axle , to improve energy efficiency . The Volt 's regenerative braking also contributes to the on @-@ board electricity generation . Under the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) cycle , the 2013 / 15 model year Volt all @-@ electric range is 38 mi ( 61 km ) , with a combined electric mode / gasoline @-@ only rating of 62 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 74 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ equivalent ) .
The second generation Volt improved battery system and drivetrain increased the all @-@ electric range to 53 miles ( 85 km ) , its EPA rated fuel economy in charge @-@ sustaining mode to 42 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 50 mpg @-@ imp ) , and the combined city / highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode to 106 MPG @-@ e , up from 98 MPG @-@ e . Deliveries to retail customers in the U.S. and Canada began in October 2015 as a 2016 model year .
The Volt has won several awards , including the 2009 Green Car Vision Award , 2011 Green Car of the Year , 2011 North American Car of the Year , 2011 World Green Car , 2012 European Car of the Year , and 2016 Green Car of the Year . Controversies regarding the Volt include the extent to which the U.S. federal government may have participated in the Volt ’ s development , which continued through General Motors ' 2009 government @-@ led bankruptcy , and concerns about the battery pack fire risk following a crash test that the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) performed on a Volt in 2011 . At the completion of its investigation NHTSA concluded that no discernible defect trend exists .
= = Terminology = =
The Society of Automotive Engineers ' ( SAE ) definition of a hybrid vehicle states that the vehicle shall have " two or more energy storage systems both of which must provide propulsion power , either together or independently . " General Motors has avoided the use of the term " hybrid " when describing its Voltec designs , even after the carmaker revealed that in some cases the combustion engine provided some assist at high speeds or to improve performance . Instead General Motors describes the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a " range extending " gasoline powered internal combustion engine ( ICE ) as a genset and therefore dubbed the Volt an " Extended Range Electric Vehicle " or E @-@ REV . In a January 2011 interview , the Chevy Volt 's Global Chief Engineer , Pamela Fletcher , referred to the Volt as " an electric car with extended range . "
According to the Society of Automotive Engineers ( SAE ) definitions , the Volt is a plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle , due to the combination of an internal combustion engine and two electric motors , along with a battery that can accept off @-@ board energy . The Volt operates as a purely electric vehicle for the first 25 to 50 miles ( 40 to 80 km ) in charge @-@ depleting mode . When the battery capacity drops below a pre @-@ established threshold from full charge , the vehicle enters charge @-@ sustaining mode , and the Volt 's control system will select the most optimally efficient drive mode to improve performance and boost high @-@ speed efficiency .
= = History = =
= = = Concept vehicle = = =
The Chevrolet Volt concept car debuted at the January 2007 North American International Auto Show , becoming the first @-@ ever series plug @-@ in hybrid concept car shown by a major car manufacturer . The Volt concept vehicle had four doors with a rear liftgate and seating for four passengers . This was a significant change in design when compared to the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s , which only seated two to reduce weight and to make the necessary room for the lead @-@ acid battery pack . The top speed was also increased on the Volt , from the electronically limited 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . The battery pack size was reduced , from about 10 @.@ 6 cu ft ( 300 L ) in volume in the EV1 , to 3 @.@ 5 cu ft ( 100 L ) in the Volt .
General Motors ' then @-@ Vice @-@ Chairman Robert Lutz said the two @-@ seater sports car being developed by Tesla , the Tesla Roadster , and the rapid advancement of lithium @-@ ion battery technology inspired him to push the carmaker to develop the Volt after the 2006 Detroit Auto Show . Lutz 's initial idea was to develop an all @-@ electric car , but Jon Lauckner , General Motors Vice President for Global Vehicle Development , convinced him that to avoid an expensive battery , range anxiety concerns , and lack of public charging infrastructure , they could use a smaller battery pack with a small gasoline engine driving a generator acting as a backup to extend the range , but without a mechanical connection between the gasoline engine and the drive wheels , so it would be a pure electrically driven vehicle without many of the limitations General Motors learned from the EV1 experience .
Most of the Volt initial design parameters defined for the development of the concept car , then referred as the " iCar " in homage to the iPod , were kept throughout the process up to the final production version . A key design parameter was a target of 40 miles ( 64 km ) for the all @-@ electric range , selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs , and mainly because research showed that in the U.S. 78 percent of daily commuters travel 40 miles or less . This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight . This requirement translated using a lithium @-@ ion battery pack with an energy storage capacity of 16 kWh considering that the battery would be used until the state of charge ( SOC ) of the battery reached 30 % . This limit to the SOC was necessary in order to maintain operational performance under a wide range of environments , and to minimize the battery degradation to allow at least a ten @-@ year life span . The initial target range for the gasoline engine / generator was set between 250 to 300 miles ( 400 to 480 km ) and the vehicle had to be family size for four or five passengers .
Another key design decision was to develop the concept car based on a new family of common powertrain components for electric propulsion , which initially was called the E @-@ Flex Systems , “ E ” stands for electric drive and “ Flex ” for the different sources of electricity , but later was renamed Voltec drive system . The E @-@ Flex or Voltec powertrain is an attempt to standardize many components of possible future electrically propelled vehicles , and to allow multiple interchangeable electricity @-@ generating systems . The E @-@ Flex powertrain has the potential to adapt the vehicles to pure battery electric , to fuel cell @-@ powered or to several other sources of energy to create electricity on board , such as engine @-@ generator sets ( genset ) fueled by gasoline , diesel , biodiesel , ethanol fuel ( E100 ) , or flex @-@ fuel ( E85 ) . Regenerative braking would also contribute to the on @-@ board electricity generation . On October 2006 the E @-@ flex powertrain was selected for the new propulsion architecture and the name Volt was chosen by General Motors .
The Volt concept car became the first application of the E @-@ Flex ( Voltec ) drive system with a combination of an electric motor , the same used in the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell , a 16 kW · h ( 58 MJ ) lithium @-@ ion battery pack with 136 kW of peak power , and a genset consisting of a small 1 @.@ 0 L , 3 @-@ cylinder turbocharged flex @-@ fuel capable engine linked to a 53 kW ( 71 hp ) generator . General Motors called this genset an electric vehicle ( EV ) range extender . The vehicle was propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 120 kW ( 160 hp ) delivering 236 lb ft ( 320 Nm ) of motoring torque . The concept car featured several advanced materials from GE Automotive Plastics which allowed GM to reduce the vehicle weight up to 50 percent .
The Volt concept featured a 12 US gal ( 45 L ; 10 @.@ 0 imp gal ) fuel capacity providing the vehicle a total driving range of around 640 mi ( 1 @,@ 030 km ) , which considered a gasoline fuel efficiency of about 50 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 60 mpg @-@ imp ) and a 40 mi ( 64 km ) all @-@ electric range . According to General Motors estimates , a daily drive of 60 mi ( 97 km ) , combined with an overnight recharge to support the first 40 all @-@ electric miles , would yield an effective gasoline fuel economy of 150 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 180 mpg @-@ imp ) . General Motors also emphasized that the Volt would further reduce dependence on imported oil if E85 ethanol was used instead of gasoline to power the on @-@ board generator engine . Robert Lutz added that if the driver used E85 , " the fuel economy figure became 525 miles per ( equivalent ) petroleum gallon " , as only 15 % of gasoline is used in this blend . General Motors also noted that actual production of the Volt depended on further battery development , because the required rechargeable batteries needed to make the Volt a viable vehicle did not exist in the market and had yet to be developed . The concept car was actually powered by two 12 @-@ volt conventional car batteries , just enough power to allow the vehicle to move at low speeds in the stand .
= = First generation ( 2010 – 2015 ) = =
= = = Production model = = =
The production design model officially unveiled on September 16 , 2008 , as part of General Motors centennial celebration at the Wintergarden headquarters in Detroit . The production model differed greatly in design from the original concept car . The carmaker cited necessary aerodynamic changes needed to reduce the concept car 's high drag coefficient of Cd = 0 @.@ 43 down to a more efficient Cd = 0 @.@ 28 , though still somewhat higher than the Toyota Prius Cd = 0 @.@ 25 . Another reason was the use of General Motors ' new global compact vehicle platform Delta II to keep costs reasonable , and shared with the 2010 model year Chevrolet Cruze . Another significant difference from the concept car is the seating , as the production Volt seats four rather than five passengers . This change was due to the higher @-@ than @-@ usual central tunnel that runs from the front console to the rear seat that houses the car 's T @-@ shaped battery pack .
After the concept was put into the pipeline for production , General Motors began looking for a partner to develop the Volt 's lithium @-@ ion battery pack . The carmaker evaluated about twenty @-@ five different battery cell chemistries and constructions from around two dozen lithium @-@ ion battery makers around the world . Due to their more promising cell technologies , two companies were selected in June 2007 , Compact Power ( CPI ) , which uses a lithium manganese oxide ( LiMn2O4 ) cell made by its parent company , LG Chemical ; and Continental Automotive Systems , which uses lithium iron phosphate based cylindrical cells made by A123Systems . By the end of October 2007 CPI ( LG Chem ) delivered their finished battery pack prototypes , and A123 delivered theirs by January 2008 . General Motors testing process was conducted at the laboratory the carmaker had created for the GM EV1 program . The battery packs included monitoring systems designed to keep the batteries cool and operating at optimum capacity despite a wide range of ambient temperatures . In order to make sure the battery pack would last ten years and 150 @,@ 000 miles ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) expected for the battery warranty , the Volt team decided to use only half of the 16 kWh capacity to reduce the rate of capacity degradation , limiting the state of charge ( SOC ) up to 80 % of capacity and never depleting the battery below 30 % . General Motors also was expecting the battery could withstand 5 @,@ 000 full discharges without losing more than 10 % of its charge capacity .
In April 2008 General Motors started extensive battery testing . In two years the carmaker put the battery packs to the equivalent of 150 @,@ 000 real @-@ world miles ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) and ten years of use . The durability of the battery pack was tested for a broad range of extreme ambient conditions including a shaker table to simulate potholes and a thermal chamber , to simulate temperatures varying from 116 ° F ( 47 ° C ) , typical of the Southwest deserts , to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) typical of the Alaska tundra . In April 2008 the lithium @-@ ion battery pack was placed in Chevrolet Malibus fitted with the Volt powertrain to be used as test mules for further real @-@ world testing . In October 2008 General Motors chose CPI ( LG Chemical ) to provide the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt . In July 2008 General Motors confirmed that a non @-@ turbocharged , 1 @.@ 4 L 4 @-@ cylinder engine would be used as the range extender , and that the intention was to build it in Flint , Michigan . In April 2009 , General Motors allowed journalists to test the Volt powertrain in the body of Chevrolet Cruze sedans used as test mules which lacked the range @-@ extending generator at the GM Technical Center in Warren , Michigan .
The first pre @-@ production test car based on the final Volt design was built in June 2009 , in Warren , Michigan , and by October 2009 , 80 Volts had been built and were tested under various conditions . On March 31 , 2010 , the first factory @-@ built Volt was produced at the Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant in order to test the production line and for quality control purposes , both of the tooling and the pre @-@ production vehicles produced before regular production began .
Tony Posawatz was the Volt Vehicle Line Director from 2006 to 2012 , and he was known as employee # 1 and led the team from concept to production .
Official introduction
General Motors held a ceremony at its Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant on November 30 , 2010 , to introduce the first Chevrolet Volt off the assembly line . The first Volt built for retail sale was earmarked for display at General Motors ' Heritage Center museum in Sterling Heights , Michigan . The second unit was offered at a public auction , with an opening bid of US $ 50 @,@ 000 and it was won by Rick Hendrick who paid US $ 225 @,@ 000 . The proceeds went to fund math and sciences education in Detroit through the Detroit Public Schools Foundation . Deliveries to retail customers in the United States began in mid December 2010 . Volt deliveries began in Canada in September 2011 . The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place in November 2011 . The European version of the Volt , the Opel Ampera , was released to retail customers in Europe in February 2012 . Deliveries of the right @-@ hand drive Vauxhall Ampera in the UK began in May 2012 . The Holden Volt was released in Australia in December 2012 .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = = Drivetrain = = = =
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt has a 16 kWh / 45 A · h ( 10 @.@ 4 kWh usable ) lithium @-@ ion battery pack that can be charged by plugging the car into a 120 @-@ 240 VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided SAE J1772 @-@ compliant charging cord . No external charging station is required . The Volt is propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 111 kW ( 149 hp ) delivering 273 lb · ft ( 370 N · m ) of torque . Capacity of the battery pack was increased to 16 @.@ 5 kWh ( 10 @.@ 9 kWh usable ) for 2013 models , which increased the all @-@ electric range from 35 to 38 mi ( 56 to 61 km ) . Other specifications remained the same . The battery pack capacity was increased to 17 @.@ 1 kWh for 2015 models . This incremental upgrade is likely to reflect in an improvement in range over previous model years , but as of July 2014 , the 2015 Volt has not been re @-@ certified with the EPA .
While driving , after the Volt battery has dropped to a predetermined threshold from full charge , a small naturally aspirated 1 @.@ 4 L 4 @-@ cylinder gasoline fueled internal combustion engine ( Opel 's Family 0 ) with approximately 80 hp ( 60 kW ) , powers a 55 kW generator to extend the Volt 's range . The vehicle also has a regenerative braking system . The electrical power from the generator is sent primarily to the electric motor , with the excess going to the batteries , depending on the state of charge ( SOC ) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels .
The Volt requires premium gasoline with a minimum 91 or octane rating because the higher octane rating fuel permits the 10 @.@ 5 : 1 compression ratio engine to utilize more ignition timing advance in order to maximize its fuel efficiency by 5 to 10 % as compared to regular gasoline . For users who drive mostly in electric mode and to avoid maintenance problems caused by storing the same gasoline in the tank for months , the 2011 Volt has a sealed and pressurized fuel tank to avoid evaporation , and as a result , the fuel filler has to be depressurized before opening the tank . Also the engine management system monitors the time between engine running and it is programmed to prompt the driver to run past the 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) all @-@ electric range before recharging in order to consume some gasoline . If the driver does not run on gasoline , the system will automatically run the maintenance mode which starts the engine to consume some of the aging fuel and circulate the fluids within the engine . A configuration with an E85 flex @-@ fuel capable engine is under development and was expected to be available in 2013 .
Operating and driving modes
The Voltec drivetrain has three power converting elements :
Primary traction electric motor / generator , provides good acceleration for driving at lower speeds and regeneration for braking , its maximum output of 111 kW setting the maximum output of the whole system .
Secondary electric motor / generator , works primarily as generator capable of producing 55 kW or when necessary acts as a motor assisting the primary electric motor .
Internal combustion engine of 63 kW power , engaged when the batteries reach the predetermined threshold .
These units are connected via a planetary gear and three electrically controlled hydraulic clutches to provide power output for propulsion in any of four programmed operating modes :
Single motor electric – The primary motor runs solely on battery power , maximum propulsion power is 111 kW .
Dual motor electric – At higher vehicle speeds the secondary motor engages over the planetary gear such that it reduces the speed of the primary motor . This facilitates higher efficiency and better mileage for the combined system , without increasing the maximum power .
Single motor extended – The battery reaches its minimum charge which triggers the combustion engine . The engine drives the secondary motor which now works as a generator , via the charging electronics , to keep the minimum battery charge level . The primary motor can still provide its 111 kW for short acceleration , albeit not sustained .
Dual motor extended – The electric motors are used again in dual configuration with increased efficiency at higher speeds . Additionally the gasoline engine contributes propulsion power via the planetary gear . While power is drained from the battery the amount is less than in mode 2 for the same propulsion power , thus extending the range .
The drivetrain permits the Volt to operate as a pure battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity has been depleted to a defined level , at which time it commences to operate as a series hybrid design where the gasoline engine drives the generator , which keeps the battery at minimum level charge and provides power to the electric motors . The full charge of the battery is replenished only by loading it on the electrical grid .
While in this series mode at higher speeds and loads , ( typically above 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) at light to moderate loads ) the gasoline engine can engage mechanically to the output from the transmission and assist both electric motors in driving the wheels , in which case the Volt operates as a power @-@ split or series @-@ parallel hybrid . After its all @-@ electric range has been depleted , at speeds between 30 to 70 miles per hour ( 48 to 113 km / h ) , the Volt is programmed to select the most efficient drive mode , which improves performance and boosts high @-@ speed efficiency by 10 to 15 percent .
While operating modes are switched automatically the Volt allows the driver to choose from three drive modes : normal , sport and mountain . The mountain mode , which is expected to be required only under unusual power demand conditions , increases minimum battery state of charge ( SOC ) to around 45 % , thus maintaining performance on steep and long grades . The driver will hear more engine noise due to the higher rate of power generation required to maintain this mode . The sport mode causes the engine to rev higher , and the response to the throttle pedal is quicker . The Ampera has an additional option , the " City Mode " or " battery hold " , allowing the driver to save the energy currently stored in the battery for use when traveling in urban areas or restricted zones . The 2013 model year Volt includes a " Hold " option to provide the same choice .
= = = = Battery = = = =
The 2011 Volt 's lithium @-@ ion battery ( Li @-@ ion ) battery pack weighs 435 lb ( 197 kg ) and " consists of 288 individual cells arranged into nine modules . Plastic frames hold pairs of lithium @-@ ion cells that sandwich an aluminum cooling fin . The design and construction of that aluminum plate was critical to ensuring an even temperature distribution with no hot or cool spots across the flat , rectangular cell . The battery pack has its own cooling circuit that is similar to , but independent from , the engine cooling system . "
For the 2011 / 2012 model years , the battery pack stores 16 kWh of energy but it is controlled or buffered via the energy management system to use only 10 @.@ 3 kWh of this capacity to maximize the life of the pack . For this reason the battery pack never fully charges or depletes , as the software only allows the battery to operate within a state of charge ( SOC ) window of 65 % , after which the engine kicks in and maintains the charge near the lower level . The minimum SOC varies depending on operating conditions . When more power is required , such as mountain mode , the lower limit of the SOC will rise to 45 % to ensure there is enough power available . The battery capacity was increased to 16 @.@ 5 kWh for the 2013 model year , the SOC window will be increased to use 10 @.@ 8 kWh of the total battery energy , and the buffer to ensure battery life will not be reduced . These changes will increase the Volt 's all @-@ electric range but charging will take slightly longer . The improved battery performance and durability were achieved through minor changes to the material composition of the battery cell chemistry .
Despite containing near identical energy ( + / - 0 @.@ 5 kWh ) , the Volt 's battery pack is over 70 % lighter than the EV1 's original 1 @,@ 310 lb ( 590 kg ) , 16 @.@ 5 kWh AC Delco lead @-@ acid battery pack , mainly because the Volt uses higher specific energy Li @-@ ion batteries . Li @-@ ion batteries are expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect .
Because batteries are sensitive to temperature changes , the Volt has a thermal management system to monitor and maintain the battery cell temperature for optimum performance and durability . The Volt 's battery pack provides reliable operation , when plugged in , at cell temperatures as low as − 13 ° F ( − 25 ° C ) and as high as 122 ° F ( 50 ° C ) . The Volt features a battery pack that can be both warmed or cooled . In cold weather the battery coolant is electrically heated during charging or operation in order to provide full power capability ; in hot weather the battery coolant can be chilled utilizing the vehicle 's air @-@ conditioning system preventing over @-@ temperature damage .
The Volt 's battery is guaranteed by General Motors for eight years or 100 @,@ 000 miles ( 160 @,@ 000 km ) , and will cover all 161 battery components . GM estimates that the Volt batteries will degrade by 10 to 30 % after 8 years or 100 @,@ 000 miles . GM has applied for a patent that may allow technicians to quickly and cheaply recover some of the performance of degraded battery packs . The Volt ’ s battery management system runs more than 500 diagnostics at 10 times per second , allowing it to keep track of the Volt ’ s battery pack in real @-@ time , 85 % of which ensure the battery pack is operating safely and 15 % monitor battery performance and life .
The Volt uses a plug specification published in 2009 , SAE J1772 @-@ 2009 , that is considered a standard for electric cars in North America . Depending on in @-@ car settings a full charge will take approximately 10 hours ( 12A setting ) to as much as 14 hours ( 8A setting ) from a standard North American 120 V , 15 A outlet and about 4 hours from a 240 VAC source and suitable 240V EVSE . The Volt comes with a 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) charging cord suitable for the standard household power outlet in its country of sale . If plugged in , recharging can be controlled remotely through a smartphone application .
= = = = Others = = = =
In order to save energy , the Volt will sometimes heat the seats instead of blowing heated air through HVAC system , as heating the vehicle 's cabin draws significant power , and can even exceed what is needed to move the vehicle on occasions . A power @-@ saving stereo system uses amplifiers that switch on and off rapidly to save power . It uses 50 percent less energy . The system is also lighter because the use of high grade neodymium magnets .
= = = Performance = = =
The Volt has a top speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . According to Edmunds.com road tests , the Volt 's 0 to 60 mph ( 0 – 97 km / h ) acceleration time is 9 @.@ 2 seconds running on electric @-@ only mode , and 9 @.@ 0 seconds with the gasoline engine assisting propulsion . Motor Trend reports the Volt 's quarter mile ( 402 m ) time is 16 @.@ 9 sec @ 84 @.@ 3 mph ( 135 @.@ 7 km / h ) , while Edmunds reports a quarter mile ( 402 m ) time of 16 @.@ 8 sec @ 81 @.@ 5 mph ( 131 @.@ 2 km / h ) in electric @-@ only operation , and 16 @.@ 6 sec @ 85 @.@ 5 mph ( 137 @.@ 6 km / h ) with the gasoline engine assisting . Motor Trend reports a 60 to 0 mph ( 97 to 0 km / h ) braking distance of 112 ft ( 34 m ) and Edmunds.com of 124 ft ( 38 m ) .
= = = = Range = = = =
= = = = = United States = = = = =
2011 – 2012 model years
According to General Motors the Volt 's all @-@ electric range with fully charged batteries varies from 25 to 50 miles ( 40 to 80 km ) depending on terrain , driving technique , and temperature . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) official all @-@ electric range is 35 miles ( 56 km ) with an energy consumption of 36 kWh per 100 miles ( 810 kJ / km ) . This range is based on the agency 's five @-@ cycle tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls . The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is 379 miles ( 609 @.@ 9 km ) according to EPA tests .
The Volt 's nominal usable battery capacity is 10 @.@ 3 kWh . The Volt 's fuel tank capacity is 9 @.@ 3 US gallons ( 35 L ; 7 @.@ 7 imp gal ) . Aside from charge sustaining modes of operation , the battery capacity is completely used first , and then the fuel is consumed . In the event that the car is operated until it runs out of gasoline , the gasoline @-@ powered generator shuts down , and the Volt continues to operate , tapping into a reserve portion of the battery capacity which is below the regular minimum state @-@ of @-@ charge . The reserve battery capacity provides an extra 3 to 4 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 4 km ) . If this reserve battery capacity is also exhausted , the Volt slows to a stop .
2013 – 2015 model years
As a result of its improved battery chemistry , the 2013 model year Volt increased its EPA 's rated all @-@ electric range to 38 miles ( 61 km ) with an energy consumption of 35 kWh per 100 miles ( 788 kJ / km ) , down from 36 kWh ( 810 kJ / km ) in the 2012 model . The total range with a full tank of gasoline and a fully charged battery is 380 miles ( 611 @.@ 6 km ) . The 2014 and 2015 Volt have the same EPA ratings .
= = = = = Europe = = = = =
The Opel Ampera official all @-@ electric range under the EU @-@ approved UN ECE R101 standard for plug @-@ in hybrids is 83 km ( 52 mi ) . Opel prefers to state that the Ampera 's EV ranges is 40 to 80 kilometres ( 25 to 50 mi ) which is confirmed in tests carried out by ADAC Motorwelt . The Vauxhall Ampera is reported to have a total range of 310 mi ( 500 km ) .
= = = = Fuel economy = = = =
United States
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) officially rated the 2011 model year Volt 's combined city / highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) ( 2 @.@ 5 L gasoline equivalent / 100 km ; 112 mpg @-@ imp gasoline equivalent ) and 94 MPG @-@ e for the 2012 model year . This rating considers a conversion factor of 33 @.@ 7 kWh of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline . The EPA rating in gasoline @-@ only mode is 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) . The overall combined city / highway gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating for the 2011 Volt is 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , The EPA also included in the 2011 Volt 's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios : 30 , 45 , 60 and 75 miles ( 121 km ) driven between a full charge , and a never charge scenario . This information was included in order to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges . Under the gasoline @-@ only scenario ( never charge ) , the 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) figure results from 35 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 42 mpg @-@ imp ) city driving and 40 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 48 mpg @-@ imp ) on the highway .
For the 2012 model year , EPA revised the Volt 's fuel economy ratings , increasing the combined city / highway rating in all @-@ electric mode from 93 MPG @-@ e to 94 MPG @-@ e , and the highway rating was increased from 90 MPG @-@ e to 93 MPG @-@ e . As a result of its improved battery pack , the 2013 model year EPA rating climbed to a combined city / highway fuel economy of 98 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( 2 @.@ 4 L gasoline equivalent / 100 km ; 118 mpg @-@ imp gasoline equivalent ) . The EPA rating in gasoline @-@ only mode is the same 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) as the previous models . The combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of the 2013 / 2014 model year Volt is 62 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 8 L / 100 km ; 74 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent , 63 MPG @-@ e in city driving and 61 MPG @-@ e in highway .
When introduced in December 2010 , the 2011 Volt was the most fuel efficient car sold in the American market in the compact class , with a combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , until it was surpassed by the 2012 Ford Focus Electric in February 2012 . The all @-@ electric Focus has a combined fuel economy of 105 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ; 126 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . Nevertheless , the Volt remained as the most fuel efficient car with an internal combustion engine available in the United States until May 2014 , when the BMW i3 REx replaced the Volt as the most efficient EPA @-@ certified current year vehicle with a gasoline engine , with a combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy of 88 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 7 L / 100 km ; 106 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) .
In December 2012 General Motors reported , based on data collected through its OnStar telematics system since Volt deliveries began , that Volt owners drive around 900 mi ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) , or a month and a half , between fill @-@ ups . By mid June 2014 , GM reported that among Volt owners who charge regularly , they typically drive more than 970 mi ( 1 @,@ 560 km ) between fill @-@ ups and visit the gasoline station less than once a month . In early October 2014 , based on General Motors ' real time tally of miles driven by Volt owners in North America , the company reported they have accumulated a total of 1 billion miles ( 1 @.@ 6 billion km ) traveled , of which , about 62 @.@ 5 % were driven in all @-@ electric mode .
A 2014 analysis conducted by the Idaho National Laboratory using a sample of 21 @,@ 600 all @-@ electric cars and plug @-@ in hybrids , found that Volt owners traveled on average 9 @,@ 112 miles in all @-@ electric mode ( e @-@ miles ) per year , while Leaf owners traveled 9 @,@ 697 e @-@ miles per year , despite the Volt 's shorter all @-@ electric range , about half of the Leaf 's . The 2015 edition of the EPA 's annual report " Light @-@ Duty Automotive Technology , Carbon Dioxide Emissions , and Fuel Economy Trends " estimates the following utility factors for 2015 model year plug @-@ in hybrids to represent the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver , whether in electric only or blended modes , The Volt has a utility factor of 66 % , compared with 83 % for the BMW i3 REx , 45 % for the Ford Energi models , 43 % for the McLaren P1 , 37 % for the BMW i8 , and 29 % for the Toyota Prius PHV .
Europe
The Opel Ampera official equivalent fuel consumption under the EU @-@ approved UN ECE R101 standard for plug @-@ in hybrids is 1 @.@ 2 L / 100 km ( 196 @.@ 0 mpg @-@ US ; 235 @.@ 4 mpg @-@ imp ) ( 83 @.@ 3 km / L ) . However , a leading Opel engineer prefers saying 169 Wh / km while battery @-@ powered , and then 20 km / L petrol @-@ powered . The ECE R101 standard weights charge @-@ depleting mode as 76 % and gasoline @-@ only driving as 24 % .
= = = Operating cost and payback period = = =
According to Consumer Reports in December 2011 , the Chevrolet Volt fuel cost in electric mode was 3 @.@ 8 ¢ / mile , while the Nissan Leaf had a cost of 3 @.@ 5 ¢ / mi . The Volt 's higher cost per mile was attributed to its heavier weight . Their estimates used the U.S. national average electricity rate of 11 ¢ / ( kWh ) and energy consumption rates as measured on their own , unofficial tests . When comparing the Volt in range @-@ extended mode with the four most fuel efficient gasoline @-@ powered cars as tested by the magazine , the plug @-@ in hybrid had a cost of 12 @.@ 5 ¢ / mi ( using premium gasoline ) while the Toyota Prius had a cost of 8 @.@ 6 ¢ / mi . , the Honda Civic Hybrid 9 @.@ 5 ¢ / mi . , the Toyota Corolla 11 @.@ 9 ¢ / mi . , and the Hyundai Elantra 13 @.@ 1 ¢ / mi . The analysis also found that , on trips up to 100 mi ( 160 km ) , the Volt was cheaper to drive than the other four cars because the Volt was able to drive 35 mi ( 56 km ) using less expensive electric power . Consumer Reports found that , using their proprietary testing , the Volt overall fuel efficiency was 99 mpg @-@ US ( 2 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 119 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , and using only range @-@ extended mode the overall fuel economy was 32 mpg @-@ US ( 7 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 38 mpg @-@ imp ) and equivalent to the Toyota Corolla . The report noted that , as of 2011 , plug @-@ in electric cars are more expensive to buy , and the previous operating costs do not include maintenance , depreciation or other costs .
According to Edmunds.com , the price premium paid for the Volt in 2012 , after discounting the US $ 7 @,@ 500 U.S. federal tax credit , takes a long time for consumers to recover in fuel savings , often longer than the normal ownership time period . Edmunds compared the Volt ( priced at US $ 31 @,@ 712 ) with the same @-@ size gasoline @-@ powered Chevrolet Cruze ( priced at US $ 19 @,@ 656 ) and found that the payback period for the plug @-@ in hybrid is 15 years for gasoline prices at US $ 3 per gallon , 12 years at US $ 4 per gallon , and drops to 9 years with gasoline prices at US $ 5 per gallon . At February 2012 prices , the break even period is 14 years . These estimates assume an average of 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) annual driving and vehicle prices correspond to Edmunds.com 's true market value estimates .
In a similar comparison carried out by TrueCar in April 2012 for The New York Times , the analysis found that the payback period for the Volt takes 26 @.@ 6 years versus a Chevrolet Cruze Eco , assuming it was regularly driven farther than its battery @-@ only range allows , and with gasoline priced at US $ 3 @.@ 85 per gallon . The analysis assumes an average of 15 @,@ 000 miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ) driven a year , a fuel economy of 34 @.@ 3 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 86 L / 100 km ; 41 @.@ 2 mpg @-@ imp ) for the Cruze Eco , priced at US $ 19 @,@ 925 , and a Volt price of US $ 31 @,@ 767 , after discounting the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax . TrueCar also found that with gasoline priced at US $ 5 per gallon , the payback time could drop to about 8 years if the Volt were to be operated exclusively on battery power . The newspaper also reported that according to the March 2012 Lundberg Survey , gasoline prices would need to reach US $ 12 @.@ 50 a gallon for the Volt to break even , while the Nissan Leaf would be competitive with a similar gasoline @-@ powered compact car at US $ 8 @.@ 53 a gallon .
Since the Edmunds and The New York Times pieces however , numerous rebuttal articles have surfaced that have identified various flaws in the methodologies and calculations used by Edmunds and TrueCar in their estimation of the Volt 's pay @-@ back period . Namely both sources strict use of the Volt 's " gasoline engine only " EPA fuel economy rating of 37 mpg , when in fact when operated as intended any real @-@ world use will most typically include an initial 38 miles of all @-@ electric power during which zero gasoline would be consumed . Thus resulting in significantly higher total fuel economy that admittedly will be entirely dependent on how often and how far the car is driven . Many of these articles further suggest that the usage model used by TrueCar of 114 trips of 131 mi ( 211 km ) per trip was not typical of the majority of American daily driving patterns , and their use of a projected cost US $ 3 @.@ 85 per gallon as the cost of gasoline throughout the entire payback period quite unrealistic . An article from the online automotive publication The Truth About Cars indicates that when the Volt is charged and driven daily exclusively on its available electric power for its EPA rated 38 miles of all @-@ electric range ( 13 @,@ 780 mi ( 22 @,@ 180 km ) annually ) the payback period for the Volt would be much lower and similar to that of other plug @-@ in electric @-@ cars such as the Nissan Leaf or approximately 8 @.@ 7 years ( as indicated by TrueCar ) .
= = = Tailpipe emissions = = =
While operating in all @-@ electric mode the Volt produces no tailpipe emissions . However , the clean air benefit is mostly local because , depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries , air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the electricity generation plants . The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission intensity of the power source used to charge the vehicle . When the Volt 's battery is depleted and the gasoline @-@ powered engine engages , the plug @-@ in emissions are similar to other internal combustion engine vehicles . The amount of total local emissions depends on how much the Volt is driven in all @-@ electric mode and how much in charge @-@ sustaining mode .
United States
The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) classified the Volt as Ultra Low Emission Vehicle ( ULEV ) , as CARB tests do not account for the Volt electric range . With all tests conducted under conditions where the engine is running the CARB rated the Volt 's carbon monoxide ( CO ) emissions at 1 @.@ 3 g / mile ( 0 @.@ 81 g / km ) , missing the limit for SULEV classification by 0 @.@ 3 g / mile ( 0 @.@ 19 g / km ) .
The EPA rating for the model year 2011 Volt 's tailpipe emissions is 84 grams of CO2 per mile , ( 52 @.@ 5 CO2 g / km ) . Tailpipe emissions for the improved model year 2014 / 15 Volt fell to 81 grams of CO2 per mile , ( 50 @.@ 6 CO2 g / km ) . CO2 emissions are produced by the internal combustion engine in extended @-@ range mode , and only after the Volt 's primary battery charge has been depleted . In the other air pollutants category , the Volt rates six out of ten , with ten being best .
The EPA also estimated the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the vehicle . Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region , the EPA considered three scenarios / ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor , the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor , and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies . The following table shows the Volt tailpipe emission plus total upstream CO2 emissions for the three scenarios , compared with other four popular plug @-@ in hybrids and the average gasoline @-@ powered car :
Europe
The Ampera 's official EU @-@ approved UN ECE R101 carbon dioxide emission rating is 27g / km .
= = = Safety = = =
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt standard features include 4 @-@ wheel anti @-@ lock brakes with traction control ; StabiliTrak electronic stability control system with brake assist ; tire @-@ pressure monitoring system ; and 8 total airbags : dual @-@ stage frontal , side @-@ impact and knee for driver and front passenger , and roof @-@ rail side @-@ impact for front and rear outboard seating positions , with a passenger sensing system . There is also available an optional emergency assistance system . A safety cage , built with high @-@ strength and ultra high @-@ strength steel , surrounds the passenger compartment to keep the space intact in the event of a crash . Crush zones framing the trunk and the engine crumple to absorb crash energy before it reaches occupants . Door hinges and latches in harmony with door structure and its steel reinforcements to keep doors closed during an impact . The 2011 Chevrolet Volt was named " Top Safety Pick " by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety . The Volt received the top ratings of " Good " for front , side , and rear impact crash tests , and also on rollover protection . All injury measurements except one were rated good , indicating a low risk of significant injuries in crashes according to the scale of severity employed in the IIHS ’ s testing . The Volt 's lower rating of " Acceptable " was for torso injuries .
The Volt received a five @-@ star overall crash safety rating from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) , the highest @-@ possible score . This rating was obtained with NHTSA 's New Car Assessment Program which is used for 2011 model year vehicles .
Accident and rescue handling
In August 2010 , General Motors began a training program for first responders when performing rescue duties involving the Chevrolet Volt . The program began at the 2010 Fire @-@ Rescue International in Chicago , using a pre @-@ production Volt for a live extrication exercise . Chicago firefighters demonstrated the sequence of tasks required to safely disable the vehicle ’ s powertrain and its 12 @-@ volt electrical system , which controls its high @-@ voltage components , and then proceed to extricate injured occupants . As of January 2011 , additional training workshops had taken place in several other cities corresponding to the Volt 's initial launch markets . An Emergency Response Guide for the 2011 Volt was made available at its Service Technical College for use by emergency responders . The guide also describes methods of disabling the high voltage system and identifies cut zone information .
GM recommends that a Volt battery fire be fought with water rather than dry chemicals , and rates the Volt battery as having no explosion or electrocution hazard as the result of a collision . The high @-@ voltage system is designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment , and to detect a loss of communication from an airbag control module . During the Volt development the lithium @-@ ion battery pack was subjected to a wide range of tests , including overcharge , discharge , vibration , excessive heat and cold , short circuit , humidity , fire , crush , water immersion , salt water immersion , and nail penetration .
Warning sounds
Due to significant noise reduction typical of vehicles traveling in all @-@ electric mode at low speeds , the Volt is fitted with a manually activated electronic warning sound system called Pedestrian @-@ Friendly Alert System for use when the car is operating at low speeds to alert pedestrians to the car 's presence .
= = = Other features = = =
Connectivity
The Volt features OnStar Mobile application for owners to access vehicle information without being in or near the car . This smartphone application features the ability to check fuel efficiency as well as the vehicle 's current electric range . It also helps monitor the charging , giving owners key information about the current charge level and the amount of time it will take until it is fully charged . The application also is able to control features such as locking / unlocking doors , and acts as a remote starter . A five @-@ year OnStar Directions and Connections service was bundled into the 2011 Volt 's base price , which was reduced to three years for the 2012 model year .
2011 model year
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt comes standard with cruise control ; remote vehicle start @-@ up system ; 17 @-@ inch 5 @-@ spoke forged painted aluminum wheels ; Bluetooth wireless technology for select phones ; audio and navigation system with a center console capacitive touch panel and DVD and MP3 playback , with voice recognition ; OnStar with five years of service ; BOSE premium speaker system , with six speakers and sub @-@ woofer ; 30 GB hard drive for audio data storage ; USB port ; three auxiliary , 12 @-@ volt , power outlets ; power door locks and windows ; power adjustable mirrors ; programmable time of day charge control ; and a 110 @-@ volt charge cord .
Available options include ; 17 @-@ inch 5 @-@ spoke forged polished @-@ aluminum wheels ; rearview camera system , parking assist package ; leather @-@ wrapped steering wheel ; and heated leather front seats with selectable automatic activation .
2012 model year
The 2012 Volt standard features include a remote keyless access with passive locking allowing the car to automatically lock and unlock with the key fob in close proximity of vehicle ; OnStar turn @-@ by @-@ turn navigation for three years , and available in @-@ dash navigation system ; and Chevrolet MyLink including Bluetooth streaming audio for music and select phones . The 2012 Volt has seven option packages while the 2011 model had only three .
2013 model year
The low @-@ emission package standard available on later 2012 Volts destined for the California market is included in the 2013 Volts sold in New York state to allow their owners access to high @-@ occupancy lanes . The liftgate and roof of the 2013 model is body @-@ colored rather than black , and a new interior color " Pebble Beige " is available in both cloth upholstery and leather seats with suede inserts . A removable rear @-@ seat center armrest is included in the premium trim package . Other changes include an improved audio system with GPS @-@ based navigation ; a comfort package that includes heated driver and front passenger cloth seats and leather @-@ wrapped steering wheel ; and there are a pair of available safety packages .
2014 model year
Minor changes for the 2014 model year include a manual release for the charge port door in place of the electronically activated door found on previous models , and the addition of two new paint colors . A leather wrapped steering wheel becomes standard .
= = Second generation ( 2015 – ) = =
The second generation Chevrolet Volt was officially unveiled at the January 2015 North American International Auto Show . Retail deliveries began in the United States and Canada in October 2015 as a 2016 model year , with 1 @,@ 324 units delivered in the U.S. that month . Availability in the American market was limited to California and the other 10 states that follow California ’ s zero emission vehicle regulations . GM scheduled the second generation as a 2017 model year to be released in the 39 remaining states by early 2016 . Manufacturing of the 2017 MY Volt began in February 2016 , and the first units arrived at dealerships at the end of February 2016 . The 2017 model complies with stricter Tier 3 emissions requirements and it will be available nationwide .
The second generation Volt has an upgraded powertrain with a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ liter engine that uses regular gasoline ; the 18 @.@ 4 kWh battery pack has new chemistry that stores 20 % more electrical energy and uses fewer cells , 192 compared with 288 on the 2014 Volt ; it uses a new power controller that is integrated with the motor housing ; the electric motors weigh 100 lb ( 45 kg ) less and use smaller amounts of rare earth metals . GM engineers explained that the second generation Volt was developed using extensive input from Volt owners .
These improvements allow the 2016 Volt to deliver better EPA ratings than the first generation model . The all @-@ electric range was officially rated at 53 mi ( 85 km ) , up from 38 mi ( 61 km ) attained by the 2015 Volt . The gains in efficiency allow the second generation Volt to improve its combined fuel economy in gasoline @-@ only ( charge @-@ sustaining ) mode to 42 mpg @-@ US ( 5 @.@ 6 L / 100 km ; 50 mpg @-@ imp ) , up from 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) for the previous model . The official second generation Volt 's rating for combined city / highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode is 106 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) , up from 98 MPG @-@ e for the 2015 first generation model . The combined gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of the 2016 model year Volt is 77 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 1 L / 100 km ; 92 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent , 82 MPG @-@ e in city driving and 72 MPG @-@ e in highway . Both the all @-@ electric range and fuel economy ratings are the same for the 2017 model year Volt .
In April 2013 , CEO Daniel Akerson announced that GM expects the second generation Volt to be priced on the order of US $ 7 @,@ 000 to US $ 10 @,@ 000 lower than the 2013 model year with the same features . The 2016 Volt pricing will start at US $ 33 @,@ 170 before any available government incentives , plus US $ 825 for destination . The starting price is US $ 1 @,@ 175 lower than the 2015 Volt . In California , order books for the second generation Volt were opened on May 28 , 2015 .
In July 2014 , Opel announced that due to the slowdown in sales , the Ampera would be discontinued after the launch of second generation Volt , and between 2014 and 2018 , Opel planned to introduce in Europe a successor product in the electric vehicle segment . General Motors announced in February 2016 that the all @-@ electrc Opel Ampera @-@ e hatchback will go into production in 2017 . This is the European version of the Chevrolet Bolt EV .
In April 2015 , General Motors confirmed that it will not build the second generation Volt in right @-@ hand @-@ drive configuration . Due to low sales , only 246 units had been sold in Australia by mid @-@ April 2015 , the Holden Volt will be discontinued once the remaining stock is sold out .
= = Production , price and sales = =
= = = North America = = =
Assembly of the Volt was assigned to Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant following the conclusion of the 2007 UAW @-@ GM contract talks . For initial production the gasoline engine is being imported from the Opel engine plant in Aspern , Austria . In November 2010 , General Motors began investing US $ 138 @.@ 3 million at its engine operations plant in Flint , Michigan to support increased production of the Ecotec 1 @.@ 4 L engine that is used in the Chevrolet Cruze , the upcoming 2012 Chevrolet Sonic , and the variant used in the Chevrolet Volt . The Flint plant was expected to start production of 400 engines a day in early 2011 , ramp up daily production to 800 engines in late 2011 , and to increase its capacity to 1 @,@ 200 a day by late 2012 . In May 2011 , General Motors decided to invest an additional US $ 84 million at the Flint plant to further increase 1 @.@ 4 L engine production capacity .
In 2010 , General Motors planned an initial production for calendar year 2011 of 10 @,@ 000 Volts and 45 @,@ 000 units for 2012 , up from the 30 @,@ 000 units initially announced . In May 2011 , the carmaker again raised its production targets , as Volt and Ampera production capacity was increased to 16 @,@ 000 units in 2011 , including 3 @,@ 500 units for exports and 2 @,@ 500 demonstration units destined to U.S. dealerships , and the rest for U.S. sales . However , in November 2011 GM 's sales chief announced that they would not meet its sales goal of 10 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2011 .
Out of the 2012 production , General Motors expected to produce 10 @,@ 000 Amperas for sale in Europe , 6 @,@ 000 destined for Opel and 4 @,@ 000 for Vauxhall in the UK . In addition , 2 @,@ 000 Volts will be made available for the region . By early 2012 GM abandoned its sales target to deliver 45 @,@ 000 Volts in the U.S and instead announced that production in 2012 will depend on demand . By March 2012 the Volt plant has a global production capacity of 60 @,@ 000 vehicles per year .
The Volt 's battery cells are produced by LG Chem in South Korea and then shipped to the US , where the battery packs are assembled at a purpose @-@ built facility in Brownstown Charter Township , Michigan owned and operated by General Motors . Compact Power , the North American subsidiary of LG Chem , is building a battery plant in Holland , Michigan to manufacture the advanced battery cells for the Volt and other carmakers , with capacity to produce enough cells for 50 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 battery packs per year . The US $ 303 million Holland plant was funded by 50 % U.S. Department of Energy matching stimulus funds and is planned to open by mid @-@ 2012 .
The 2011 Chevrolet Volt was officially launched on November 30 , 2010 at a ceremony at the Hamtramck plant , where the first production unit for retail sale came off the assembly line . The first retail vehicle was delivered to a customer in Denville , New Jersey on December 15 , 2010 . GM reported it had built 12 @,@ 400 Volts in total through December 2011 . This includes dealers ' demo vehicles in North America and Amperas in dealerships in Europe , crash test vehicles and other unavailable Volts owned by GM .
GM halted production for about one month at the Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant by mid June 2011 to complete some upgrades , including the installation of new tooling , equipment and overhead conveyor systems throughout the facility . These upgrades allowed GM to triple the rate of Volt production and prepared the plant for 2012 Volt and Ampera production . After the plant retooling , the production rate reached 150 units per day four days a week by August 2011 . The Volt plant was also down during January 2012 in preparation for building the California lower @-@ emission version . A four @-@ week shutdown due to slow sales took place between March and April 2012 . GM said it had around 3 @,@ 600 Volts in inventory and needed to reduce dealer inventories as production is expected to meet market demand . GM also extended the traditional two @-@ week summer vacation by an extra week at the Hamtramck plant . GM closed its Detroit @-@ Hamtramck plant from September 17 until October 15 , 2012 , affecting roughly 1 @,@ 500 workers on downtime while the plant was retooled to assemble the all @-@ new 2014 Chevrolet Impala alongside the 2013 Volt . This was the second time in 2012 that GM has halted Volt production .
Production of the 2013 model year Volt began in July 2012 and customer deliveries began during the same month . In October 2012 , GM announced that the Cadillac ELR extended @-@ range luxury coupe will be built at the Detroit @-@ Hamtramck Assembly plant , together with he Chevrolet Volt , Opel Ampera , and Holden Volt . The addition of the ELR to the plant represents an additional US $ 35 million investment , bringing the total product investment to US $ 561 million since December 2009 . The first 2014 ELRs rolled off the production line in late May 2013 . These were pre @-@ production units destined for testing purposes before production for retail customers began at the end of 2013 . Deliveries of the 2014 model year Volt began in August 2013 . Volt sales in the U.S. reached the 50 @,@ 000 unit milestone in October 2013 , with over 60 @,@ 000 vehicles of the Volt / Ampera family sold worldwide . Production of the 2015 model year Volt ended in mid @-@ May 2015 , while manufacturing of pre @-@ production units of the second generation began in March 2015 .
= = = = United States = = = =
Sales of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt began in selected markets due to limited initial production , as General Motors ' original target for 2011 was 10 @,@ 000 units . The first cars were delivered in Washington D.C. , the New York City metropolitan region , California , and Austin , Texas . By May 2011 the Volt had been launched also in Connecticut , Maryland , Michigan , New Jersey , and Virginia . Deliveries in Delaware , Florida , Georgia , Hawaii , North Carolina , Oregon , Pennsylvania , South Carolina , and Washington began in the third quarter of 2011 . In June 2011 , Chevrolet dealers nationwide began taking orders for the 2012 Volt , and deliveries in all 50 states began in November 2011 .
The suggested retail price ( MSRP ) for the 2011 Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. started at US $ 40 @,@ 280 which excluded destination freight charge , tax , title , license , dealer fees and optional equipment and before any savings due to factory incentives , tax deductions , or other available subsidies for qualifying buyers . The MSRP for the 2012 Volt starts at US $ 39 @,@ 995 including a US $ 850 destination freight charge and excludes tax , title and license fees , or other available government subsidies . The base price is US $ 1 @,@ 005 less than the 2011 model year , and General Motors explained that this price reduction is possible because of a " wider range of options and configurations that come with the expansion of Volt production for sale nationally . " The price will drop to US $ 34 @,@ 995 including destination charges for the 2014 model year .
Due to the capacity of the Volt 's battery pack it qualifies for the maximum US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit as specified in the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 . The federal tax credit phases out over a one @-@ year period after the manufacturer has sold at least 200 @,@ 000 vehicles in the U.S. Several states also have additional incentives or rebates available for plug @-@ in electric vehicles for qualifying buyers . The 2011 Volt price including all available regular production and premium options is US $ 44 @,@ 600 , including destination charges and before tax credits or any subsidies . For the 2012 model year the price of the Volt with all available options is US $ 46 @,@ 265 before tax credits or any subsidies available .
Although the Volt 's retail price is higher than its main competitor , the 2011 Nissan Leaf , the lease payment for the Volt is almost the same as its competitor , except that the Leaf has a lower initial payment . General Motors explained that " the apparent disparity between the Volt 's sticker and lease prices is a reflection of the company 's calculation that the vehicle will maintain a very high residual value after three years — significantly higher than that of the LEAF . "
The price for the home charging units is US $ 490 plus installation costs . The Voltec is a home @-@ charging unit built by SPX for Volt owners . It is a 240 @-@ volt ( Level II ) charger , and , according to General Motors , can replenish the Volt 's batteries in about four hours . Consumer Reports has advised buyers to budget up to US $ 2 @,@ 000 , as many older homes may need a substantial electrical upgrade because the U.S. National Electrical Code requires that the charger have its own dedicated 220 @-@ volt , 30 @-@ amp circuit . Early buyers can benefit from the federal tax credit available for charging equipment .
The 2011 Volt was not submitted for application to the California Air Resources Board 's ( CARB ) Clean Vehicle Rebate Project rebate and therefore was not required to meet the 10 @-@ year 150 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 240 @,@ 000 km ) battery warranty requirement for enhanced advanced technology partial zero @-@ emissions vehicles ( enhAT @-@ PZEV ) . The Volt team explained that for the launch General Motors decided to go with a common national package which includes an 8 @-@ year 100 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 160 @,@ 000 km ) battery warranty . For this reason owners of the 2011 Volt did not qualify for California 's rebates and free access to use carpool lanes even when traveling solo . A third package , scheduled for 2013 , is under development with an E85 flex @-@ fuel engine . General Motors engineering team commented that " introducing two or three packages of an entirely new technology set and platform at the same time wasn 't an option . "
In February 2012 General Motors began deliveries of a low emission version destined for California that features a new low emissions package that allows the 2012 Chevrolet Volt to qualify as an enhanced , advanced technology – partial zero emissions vehicle ( enhAT @-@ PZEV ) and have access to California ’ s high @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV ) . The new standard California version of the Volt features a modified engine and exhaust components . The catalytic converter was modified to add a secondary air @-@ injection pump that " streams ambient air into the exhaust stream to increase its ability to remove pollutants . " Owners of a 2012 Volt with the low emissions package are eligible to apply for one of 40 @,@ 000 available HOV lane stickers issued to vehicles that qualify as a California AT @-@ PZEV . The permits are handed out on a first @-@ apply , first @-@ served basis . Additionally , the new low emissions package makes the 2012 Volt eligible for owners to receive up to US $ 1 @,@ 500 in state rebates through the state ’ s Clean Vehicle Rebate Project ( CVRP ) . This incentive is in addition to the federal government ’ s US $ 7 @,@ 500 tax credit . Only the 2012 Volts manufactured after February 6 , 2012 , are fitted with the low emission package and sold as standard models in California . Other states where the Volt has solo driving access to HOV lanes are Florida , Georgia , New York and Virginia .
U.S. sales
Since sales began in December 2010 , a total of 98 @,@ 558 Volts have been sold in the country through June 2016 . The Volt ranked as the all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in electric car in the United States until February 2015 , when it was surpassed by the all @-@ electric Nissan Leaf in March 2015 . Cumulative Volt sales passed Leaf sales in March 2016 , and became once again the best selling plug @-@ in car in the American market .
The top 10 selling states during the first quarter of 2012 were California , Michigan , Florida , Illinois , Texas , New York , Minnesota , Ohio , North Carolina and Maryland . California is the leading market and accounted for almost 23 % of Volt sales during this quarter , followed by Michigan with 6 @.@ 3 % of national sales . In California the leading regional markets are San Francisco , Los Angeles , and San Diego , all metropolitan areas notorious for their high congestion levels and where free access to high @-@ occupancy lanes for solo drivers has been a strong incentive to boost Volt sales in the state .
Resale value
In May 2011 Kelley Blue Book ( KBB ) projected the 2011 Chevrolet Volt resale value at just over US $ 17 @,@ 000 after 36 months , the length of a typical lease , which represents 42 % of the car 's US $ 41 @,@ 000 suggested retail price ( MSRP ) . KBB explains that even though the residual value seems low , the projection considers that the first 200 @,@ 000 Volts sold will qualify for a US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , which effectively reduces the MSRP to US $ 33 @,@ 500 , making the US $ 17,000represent 51 % of its original value after the tax credit . In comparison , KBB notes , the 2011 Toyota Prius has a projected residual of 46 % after 36 months . KBB 's estimate assumed gasoline price will be around US $ 4 per gallon in 2014 . For 2012 , Kelley Blue Book expected the Volt to retain 42 % of its original value after 3 years and 27 % after 5 years . Based on these figures , in November 2011 KBB awarded the Volt with the 2012 Best Resale Value Awards in the plug @-@ in electric car category . KBB explains that the residual value for the Volt is lower than the market 35 @.@ 5 % average due to the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit , which lowers the transaction price and pushes down the residual value .
Consumer Reports ' analysis show that many Chevrolets lose about half of their purchase price after three years of ownership , and if the Volt depreciates the same , US $ 17 @,@ 000 seems a reasonable estimate . However , Consumer Reports have noted that fuel @-@ efficient hybrids and diesel models often depreciate far less than most vehicles , which might increase the Volt 's resale value after three years above the US $ 17 @,@ 000 estimate . Additionally , if gasoline prices continue to rise or if the tax credits expire , the demand for used Chevrolet Volts could quickly increase , raising their market value . On the other hand , if the next @-@ generation Volt ’ s battery has twice the capacity and cost less , as General Motors has claimed , the first generation Volts will be obsolete when the new ones come out in 2015 . Considering these assumptions , Consumer Reports considers that " at this point we believe it ’ s still unclear how the Volt will fare . "
Pecan Street demonstration project
General Motors is sponsoring the Pecan Street demonstration project at the Mueller neighborhood in Austin , Texas . The project objective is to learn the charging patterns of plug @-@ in electric car owners , and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same , which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug @-@ in cars return home in the evening . As of June 2013 , the community has nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone thanks to GM 's commitment to match the federal government 's US $ 7 @,@ 500 rebate incentive , which halves the purchase price of the Volt .
= = = = Canada = = = =
Chevrolet began taking orders in May 2011 and deliveries began in September 2011 in major cities only . During 2012 the Volt was the best selling plug @-@ in car in Canada , outselling all other PEVs combined . Despite a 24 % reduction from 2012 sales , the Volt continued as the top selling PEV in the Canadian market in 2013 , and again in 2014 with 1 @,@ 521 units . As of December 2015 , the Volt continued to rank as the top selling plug @-@ in electric car in Canada . Since September 2011 , a total of 6 @,@ 387 Volts have been delivered in Canada through May 2016 . The monthly sales record was set in May 2016 with 270 deliveries .
The suggested retail price ( MSRP ) for the 2012 Chevrolet Volt starts at CA $ 41 @,@ 545 ( US $ 42 @,@ 423 in June 2011 ) which excludes any charges , fees , and optional equipment and before any available subsidies or incentives for qualifying buyers . In the Canadian market , the Volt is offered in one standard trim level with two option packages , a Premium Trim Package and a Rear Camera and Park Assist Package . Some provinces are offering Government incentives including Ontario , Quebec ( both at CA $ 8 @,@ 500 US $ 8 @,@ 680 ) and British Columbia has announced their new LiveSmart BC program in which the Chevrolet Volt qualifies for a CA $ 5 @,@ 000 incentive / rebate as well as CA $ 500 towards charging equipment .
= = = Europe = = =
The European version of the Volt , the Opel Ampera ( known as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom ) , was unveiled at the Geneva Auto Show in March 2009 and also was exhibited at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show . Opel developed the battery control modules for the Ampera at the Opel Alternative Propulsion Center Europe in Mainz @-@ Kastel , Germany . The production version of the Ampera was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show . The Ampera is assembled at the Detroit / Hamtramck Assembly plant , Michigan .
The main differences between the Volt and the Ampera are in their styling . The Ampera has a distinctive front and rear fascia , with a large cut @-@ out in the rear bumper . The Opel Ampera features more stylized alloy wheels as standard , and the side skirts are body @-@ colored rather than black . In the inside there are only minor differences and both versions share the same exact powertrain and battery pack . A key operational difference was that the Ampera has four drive modes , one more than the 2011 / 12 model year Volt . The additional option is " City Mode " , which adapts battery management to the needs of commuter travel . City mode or " battery hold " engages the range @-@ extender immediately , allowing to save the energy currently stored in the battery , and when switched off , the range @-@ extender stops and the Ampera is then able to use the energy saved in the battery for pure electric driving , for example for traveling urban areas or restricted zones , such as the European low emission zones or to allow the Ampera to qualify for an exemption of the London congestion charge The 2013 model year Volt included the " Hold Drive " button to allow drivers to conserve battery @-@ pack energy for use at a particular time of their choice .
Sales
General Motors production target for 2012 was to manufacture 10 @,@ 000 Amperas for sale in Europe , 6 @,@ 000 destined for Opel and 4 @,@ 000 for Vauxhall in the UK , plus an additional 2 @,@ 000 Volts were to be made available for the region . The carmaker targeted the Ampera for business fleet market and local government agencies , where Opel has a strong customer base , while the Volt is aimed at retail customers . According to Opel , by June 2011 around 5 @,@ 000 customers across Europe had reserved an Ampera , with fleet or business customers representing 60 % of reservations , and a total of 7 @,@ 000 orders were received by March 2012 , with Benelux , Germany and the United Kingdom as the top markets in terms of orders .
The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place on November 30 , 2011 , to the U.S. Embassy in France . Distribution of the Opel Ampera to dealerships began in December 2011 , but deliveries to customers were delayed until February 2012 because Opel decided to wait until the NHTSA completed its investigation of the Volt 's battery fire risk after a crash . Since May 2012 the Vauxhall Ampera is available through the Zipcar carsharing club in London , Bristol , Cambridge and Oxford .
The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units and captured a 21 @.@ 5 % market share of the region 's plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment . As of October 2013 , the Ampera held a market share of almost 10 % of European registration of plug @-@ in electric cars since 2011 . The market share in the Netherlands was 40 % and 10 % in Germany . Ampera sales fell 40 % in 2013 to 3 @,@ 184 cars , and within the plug @-@ in hybrid segment , the Ampera was surpassed in 2013 by the Mitsubishi Outlander P @-@ HEV ( 8 @,@ 197 ) , Volvo V60 plug @-@ in ( 7 @,@ 437 ) , and the Prius plug @-@ in ( 4 @,@ 314 ) . In 2013 the Ampera ranked eighth among Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric vehicles , and its market share fell to about 5 % . During the first five months of 2014 , only 332 units had been sold , down 67 % from the same period in 2013 . In July 2014 , Opel announced that due to the slowdown in sales , the Ampera will be discontinued after the launch of second generation Volt , and between 2014 and 2018 , Opel plans to introduce in Europe a successor product in the electric vehicle segment . Ampera sales totaled 939 units in 2014 , and only 215 units during the first nine months of 2015 .
As of December 2015 , Opel / Vauxhall Ampera sales totaled almost 10 @,@ 000 units since 2011 , with the Netherlands as the leading market with 5 @,@ 031 Amperas registered , followed by Germany with 1 @,@ 542 units , and the UK with 1 @,@ 250 units registered by the end of June 2015 . The Netherlands is also the top selling Volt market in Europe with 1 @,@ 062 units registered through December 2014 , > out of about 1 @,@ 750 Volts sold through 2014 .
Pricing
In February 2011 Opel announced that the Ampera was to be offered for a uniform price throughout the Eurozone at € 42 @,@ 900 ( US $ 56 @,@ 920 in May 2012 ) including VAT , but prices by country may vary due to the trim levels that will be offered in each market . The Chevrolet Volt also has a uniform price that starts at € 41 @,@ 950 ( US $ 55 @,@ 660 in May 2012 ) including VAT . The Opel Ampera is eligible to several subsidies and tax breaks available for plug @-@ in electric vehicles in several European countries .
In the UK , the Vauxhall Ampera starts at GB £ 37 @,@ 250 ( US $ 60 @,@ 400 in May 2012 ) before discounting the GB £ 5 @,@ 000 Plug @-@ in Car Grant The Chevrolet Volt will also be available in the UK at a cost of GB £ 33 @,@ 545 ( US $ 54 @,@ 400 in May 2012 ) before the government grant . All Volts in the UK will come standard with leather interior .
= = = China = = =
General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt in Shanghai under its Chinese name of 沃蓝达 ( Wo Lan Da ) in September 2010 . The first Volts , out of the 10 @-@ vehicle demonstration fleet , arrived in China by late December 2011 . The demonstration program is taking place in Beijing , Tianjin and Shanghai .
The Volt went on sale in China by late 2011 with pricing starting at CN ¥ 498 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 78 @,@ 300 as of August 2012 ) and sales are limited to eight Chinese cities : Beijing , Shanghai , Hangzhou , Suzhou , Wuxi , Guangzhou , Shenzhen and Foshan . GM explained that 13 dealerships were selected in the eight cities , and they were chosen because these " cities have more elites who are inclined to try new technologies and lead the fashion tide . "
However , according to General Motors , in a move illegal under WTO rules the Chinese government refused the allow Chevrolet Volt owners access to up to US $ 19 @,@ 300 in government subsidies available for plug @-@ in vehicles unless GM had agreed to transfer intellectual property to a joint venture with a Chinese automaker for at least one of the Volt ’ s three core technologies : electric motors , complex electronic controls , and power storage devices , whether batteries or a fuel cell . General Motors negotiated with the Chinese government to let the Volt qualify for the subsidies without the technology transfer , but as of November 2011 , the subsidies were available only for electric cars made by Chinese automakers . As a result of the high import duties , General Motors reported in August 2012 that sales are minimal , those of a very low @-@ volume car . According to LMC Automotive , a total of 18 Volts have been sold in China through June 2012 .
In March 2012 , General Motors announced that an agreement was signed with the China Automotive Technology and Research Center ( CATARC ) to manage the Volt demonstration fleet in Beijing and to gather feedback from the fleet usage for one year . The demonstration Volts were scheduled to be delivered in April 2012 .
= = = Other markets = = =
Australia
Deliveries of the Holden Volt in the Australian market began in December 2012 , and the first Volt was delivered to the U.S. Ambassador in Canberra . Pricing starts at A $ 59 @,@ 990 ( around US $ 62 @,@ 598 ) . In November 2011 the first Holden Volt arrived in Australia for a series of evaluation tests . Holden has announced that the Volt underwent numerous modifications to better suit it to Australian roads , although the test vehicles are left @-@ hand drive .
The Holden Volt is available to purchase through 49 select Holden dealerships throughout metropolitan and rural Australia , with 18 in Victoria , 11 in New South Wales , 9 in Queensland , 7 in Western Australia and 4 in South Australia . A total of 80 Holden Volts were sold during 2012 , and 101 units in 2013 . A total of 246 Holden Volts had been sold in the country by mid April 2015 , with the stock of the first generation almost empty . General Motors announced that it will not build the second generation Volt in right @-@ hand @-@ drive configuration , so the Volt will be discontinued in the country when the remaining stock is sold out .
Brazil
General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars . If successful , General Motors would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel , as most new Brazilian cars are flex @-@ fuel .
Japan
In December 2010 , General Motors announced plans to introduce the Volt in limited numbers into Japan in 2011 for technology and market test purposes . Exports for retail sales will depend on the results of this trial .
Mexico
The second generation Volt was released for retail customers in December 2015 . Pricing starts at 638 @,@ 000 pesos ( ~ US $ 36 @,@ 880 ) , and it is available in Mexico City , Monterrey , Guadalajara , Querétaro , and Puebla .
New Zealand
The Holden Volt will be released in New Zealand through three dealerships , with one in Auckland , Christchurch and Wellington . Deliveries are scheduled to begin by late 2012 and pricing starts at NZ $ 85 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 71 @,@ 930 ) .
= = = Global sales = = =
Combined global Volt / Ampera sales passed the 100 @,@ 000 unit milestone in October 2015 . The Volt family of vehicles ranks as the world 's all @-@ time top selling plug @-@ in hybrid , and it is also the second best selling plug @-@ in electric car ever , after the Nissan Leaf , which has sold 200 @,@ 000 units worldwide by early December 2015 . The Volt / Ampera family was the world 's best selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 31 @,@ 400 units sold . The Opel / Vauxhall Ampera was Europe 's top selling plug @-@ in electric car in 2012 with 5 @,@ 268 units , representing a market share of 21 @.@ 5 % of the region 's plug @-@ in electric passenger car segment . However , during 2013 Ampera sales fell 40 % , and the declining trend continued during 2014 and 2015 .
As of March 2016 , global Volt / Ampera family sales totaled over 110 @,@ 000 units since its inception in December 2010 , including almost 10 @,@ 000 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe up to December 2015 . As of May 2016 , Chevrolet Volt sales are led by the United States with 96 @,@ 621 units delivered , followed by Canada with 6 @,@ 387 units , and the Netherlands with 1 @,@ 062 Volts registered through December 2015 , together representing 99 % of global Volt sales . Out of the 9 @.@ 989 Opel / Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through December 2015 , 5 @,@ 031 were registered in the Netherlands , 1 @,@ 542 in Germany , and 1 @,@ 279 in the UK by the end of September 2015 , together representing 78 % of Ampera sales .
The following tables present retail sales of the Volt and Ampera variants through December 2015 for the top selling national markets by year since deliveries began in December 2010 . Demonstration vehicles allocated to dealerships are not included in retail sales reports while they are used for test drives .
= = Related concept cars = =
Cadillac Converj
The Cadillac Converj is a plug @-@ in hybrid concept car first unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show which incorporated the propulsion system from the Chevrolet Volt , including the Voltec powertrain . In August 2011 , General Motors announced its decision to produce the Converj as the Cadillac ELR . The first 2014 ELRs rolled off the production line in late May 2013 . These were pre @-@ production units destined for testing purposes and production for retail customers started at the end of 2013 . The ELR was released to retail customers in the U.S. in December 2013 .
Volt MPV5
At the 2010 Auto China show General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt MPV5 Concept . The Volt MPV5 is a plug @-@ in crossover hybrid and has a top speed of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and an electric range of 32 miles ( 51 km ) . The MPV5 integrates design elements from the Volt , with a body style very similar to the Chevrolet Orlando and four inches larger than its predecessor , Chevrolet HHR .
Opel Monza Concept
The Opel Monza Concept is a four @-@ seat coupe plug @-@ in hybrid concept car with gullwing door unveiled at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show . The concept shares the same basic plug @-@ in hybrid setup as the Chevrolet Volt and Opel Ampera , but using a turbocharged 1 L 3 @-@ cylinder natural gas @-@ powered engine as its range extender instead of General Motors ’ current 1 @.@ 4 L gasoline engine . According to Opel , this concept is the role @-@ model for the next generation of Opel cars , and because of its modular chassis design , future cars based on it would be able to accommodate gasoline , diesel or electric power .
= = Controversies and criticism = =
= = = EPA fuel economy testing = = =
In 2008 , General Motors was concerned about how the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) would test the Volt to determine its official fuel economy rating . The controversy centered on whether , by including a gasoline engine , the Volt should be classified as a hybrid rather than an electric car as claimed by General Motors . If tested with the same EPA tests used by other hybrids , the Volt 's EPA fuel economy rating would be around 48 mpg @-@ US ( 4 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 58 mpg @-@ imp ) due to the current EPA test for hybrids disallowing vehicles from boosting their mpg rating using stored battery power . General Motors stated that the Volt is an entirely new type of vehicle which the EPA 's current fuel economy tests were not suited to rate and that a new test should be devised for this emerging class of hybrid @-@ electrics . General Motors also advocated for a more simplified mpg calculation method to take into account the range of a plug @-@ in hybrid while running solely on electricity . Because the Volt can travel 40 miles ( 64 km ) on batteries alone , GM argued that most drivers with a daily commute of less than that distance would drive only in electric mode , so long as they recharged their vehicle at work or at home overnight .
The EPA official rating issued in November 2010 included separate fuel economy ratings for all @-@ electric mode and gasoline @-@ only mode , with an overall combined city / highway gasoline @-@ electricity fuel economy rating of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . To address the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges , EPA also included in the Volt 's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios driven between a full charge , and a never @-@ charge scenario . According to this table the Volt 's fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 40 L / 100 km ; 202 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) if driven 45 miles ( 72 km ) between full charges . Also , in recognition of the multiple operating modes that a plug @-@ in hybrid can be built with ( all @-@ electric , blended , and gasoline @-@ only ) , for the new fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning in model year 2013 , EPA and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug @-@ in hybrids . One label is for extended @-@ range electric vehicles , like the Chevy Volt , with two modes : all @-@ electric and gasoline @-@ only ; and a second label for blended mode that includes a combination of all @-@ electric , gasoline and electric operation , and gasoline only , like a conventional hybrid vehicle .
= = = EPA fuel economy rating = = =
In August 2009 , General Motors released its estimated city fuel economy rating for the Volt of 230 mpg @-@ US ( 1 @.@ 0 L / 100 km ; 280 mpg @-@ imp ) of gasoline plus 25 kWh / 100 mi ( 560 kJ / km ) of electricity using the EPA 's proposed method for evaluating plug @-@ in hybrids . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) issued a statement clarifying that the " EPA has not tested a Chevy Volt and therefore cannot confirm the fuel economy values claimed by GM . " In July 2010 , GM explained that their estimate was based on a formula that had not been officially approved and that they had been awaiting the EPA 's decision on how the equivalent fuel economy of plug @-@ in hybrids would be estimated .
The official EPA rating was issued in November 2010 and became the agency 's first fuel economy label for a plug @-@ in hybrids . The EPA rated the 2011 Volt combined fuel economy at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) in all @-@ electric mode , and 37 mpg @-@ US ( 6 @.@ 4 L / 100 km ; 44 mpg @-@ imp ) in gasoline @-@ only mode , for an overall combined fuel economy rating of 60 mpg @-@ US ( 3 @.@ 9 L / 100 km ; 72 mpg @-@ imp ) equivalent ( MPG @-@ e ) . The label also shows the combined city @-@ highway fuel economy in all @-@ electric mode expressed in traditional energy consumption units , rating the Volt at 36 kWh per 100 miles ( 160 km ) .
= = = Production cost and sales price = = =
In 2009 , the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry said that " GM is at least one generation behind Toyota on advanced , “ green ” powertrain development . In an attempt to leapfrog Toyota , GM has devoted significant resources to the Chevy Volt . " and that " while the Chevy Volt holds promise , it is currently projected to be much more expensive than its gasoline @-@ fueled peers and will likely need substantial reductions in manufacturing cost in order to become commercially viable . " A 2009 Carnegie Mellon University study found that a PHEV @-@ 40 will be less cost effective than a HEV or a PHEV @-@ 7 in all of the scenarios considered , due to the cost and weight of the battery . Jon Lauckner , a Vice President at General Motors , responded that the study did not consider the inconvenience of a 7 miles ( 11 km ) electric range and that the study 's cost estimate of US $ 1 @,@ 000 per kWh for the Volt 's battery pack was " many hundreds of dollars per kilowatt hour higher " than what it costs to make today . "
In early 2010 , it was reported that General Motors would lose money on the Volt for at least the first couple of generations , but it hoped the car would create a green image that could rival the Prius .
After the Volt 's sales price was announced in July 2010 , there was concern expressed of the launch price of the Volt and its affordability and resulting popularity , especially when the federal subsidies of US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion were taken into account in the development of the car .
General Motors CEO Edward Whitacre Jr. rejected as " ridiculous " criticism that the Volt 's price is too expensive . He said that " I think it 's a very fair price . It 's the only car that will go coast to coast on electricity without plugging it in , and nobody else can come close . " Despite the federal government being the major GM shareholder due to the 2009 government @-@ led bankruptcy of the automaker , during a press briefing at the White House a Treasury official clarified that the federal government did not have any input on the pricing of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt .
There have also been complaints regarding price markups due to the initial limited availability in 2010 of between US $ 5 @,@ 000 to US $ 12 @,@ 000 above the recommended price , and at least in one case a US $ 20 @,@ 000 mark up in California . Even though the carmaker cannot dictate vehicle pricing to its dealers , GM said that it had requested its dealers to keep prices in line with the company ’ s suggested retail price .
In May 2011 the National Legal and Policy Center announced that some Chevrolet dealers were selling Volts to other dealers and claiming the US $ 7 @,@ 500 federal tax credit for themselves . Then the dealers who bought the Volts sell them as used cars with low mileage to private buyers , who no longer qualify for the credit . General Motors acknowledged that 10 dealer @-@ to @-@ dealer Volt sales had taken place among Chevrolet dealers , but the carmaker said they do not encourage such practice .
In September 2012 , Reuters published an opinion / editorial article where it claimed that General Motors , nearly two years after the introduction of the car , was losing US $ 49 @,@ 000 on each Volt it built . The article concluded that the Volt is " over @-@ engineered and over @-@ priced " and that its technological complexity has put off many prospective buyers , due to fears the car may be unreliable . GM executives replied that Reuters ' estimates were significantly flawed as they also allocated the vehicle 's research and development program costs only against the number of Volts sold in the United States ( as of August 2012 ) , instead of spreading the total costs over the entire lifetime of the model , as well as including those units sold in Europe and other countries . GM explained that the investments will pay off once the innovative technologies of the Volt are applied across multiple current and future products .
= = = Battery pack fire risk = = =
In June 2011 a Volt that had been subjected by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) to a 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) side pole impact crash test followed by a post @-@ impact rollover , caught fire three weeks later in the test center parking lot , burning nearby vehicles . The battery was found to be the source of the fire . After the fire , both Chevrolet and the NHTSA independently replicated the crash test and a subsequent vehicle rotation procedure to test for any fluid leakage , but in their first attempt they could not reproduce the conditions under which the battery pack ignited . The NHTSA said it had " concluded that the crash test damaged the Volt ’ s lithium @-@ ion battery and that the damage led to a vehicle fire that took several weeks to develop . " In further testing of the Volt 's batteries carried out by NHTSA in November 2011 , two of the three tests resulted in thermal events . One battery pack was rotated 180 degrees within hours after it was impacted and began to smoke and emit sparks after rotation . In the other case , the battery pack that was crashed @-@ tested one week earlier and that had been monitored since the test caught fire . The NHTSA then took an uncommon step on November 25 , 2011 and opened a formal safety defect investigation " without any data from real @-@ world incidents " to examine the potential risks involved from intrusion damage to the battery pack in the Chevrolet Volt . After the initial Volt fire , the NHTSA examined the Nissan Leaf and other plug @-@ in electric vehicles and said its testing “ has not raised safety concerns about vehicles other than the Chevy Volt . ”
As a result of this investigation , GM announced that it would offer any new GM car in exchange to any Volt owner who has concerns while the federal investigation was taking place . In December 2011 , the company said that if necessary they were prepared to recall all the vehicles and repair them upon determination of the cause of the fires , and also announced they would buy back the car if the owner was too afraid of the potential for a fire . GM 's CEO also said that it may be necessary to redesign or make changes to the battery pack depending on the recommendations from federal officials . As of December 1 , 33 Volt owners in the U.S. and 3 in Canada had requested a loaner car . As of December 5 , General Motors reported that a couple dozen Volt owners had requested the carmaker to buy back their cars , and the company had already agreed to repurchase about a dozen . Before the carmaker agrees to buy back each vehicle , other options are explored as GM primarily wants to provide loaner cars , but " if the only way we can make them happy is to repurchase it , then we will , " a GM spokesman said . General Motors explained that the buy back price includes the Volt purchase price , plus taxes and fees , less a usage fee based on how many miles the car has been run . As of January 5 , 2012 , GM reported that around 250 Volt owners had requested either a loaner vehicle or a potential buyback .
The NHTSA also said it was working with all automakers to develop postcrash procedures to keep occupants of electric vehicles and emergency personnel who respond to crash scenes safe . Additionally , NHTSA advised to be aware that fires may occur a considerable amount of time after a crash . General Motors said the first fire would have been avoided if GM 's protocols for deactivating the battery after the crash had been followed . These protocols had been used by GM since July 2011 but were not shared with the NHTSA until November 2011 . In another statement the carmaker stated that they “ are working with other vehicle manufacturers , first responders , tow truck operators , and salvage associations with the goal of implementing industrywide protocols . ”
Customer deliveries of the Opel Ampera in Europe were delayed until the NHTSA completed its investigation of the Volt 's battery fire risk to make sure the vehicle is safe . However , deliveries of the first Chevrolet Volts in Europe began in France in November 2011 . Deliveries of the Vauxhall Ampera in the UK continued as scheduled for May 2012 . Opel Ampera deliveries began in February 2012 .
Battery enhancements
On January 5 , 2012 , General Motors announced that it would offer a customer @-@ satisfaction program to provide modifications to the Chevrolet Volt to reduce the chance that the battery pack could catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident . The carmaker described the modifications as voluntary enhancements and stated that neither the car nor the battery was being recalled . General Motors determined the June fire was the result of a minor intrusion from a portion of the vehicle into a side section of the battery pack . This intrusion resulted in a small coolant leak inside the battery of approximately 50 mL ( 1 @.@ 8 imp fl oz ; 1 @.@ 7 US fl oz ) . When the vehicle was put through a slow roll , where it was rotated at 90 @-@ degree increments , holding in each position for about five minutes , an additional 1 liter ( 0 @.@ 22 imp gal ; 0 @.@ 26 U.S. gal ) of coolant leaked . With the vehicle in the 180 degrees position ( upside down ) , the coolant came in contact with the printed circuit board electronics at the top of the battery pack and later crystallized . Three weeks later this condition , in combination with a charged battery , led to a short circuit that resulted in the post @-@ crash fire .
General Motors explained the modifications will enhance the vehicle structure that surround the battery and the battery coolant system to improve battery protection after a severe crash . The safety enhancements consist of strengthening an existing portion of the Volt ’ s vehicle safety structure to further protect the battery pack in a severe side collision ; add a sensor in the reservoir of the battery coolant system to monitor coolant levels ; and add a tamper @-@ resistant bracket to the top of the battery coolant reservoir to help prevent potential coolant overfill . The additional side safety structural pieces have a total weight of 2 to 3 lb ( 0 @.@ 91 to 1 @.@ 36 kg ) , and their function is to spread the load of a severe side impact away from the battery pack , reducing the possibility of intrusion into the pack .
During December 2011 , GM conducted four crash tests of Volts with the reinforced steel and upgraded cooling system , resulting in no intrusion to the battery and no coolant leakage . On December 22 , 2011 , the NHTSA also subjected a modified Volt to the same test that led to the original fire , with no signs of the damage that is believed to have been the cause . The NHTSA said “ the preliminary results of the crash test indicate the remedy proposed by General Motors today should address the issue of battery intrusion ” though its investigation remained open . General Motors declined to say how much the modifications would cost .
All 12 @,@ 400 Chevrolet Volts produced until December 2011 , including all Amperas in stock at European dealerships , were scheduled to receive the safety enhancements . Since production was halted during the holidays , the enhancements were in place when production resumed in early 2012 . Sales continued , and dealers modified the Volts they had in stock . General Motors sent a letter to Volt owners indicating that they could schedule the service appointment to protect their batteries beginning in the last week of March 2012 . General Motors also decided to replace the 120 @-@ volt charging cords in most of the nearly 10 @,@ 000 Volts sold since late 2010 . The new cords were enhanced to add durability , and some of the chargers built after February 5 have the new cords .
NHTSA findings
On January 20 , 2012 , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration closed the Volt 's safety defect investigation related to post @-@ crash fire risk . The agency concluded that " no discernible defect trend exists " and also found that the modifications recently developed by General Motors are sufficient to reduce the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side impacts . The NHTSA also said that " based on the available data , NHTSA does not believe that Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles pose a greater risk of fire than gasoline @-@ powered vehicles . " The agency also announced it has developed interim guidance to increase awareness and identify appropriate safety measures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community , law enforcement officers , tow truck operators , storage facilities and consumers .
House of Representatives hearing
The chairman of the Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs , Stimulus Oversight and Government Spending , U.S. Representative Jim Jordan held hearings on January 25 , 2012 , to investigate why the NHTSA opened a formal investigation only five months after the first postcrash battery fire occurred in June . The subcommittee of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform wanted to determine if government officials , including from NHTSA , purposely held back information on the Volt fire for political reasons . Both Daniel Akerson , General Motors CEO , and David L. Strickland , NHTSA administrator , denied any wrongdoing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
The Volt has received awards from multiple organizations :
U.S. organizations
2009 Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal at the Washington Auto Show for " a bold and far @-@ reaching approach that promises to bring an exceptionally fuel efficient model to consumers at reasonable cost . "
2011 Car and Driver Ten Best Cars . For the first time ever Car and Driver magazine included an electrically powered car among its 10 best .
2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year . The magazine commented that " In the 61 @-@ year history of the Car of the Year award , there have been few contenders as hyped – or as controversial – as the Chevrolet Volt . "
2011 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal . The magazine editors explained that " This award welcomes a new genre of mass @-@ production electric vehicles to the consumer market , with the Volt as the first @-@ ever electric vehicle to take top prize . "
2011 Automobile of the Year by Automobile Magazine . The editors commented that the Volt " ... is genuinely an all @-@ new car , in the most simplistic sense as well as in the greater notion that the Volt is unlike any vehicle we have ever driven . "
2011 North American Car of the Year announced at the 2011 North American International Auto Show . Forty @-@ nine American and Canadian automobile writers chose the Volt . The nominees were judged based on " innovation , design , safety , handling , driver satisfaction and value " .
Listed among the 2011 Greenest Vehicles of the Year by the American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy .
Listed among the 2011 Best Green Cars by Mother Earth News .
2011 Edison Award - Gold in the Transportation Category , Personal Transportation Segment .
2012 Best Resale Value Award in the category of electric cars by Kelley Blue Book .
2011 The Volt ranked first in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2011 Annual Auto Survey , with 93 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again . The magazine noted that the Volt had been on sale for just a few months at the time of the survey , and also clarified that the survey took place before the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration investigation regarding the Volt 's battery fire risk .
2012 Total Cost of Ownership Award in the electric car category , granted by Kelley Blue Book for the lowest projected costs during initial five @-@ year ownership period in its category .
2012 The Volt ranked first , for a second year in a row , in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2012 Annual Auto Survey , with 92 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again .
2016 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal ( awarded to the second generation Volt ) . The Chevrolet Volt is the first model to receive this award more than once .
International organizations
2009 Festival Automobile International awarded the Grand Prize for Environment to the Volt .
2011 World Green Car announced at the 2011 New York Auto Show .
2012 International Engine of the Year Award in the category of Green Engine , shared by the Opel Ampera and the Chevrolet Volt for their 1 @.@ 4 L engine @-@ based extended @-@ range electric powertrain .
European organizations
2011 Overall Winner of What Car ? Green Awards , granted by the UK magazine to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2011 Top Gear 's " Green Car of the Year 2011 " to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2012 Car of the Year in Denmark . In October 2011 , 18 Danish motor journalists chose the Opel Ampera as " Car of the Year 2012 " by a wide margin , despite being more expensive than the family cars the award usually goes to .
2012 European Car of the Year , shared by the Chevrolet Volt and the Opel / Vauxhall . The Ampera / Volt became the first car developed in the U.S. to win this European award .
2013 Green Mobility Trophy . Readers of Auto Zeitung in Germany awarded the Opel Ampera the throphy and named the mid @-@ size sedan the best electric vehicle .
Rest of the world organizations
2012 Drive 's Green Innovation Award to the Holden Volt , as part of the Australia 's Drive Car of the Year Awards .
= = = Reviews and test drives = = =
The following tables summarize the results of long @-@ term tests reported by specialized media .
Notes :
1 . ^ The EPA run tests used a reproducible methodology to produce results that can be compared between vehicles and test sites . The remainder of the results were obtained using un @-@ controlled driving cycles and are comparable neither to each nor between different vehicles .
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= Arthur , Prince of Wales =
Arthur Tudor ( 20 September 1486 – 2 April 1502 ) was Prince of Wales , Earl of Chester and Duke of Cornwall . As the eldest son and heir apparent of Henry VII of England , Arthur was viewed by contemporaries as the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor . His mother , Elizabeth of York , was the daughter of Edward IV , and his birth cemented the union between the House of Tudor and the House of York .
Plans for Arthur 's marriage began before his third birthday ; he was installed as Prince of Wales two years later . He grew especially close to his siblings Margaret and Henry , Duke of York , with the latter of whom he shared some tutors . At the age of eleven , Arthur was formally betrothed to Catherine of Aragon , a daughter of the powerful Catholic Monarchs in Spain , in an effort to forge an Anglo @-@ Spanish alliance against France . Arthur was well educated and , contrary to modern belief , was in good health for the majority of his life . Soon after his marriage to Catherine in 1501 , the couple took up residence at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire , where Arthur died six months later of an unknown ailment . Catherine would later firmly state that the marriage had not been consummated .
One year after Arthur 's death , Henry VII renewed his efforts of sealing a marital alliance with Spain by arranging for Catherine to marry Arthur 's brother Henry , who had by then become Prince of Wales . Arthur 's untimely death paved the way for Henry 's accession as Henry VIII in 1509 . The potential for a question as to the consummation of Arthur and Catherine 's marriage , was much later ( and in a completely different political context ) exploited by Henry VIII and his Court to cast doubt on the validity of Catherine 's union with Henry , eventually leading to the separation between the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church .
= = Infancy = =
In 1485 , Henry Tudor became King of England upon defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth . In an effort to strengthen the Tudor claim to the throne and emphasise his family 's Welsh , that is to say Romano @-@ British , ancestry , Henry had royal genealogists trace his lineage back to the ancient British rulers and decided on naming his firstborn son after the legendary King Arthur . On this occasion , Camelot was identified as present @-@ day Winchester , and his wife , Elizabeth of York , was sent to Saint Swithun 's Priory ( today Winchester Cathedral Priory ) in order to give birth there . Born at Saint Swithun 's Priory on 20 September 1486 at about 1 am , Arthur was Henry and Elizabeth 's eldest child . Arthur 's birth was anticipated by French and Italian humanists eager for the start of a " Virgilian golden age " . Sir Francis Bacon wrote that although the Prince was born one month premature , he was " strong and able " . Young Arthur was viewed as " a living symbol " of not only the union between the House of Tudor and the House of York , but also of the end of the Wars of the Roses . In the opinion of contemporaries , Arthur was the great hope of the newly established House of Tudor .
Arthur became Duke of Cornwall at birth . Four days after his birth , the baby was baptised at Winchester Cathedral by the Bishop of Worcester , John Alcock , and his baptism was immediately followed by his Confirmation . John de Vere , 13th Earl of Oxford , Thomas Stanley , 1st Earl of Derby , William FitzAlan , 16th Earl of Arundel , Queen Elizabeth Woodville and Cecily of York served as godparents ; the latter two carried the prince during the ceremony . Initially , Arthur 's nursery in Farnham was headed by Elizabeth Darcy , who had served as chief nurse for Edward IV 's children , including Arthur 's own mother . After Arthur was created Prince of Wales in 1490 , he was awarded a household structure at the behest of his father . Over the next thirteen years , Henry VII and Elizabeth would have six more children , of whom only three – Margaret , Henry and Mary – would reach adulthood . Arthur was especially close to his sister Margaret ( b . 1489 ) and his brother Henry ( b . 1491 ) , with whom he shared a nursery .
On 29 November 1489 , after being made a Knight of the Bath , Arthur was appointed Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester , and was invested as such at the Palace of Westminster on 27 February 1490 . As part of his investiture ceremony , he progressed down the River Thames in the royal barge and was met at Chelsea by the Lord Mayor of London , John Mathewe , and at Lambeth by Spanish ambassadors . On 8 May 1491 , he was made a Knight of the Garter at Saint George 's Chapel at Windsor Palace . It was around this time that Arthur began his formal education under John Rede , a former headmaster of Winchester College . His education was subsequently taken over by Bernard André , a blind poet , and then by Thomas Linacre , formerly Henry VII 's physician . Arthur 's education covered grammar , poetry , rhetoric and ethics and focused on history . Arthur was a very skilled pupil and André wrote that the Prince of Wales had either memorised or read a selection of Homer , Virgil , Ovid , Terence , a good deal of Cicero and a wide span of historical works , including those of Thucydides , Caesar , Livy and Tacitus . Arthur was also a " superb archer " , and had learned to dance " right pleasant and honourably " by 1501 . { { sfn | Gunn | Monckton | 2009 | p = 9 } 00 }
= = Childhood = =
The popular belief that Arthur was sickly during his lifetime stems from a Victorian misunderstanding of a letter from 1502 ; on the contrary , there are no reports of Arthur being ill during his lifetime . Arthur grew up to be unusually tall for his age , and was considered handsome by the Spanish court : he had reddish hair , small eyes , a high @-@ bridged nose and resembled his brother Henry , who was said to be " extremely handsome " by contemporaries . As described by historians Steven Gunn and Linda Monckton , Arthur had an " amiable and gentle " personality and was , overall , a " delicate lad " .
In May 1490 Arthur was created warden of all the marches towards Scotland and the Earl of Surrey was appointed as the Prince 's deputy . From 1491 , Arthur was named on peace commissions . In October 1492 , when his father travelled to France , he was named Keeper of England and King 's Lieutenant . Following the example of Edward IV , Henry VII set up the Council of Wales and the Marches for Arthur in Wales , in order to enforce royal authority there . Although the council had already been set up in 1490 , it was headed by Jasper Tudor , Duke of Bedford . Arthur was first dispatched to Wales in 1501 , at the age of fifteen . In March 1493 , Arthur was granted the power to appoint justices of oyer and terminer and inquire into franchises , thus strengthening the council 's authority . In November of that year , the Prince also received an extensive land grant in Wales , including the County of March .
Arthur was served by sons of English , Irish and Welsh nobility , such as Gearoid Óg FitzGerald , 9th Earl of Kildare , who had been brought to the English court as a consequence of the involvement of his father , Gerald Fitzgerald , 8th Earl of Kildare , in the crowning of pretender Lambert Simnel in Ireland during Henry VII 's reign . Other servants were Anthony Willoughby , a son of Robert Willoughby , 1st Baron Willoughby de Broke , Robert Radcliffe , the heir of the 9th Baron FitzWalter and Maurice St John , a favourite nephew of Arthur 's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort . He was brought up with Gruffydd ap Rhys ap Thomas , the son of powerful Welsh nobleman Thomas ap Rhys , Gruffydd grew quite close to Arthur and was buried in Worcester Cathedral upon his death in 1521 , alongside the Prince 's tomb .
= = Marriage = =
Henry VII planned to marry Arthur to a daughter of the Catholic Monarchs , Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon , in order to forge an Anglo @-@ Spanish alliance against France . It was suggested that the choice of marrying Arthur to Ferdinand and Isabella 's youngest daughter , Catherine ( b . 1485 ) , would be appropriate . The Treaty of Medina del Campo ( 27 March 1489 ) provided that Arthur and Catherine would be married as soon as they reached canonical age ; it also settled Catherine 's dowry at 200 @,@ 000 crowns ( the equivalent of £ 5 million in 2007 ) . Since Arthur , not yet 14 , was below the age of consent , a papal dispensation ( i.e. , waiver ) allowing the marriage was issued in February 1497 , and the pair were betrothed by proxy on 25 August 1497 . Two years later , a marriage by proxy took place at Arthur 's Tickenhill Manor in Bewdley , near Worcester ; Arthur said to Roderigo de Puebla , who had acted as proxy for Catherine , that " he much rejoiced to contract the marriage because of his deep and sincere love for the Princess " .
In a letter from October 1499 , Arthur , referring to Catherine as " my dearest spouse " , had written :
" I cannot tell you what an earnest desire I feel to see your Highness , and how vexatious to me is this procrastination about your coming . Let [ it ] be hastened , [ that ] the love conceived between us and the wished @-@ for joys may reap their proper fruit . "
The young couple exchanged letters in Latin until 20 September 1501 , when Arthur , having attained the age of 15 , was deemed old enough to be married . Catherine landed in England about two weeks later , on 2 October 1501 , at Plymouth . The next month , on 4 November 1501 , the couple met each other for the first time at Dogmersfield in Hampshire . Arthur wrote to Catherine 's parents that he would be " a true and loving husband " ; the couple soon discovered that they had mastered different pronunciations of Latin and so were unable to communicate . Five days later , on 9 November 1501 , Catherine arrived in London .
On 14 November 1501 , the marriage ceremony finally took place at Saint Paul 's Cathedral ; both Arthur and Catherine wore white satin . The ceremony was conducted by Henry Deane , Archbishop of Canterbury , who was assisted by William Warham , Bishop of London . Following the ceremony , Arthur and Catherine left the Cathedral and headed for Baynard 's Castle , where they were entertained by " the best voiced children of the King 's chapel , who sang right sweetly with quaint harmony " .
What followed was a ceremony laid down by Arthur 's grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort : the bed was sprinkled with holy water , after which Catherine was led away from the wedding feast by her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . She was undressed , veiled and " reverently " laid in bed , while Arthur , " in his shirt , with a gown cast about him " , was escorted by his gentlemen into the bedchamber , while viols and tabors played . The Bishop of London blessed the bed and prayed for the marriage to be fruitful , after which the couple were left alone . This is the only public bedding of a royal couple recorded in Britain in the 16th century .
= = Death = =
After residing at Tickenhill Manor for a month , Arthur and Catherine headed for the marches in Wales , where they established their household at Ludlow Castle . Arthur had been growing weaker since his wedding , and although Catherine was reluctant to follow him , she was ordered by Henry VII to join her husband . Arthur found it easy to govern Wales , as the border had become quiet after many centuries of warfare . In March 1502 , Arthur and Catherine were afflicted by an unknown illness , " a malign vapour which proceeded from the air " . While Catherine recovered , Arthur died on 2 April 1502 at Ludlow , six months short of his sixteenth birthday .
News of Arthur 's death reached Henry VII 's court late on 4 April . The King was awoken from his sleep by his confessor , who quoted Job by asking Henry " If we receive good things at the hands of God , why may we not endure evil things ? " He then told the king that " [ his ] dearest son hath departed to God " , and Henry burst into tears . " Grief @-@ stricken and emotional " , he then had his wife brought into his chambers , so that they might " take the painful news together " ; Elizabeth reminded Henry that God had helped him become king and " had ever preserved him " , adding that they had been left with " yet a fair Prince and two fair princesses and that God is where he was , and [ they were ] both young enough " . Soon after leaving Henry 's bedchamber , Elizabeth collapsed and began to cry , while the ladies sent for the King , who hurriedly came and " relieved her " .
On 8 April , a general procession took place for the salvation of Arthur 's soul . That night , a dirge was sung in St Paul 's Cathedral and every parish church in London . On 23 April , Arthur 's body , which had previously been embalmed , sprinkled with holy water and sheltered with a canopy , was carried out of Ludlow Castle and into the Parish Church of Ludlow by various noblemen and gentlemen . On 25 April , Arthur 's body was taken to Worcester Cathedral via the River Severn , in a " special wagon upholstered in black and drawn by six horses , also caparisoned in black " . As was customary , Catherine did not attend the funeral . The Earl of Surrey acted as chief mourner . At the end of the ceremony , Sir William Uvedale , Sir Richard Croft and Arthur 's household ushers broke their staves of office and threw them into the Prince 's grave . During the funeral , Arthur 's own arms were shown alongside those of Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd and Brutus of Troy . Two years later , a chantry was erected over Arthur 's grave .
= = Legacy = =
Shortly after Arthur 's death , the idea of betrothing the now @-@ widowed Catherine to the new heir , Henry , had arisen ; both the King and Isabella were keen on moving forward with the betrothal , and the pope granted a dispensation towards that end . After originally rejecting the idea , Henry announced , after his succession on 22 April 1509 , that he would marry Catherine . The wedding took place on 11 June . Catherine bore Henry six children : three sons died before reaching three months of age , a daughter was stillborn and another lived for only a week . The couple 's only surviving child was Mary I ( b . 1516 ) .
In 1526 , after eighteen years of marriage , Henry started to pursue the affections of Anne Boleyn , the sister of his former mistress , Mary Boleyn . At the same time , he became troubled by what became known as the King 's " great matter " , that is , finding an appropriate solution for his lack of male descendants . He found several possible options . He could have attempted to legitimise his illegitimate son Henry FitzRoy , but this would not be easy and would require the Pope 's intervention . He could have married his daughter Mary off and hoped for a grandson ; this was not seen as a real option , because Mary was a sickly child and was unlikely to conceive before Henry 's death . Finally , he could somehow reject Catherine and marry a bride more likely to bear children . Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne , the third was ultimately the most viable option to Henry , and it soon became the King 's wish to dissolve his marriage .
Henry believed that his marriage was cursed and found confirmation in the Bible , in Leviticus 20 : 21 . Although in the morning following his wedding , Arthur had claimed that he was thirsty " for I have been in the midst of Spain last night " and that " having a wife is a good pastime " , these claims are generally dismissed by modern historians as mere boasts of a boy who did not want others to know of his failure , and Catherine maintained the claim that she had married Henry while still a virgin until the day she died . After Henry 's constant support of the claim that Catherine 's first marriage had been consummated , an annulment was issued on 23 April 1533 , while the King had already married Anne on 25 January . Anne was beheaded for high treason in 1536 , after which Henry proceeded to marry four more times . At the time of his death in 1547 , Henry only had three living children ; his only son , Edward VI succeeded but died six years later . His successors were Henry 's daughters by Catherine and Anne , Mary I and Elizabeth I. Upon Elizabeth 's death in 1603 , the male line of the House of Tudor came to an end .
In 2002 , following the initiative of canon Ian MacKenzie , Arthur 's funeral was reenacted with a requiem mass at Worcester Cathedral , on occasion of the quincentenary of his death . Despite his role in English history , Arthur has remained largely forgotten since his death .
= = Popular culture = =
Arthur has been featured in several historical fiction novels , such as The King 's Pleasure , by Norah Lofts and Katherine , The Virgin Widow , by Jean Plaidy . In The Constant Princess , by Philippa Gregory , Catherine promises Arthur to marry his brother , thus fulfilling not only her own destiny of becoming Queen of England , but also the couple 's plans for the future of the kingdom . The Alteration , by Kingsley Amis , is an alternate history novel centred on the " War of the English Succession " , during which Henry VIII attempts to usurp the throne of his nephew , Stephen II , Arthur and Catherine 's son .
The historical drama The Six Wives of Henry VIII was broadcast in 1970 , with Martin Ratcliffe as " Prince Arthur " . In 1972 , BBC2 aired a historical miniseries titled The Shadow of the Tower , with " Lord Arthur , Prince of Wales " played by Jason Kemp .
= = Ancestors = =
= = = Endnotes = = =
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= Bede =
Bede ( / ˈbiːd / BEED ; Old English : Bǣda or Bēda ; 672 / 673 – 26 May 735 ) , also referred to as Saint Bede or the Venerable Bede ( Latin : Bēda Venerābilis ) , was an English monk at the monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth and its companion monastery , Saint Paul 's , in modern Jarrow ( see Monkwearmouth @-@ Jarrow ) , Tyne and Wear , both of which were then in the Kingdom of Northumbria . He is well known as an author and scholar , and his most famous work , Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ( The Ecclesiastical History of the English People ) gained him the title " The Father of English History " .
In 1899 , Bede was made a Doctor of the Church by Pope Leo XIII ; he is the only native of Great Britain to achieve this designation ( Anselm of Canterbury , also a Doctor of the Church , was originally from Italy ) . Bede was moreover a skilled linguist and translator , and his work made the Latin and Greek writings of the early Church Fathers much more accessible to his fellow Anglo @-@ Saxons , contributing significantly to English Christianity . Bede 's monastery had access to an impressive library which included works by Eusebius and Orosius , among many others .
= = Life = =
Almost everything that is known of Bede 's life is contained in the last chapter of his Historia ecclesiastica , a history of the church in England . It was completed in about 731 , and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty @-@ ninth year , which would give a birth date in 672 or 673 . A minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert which relates Bede 's death . Bede , in the Historia , gives his birthplace as " on the lands of this monastery " . He is referring to the twinned monasteries of Monkwearmouth and Jarrow , in modern @-@ day Sunderland , claimed as his birthplace ; there is also a tradition that he was born at Monkton , two miles from the monastery at Jarrow . Bede says nothing of his origins , but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well @-@ to @-@ do . Bede 's first abbot was Benedict Biscop , and the names " Biscop " and " Beda " both appear in a king list of the kings of Lindsey from around 800 , further suggesting that Bede came from a noble family .
Bede 's name reflects West Saxon Bīeda ( Northumbrian Bǣda , Anglian Bēda ) . It is an Anglo @-@ Saxon short name formed on the root of bēodan " to bid , command " . The name also occurs in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , s.a. 501 , as Bieda , one of the sons of the Saxon founder of Portsmouth . The Liber Vitae of Durham Cathedral names two priests with this name , one of whom is presumably Bede himself . Some manuscripts of the Life of Cuthbert , one of Bede 's works , mention that Cuthbert 's own priest was named Bede ; it is possible that this priest is the other name listed in the Liber Vitae .
At the age of seven , Bede was sent to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith . Bede does not say whether it was already intended at that point that he would be a monk . It was fairly common in Ireland at this time for young boys , particularly those of noble birth , to be fostered out ; the practice was also likely to have been common among the Germanic peoples in England . Monkwearmouth 's sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682 , and Bede probably transferred to Jarrow with Ceolfrith that year . The dedication stone for the church has survived to the present day ; it is dated 23 April 685 , and as Bede would have been required to assist with menial tasks in his day @-@ to @-@ day life it is possible that he helped in building the original church . In 686 , plague broke out at Jarrow . The Life of Ceolfrith , written in about 710 , records that only two surviving monks were capable of singing the full offices ; one was Ceolfrith and the other a young boy , who according to the anonymous writer had been taught by Ceolfrith . The two managed to do the entire service of the liturgy until others could be trained . The young boy was almost certainly Bede , who would have been about 14 .
When Bede was about 17 years old , Adomnan , the abbot of Iona Abbey , visited Monkwearmouth and Jarrow . Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit , and it may be that Adomnan sparked Bede 's interest in the Easter dating controversy . In about 692 , in Bede 's nineteenth year , Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop , John , who was bishop of Hexham . The canonical age for the ordination of a deacon was 25 ; Bede 's early ordination may mean that his abilities were considered exceptional , but it is also possible that the minimum age requirement was often disregarded . There might have been minor orders ranking below a deacon ; but there is no record of whether Bede held any of these offices . In Bede 's thirtieth year ( about 702 ) , he became a priest , with the ordination again performed by Bishop John .
In about 701 Bede wrote his first works , the De Arte Metrica and De Schematibus et Tropis ; both were intended for use in the classroom . He continued to write for the rest of his life , eventually completing over 60 books , most of which have survived . Not all his output can be easily dated , and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years . His last @-@ surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York , a former student , written in 734 . A 6th @-@ century Greek and Latin manuscript of Acts that is believed to have been used by Bede survives and is now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University ; it is known as the Codex Laudianus . Bede may also have worked on one of the Latin bibles that were copied at Jarrow , one of which is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence . Bede was a teacher as well as a writer ; he enjoyed music , and was said to be accomplished as a singer and as a reciter of poetry in the vernacular . It is possible that he suffered a speech impediment , but this depends on a phrase in the introduction to his verse life of Saint Cuthbert . Translations of this phrase differ , and it is uncertain whether Bede intended to say that he was cured of a speech problem , or merely that he was inspired by the saint 's works .
In 708 , some monks at Hexham accused Bede of having committed heresy in his work De Temporibus . The standard theological view of world history at the time was known as the six ages of the world ; in his book , Bede calculated the age of the world for himself , rather than accepting the authority of Isidore of Seville , and came to the conclusion that Christ had been born 3 @,@ 952 years after the creation of the world , rather than the figure of over 5 @,@ 000 years that was commonly accepted by theologians . The accusation occurred in front of the bishop of Hexham , Wilfrid , who was present at a feast when some drunken monks made the accusation . Wilfrid did not respond to the accusation , but a monk present relayed the episode to Bede , who replied within a few days to the monk , writing a letter setting forth his defence and asking that the letter also be read to Wilfrid . Bede had another brush with Wilfrid , for the historian himself says that he met Wilfrid , sometime between 706 and 709 , and discussed Æthelthryth , the abbess of Ely . Wilfrid had been present at the exhumation of her body in 695 , and Bede questioned the bishop about the exact circumstances of the body and asked for more details of her life , as Wilfrid had been her advisor .
In 733 , Bede travelled to York to visit Ecgbert , who was then bishop of York . The See of York was elevated to an archbishopric in 735 , and it is likely that Bede and Ecgbert discussed the proposal for the elevation during his visit . Bede hoped to visit Ecgbert again in 734 , but was too ill to make the journey . Bede also travelled to the monastery of Lindisfarne , and at some point visited the otherwise @-@ unknown monastery of a monk named Wicthed , a visit that is mentioned in a letter to that monk . Because of his widespread correspondence with others throughout the British Isles , and due to the fact that many of the letters imply that Bede had met his correspondents , it is likely that Bede travelled to some other places , although nothing further about timing or locations can be guessed . It seems certain that he did not visit Rome , however , as he would have mentioned it in the autobiographical chapter of his Historia Ecclesiastica . Nothhelm , a correspondent of Bede 's who assisted him by finding documents for him in Rome , is known to have visited Bede , though the date cannot be determined beyond the fact that it was after Nothhelm 's visit to Rome .
Except for a few visits to other monasteries , his life was spent in a round of prayer , observance of the monastic discipline and study of the Sacred Scriptures . He was considered the most learned man of his time , and wrote excellent biblical and historical books .
Bede died on Thursday , 26 May 735 ( Ascension Day ) on the floor of his cell , singing Glory be to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit and was buried at Jarrow . Cuthbert , a disciple of Bede 's , wrote a letter to a Cuthwin ( of whom nothing else is known ) , describing Bede 's last days and his death . According to Cuthbert , Bede fell ill , " with frequent attacks of breathlessness but almost without pain " , before Easter . On the Tuesday , two days before Bede died , his breathing became worse and his feet swelled . He continued to dictate to a scribe , however , and despite spending the night awake in prayer he dictated again the following day . At three o 'clock , according to Cuthbert , he asked for a box of his to be brought , and distributed among the priests of the monastery " a few treasures " of his : " some pepper , and napkins , and some incense " . That night he dictated a final sentence to the scribe , a boy named Wilberht , and died soon afterwards . Cuthbert 's letter also relates a five @-@ line poem in the vernacular that Bede composed on his deathbed , known as " Bede 's Death Song " . It is the most @-@ widely copied Old English poem , and appears in 45 manuscripts , but its attribution to Bede is not certain — not all manuscripts name Bede as the author , and the ones that do are of later origin than those that do not . Bede 's remains may have been transferred to Durham Cathedral in the 11th century ; his tomb there was looted in 1541 , but the contents were probably re @-@ interred in the Galilee chapel at the cathedral .
One further oddity in his writings is that in one of his works , the Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles , he writes in a manner that gives the impression he was married . The section in question is the only one in that work that is written in first @-@ person view . Bede says : " Prayers are hindered by the conjugal duty because as often as I perform what is due to my wife I am not able to pray . " Another passage , in the Commentary on Luke , also mentions a wife in the first person : " Formerly I possessed a wife in the lustful passion of desire and now I possess her in honourable sanctification and true love of Christ . " The historian Benedicta Ward argues that these passages are Bede employing a rhetorical device .
= = Works = =
Bede wrote scientific , historical and theological works , reflecting the range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture commentaries . He knew patristic literature , as well as Pliny the Elder , Virgil , Lucretius , Ovid , Horace and other classical writers . He knew some Greek .
Bede 's scriptural commentaries employed the allegorical method of interpretation and his history includes accounts of miracles , which to modern historians has seemed at odds with his critical approach to the materials in his history . Modern studies have shown the important role such concepts played in the world @-@ view of Early Medieval scholars .
He dedicated his work on the Apocalypse and the De Temporum Ratione to the successor of Ceolfrid as abbot , Hwaetbert .
Although Bede is mainly studied as a historian now , in his time his works on grammar , chronology , and biblical studies were as important as his historical and hagiographical works . The non @-@ historical works contributed greatly to the Carolingian renaissance . He has been credited with writing a penitential , though his authorship of this work is still very much disputed .
= = Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum = =
Bede 's best @-@ known work is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People , completed in about 731 . Bede was aided in writing this book by Albinus , abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey , Canterbury . The first of the five books begins with some geographical background , and then sketches the history of England , beginning with Caesar 's invasion in 55 BC . A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain , including the martyrdom of St Alban , is followed by the story of Augustine 's mission to England in 597 , which brought Christianity to the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604 , and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelise Northumbria . These ended in disaster when Penda , the pagan king of Mercia , killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632 . The setback was temporary , and the third book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald of Northumbria and Oswy . The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby , traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history . The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury , and recounts Wilfrid 's efforts to bring Christianity to the kingdom of Sussex . The fifth book brings the story up to Bede 's day , and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia , and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter . Bede wrote a preface for the work , in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf , king of Northumbria . The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book ; presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it , and he may even have been able to read it . The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy , and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf 's approval ; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede 's monastery had excellent connections among the Northumbrian nobility .
= = = Models and style = = =
Bede 's stylistic models included some of the same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history . His introduction imitates the work of Orosius , and his title is an echo of Eusebius 's Historia Ecclesiastica . Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the Acts of the Apostles as the model for the overall work : where Eusebius used the Acts as the theme for his description of the development of the church , Bede made it the model for his history of the Anglo @-@ Saxon church . Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative , as Eusebius had done . Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times . For example , he almost always uses the terms " Australes " and " Occidentales " for the South and West Saxons respectively , but in a passage in the first book he uses " Meridiani " and " Occidui " instead , as perhaps his informant had done . At the end of the work , Bede added a brief autobiographical note ; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours ' earlier History of the Franks .
Bede 's work as a hagiographer , and his detailed attention to dating , were both useful preparations for the task of writing the Historia Ecclesiastica . His interest in computus , the science of calculating the date of Easter , was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo @-@ Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date .
Bede is described by Michael Lapidge as " without question the most accomplished Latinist produced in these islands in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period " . His Latin has been praised for its clarity , but his style in the Historia Ecclesiastica is not simple . He knew rhetoric , and often used figures of speech and rhetorical forms which cannot easily be reproduced in translation , depending as they often do on the connotations of the Latin words . However , unlike contemporaries such as Aldhelm , whose Latin is full of difficulties , Bede 's own text is easy to read . In the words of Charles Plummer , one of the best @-@ known editors of the Historia Ecclesiastica , Bede 's Latin is " clear and limpid ... it is very seldom that we have to pause to think of the meaning of a sentence ... Alcuin rightly praises Bede for his unpretending style . "
= = = Intent = = =
Bede 's primary intention in writing the Historia Ecclesiastica was to show the growth of the united church throughout England . The native Britons , whose Christian church survived the departure of the Romans , earn Bede 's ire for refusing to help convert the Saxons ; by the end of the Historia the English , and their Church , are dominant over the Britons . This goal , of showing the movement towards unity , explains Bede 's animosity towards the British method of calculating Easter : much of the Historia is devoted to a history of the dispute , including the final resolution at the Synod of Whitby in 664 . Bede is also concerned to show the unity of the English , despite the disparate kingdoms that still existed when he was writing . He also wants to instruct the reader by spiritual example , and to entertain , and to the latter end he adds stories about many of the places and people about which he wrote .
N.J. Higham argues that Bede designed his work to promote his reform agenda to Ceolwulf , the Northumbrian king . Bede painted a highly optimistic picture of the current situation in the Church , as opposed to the more pessimistic picture found in his private letters .
Bede 's extensive use of miracles can prove difficult for readers who consider him a more or less reliable historian , but do not accept the possibility of miracles . Yet both reflect an inseparable integrity and regard for accuracy and truth , expressed in terms both of historical events and of a tradition of Christian faith that continues to the present day . Bede , like Gregory the Great whom Bede quotes on the subject in the Historia , felt that faith brought about by miracles was a stepping stone to a higher , truer faith , and that as a result miracles had their place in a work designed to instruct .
= = = Omissions and biases = = =
Bede is somewhat reticent about the career of Wilfrid , a contemporary and one of the most prominent clerics of his day . This may be because Wilfrid 's opulent lifestyle was uncongenial to Bede 's monastic mind ; it may also be that the events of Wilfrid 's life , divisive and controversial as they were , simply did not fit with Bede 's theme of the progression to a unified and harmonious church .
Bede 's account of the early migrations of the Angles and Saxons to England omits any mention of a movement of those peoples across the channel from Britain to Brittany described by Procopius , who was writing in the sixth century . Frank Stenton describes this omission as " a scholar 's dislike of the indefinite " ; traditional material that could not be dated or used for Bede 's didactic purposes had no interest for him .
Bede was a Northumbrian , and this tinged his work with a local bias . The sources he had access to gave him less information about the west of England than for other areas . He says relatively little about the achievements of Mercia and Wessex , omitting , for example , any mention of Boniface , a West Saxon missionary to the continent of some renown and of whom Bede had almost certainly heard , though Bede does discuss Northumbrian missionaries to the continent . He also is parsimonious in his praise for Aldhelm , a West Saxon who had done much to convert the native Britons to the Roman form of Christianity . He lists seven kings of the Anglo @-@ Saxons whom he regards as having held imperium , or overlordship ; only one king of Wessex , Ceawlin , is listed , and none from Mercia , though elsewhere he acknowledges the secular power several of the Mercians held . Historian Robin Fleming states that he was so hostile to Mercia because Northumbria had been diminished by Mercian power that he consulted no Mercian informants and included no stories about its saints .
Bede relates the story of Augustine 's mission from Rome , and tells how the British clergy refused to assist Augustine in the conversion of the Anglo @-@ Saxons . This , combined with Gildas 's negative assessment of the British church at the time of the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasions , led Bede to a very critical view of the native church . However , Bede ignores the fact that at the time of Augustine 's mission , the history between the two was one of warfare and conquest , which , in the words of Barbara Yorke , would have naturally " curbed any missionary impulses towards the Anglo @-@ Saxons from the British clergy . "
= = = Use of Anno Domini = = =
At the time Bede wrote the Historia Ecclesiastica , there were two common ways of referring to dates . One was to use indictions , which were 15 @-@ year cycles , counting from 312 AD . There were three different varieties of indiction , each starting on a different day of the year . The other approach was to use regnal years — the reigning Roman emperor , for example , or the ruler of whichever kingdom was under discussion . This meant that in discussing conflicts between kingdoms , the date would have to be given in the regnal years of all the kings involved . Bede used both these approaches on occasion , but adopted a third method as his main approach to dating : the anno domini method invented by Dionysius Exiguus . Although Bede did not invent this method , his adoption of it , and his promulgation of it in De Temporum Ratione , his work on chronology , is the main reason why it is now so widely used .
= = = Assessment = = =
The Historia Ecclesiastica was copied often in the Middle Ages , and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive . About half of those are located on the European continent , rather than on the British Isles . Most of the 8th- and 9th @-@ century texts of Bede 's Historia come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire . This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work , of which another 100 or so survive . It was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482 , probably at Strasbourg , France . Modern historians have studied the Historia extensively , and a number of editions have been produced . For many years , early Anglo @-@ Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the Historia , but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did . The belief that the Historia was the culmination of Bede 's works , the aim of all his scholarship , a belief common among historians in the past , is no longer accepted by most scholars .
Modern historians and editors of Bede have been lavish in their praise of his achievement in the Historia Ecclesiastica . Stenton regarded it as one of the " small class of books which transcend all but the most fundamental conditions of time and place " , and regarded its quality as dependent on Bede 's " astonishing power of co @-@ ordinating the fragments of information which came to him through tradition , the relation of friends , or documentary evidence ... In an age where little was attempted beyond the registration of fact , he had reached the conception of history . " Patrick Wormald described him as " the first and greatest of England 's historians " .
The Historia Ecclesiastica has given Bede a high reputation , but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history . His focus on the history of the organisation of the English church , and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out , led him to exclude the secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church . Besides the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , the medieval writers William of Malmesbury , Henry of Huntingdon , and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations . Early modern writers , such as Polydore Vergil and Matthew Parker , the Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury , also utilised the Historia , and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the Wars of Religion .
Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede 's accounts . One historian , Charlotte Behr , thinks that the Historia 's account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should not be considered to relate what actually happened , but rather relates myths that were current in Kent during Bede 's time .
It is likely that Bede 's work , because it was so widely copied , discouraged others from writing histories and may even have led to the disappearance of manuscripts containing older historical works .
= = Other historical works = =
= = = Chronicles = = =
As Chapter 66 of his On the Reckoning of Time , in 725 Bede wrote the Greater Chronicle ( chronica maiora ) , which sometimes circulated as a separate work . For recent events the Chronicle , like his Ecclesiastical History , relied upon Gildas , upon a version of the Liber pontificalis current at least to the papacy of Pope Sergius I ( 687 – 701 ) , and other sources . For earlier events he drew on Eusebius 's Chronikoi Kanones . The dating of events in the Chronicle is inconsistent with his other works , using the era of creation , the anno mundi .
= = = Lives = = =
His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow , as well as verse and prose lives of Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne , an adaptation of Paulinus of Nola 's Life of St Felix , and a translation of the Greek Passion of St Anastasius . He also created a listing of saints , the Martyrology .
= = Theological works = =
In his own time , Bede was as well known for his biblical commentaries and exegetical , as well as other theological works . The majority of his writings were of this type , and covered the Old Testament and the New Testament . Most survived the Middle Ages , but a few were lost . It was for his theological writings that he earned the title of Doctor Anglorum , and why he was made a saint .
Bede synthesised and transmitted the learning from his predecessors , as well as made careful , judicious innovation in knowledge ( such as recalculating the age of the earth — for which he was censured before surviving the heresy accusations and eventually having his views championed by Archbishop Ussher in the sixteenth century — see below ) that had theological implications . In order to do this , he learned Greek , and attempted to learn Hebrew . He spent time reading and rereading both the Old and the New Testaments . He mentions that he studied from a text of Jerome 's Vulgate , which itself was from the Hebrew text . He also studied both the Latin and the Greek Fathers of the Church . In the monastic library at Jarrow were a number of books by theologians , including works by Basil , Cassian , John Chrysostom , Isidore of Seville , Origen , Gregory of Nazianzus , Augustine of Hippo , Jerome , Pope Gregory I , Ambrose of Milan , Cassiodorus , and Cyprian . He used these , in conjunction with the Biblical texts themselves , to write his commentaries and other theological works . He had a Latin translation by Evagrius of Athanasius 's Life of Antony , and a copy of Sulpicius Severus ' Life of St. Martin . He also used lesser known writers , such as Fulgentius , Julian of Eclanum , Tyconius , and Prosper of Aquitaine . Bede was the first to refer to Jerome , Augustine , Pope Gregory and Ambrose as the four Latin Fathers of the Church . It is clear from Bede 's own comments that he felt his job was to explain to his students and readers the theology and thoughts of the Church Fathers .
Bede also wrote homilies , works written to explain theology used in worship services . Bede wrote homilies not only on the major Christian seasons such as Advent , Lent , or Easter , but on other subjects such as anniversaries of significant events .
Both types of Bede 's theological works circulated widely in the Middle Ages . A number of his biblical commentaries were incorporated into the Glossa Ordinaria , an 11th @-@ century collection of biblical commentaries . Some of Bede 's homilies were collected by Paul the Deacon , and they were used in that form in the Monastic Office . Saint Boniface used Bede 's homilies in his missionary efforts on the continent .
Bede sometimes included in his theological books an acknowledgement of the predecessors on whose works he drew . In two cases he left instructions that his marginal notes , which gave the details of his sources , should be preserved by the copyist , and he may have originally added marginal comments about his sources to others of his works . Where he does not specify , it is still possible to identify books to which he must have had access by quotations that he uses . A full catalogue of the library available to Bede in the monastery cannot be reconstructed , but it is possible to tell , for example , that Bede was very familiar with the works of Virgil . There is little evidence that he had access to any other of the pagan Latin writers — he quotes many of these writers but the quotes are almost all to be found in the Latin grammars that were common in his day , one or more of which would certainly have been at the monastery . Another difficulty is that manuscripts of early writers were often incomplete : it is apparent that Bede had access to Pliny 's Encyclopedia , for example , but it seems that the version he had was missing book xviii , as he would almost certainly have quoted from it in his De temporum ratione .
= = = Works on the Old Testament = = =
The works dealing with the Old Testament included Commentary on Samuel , Commentary on Genesis , Commentaries on Ezra and Nehemiah , On the Temple , On the Tabernacle , Commentaries on Tobit , Commentaries on Proverbs , Commentaries on the Song of Songs , Commentaries on the Canticle of Habakkuk , The works on Ezra , the Tabernacle and the Temple were especially influenced by Gregory the Great 's writings .
= = = Works on the New Testament = = =
Bede 's works included Commentary on Revelation , Commentary on the Catholic Epistles , Commentary on Acts , Reconsideration on the Books of Acts , On the Gospel of Mark , On the Gospel of Luke , and Homilies on the Gospels . At the time of his death he was working on a translation of the Gospel of St. John into English . He did this for the last 40 days of his life . When the last passage had been translated he said : " All is finished . "
= = Works on historical and astronomical chronology = =
De temporibus , or On Time , written in about 703 , provides an introduction to the principles of Easter computus . This was based on parts of Isidore of Seville 's Etymologies , and Bede also included a chronology of the world which was derived from Eusebius , with some revisions based on Jerome 's translation of the bible . In about 723 , Bede wrote a longer work on the same subject , On the Reckoning of Time , which was influential throughout the Middle Ages . He also wrote several shorter letters and essays discussing specific aspects of computus .
On the Reckoning of Time ( De temporum ratione ) included an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the cosmos , including an explanation of how the spherical earth influenced the changing length of daylight , of how the seasonal motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the New Moon at evening twilight , and a quantitative relation between the changes of the tides at a given place and the daily motion of the moon . Since the focus of his book was the computus , Bede gave instructions for computing the date of Easter and the related time of the Easter Full Moon , for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac , and for many other calculations related to the calendar . He gives some information about the months of the Anglo @-@ Saxon calendar in chapter XV . Any codex of Bede 's Easter cycle is normally found together with a codex of his " De Temporum Ratione " .
For calendric purposes , Bede made a new calculation of the age of the world since the creation , which he dated as 3952 BC . Due to his innovations in computing the age of the world , he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfrid , his chronology being contrary to accepted calculations . Once informed of the accusations of these " lewd rustics , " Bede refuted them in his Letter to Plegwin .
In addition to these works on astronomical timekeeping , he also wrote De natura rerum , or On the Nature of Things , modelled in part after the work of the same title by Isidore of Seville . His works were so influential that late in the 9th century Notker the Stammerer , a monk of the Monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland , wrote that " God , the orderer of natures , who raised the Sun from the East on the fourth day of Creation , in the sixth day of the world has made Bede rise from the West as a new Sun to illuminate the whole Earth " .
= = Educational works = =
Bede wrote some works designed to help teach grammar in the abbey school . One of these was his De arte metrica , a discussion of the composition of Latin verse , drawing on previous grammarians work . It was based on Donatus ' De pedibus and Servius ' De finalibus , and used examples from Christian poets as well as Virgil . It became a standard text for the teaching of Latin verse during the next few centuries . Bede dedicated this work to Cuthbert , apparently a student , for he is named " beloved son " in the dedication , and Bede says " I have laboured to educate you in divine letters and ecclesiastical statutes " Another textbook of Bede 's is the De orthographia , a work on orthography , designed to help a medieval reader of Latin with unfamiliar abbreviations and words from classical Latin works . Although it could serve as a textbook , it appears to have been mainly intended as a reference work . The exact date of composition for both of these works is unknown .
Another educational work is De schematibus et tropis sacrae scripturae , which discusses the Bible 's use of rhetoric . Bede was familiar with pagan authors such as Virgil , but it was not considered appropriate to teach biblical grammar from such texts , and in De schematibus ... Bede argues for the superiority of Christian texts in understanding Christian literature . Similarly , his text on poetic metre uses only Christian poetry for examples .
= = Vernacular poetry = =
According to his disciple Cuthbert , Bede was also doctus in nostris carminibus ( " learned in our songs " ) . Cuthbert 's letter on Bede 's death , the Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae , moreover , commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as Bede 's Death Song
And he used to repeat that sentence from St. Paul " It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God , " and many other verses of Scripture , urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour . And in our own language , — for he was familiar with English poetry , — speaking of the soul 's dread departure from the body :
As Opland notes , however , it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede : most manuscripts of the letter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede 's presentation of the song , and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo @-@ Latin literature . The fact that Cuthbert 's description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture , indeed , might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts . On the other hand , the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert 's Latin letter , the observation that Bede " was learned in our song , " and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all point to the possibility of his having written it . By citing the poem directly , Cuthbert seems to imply that its particular wording was somehow important , either since it was a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who evidently frowned upon secular entertainment or because it is a direct quotation of Bede 's last original composition .
= = Veneration = =
There is no evidence for cult being paid to Bede in England in the 8th century . One reason for this may be that he died on the feast day of Augustine of Canterbury . Later , when he was venerated in England , he was either commemorated after Augustine on 26 May , or his feast was moved to 27 May . However , he was venerated outside England , mainly through the efforts of Boniface and Alcuin , both of whom promoted the cult on the Continent . Boniface wrote repeatedly back to England during his missionary efforts , requesting copies of Bede 's theological works . Alcuin , who was taught at the school set up in York by Bede 's pupil Egbert , praised Bede as an example for monks to follow and was instrumental in disseminating Bede 's works to all of Alcuin 's friends . Bede 's cult became prominent in England during the 10th @-@ century revival of monasticism , and by the 14th century had spread to many of the cathedrals of England . Wulfstan , Bishop of Worcester ( c . 1008 – 1095 ) was a particular devotee of Bede 's , dedicating a church to him in 1062 , which was Wulfstan 's first undertaking after his consecration as bishop .
His body was ' translated ' ( the ecclesiastical term for relocation of relics ) from Jarrow to Durham Cathedral around 1020 , where it was placed in the same tomb with Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne . Later Bede 's remains were moved to a shrine in the Galilee Chapel at Durham Cathedral in 1370 . The shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation , but the bones were reburied in the chapel . In 1831 the bones were dug up and then reburied in a new tomb , which is still there . Other relics were claimed by York , Glastonbury and Fulda .
His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in 1899 when he was declared a Doctor of the Church . He is the only Englishman named a Doctor of the Church . He is also the only Englishman in Dante 's Paradise ( Paradiso X.130 ) , mentioned among theologians and doctors of the church in the same canto as Isidore of Seville and the Scot Richard of St. Victor .
His feast day was included in the General Roman Calendar in 1899 , for celebration on 27 May rather than on his date of death , 26 May , which was then the feast day of Pope Saint Gregory VII . He is venerated in both the Anglican and Roman Catholic Church , with a feast day of 25 May , and in the Eastern Orthodox Church , with a feast day on 27 May .
Bede became known as Venerable Bede ( Lat . : Beda Venerabilis ) by the 9th century because of his holiness , but this was not linked to consideration for sainthood by the Roman Catholic Church . According to a legend the epithet was miraculously supplied by angels , thus completing his unfinished epitaph . It is first utilised in connection with Bede in the 9th century , where Bede was grouped with others who were called " venerable " at two ecclesiastical councils held at Aachen in 816 and 836 . Paul the Deacon then referred to him as venerable consistently . By the 11th and 12th century , it had become commonplace . However , there are no descriptions of Bede by that term right after his death .
= = = Modern legacy = = =
Bede 's reputation as a historian , based mostly on the Historia Ecclesiastica , remains strong ; historian Walter Goffart says of Bede that he " holds a privileged and unrivalled place among first historians of Christian Europe " . His life and work have been celebrated with the annual Jarrow Lecture , held at St. Paul 's Church , Jarrow , since 1958 .
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= Treehouse of Horror III =
" Treehouse of Horror III " is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 29 , 1992 . In the third annual Treehouse of Horror episode , Homer buys Bart an evil talking Krusty doll , King Homer is captured by Mr. Burns , and Bart and Lisa inadvertently cause zombies to attack Springfield . The episode was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jay Kogen , Wallace Wolodarsky , Sam Simon , and Jon Vitti , and directed by Carlos Baeza .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons are having a Halloween party for the children of Springfield . Lisa , Grampa and Bart each tell a horror story .
= = = Clown Without Pity = = =
In a parody of the Twilight Zone episode , Living Doll , Homer realizes that he forgot to buy Bart a present for his birthday . He rushes to the House of Evil , where he purchases a talking Krusty the Clown doll . The shopkeeper warns him that the doll is cursed , but Homer dismisses his concerns . He returns to the party and gives Bart the doll . Grandpa exclaims that the doll is evil , but admits that he is just doing it to get attention .
Later , Homer is playing with the doll when it starts saying that it is going to kill him . He dismisses this until the doll threatens to stab him . After numerous attempts on Homer ’ s life , he captures the evil Krusty doll , locks it in a suitcase , and drops it in a " Bottomless Pit " . Returning home , Homer is ambushed by the escaped doll , who tackles him into the kitchen and tries to drown him in Santa 's Little Helper 's dog bowl . Marge calls the consumer service hotline . A repairman arrives and discovers that the doll has been set to " Evil " mode . He flips the switch to " Good " and the Krusty doll becomes friends with Homer .
A few hours later , the Krusty doll is working as Homer 's slave . The Krusty doll returns to his girlfriend ( a Malibu Stacy doll ) in Lisa 's dollhouse .
= = = King Homer = = =
In a parody of King Kong , Marge joins Mr. Burns and Smithers on an expedition to Ape Island to find the legendary King Homer . After landing on the island , Mr. Burns , Smithers , and Marge stealthily approach a native tribe , but are spotted due to Marge ’ s hair protruding over the bushes . The villagers agree that " The blue haired woman would make a good sacrifice " and tie her to a post as an offering . The sound of drums summons King Homer . Marge is initially terrified but sees the friendly side of Homer when he is attracted to Marge 's perfume and the two form a friendship . Nonetheless , Mr. Burns is determined to capture King Homer and Smithers knocks Homer unconscious with a gas bomb . Returning to New York , the group display King Homer at the Broadway theatre . The photographers ' flashes enrage King Homer , who breaks free from his restraints . He abducts Marge then attempts to climb the Empire State Building , but is unable to get past the second story of the building . King Homer collapses in exhaustion . In the end , King Homer and Marge get married . The story ends with the wedding .
= = = Dial " Z " For Zombies = = =
While in the Springfield Elementary library , Bart finds a book of black magic and gets attached to it . That night , when Lisa reminisces about the family ’ s dead cat , Snowball I , Bart suggests that he could use the book he found to resurrect Snowball . At the Springfield pet cemetery with Lisa , Bart utters an incantation from the book but accidentally reanimates corpses from the nearby human cemetery instead . The zombies terrorize Springfield , turning many people into zombies . Meanwhile , the Simpson family has barricaded all the doors and windows except for the back door , which Homer forgot to do . Several zombies break into the house : Homer sacrifices himself to give the others time to escape , but the zombies leave him when they realize he does not have enough brains for them to eat . Lisa realizes that the school library must have a book that can reverse the spell .
The Simpsons arrive at the Springfield Elementary library and Bart casts the appropriate counter spell , causing all zombies to return to their graves .
= = Production = =
This episode originally encountered trouble when the color version came back from Korea . With only six weeks to the airdate the writers made almost 100 line changes , a very rare occurrence . It was decided to completely overhaul the episode after a poorly received screening with the writing staff . The tombstones that appeared at the start of and during the episode were abandoned in later episodes because it was becoming increasingly difficult to think of ideas . A subtle tombstone joke in this episode is in the scene where two zombies are crawling out of their graves . The names Jay Kogen and Wolodarsky ( two of The Simpsons writers who worked on the episode ) are written on the tombstones , but both are misspelled . The " King Homer " segment is one of Matt Groening 's all @-@ time favorite stories from the Treehouse of Horror series . Al Jean was also quite worried about this segment because it was the longest running black @-@ and @-@ white segment they had ever aired , and he thought that some people might be concerned that their televisions were broken . The " He ( Flanders ) was a zombie ? " line , created by Mike Reiss , is , in the opinions of the writers , one of the all @-@ time classic lines from the series .
= = Cultural references = =
The opening sequence where Homer walks into Alfred Hitchcock 's silhouette is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock Presents . It was meant to show Homer 's stomach bigger than that of the outline , but it was so subtle that not many people realised the joke . In the episode 's wraparounds , Bart is dressed as Alex from the film A Clockwork Orange . The " Clown Without Pity " segment is based on the Twilight Zone episode " Living Doll " and the film Trilogy of Terror . The title itself is a play on the song " Town Without Pity " by Gene Pitney . The man that gives Homer the Krusty doll is based on Mr. Wing from the film Gremlins . The Krusty doll riding under Homer 's car is a reference to the 1991 film Cape Fear . The " King Homer " segment is a parody of the 1933 film King Kong . In " King Homer " , the tribal leader is heard saying ' Mosi Tatupu , Mosi Tatupu ' , which means they will sacrifice the blue @-@ haired lady . The title " Dial " Z " for Zombies " is a play on the title of the 1954 Hitchcock film Dial M for Murder . Some aspects of " Dial " Z " for Zombies " are from the film Night of the Living Dead . In the pet cemetery , there are tombstones that read Fish Police , Capitol Critters and Family Dog , each a short @-@ lived animated series intended to capitalize on The Simpsons ' success .
When raising the dead from their graves , Bart wears Michael Jackson 's record album cover Thriller on his head . This is both a reference to Jackson 's famous music video , in which he dances with zombies .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror III " finished 20th in ratings for the week of October 26 – November 1 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating In Living Color . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , thoroughly enjoyed the episode . They described the episode as " Another seasonal treat . Dial Z for Zombies is particularly impressive ( ' Dad , you killed the zombie Flanders ! ' ' He was a zombie ? ' ) . " In 2006 , IGN voted " Dial Z For Zombies " as the second best segment of the Treehouse of Horror episodes . " Clown Without Pity " was also rated sixth .
In the film 28 Days Later , there is a scene where Sgt. Ferrell mentions that his favorite joke from The Simpsons was the line " Women and seamen ( semen ) don 't mix " , said by Smithers during the " King Homer " segment . The episode 's reference to Night of the Living Dead was named the 16th greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum .
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= Slipknot ( album ) =
Slipknot is the self titled debut studio album by American heavy metal band Slipknot . It was released on 29 June 1999 through Roadrunner Records , following a demo containing a few of the songs which had been released in 1998 , and was reissued in December 1999 with a slightly altered track listing and mastering as the result of a lawsuit . It was the first release by the band to be produced by Ross Robinson , who sought to refine Slipknot 's sound rather than alter the group 's musical direction .
The album spans several genres , but is generally noted for its extensive percussion and overall heavy sound . It was well received by fans and critics alike and was responsible for bringing Slipknot a large increase in popularity . The album peaked at number 51 on the Billboard 200 , and has gone on to become certified double platinum in the United States , making it the band 's best selling album . It was voted the best debut album of the last 25 years by readers of Metal Hammer magazine .
= = Recording and production = =
In 1997 , following the band 's demo release Mate . Feed . Kill . Repeat . , the members of Slipknot continued to write new material and work in SR Audio , a local studio , with new vocalist Corey Taylor . The band had started work on a follow @-@ up but never got further than pre @-@ production . Songs written and recorded in this period include " Slipknot " , " Gently " , " Do Nothing " , " Tattered and Torn " , " Heartache and a Pair of Scissors " , " Me Inside " , " Coleslaw " , " Carve " , " Windows " and " May 17th " . In 1998 , Slipknot was receiving growing attention from record labels including Epic and Hollywood Records .
On September 29 , 1998 , Slipknot left Des Moines , Iowa for Indigo Ranch Studios in Malibu , California , anxious to record an album after a long wait to be signed . They released this demo to prospective labels and producers ; the track " Spit It Out " was the main focus of the demo and , with help from their manager Sophia John , they were able to get a copy of the eponymous demo to Ross Robinson . The band wanted him to work with them on their debut album and after meeting with the band Robinson signed them to his own label , I Am , but later helped sign them to Roadrunner Records .
The album 's recording process was " very aggressive and chaotic " , as producer Robinson strove to capture the intensity that the band created when performing live . Within three days all the drums were recorded , which contributed to the raw , live sound on the album that the band considers integral to its musical direction . By November 11 , 1998 , the recording of the album seemed complete and the band returned to Des Moines . During the Christmas period , guitarist Josh Brainard , who recorded on all the tracks to that point , decided to leave the band . The reasons for his departure are unclear ; it was widely thought to have been because of family constraints , however , Brainard dispels these rumours , explaining that " some decisions were made that I wasn 't particularly happy with . " His replacement was Jim Root , with whom the band returned to the studio in February 1999 . Slipknot finished recording during this period , with two extra songs : a re @-@ recording of " Me Inside " , and a new track called " Purity " . The mixing stages were very challenging , as drummer Joey Jordison and producer Robinson mastered the entire album with analog equipment , instead of the then more common method of using digital formats . " Wait and Bleed " and " Spit It Out " , which had appeared on the demo prior to the album , were released on the album , also ; the demo songs " Interloper " and " Despise " are available on the digipak version of the same album . " Snap " was featured on the soundtrack for the film Freddy vs. Jason and " Eyeless " appeared on an episode of The Sopranos .
= = Musical and lyrical themes = =
The musical style of Slipknot is a constantly contested issue and the genres that the band are categorized in vary depending on the source , however , this album is generally regarded as nu metal , while showing influences of many different genres . The influence of death metal on the album is clear , and on the subject Jordison stated ; " the roots are death metal , thrash , speed metal , and I could go on and on about all those bands . " The album also shows influences from alternative metal and even rap metal . Critics have also noted an industrial influence . Due to the band 's large line @-@ up consisting of additional percussionists and electronics , the album has a very dense , layered sound . Alternative Press stated that the album used " inventive sampling , creative guitar work and an absolute percussive overload " , while Q magazine described the album as " a terrifying racket " . Slipknot also includes melody , most notably in the single " Wait and Bleed " .
" 742617000027 " is the intro track to the album . It contains some guitar scratches and abstract sound samples from the sampler Craig Jones . Some of the dialogue was reportedly taken from a Charles Manson documentary . The dialogue is " The whole thing , I think it 's sick . " In an interview shortly after the album was released , Joey Jordison claimed the voice is Corey Taylor 's , sped up . 742617000027 was the barcode number on their 1996 self @-@ released album Mate . Feed . Kill . Repeat . All of the band members wear that number on their jumpsuits .
The album features Corey Taylor as lead vocalist ; he had previously appeared on their second demo , which , in turn , resulted in them signing to Roadrunner Records . Rick Anderson of AllMusic noted that on " Scissors " , Taylor " actually sounds like he 's about to burst into tears . Taylor 's aggressive , expletive @-@ filled lyrics were noted by AllMusic ; " [ the ] lyrics that are discernible are not generally quotable on a family website ; suffice it to say that the members of Slipknot are not impressed with their fathers , their hometown or most anything else . " " Eeyore " , a hidden track placed at the end of " Scissors " , begins after dialogue shared among the band members that was recorded while they were viewing a scene in a pornographic film that involved coprophilia , is heard . It has been played live many times and appears on both the DVD Disasterpieces and the live album 9 @.@ 0 : Live .
= = Critical reception = =
Slipknot was well received by critics and fans ; following its release the band gained popularity beyond their own expectations . Reviewing for AllMusic , Rick Anderson awarded the album four out of five stars , calling it " an auspicious debut " and proclaimed , " You thought Limp Bizkit was hard ? They 're The Osmonds . These guys are something else entirely . And it 's pretty impressive . " The album 's aggression and heavy sound was widely praised ; Rolling Stone stated Slipknot is " metal with a capital m " , Kerrang ! added " raw and wholly uncompromising , each track delivered a powerful blow to the senses " , and in 2001 , Q magazine included the album in their list " 50 Heaviest Albums of All Time " . CMJ ranked the album as the twelfth highest " Editorial Pick " for 1999 . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery .
A single from the album , " Wait and Bleed " , was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 2001 Grammy Awards , but lost to Deftones ' " Elite " . The song was also named the 36th greatest metal song of all time by VH1 . The release of the album and the touring which followed greatly increased the band 's popularity . The album became the " biggest selling extreme metal album at the time . " It was ranked by American Soundscan as the fastest @-@ selling metal debut in Soundscan 's history . On May 2 , 2000 , the album was certified platinum in the United States , a first for any album released by Roadrunner Records . On February 5 , 2005 , the RIAA certified it Double Platinum . In Canada , the Canadian Recording Industry Association certified the album as Platinum on October 10 , 2000 . The British Phonographic Industry certified the album as Platinum on October 17 , 2008 in the UK .
= = = Controversy = = =
After the release of the album , the band was accused of copyright infringement regarding the concept of the song " Purity " . Corey Taylor , during a Q & A , claimed that the song 's lyrics had been written five years prior to the song 's release and that only the song 's name had been inspired by the Purity Knight story , which was claimed by the authoring website as being fictional . Taylor , to his defense , said the song 's inspiration came from films such as Boxing Helena and The Collector , and not the story itself . The short track , " Frail Limb Nursery " , which serves as a prelude to " Purity " , contains audio samples of the imprisoned Purity Knight as recorded by a young boy , posted as evidence on the authoring website . Slipknot , in an effort to prevent the entire album from being pulled , removed " Purity " and " Frail Limb Nursery " from the album until the case could be settled . As a result , the band released slightly remastered standard and digipak versions of the album in December 1999 , replacing both tracks with " Me Inside " . The band later won their case , and was subsequently able to still play the song during live performances . It is included in the band 's second DVD Disasterpieces ( the studio version appears here as well ) as well as the live album 9 @.@ 0 : Live and Antennas to Hell , and the 10th anniversary edition of the self @-@ titled album .
= = 10th Anniversary Edition = =
On September 9 , 2009 , Slipknot released a Special Edition version of the album to commemorate the tenth anniversary of its release . It was released in two forms , a digipak and a box set . The release date ( 09 / 09 / 09 ) is a reference to the fact that the band had nine band members and have sustained the same lineup since the original release of the album . The Special Edition box set includes : a CD and DVD set featuring all new digipak packaging , with a total of 25 songs , including the original album plus several previously unreleased cuts , demo tracks and " Purity " . The DVD , which was directed by percussionist Shawn Crahan , features footage of the band in 1999 and 2000 , titled Of the Sic : Your Nightmares , Our Dreams . The DVD also features all three music videos released in support of the album , an entire live concert recorded at the Dynamo Open Air , 2000 and " other surprises " . A " super deluxe " box set version of the re @-@ release contains a T @-@ shirt , patch , collectible cards , key chain , beanie and a note from vocalist Corey Taylor , and comes in packaging that resembles a safety deposit box .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Shawn Crahan , Paul Gray , Joey Jordison , Mick Thomson and Corey Taylor
= = Chart positions = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Literature = = =
Arnopp , Jason ( 2001 ) . Slipknot : Inside the Sickness , Behind the Masks . Ebury . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 187933 @-@ 7 .
Crampton , Mark ( 2001 ) . Barcode Killers : The Slipknot Story in Words and Pictures . Chrome Dreams . ISBN 1 @-@ 84240 @-@ 126 @-@ 2 .
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= Monsters University =
Monsters University is a 2013 American 3D computer @-@ animated comedy film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It was directed by Dan Scanlon and produced by Kori Rae , with John Lasseter , Pete Docter , Andrew Stanton and Lee Unkrich as executive producers . It is the fourteenth feature film produced by Pixar and is a prequel to 2001 's Monsters , Inc . , marking the first time Pixar has made a prequel film .
Disney , as the rights holder , had plans for a sequel to Monsters , Inc. since 2005 . Following disagreements with Pixar , Disney tasked its Circle 7 Animation unit to make the film . An early draft of the film was developed ; however , Disney 's purchase of Pixar in early 2006 led to the cancellation of Circle 7 's version of the film . A Pixar @-@ made sequel was confirmed in 2010 , and in 2011 , it was confirmed that the film would instead be a prequel titled Monsters University .
Monsters University tells the story of two monsters , Mike and Sulley , and their time studying at college , where they start off as rivals , but slowly become best friends . John Goodman , Billy Crystal , Steve Buscemi , Bob Peterson , and John Ratzenberger reprise their roles as James P. Sullivan , Mike Wazowski , Randall Boggs , Roz , and the Abominable Snowman , respectively . Bonnie Hunt , who played Ms. Flint in the first film , voices Mike 's grade school teacher Ms. Karen Graves . The music for the film is composed by Randy Newman , marking his seventh collaboration with Pixar .
Monsters University premiered on June 5 , 2013 , at the BFI Southbank in London , United Kingdom and was released on June 21 , 2013 , in the United States . It was accompanied in theaters by a short film , The Blue Umbrella , directed by Saschka Unseld . The film grossed $ 743 million against its estimated budget of $ 200 million . An animated short film titled Party Central , which takes place shortly after the events of Monsters University , premiered in Fall 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Michael " Mike " Wazowski , a young monster , gets inspired to become a scarer ( a monster who enters the human world at night to scare children and harvest their screams for energy ) when he grows up after visiting Monsters Inc . , Monstropolis ' most profitable scaring company , on a school field trip . Eleven years later , Mike is a first @-@ year scare major at Monsters University , where he meets fellow monster James P. " Sulley " Sullivan . Mike studies hard , while the privileged Sulley , coming from a family of talented scarers , relies only on his natural ability and begins to falter . As the semester progresses , Mike and Sulley attempt to join a fraternity , but only Sulley is accepted into Roar Omega Roar , the strongest fraternity on campus . At the semester 's final exam , a fight between the two causes them to accidentally break Dean Abigail Hardscrabble 's cherished Scream Can . Hardscrabble promptly fails both of them immediately , stating that Sulley does not study enough , and Mike is not scary enough .
Wanting to prove himself , Mike enters the university 's " Scare Games " and makes a wager with Hardscrabble to reinstate him and his team to the scare program if they win , but Mike must leave the university if they lose . He joins a group of misfits named Oozma Kappa , the weakest fraternity on campus , but they are denied entry to the Games for being one team member short . Sulley subsequently joins them , seeing the competition as his ticket back into the scare program . Oozma Kappa finish last in the first challenge , but are saved from elimination after another team is disqualified for cheating . Oozma Kappa subsequently improve gradually due to Mike 's training and intricate knowledge of scaring , and they advance through each following challenge , finishing just behind competition favourites Roar Omega Roar . In the final round , they defeat Roar Omega Roar with a decisive final scare by Mike in the simulation bedroom . However , Mike soon discovers that he only won because Sulley secretly rigged the machine to improve his score .
Determined to prove he can become a scarer , Mike breaks into the school 's door lab and enters a door to the human world leading to a summer camp , but he is unable to scare a cabin full of children and runs off into the woods . Meanwhile , Roar Omega Roar offers to reinstate Sulley , but he refuses , instead confessing to Hardscrabble that he cheated , just as she is alerted of Mike 's break @-@ in . Realizing what happened , Sulley defies Hardscrabble and enters the same door to find Mike . After reconciling , they try to return , but are unable to exit after Hardscrabble deactivates the door while waiting for the authorities to arrive . Pursued by camp rangers , Mike realizes that the only way to escape is to generate enough scream energy to power the door from their side . Working together , Sulley and Mike terrify the camp rangers and generate an overwhelming amount of scream energy to return to the lab seconds before the device overloads and explodes in front of Hardscrabble .
Mike and Sulley are led away by the CDA and are expelled from the university as a result of their actions , but the other members of Oozma Kappa are accepted into the scare program the next semester , as Hardscrabble was impressed by their performances in the scare games . As Mike leaves on the bus , Sulley runs after him to raise his spirits . Hardscrabble then appears and wishes the two luck , claiming they were the first students to have surprised her . The two take jobs in the mail room of Monsters , Inc . , eventually working their way up to join the Scarer Team and setting the events of Monsters , Inc. in motion .
= = Cast = =
Billy Crystal as Michael " Mike " Wazowski
Noah Johnston as Young Mike
John Goodman as James P. " Sulley " Sullivan
Steve Buscemi as Randall " Randy " Boggs
Helen Mirren as Dean Abigail Hardscrabble , the chair of the Scarer program at Monsters University
Peter Sohn as Scott " Squishy " Squibbles , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member
Joel Murray as Don Carlton , a middle @-@ aged returning student and the founding member of Oozma Kappa fraternity
Sean Hayes as Terri Perry , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member who shares his brother 's body .
Dave Foley as Terry Perry , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member
Charlie Day as Art , an Oozma Kappa fraternity member
Alfred Molina as Professor Derek Knight
Tyler Labine as Brock Pearson , Greek Council vice @-@ president
Nathan Fillion as Johnny J. Worthington III , president of Roar Omega Roar
Aubrey Plaza as Claire Wheeler , Greek Council president
Bobby Moynihan as Chet Alexander , a Roar Omega Roar fraternity member
Julia Sweeney as Sherri Squibbles , Scott 's mother
Bonnie Hunt as Ms. Karen Graves , Mike 's grade school teacher
John Krasinski as " Frightening " Frank McCay
Bill Hader as Referee , Slug
Beth Behrs as Carrie Williams , leader of Python Nu Kappa sorority
Bob Peterson as Roz
John Ratzenberger as The Yeti , a Monsters , Inc. mailroom employee
= = Production = =
Plans for a second Monsters , Inc. film existed since 2005 . Following disagreements between Disney CEO Michael Eisner and Pixar CEO Steve Jobs , Disney – which owned the rights to make sequels to all of Pixar 's films up to Cars – announced that a sequel to Monsters , Inc. would be made by Circle 7 Animation , which was also working on an early draft of Toy Story 3 . Titled Monsters , Inc . 2 : Lost in Scaradise , the film would have focused on Mike and Sulley visiting the human world to give Boo a birthday present , only to find that she had moved . After getting trapped in the human world , Mike and Sulley split up after disagreeing on what to do . Screenwriters Rob Muir and Bob Hilgenberg were hired to write a script for the film , and storyboarded an early draft of it . Disney 's change of management in late 2005 – in which Eisner was replaced by Robert Iger – led to renewed negotiations with Pixar , and in early 2006 Disney announced it had purchased the studio . The Disney @-@ owned sequel rights were then transferred to Pixar , leading to the cancellation of Muir and Hilgenberg 's version of the film and the subsequent closure of Circle 7 .
A Pixar @-@ made sequel was confirmed in 2010 . The film was originally planned for release on November 16 , 2012 , but the release was preponed to November 2 , 2012 to avoid competition with The Twilight Saga : Breaking Dawn – Part 2 . On March 29 , 2011 , it was confirmed that the film would be a prequel and the title Monsters University was announced . The next Month s release date June 21 , 2013 was announced .
The feature was directed by Dan Scanlon and produced by Kori Rae . Billy Crystal , John Goodman , Steve Buscemi , Bob Peterson , and John Ratzenberger reprised their roles , and Bonnie Hunt voiced a new character . New voice cast included Dave Foley , Sean Hayes , Julia Sweeney , Helen Mirren , Alfred Molina , Peter Sohn , Charlie Day , Joel Murray , Nathan Fillion , Aubrey Plaza , Tyler Labine , John Kransinski , Bill Hader , Bobby Moynihan , and Beth Behrs .
The plot of Monsters University details Mike and Sulley 's first meeting , but this created a continuity error from the first film in which Mike tells Sulley " You 've been jealous of my good looks since the fourth grade . " Director Dan Scanlon said he had a dilemma with this line during pre @-@ production , but he believed it was best if Mike and Sulley meet in college because , " we wanted to see their relationship develop when they were adults . And we also felt like college is so much about self @-@ discovery and figuring out who you are . " He added , " It felt like the perfect place to do this , but we had that line . So we tried versions where they met young and then we skipped ahead to college . And we knew we didn 't want to make Monsters Elementary . " Scanlon said during pre @-@ production that , " Pete Docter , the original director , and John Lasseter ... finally said to me , ' it 's great that you 're honouring that , but you have to do what 's right for the story . ' So we made a tough decision to just have them be in college and put that line aside . " Scanlon later retconned the line from the first film as " an old monster expression " , saying " That 's what monsters always say to each other . "
Monsters University is the first Pixar film that used global illumination , a new lighting system introduced as part of the overhaul of the rendering system used since the first Toy Story film . In the planning stage of the film , director of photography , Jean @-@ Claude Kalache , asked " What if we made these lights just work ? " Before the new system , artists had to build reflections and shadows manually , which became increasingly complex as the models and the setups became more technologically advanced . The new lighting system uses path tracing , a technique that imitates the behaviour of the light in the real world ; this automatized the process , delivered more realism , produced soft shadows , and let the artist spend more time on models and complex scenes – some of which contained thousands of light sources .
For research , the filmmakers visited several colleges in the U.S. , including Harvard University , Stanford University , and the University of Alabama , observing college architecture , student life , Greek organizations , and the teaching methods of professors and faculty . To research fraternity life , which is central to the film , many of the film 's producers spent several weeks at a fraternity house .
= = Soundtrack = =
The music for the film is Randy Newman 's seventh collaboration with Pixar as composer . Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on June 18 , 2013 .
The songs " Main Title " , " Rise and Shine " , and " The Scare Games " feature the drum line from the Blue Devils group " BD Entertainment " . The recordings for the percussion tracks were done at Skywalker Ranch , and were written by Blue Devils Percussion Caption Head Scott Johnson .
The songs " Island " by Mastodon and " Gospel " by MarchFourth Marching Band are featured during the film but do not appear on the soundtrack . The songs " Party Hard " by Andrew W.K. and " Kickstart My Heart " by Mötley Crüe are featured prominently in the teaser trailers but do not appear on the soundtrack or in the film .
Track listing
All music composed by Randy Newman , except where noted .
= = Release = =
The first teaser trailer for Monsters University was released on June 20 , 2012 . Four versions of the trailer exist ; in his sleep , Mike mutters excuses to avoid attending class in each one , such as " I 'm not wearing any clothes , " " My homework ate my dog , " " Class President ? " , and " My pony made the Dean 's List . " A second trailer was released on February 11 , 2013 , a third on April 26 , 2013 , and a fourth and final trailer , which included scenes from the film , was released on May 30 , 2013 .
On October 8 , 2012 , Pixar revealed a fully functional website for Monsters University , complete with information about admissions , academic and campus life , and a campus store to purchase MU apparel . On April 1 , 2013 , the website was styled to appear as though a rival college , Fear Tech , had hacked and vandalized it . The first television commercial for the film was aired during the 2013 Rose Bowl Game , parodying advertisements for participating schools that are shown during college football telecasts . From June 27 until July 11 , 2013 , Disney 's online game Club Penguin hosted a Monsters University Takeover event to promote the film . Players could dress up as their favorite monsters and take part in the Scare Games .
The film had its worldwide premiere on June 5 , 2013 , as a special screening at BFI Southbank in London with the director and producer in attendance . The film had its Asian premiere as the opening film of the 2013 Shanghai International Film Festival on June 15 , 2013 . It premiered in the United States on June 8 , 2013 , at the Seattle International Film Festival , and was released in theaters on June 21 , 2013 . The film 's theatrical release was accompanied by Pixar 's short film titled The Blue Umbrella .
= = = Home media = = =
Monsters University was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu @-@ ray , 3D Blu @-@ ray , DVD , digital copy , and on demand on October 29 , 2013 . It was accompanied by The Blue Umbrella , Pixar 's short film which played alongside the film in theaters .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Monsters University earned $ 268 @.@ 5 million in North America and $ 475 @.@ 1 million in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 743 @.@ 6 million . Calculating in all expenses , Deadline.com estimated that the film made a profit of $ 179 @.@ 8 million . It is the 56th highest @-@ grossing film of all @-@ time , the 12th highest @-@ grossing animated film all @-@ time , the seventh highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , and the third highest @-@ grossing Pixar film . The film earned $ 136 @.@ 9 million worldwide on its opening weekend . Disney declined to provide a budget for the film ; Entertainment Weekly speculated that it was higher than that of Brave ( $ 185 million ) , mainly because of the high cost of John Goodman and Billy Crystal reprising their roles . Shockya and EOnline reported the budget to be $ 200 million — on par with previous Pixar films .
= = = = North America = = = =
In the week leading to Monsters University 's release , Disney projected an opening weekend gross of at least $ 70 million . The film opened on Friday , June 21 , 2013 in first place with $ 30 @.@ 47 million – including $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 20 : 00 Thursday night shows – marking the fifth largest opening day among animated films . The film then reached first place with an opening @-@ weekend gross of $ 82 @.@ 43 million ; the second largest among Pixar films , the second largest among G @-@ rated films , the fourth largest among prequels , the fifth largest among animated films , and the fifth largest among films released in June . Monsters University remained at first place on its second weekend , declining 45 % to $ 45 @.@ 6 million . Facing tough competition from Despicable Me 2 on its third weekend , it dropped 57 % to $ 19 @.@ 7 million . As of December 2013 , it is the tenth highest @-@ grossing animated film .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
The film earned $ 54 @.@ 5 million in 35 markets on its opening weekend . It set a Pixar opening weekend record in Latin America with revenues of $ 31 @.@ 7 million . In Argentina , the film set an opening weekend record among all films with $ 5 @.@ 49 million . In Australia , where it had a simultaneous release with Despicable Me 2 , Monsters University debuted behind the latter with $ 3 @.@ 56 million in third place . In Hong Kong , the film set opening @-@ day ( HK $ 5 @.@ 03 million ) , single @-@ day ( HK $ 7 @.@ 93 million ) and opening @-@ weekend ( HK $ 25 @.@ 79 million ) records among animated films , beating the previous record holder , Toy Story 3 . In the UK , the film topped the box office during its opening weekend with a gross of GB £ 3 @.@ 46 million . The film 's largest opening occurred in China , where its $ 13 million debut ranked fourth among Disney films . The film 's highest @-@ grossing markets are Japan ( $ 90 @.@ 1 million ) , the UK , Ireland , and Malta ( $ 47 @.@ 2 million ) , and Mexico ( $ 37 @.@ 6 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 78 % approval rating based on 189 reviews , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 8 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads " Offering Monsters , Inc. fans a welcome return visit with beloved characters , Monsters University delivers funny and thoughtful family entertainment for viewers of any age . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 65 based on 41 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Audiences polled by Cinemascore gave the film a grade A. According to Disney , audiences were 56 % female and 60 % below the age of 25 . Families made up 73 % of business , and teens accounted for a solid 15 % . The film played well with all ages .
Matt Zoller Seitz of Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film four stars out of four , saying it " is true to the spirit of [ Monsters , Inc . ] and matches its tone . But it never seems content to turn over old ground . " Trevor Johnston of Time Out gave the film four stars out of five , writing " It has enough of the right stuff to haunt the imagination long after the immediate buzz of its fluffy @-@ furred cuteness has melted away . For a mere prequel , that 's a result . " Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film three stars out of four and said it " is cute , and funny , and the animation , though not exactly inspired , is certainly colorful . " Jake Coyle of Associated Press gave the film three stars out of four , saying it " might not be as gifted as some of its other movies , but sometimes it 's alright to be OK . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film three stars out of four , and said " It 's all infectious fun , despite the lack of originality . In the art of tickling funny bones , Crystal and Goodman earn straight A 's . " Richard Corliss of Time gave the film a positive review , saying " This minor film with major charms still deserves to have kids dragging their parents to the multiplex for one more peek at the monsters in the closet . With Pixar , familiarity breeds content . " Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three and a half stars out of five and said it is " one of those movies that has absolutely no reason to exist , but once you 've seen it , you 're kind of glad it does . " Alan Scherstuhl of The Village Voice gave the film a positive review , saying " Monsters University feels not like the work of artists eager to express something but like that of likable pros whose existence depends on getting a rise out the kids . It 's like the scares Sully and Mike spring on those sleeping tykes : technically impressive but a job un @-@ anchored to anything more meaningful . "
Leonard Maltin of IndieWire praised the animation and art direction , but wrote that he wished " the movie was funnier and wasn 't so plot @-@ heavy " and that " Pixar has raised the bar for animated features so high that when they turn out a film that 's merely good , instead of great , they have only themselves to blame for causing critics to damn them with faint praise . " Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars out of four , saying " Monsters University , the weirdly charmless sequel to the animated 2001 Pixar hit Monsters , Inc . , is no better or worse than the average ( and I mean average ) time @-@ filling sequel cranked out by other animation houses . " Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review , saying that it " never surprises , goes off in unexpected directions or throws you for a loop in the manner of the best Pixar stories . Nor does it come close to elating through the sheer imagination of its conceits and storytelling . " Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film three stars out of four , and said it " may not be as inventive as Inc . , but it 's an amusing and amiable addition to Pixar 's roster of animated coming @-@ of @-@ age stories . " Michael O 'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three stars out of four , saying " It may be children 's terror that powers the movie 's fictional universe , but it 's the energy of its stars that lights up Monsters University . " Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A − and said it " is exactly the rebound Pixar needed after 2011 's Cars 2 left some wondering if the studio had lost its magic . The delightful story of when Mike met Sulley puts those concerns to rest . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three stars out of four and wrote " Although it falls short of the best Pixar has brought to the screen over its long association with Disney , it 's nevertheless worth a trip to the theater , especially for kids . "
However , the film was not without its detractors . Richard Roeper gave the film a C + , saying " This is a safe , predictable , edge @-@ free , nearly bland effort from a studio that rarely hedges its bets . " Stephen Whitty of Newark Star @-@ Ledger gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and said " The artwork is accomplished , and intricate . The G @-@ rating is genuine , without any gross @-@ out gags . And there 's none of the usual winks to the adults with tired , pop @-@ culture references . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and wrote " Both the originality and stirring emotional complexity of Monsters , Inc . , with its exquisitely painful and touching parallels with the human world , are missing . " Ty Burr of The Boston Globe gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , and said " This is not a bad movie , and to small children it will be a very good one , but it 's closer to average than one would wish from the company that gave us Up , WALL @-@ E , The Incredibles , and the Toy Story series . " Rene Rodriguez of Miami Herald gave the film two stars out of five and wrote that it " feels half @-@ hearted and lazy , like they weren 't even trying . At least show a little effort , guys . "
= = = Accolades = = =
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= British Virgin Islands at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
The British Virgin Islands took part in the 2008 Summer Olympics , which were held in Beijing , China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . The dependency 's participation at Beijing marked its seventh consecutive appearance in the summer Olympics since its debut in 1984 , and its eighth Olympic appearance ever . The British Virgin Islander delegation included two athletes in 2008 participating in two distinct events in one sport : discus thrower Eric Matthias and sprinter Tahesia Harrigan . Of the athletes , Harrigan was the flagbearer and the first female Olympian to participate on behalf of the British Virgin Islands in its entire history . Overall , Harrigan advanced to quarterfinals in her event , although neither athlete medaled .
= = Background = =
The British Virgin Islands participated in seven summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Their Olympic debut was at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo , Yugoslavia , where the nation submitted a single athlete . The number of British Virgin Islanders participating in the summer games , excluding 1996 and 1984 , included four or less athletes , and until Tahesia Harrigan in Beijing , only included men . Harrigan was the first female athlete to participate on behalf of the British Virgin Islands , and was its first female flagbearer . At Beijing , the British Virgin Islands were represented by two athletes , both in their twenties and both participating in track and field events : Eric Matthias and Tahesia Harrigan . Harrigan progressed to quarterfinals in her event , although neither athlete medaled .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Former Boise State University student Eric Matthias participated on behalf of the British Virgin Islands at the discus throw event . He was one of two British Virgin Islanders participating in a track and field event and in the 2008 Olympics as a whole . Matthias ' appearance in Beijing marked his first appearance at any Olympic game . Once at the Olympics , Matthias was placed in the second qualifying heat on 16 August . He threw the discus 53 @.@ 11 meters , ranking last out of 18 athletes . The 17th place finalist in the second qualifying heat , Iraq 's Haidar Nasser Shaheed , threw 1 @.@ 08 meters further , with heat leader Rutger Smith of the Netherlands throwing the discus 12 @.@ 54 meters further than Matthias . Overall , out of 37 athletes , Matthias placed last , and did not progress to the final round on 19 August .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
University of Alabama graduate and single parent Tahesia Harrigan was the sole female competitor from the British Virgin Islands , and one of two participating in a track and field event and for the BVI as a whole . Her appearance at Beijing was her first Olympic appearance ; she did not compete in the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens because she was pregnant at the time . When at the Olympics , Harrigan competed in the first round of the 100 m dash on 15 August , where she was placed in Heat 2 against , among others , Lauryn Williams of the United States and Christine Arron of France . Harrigan ranked third in a heat of eight athletes with a time of 11 @.@ 46 seconds , placing behind Williams by 0 @.@ 08 seconds and ahead of Brazil 's Lucimar Moura by 0 @.@ 14 seconds . Overall , Harrigan tied Jade Latoya Bailey of Barbados for 25th place out of 85 . She progressed to the next round .
Harrigan competed in the second round on 16 August , placed in Heat 4 against Williams , Jamaica 's Kerron Stewart , and Belgium 's Kim Gevaert , among others . She placed fifth out of eight athletes with a time of 11 @.@ 36 seconds ; she was 0 @.@ 10 seconds ahead of sixth place heat finalist Semoy Hackett of Trinidad and Tobago and 0 @.@ 12 seconds behind Belarusian fourth place heat finalist Yuliya Nestsiarenka . Overall , she tied Arron for 16th place out of 40 athletes . Harrigan did not progress further .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
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= HMS Neptune ( 1797 ) =
HMS Neptune was a 98 @-@ gun second rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy . She served on a number of stations during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was present at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
Neptune was built during the early years of the war with Revolutionary France and was launched in 1797 . She almost immediately became caught up in the events of the mutiny at the Nore , and was one of a few loyal ships tasked with attacking mutinous vessels if they could not be brought to order . The mutiny died out before this became necessary and Neptune joined the Channel Fleet . She moved to the Mediterranean in 1799 , spending the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in operations with Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Keith 's fleet . After refitting , and spending time on blockades , she formed part of Lord Nelson 's fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar , and was heavily involved in the fighting , sustaining casualties of 10 killed and 34 wounded .
She was not fully repaired and returned to service until 1807 , when she went out to the Caribbean . In 1809 she participated in the successful invasion of Martinique , and the subsequent battle with Troude 's squadron . Returning to Britain towards the end of the wars , she was laid up in ordinary , and in 1813 became a temporary prison ship . She was finally broken up in 1818 .
= = Construction and commissioning = =
Neptune was ordered from Deptford Dockyard on 15 February 1790 , to a design developed by Surveyor of the Navy Sir John Henslow . She was one of three ships of the Neptune class , alongside her sisters HMS Temeraire and HMS Dreadnought . Neptune was laid down at Deptford in April 1791 , receiving her name on 24 July 1790 . The initial stages of her construction were overseen by Master Shipwright Martin Ware , though he was succeeded by Thomas Pollard in June 1795 , and Pollard oversaw her completion . Neptune was launched on 28 January 1797 and sailed to Woolwich to be fitted for sea . Arriving at Woolwich on 12 February , she was immediately docked to have her copper sheathing fitted , a process that was completed by 1 March . Launched again , she finished fitting out , and received her masts and yards . Her final costs came to £ 77 @,@ 053 , and included £ 61 @,@ 172 spent on the hull , masts and yards , and a further £ 15 @,@ 881 on rigging and stores .
She was commissioned on 25 March 1797 under Captain Henry Stanhope , becoming the third ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Neptune . Her predecessors had been two 90 @-@ gun ships , the first launched in 1683 , renamed HMS Torbay in 1750 and sold in 1784 . The second had been launched in 1757 , was used as a sheer hulk from 1784 , and was broken up in 1816 . Stanhope sailed from Woolwich on 11 June 1797 , flying the broad pendant of Commodore Sir Erasmus Gower , and made for the Nore .
= = Mutiny at the Nore = =
Shortly after her arrival at the Nore , Neptune became caught up in the mutiny that had broken out there . While lying at Gravesend , Neptune and the 64 @-@ gun ships HMS Agincourt and HMS Lancaster , together with a fleet of gunboats , were ordered to intercept and attack the mutinous ships at the Nore . Before they could proceed word came that the mutineers had entered negotiations with the Earl of Northesk , captain of the 64 @-@ gun HMS Monmouth , and by 9 June the mutiny was on the verge of collapse . The attack was called off , and on 21 September Stanhope was superseded by Gower as captain of Neptune . The crisis over , Neptune joined the Channel Fleet .
= = Mediterranean = =
Gower remained in command of Neptune until his promotion to rear @-@ admiral of the white , at which point Herbert Sawyer became her acting @-@ captain . Sawyer was in command until 22 January 1799 , and Gower left her on 28 February 1799 . Command of the ship formally passed to Captain James Vashon on 5 March 1799 . The first half of 1799 was spent with the Channel Fleet , and in June Neptune was one of 15 ships of the line assigned to join Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Keith 's fleet in the Mediterranean . The squadron , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Charles Cotton , rendezvoused with Keith 's force at Minorca on 7 July , bringing the British fleet in the Mediterranean up to 31 ships . Keith intended to intercept a large Franco @-@ Spanish force of 42 ships under Admirals Étienne Eustache Bruix and Jose Mazarredo , and set out to sea on 10 July . Bruix ' expedition evaded Keith , and reached the safety of Brest on 9 August . Neptune went on to spend the rest of the French Revolutionary Wars in the Mediterranean .
Vashon was superseded on 26 March 1801 , and the following day Captain Edward Brace arrived to take command . Neptune became the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral James Gambier during this period . Brace 's period of command was brief , he was superseded by Captain Francis Austen on 12 September . With the draw down in hostilities prior to the signing of the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802 , Neptune was one of the many ships of the Mediterranean fleet to be ordered home , arriving at Portsmouth on 24 February . Austen paid her off on 29 April , but recommissioned her the next day . Neptune then underwent a brief refit , during which £ 5 @,@ 728 was expended , £ 2 @,@ 895 of which was spent on her hull , masts and yards . Austen was superseded on 30 September 1802 and the following day Captain William O 'Bryen Drury took command . With Neptune fully refitted and stored , she sailed from the dockyard and joined the Channel Fleet at Spithead on 29 October .
= = Blockade , and approach to Trafalgar = =
Drury commanded Neptune for the next two years , until his promotion to rear @-@ admiral in 1804 . He departed the ship on 13 May 1804 , and the following day Captain Sir Thomas Williams took over . Neptune spent the rest of 1804 deployed with the Channel Fleet , blockading the French Atlantic ports . During this time Captain Williams ' health progressively worsened , and he was invalided back to Britain on 7 May 1805 . He was replaced by Captain Thomas Fremantle on 8 May , and was sent to join Robert Calder 's force blockading Ferrol , after the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet had arrived there after the Battle of Cape Finisterre . Calder decided that his eight ships were not sufficient to resist Villeneuve 's fleet were it to come out of harbour , and instead went north to join Admiral William Cornwallis 's fleet off Brest . Shortly afterwards Nelson 's fleet returned from the West Indies , bringing 12 more ships , and Calder was given 18 ships , including Neptune , and sent back to Ferrol to search for Villeneuve . By now Villeneuve had put into Cadiz and Calder 's force was ordered to join the hastily assembled British fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood , that was blockading the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet at Cadiz . As the British fleet settled in for a long blockade Fremantle commented on Neptune 's sailing qualities . She had the reputation of being slow , and Fremantle complained that he did not like being in ' a large ship that don 't sail and must continually be late in action . ' During the battle however , Midshipman William Baddock commented that ' The old Neptune , which never was a good sailer , took it into her head that morning to sail better than I ever remember to have seen her do before . ' Neptune went into the battle 18 men short of her complement .
= = Trafalgar = =
Neptune formed part of the weather column in the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October , and was the third ship from the lead , situated between her sister HMS Temeraire , and the 74 @-@ gun HMS Leviathan . Fremantle had been promised a position second to Nelson aboard HMS Victory , and by 10 o 'clock was sailing fast enough to threaten to overtake her . Fremantle hoped to pass her , and lead the line into battle , but Nelson ordered ' Neptune , take in your studding @-@ sails and drop astern . I shall break the line myself . ' Neptune went into action with her band playing , and everyone except the officers and the band lying down on the deck to protect them from enemy fire . Ahead of her Fremantle saw Eliab Harvey 's Temeraire turn to pass astern of the French Redoutable , but resolved to follow Nelson and HMS Victory to pass astern of the French flagship Bucentaure . As she passed under Bucentaure 's stern , Neptune discharged a double @-@ shotted broadside from her larboard ( port ) guns , with devastating consequences on Villeneuve 's already disabled flagship . Fremantle then had the helm swung hard to starboard , bringing his ship abeam of the Bucentaure . He fired two more triple @-@ shotted broadsides from nearly 50 guns at a range of less than 100 yards into the beleaguered French ship .
Fremantle then spotted the towering mass of the Spanish four @-@ decker Santísima Trinidad sailing away from him , and steered towards her starboard quarter in the hope of raking her stern . Opening fire with his larboard battery , he positioned Neptune off the Spanish vessel 's starboard beam and the two exchanged heavy fire for the next hour as more British ships poured through the gap astern of Neptune . Neptune took fire from other ships of the combined fleet as they sailed past . Santísima Trinidad , heavily battered by Neptune 's guns , as well as those from the 74 @-@ gun ships HMS Leviathan and HMS Conqueror , became completely dismasted and covered in debris . She fought on until 5 @.@ 30 pm , when she struck her colours , having sustained casualties of 205 dead and 103 wounded . Neptune left the 98 @-@ gun HMS Prince to take possession and headed north to cut off the remains of the enemy fleet , briefly becoming engaged with the French 74 @-@ gun Intrépide . During the battle Neptune suffered considerable damage to her masts , although they did not fall . Most of her rigging was cut to pieces and she sustained nine shot holes in her hull . She sustained casualties of ten killed and 34 wounded . A remarkably small proportion of her officers became casualties , with only the captain 's clerk , Richard Hurrell , being wounded .
After the battle Collingwood transferred his flag from the damaged HMS Royal Sovereign to the frigate HMS Euryalus , and on 22 October Neptune took the Royal Sovereign in tow . On 23 October , as the Franco @-@ Spanish forces that had escaped into Cadiz sortied under Commodore Julien Cosmao , Neptune cast off the tow , surrendering the duty to HMS Mars , and took on board Villeneuve and several captured flag captains , who had originally been aboard Mars . As the weather continued to deteriorate Neptune sent her boats to assist in the evacuation of the Santísima Trinidad before she foundered . After riding out the storm she took the battered Victory , carrying Lord Nelson 's body , in tow on 26 October and brought her into Gibraltar on 28 October .
= = West Indies = =
After undergoing some repairs at Gibraltar Neptune sailed to Britain , arriving at Portsmouth on 6 December 1805 , where she was paid off . She was moved to Spithead in 1806 , but was back in Portsmouth on 23 November , and was moved into a dock on 24 March 1807 to undergo a refit . The refit lasted until November 1807 and involved having her copper sheathing removed and her hull refitted . She was then recoppered , having had a sum of £ 29 @,@ 053 expended on her . She was recommissioned on 18 August 1807 under her old commander , Captain Sir Thomas Williams , and was relaunched three days later on 21 August to complete her refit . She was initially assigned to serve in the English Channel , but was moved to the West Indies in 1808 . On 9 November Williams was superseded by Captain Thomas Pinto , who only spent six weeks in command before being succeeded by Captain Charles Dilkes on 20 December .
In January 1809 an attack on the French colony of Martinique , governed by Admiral Louis Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse , was planned . Neptune became the flagship of the expedition 's commander , Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane , and the invasion force , consisting of 44 vessels and transports for 10 @,@ 000 troops under Lieutenant @-@ General George Beckwith , sailed on 28 January . The force arrived at Martinique on 30 January , and 3 @,@ 000 troops were landed under Major @-@ General Frederick Maitland without resistance . 600 troops were put ashore at Cape Solomon under Major Henderson , both landings supervised by Captain William Charles Fahie aboard the 74 @-@ gun HMS Belleisle . An additional force of 6 @,@ 500 men were landed in the north of the island under Major @-@ General Sir George Prévost , and the French were driven into several fortified positions , the last of which surrendered on 24 February 1809 .
= = Battle with Troude = =
Cochrane 's squadron remained in the area blockading the island , and in March a French squadron consisting of three 74 @-@ gun ships , Hautpoult , Courageux and Polonais , and two frigates , Félicité and Furieuse , under the overall command of Commodore Amable Troude , arrived in the Caribbean . Finding Martinique in British hands , Troude anchored near Îles des Saintes .
There they were blockaded until 14 April , when Cochrane removed this threat . A British force under Major @-@ General Frederick Maitland and Captain Philip Beaver in Acasta , landed troops on the islands capturing them . The British then installed heavy guns on vantage points .
Threatened , Troude put to sea , chased by Cochrane 's squadron . After a running battle over several days the Hautpoult was brought to action and captured . Neptune 's captain , Charles Dilkes , was given command of her , while Captain James Athol Wood succeeded him in command of Neptune on 2 August .
Neptune was among the naval vessels that shared in the proceeds of the capture of the islands .
= = Final years = =
Dilkes resumed command of Neptune on 2 March 1810 , while Wood was exchanged into HMS Pompee . Dilkes had apparently been suffering poor health , and Captain N Ballard took command in an acting capacity on 22 July . Neptune returned to Plymouth on 26 October and entered the dock on 9 November to be fitted for the ordinary . The process cost £ 713 , and after undocking on 8 December she was laid up in the Hamoaze until late autumn 1813 . Her hull appears to have quickly deteriorated , and after a survey she was deemed unfit for further service at sea . The Navy Board proposed that she be converted into a prison ship , a recommendation the Admiralty accepted , and she was taken in hand for fitting out on 22 November . On the completion of the work in December she was commissioned under Lieutenant George Lawrence . Neptune spent three years in this role , and was finally taken to pieces in October 1818 .
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= Crippled Summer =
" Crippled Summer " is the seventh episode and mid @-@ season finale of the fourteenth season of the American animated television series South Park , and the 202nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 28 , 2010 . In the episode , the South Park children try to help Towelie overcome his drug addiction , while Nathan and his lackey Mimsy plot to destroy Jimmy during athletic competitions at a summer camp for handicapped children .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . The story of Towelie 's addiction is presented as a parody of the reality series Intervention . Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone originally planned an Intervention parody around Towelie for the tenth season episode " A Million Little Fibers " , but those plans were eventually scrapped . Several of the handicapped children in " Crippled Summer " are made to resemble characters from the Looney Tunes cartoon series , including Elmer Fudd , Beaky Buzzard , Daffy Duck , Pete Puma , and Porky Pig , as well as non @-@ Looney Tunes characters Droopy and Fat Albert .
" Crippled Summer " received positive reviews , though some commentators expressed disappointment that the episode did not respond to the controversies surrounding the show 's depictions of Muhammad in the previous episodes , " 200 " and " 201 " . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Crippled Summer " was seen by 3 @.@ 56 million viewers , making it the most watched cable show of the night , and outperforming even some prime time network shows that evening .
= = Plot = =
The drug addiction of Towelie , a living and talking towel , is growing so overwhelming that the South Park children make attempts to help him . Towelie 's history is shown , using head interviews and on @-@ screen captions ( in a parody of " Intervention " ) , starting with years of drug addiction to cannabis , crystal meth , heroin and crack . He previously had a girlfriend named Rebecca and conceived a child with her ( a washcloth ) , but he was kicked out of their home due to his persistently getting high . Having run out of money for hard drugs , Towelie starts getting high off of cans of computer duster . His life continued in a downward spiral , leaving him in heavy debt and offering oral sex to strangers for money in the alleys . The boys help him get a job at Lake Tardicaca , a summer camp for children with physical and mental disabilities , as a towel to dry off the campers . However , Towelie persists in drug use and fellating strangers in the supply closet , and is fired by the camp . The boys confront Towelie and make emotional speeches to him as a plea to help him from killing himself ( except for Cartman , who uses this opportunity to read what appears to be several tens of thousands of pages of anti @-@ Semitic remarks on television , which the psychiatrist allows to continue in respect of the " no interruptions " rule ) . Towelie refuses their pleas until Butters reveals he has brought Towelie 's child , " Washcloth " , which finally prompts him to accept the offer to go to a rehabilitation clinic in Southern California . Later , Towelie reveals he has completed rehab and is now living with his girlfriend and son .
Meanwhile , at the summer camp , young bully Nathan and his lackey Mimsy plot to destroy Jimmy during the athletic competitions so Nathan can be declared the camp 's champion . This sub @-@ plot is also narrated in the same style as " Intervention " . Nathan uses Mimsy as a minion to carry out his plans to harm Jimmy , but is repeatedly foiled by Mimsy , who either misinterprets his instructions or takes them too literally and causes his plans to backfire . Nathan tries to plant a black mamba in Jimmy 's canoe during a race , but Mimsy instead leaves it in Nathan 's canoe ( when told to put it " in the canoe " ) . Subsequently , Nathan tries to lead Jimmy 's team into dangerous Indian territory during a scavenger hunt , but instead Mimsy switches the maps and switches them again ( Nathan demanded him to " Switch the maps ! Switch the maps ! " ) , and leads Nathan 's team there . When Nathan tries to use a whistle with a shark mating call against Jimmy , Mimsy , who was supposed to blow the whistle underwater , instead swims in the water briefly then blows the whistle on land and a shark jumps out of the water and anally rapes Nathan with its nine @-@ inch long penis , according to the Colorado National Wildlife Association . During the talent show , Nathan rigs Jimmy 's ukulele with C @-@ 4 , hoping it will explode during a solo , but when Jimmy cannot perform the solo correctly , Mimsy starts to show Jimmy the correct notes . Nathan interrupts and confronts Mimsy about his failure to follow orders . With a lapse of judgment , Nathan plays the correct notes and causes the ukulele to explode , knocking him away before being further injured by his past plans attacking him again . The ukulele solo is spoofing the Looney Tunes repeated use of the Xylophone gag , where the last note of Believe Me If All Those Endearing Young Charms , is booby trapped , but the protagonist always somehow manages to play it wrong . Nathan is subsequently escorted to an ambulance , but is given the champion 's crown by Jimmy . Nathan tells Jimmy he hates him anyway before he is sent away to the hospital .
The episode ends with a message encouraging people who know towels in need of drug rehabilitation to visit " Restore Stephen Baldwin " , a real @-@ life website seeking assistance for actor Stephen Baldwin .
= = Production = =
" Crippled Summer " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on April 28 , 2010 and served as the mid @-@ season finale of the fourteenth season before a months @-@ long hiatus for the series . Parker and fellow series co @-@ creator Matt Stone originally planned for the tenth season episode " A Million Little Fibers " to be about Towelie 's struggle to overcome addiction in the style of the television series Intervention , with the children and residents of South Park coming together to help him , just as it was done in " Crippled Summer " . However , after writing portions of the story for the tenth season episode , they found they did not know where to bring the story or how to resolve it . As a result , they completely revamped the episode and focused it on talk show host Oprah Winfrey and the controversy surrounding the James Frey book A Million Little Pieces , rather than Towelie 's addiction . " Crippled Summer " also marked the first appearance by Towelie since the " A Million Little Fibers " , and the first appearance of Nathan , Jimmy 's handicapped nemesis , since the eighth season episode " Up the Down Steroid " .
= = Cultural references = =
" Crippled Summer " served as a parody of Intervention , the A & E Network documentary series about people struggling with various addictions . Throughout the episode , information about Towelie 's drug addiction is presented on completely black screens with white letters . This device is used frequently in Intervention . The interviews with Towelie 's friends and footage of their pleas to get help are also characteristic of the reality series . During one of Towelie 's interviews , he quotes " feels like I 'm walking on sunshine " after huffing air duster cans . Both the quote and his actions are from Season 5 , episode 9 of the TV reality series Intervention where they interview " Allison " . Many of the campers at Lake Tardicaca are parodies of characters from the cartoon series Looney Tunes . Nathan and Mimsy , in particular , are strongly influenced by Rocky and Mugsy , with Nathan taking on the role of the diminutive mastermind ( like Rocky ) who is constantly thwarted by his large but dim @-@ witted accomplice ( like Mugsy ) . Other characters from the summer camp in the episode resemble cartoon characters such as Elmer Fudd , Pete Puma , Droopy , Porky Pig , Taz , Foghorn Leghorn , and Beaky Buzzard .
The episode ends with a reference to " Restore Stephen Baldwin " , a real @-@ life website seeking to restore actor Stephen Baldwin 's career and solicit donations to repay his $ 2 @.@ 3 million debt . The joke compares Towelie 's addiction and rehabilitation to that of Baldwin , who had a history of drug abuse before becoming a born @-@ again Christian . A version of " Are You Ready for the Summer ? " , a camp theme song sung by children in the comedy film Meatballs , is featured . The episode makes reference to actress Kirstie Alley when a counselor says Towelie is the most troubled towel he had seen since Alley 's towel , who he said " has seen some nasty stuff " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 29 , 2010 , " Crippled Summer " was watched by 3 @.@ 56 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched cable television show of the night . It received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 4 share among overall viewers and a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among adult viewers between ages 18 and 49 . This rating marked an improvement over the previous South Park episode , " 201 " , and outperformed those of several primetime network shows that evening , including Fox 's Lie to Me , ABC 's The Middle , NBC 's Minute to Win It , CBS 's The New Adventures of Old Christine and The CW Network 's America 's Next Top Model , most of which were in repeats that evening . " Crippled Summer " received a 4 @.@ 1 rating / 13 share among male viewers between ages 18 and 34 . The episode also ranked fourth for the week among cable viewers between ages 18 and 49 and , because it ranked only behind three NBA playoff games , it was the highest @-@ rated scripted cable show of the week . " Crippled Summer " was the highest @-@ rated cable show among the 18 – 34 viewer demographic .
" Crippled Summer " received mixed reviews . Ramsey Isler of IGN called " Crippled Summer " a brilliant episode , particularly praising the return of Towelie , who he said " has a slew of great moments in this story , making up for his long absence from the series " . Isler said after the controversy raised from the depictions of Muhammad in the previous two episodes , " 200 " and " 201 " , he appreciated that the show returned to a simpler plot and provided " a little comedy relief " . The A.V. Club writer Josh Modell also praised South Park for " not getting too caught up in the Muhammad thing " , and praised the jokes about Intervention , which he said " is one of those shows that 's really easy to parody " . He also praised several individual jokes , like Cartman 's theories about the Jews and Nathan getting raped by a shark , although he said the Mimsy jokes were " a little one @-@ note " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said of the episode : " Not the kind of South Park episode that ’ s going to stir national @-@ news debate , but funny and vulgar enough to satisfy fans . "
Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine pointed out that although the episode mocked drug addicts and handicapped children , it did not face the kind of censorship " 200 " and " 201 " did , which he suggested proved that censorship was born of fear rather than ethics . Delgado also said the comparison of handicapped children to Looney Tunes characters " should remind us all that such cruel portrayals of disabled people have been going on for years " . Others criticized the episode . MTV writer Adam Rosenberg thought the episode " just wasn 't very funny " , and said it missed an opportunity to continue the creative edginess demonstrated in " 200 " and " 201 " . Rosenberg found the jokes about handicapped children " pointlessly mean " , and said the fact that they are allowed where depictions of Muhammad are censored " makes a point about the absurdity of what is and isn 't TV @-@ acceptable " . The television website TV Fanatic praised the Towelie storyline and the use of his son " Washcloth " , but said the jokes about the handicapped children were unfunny and irritating . The site called it " by far the weakest of the season " and a disappointment following " 200 " and " 201 " .
= = Home release = =
" Crippled Summer " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's fourteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on April 26 , 2011 .
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= Sweet Tooth ( novel ) =
Sweet Tooth is a novel by the English writer Ian McEwan , published on 21 August 2012 . It deals with the experiences of its protagonist , Serena Frome , during the early 1970s . After graduating from Cambridge she is recruited by MI5 , and becomes involved in a covert program to combat communism by infiltrating the intellectual world . When she becomes romantically involved with her mark , complications ensue .
McEwan wanted to write a novel dealing with the social turmoil of the 1970s , and Sweet Tooth is to a large extent based on his own life . The story explores the relationship between artistic integrity and government propaganda , and addresses competing approaches to literature ; the boundary between reality and fiction is tested throughout . The novel is dedicated to McEwan 's late friend Christopher Hitchens . He is not referred to directly in the book , but he did play a part as the host of a real @-@ life literary event fictionalised in the book , involving McEwan and Martin Amis , who does appear in the story . Critical reception was mixed ; some reviewers found the novel moving and poignant , while others saw it as weaker than much of McEwan 's previous work .
= = Plot summary = =
The plot is set in early @-@ 1970s England . Serena Frome ( " rhymes with plume " ) , the daughter of an Anglican bishop , shows a talent for mathematics and is admitted to the University of Cambridge . But she struggles academically , and graduates with a third . While at Cambridge she becomes romantically involved with Tony Canning , a professor , who before abruptly ending the affair secures a position for Serena with MI5 . The job is low @-@ level , but a more exciting opportunity appears when Serena is offered a chance to take part in a new covert program codenamed " Sweet Tooth " . To counter Communist propaganda during the Cold War , the agency wants to offer financial assistance to young writers , academics and journalists with an anti @-@ Communist bent . Serena , who is an avid and quick reader of fiction , is given the task of vetting burgeoning writer Thomas Haley .
Serena is immediately taken by Haley 's published short fiction . She travels to the University of Sussex , where he works , to offer him a stipend from the fictional Freedom International Foundation . Soon the two begin a romantic affair , but things gradually start to unravel . Serena discovers that Professor Canning ( who , it turns out , broke off their affair only because he knew he was dying from cancer ) was in fact a Soviet spy , and she was recruited because the agency wanted to keep tabs on Canning . Then , when Haley 's first novel comes out , it is a great critical success , but its dystopian , anti @-@ capitalist theme is not well received by the agency . Finally , his affair with Serena is exposed by the press , and the whole Sweet Tooth program is threatened .
Serena fears that she has lost Haley 's love forever , now he knows she has deceived him . Haley , however , had known about the program for months , and instead of ending the affair , had decided to turn the story into a novel . The reader now discovers that the author of Sweet Tooth is in fact Haley , despite its being written from Serena 's first @-@ person perspective . As the novel ends , Haley asks Serena in a letter to marry him .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
Several reviewers have pointed out that the Thomas Haley character shares many traits and biographical details with the author . Like Haley , McEwan studied at the University of Sussex ( later also at the University of East Anglia ) , and not at one of the more prestigious Oxbridge universities . Haley 's stories , summarised briefly in the novel , are in several cases strikingly similar to some of McEwan 's earlier work . This goes particularly for Haley 's dystopian début novel , which closely follows the plot of " Two Fragments " , a short story from McEwan 's 1978 In Between the Sheets . The novel wins Haley the fictional Jane Austen Prize for Fiction , just as McEwan 's debut First Love , Last Rites was rewarded with the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976 . Several of McEwan 's acquaintances from this period also make cameo appearances in the novel , including his friend Martin Amis , his first publisher Tom Maschler , and his mentor Ian Hamilton .
McEwan has been open about the autobiographical elements in the book , and has called it " a muted and distorted autobiography " and " a muted , or transmuted , memoir of myself as a young writer . " There are , however , significant differences between author and character . Haley is both an academic and a writer of fiction , while McEwan has been a professional author for his entire career . The intelligence agency plot is also completely fictional ; there was never a scheme such as the one described in the book run by MI5 . As McEwan says himself , " unfortunately a beautiful woman never came into my room and offered me a stipend . "
= = Genre and style = =
Sweet Tooth is a love story , a spy novel , and a book about literature itself . Serena and her boyfriend Haley – she a well @-@ read but uncritical lover of literature , he a highly accomplished writer and literary scholar – have different attitudes towards literature . Serena prefers a realist approach , where life in the book reflects real life . Haley on the other hand is of a more modernist school , and enjoys experimentation in his work . McEwan plays with these differences , firstly by placing himself in the novel and blurring the line between author and character , and secondly by writing what appears to be a straight first @-@ person narrative , only to distort this perception at the very end .
= = Themes = =
McEwan had long wanted to write a novel about the 1970s , a formative period in his life he refers to as " the time of my life . " For the United Kingdom it was a turbulent period , with striking miners , energy crisis , escalation of the conflict over Northern Ireland , repeated states of emergency and several shifts of government . It was also the period of the Cold War , when Western governments were trying to win the war of ideas against a highly radicalised intelligentsia . Operation Sweet Tooth is entirely fictional , but the story is inspired by the actual scandal affecting the conservative literary magazine Encounter , which in 1967 was revealed to have received covert funding from the CIA . McEwan uses this back @-@ story to explore the relationship between artist and government , and the need for literature to remain independent . According to McEwan , the problem was not the anti @-@ Communist crusade itself , but the secrecy with which it was conducted . " All that 's really required is that anything the state does in relation to the arts is laid on the table where we can see it . "
= = Critical reception = =
Lydia of The Observer enjoyed the " Russian doll " of the novel 's multiple layers , and its " keen emotional pull . " Though she had certain misgivings along the way , she felt that the last few pages answered all her questions and " moved [ her ] almost to tears . " Lucy Kellaway of the Financial Times was taken by the stories within the story , and though they tended to " suck vivacity from the main narrative " , she saw this as a device to illuminate the " different crafts of writing short stories and novels . " Benjamin Errett , writing for the National Post , pointed out how McEwan had blended spy fiction and literary criticism to a combination that was both exciting and intellectually stimulating . In reference to Serena and Tom 's different literary preferences , he concluded that " [ t ] his novel is juicy enough to satisfy them both . "
Other reviewers were less enthusiastic . The Daily Telegraph 's Catherine Taylor found the protagonist " a little too credulous . " She also found McEwan 's " wilful narrative sadism " sadly missing from the work . The review in The Economist was even more scathing : referring to Sweet Tooth as " not Mr McEwan 's finest book " , the reviewer concluded that by the end , " it is hard to feel much of anything for these heroes , who are all notions and no depth . " James Lasdun of The Guardian found that there were " momentous political questions " raised in the earlier parts of the novel , which were not fully addressed by the end . Stylistically , Serena found herself caught in exactly the kind of narrative she disliked , but , asked Lasdun , " to what end ? " Particularly the ending of the book was polarising . Kellaway saw it as " a good excuse to go back to the beginning and read this rich and enjoyable novel all over again " , while another reviewer confessed that , though the ending " might be enough to send McEwan acolytes scurrying back through the novel to see how he did it ... it made me want to throw the book out the window . "
The statistical journal " Significance " analyses McEwan 's representation of the famous mathematical conundrum : the Monty Hall Problem .
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= Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder =
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type . It is characterized by problems paying attention , excessive activity , or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person 's age . These symptoms begin by age six to twelve , are present for more than six months , and cause problems in at least two settings ( such as school , home , or recreational activities ) . In children , problems paying attention may result in poor school performance . Although it causes impairment , particularly in modern society , many children have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting .
Despite being the most commonly studied and diagnosed mental disorder in children and adolescents , the cause is unknown in the majority of cases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimated that it affected about 39 million people as of 2013 . It affects about 5 – 7 % of children when diagnosed via the DSM @-@ IV criteria and 1 – 2 % when diagnosed via the ICD @-@ 10 criteria . Rates are similar between countries and depend mostly on how it is diagnosed . ADHD is diagnosed approximately three times more in boys than in girls . About 30 – 50 % of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have symptoms into adulthood and between 2 – 5 % of adults have the condition . The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other disorders as well as to distinguish from high levels of activity that are still within the normal @-@ range .
ADHD management recommendations vary by country and usually involve some combination of counseling , lifestyle changes , and medications . The British guideline only recommends medications as a first @-@ line treatment in children who have severe symptoms and for medication to be considered in those with moderate symptoms who either refuse or fail to improve with counseling . Canadian and American guidelines recommend that medications and behavioral therapy be used together as a first @-@ line therapy , except in preschool @-@ aged children . Stimulant therapy is not recommended as a first @-@ line therapy in preschool @-@ aged children in either guideline . Treatment with stimulants is effective for up to 14 months ; however , its long term effectiveness is unclear . Adolescents and adults tend to develop coping skills which make up for some or all of their impairments .
The medical literature has described symptoms similar to ADHD since the 19th century . ADHD , its diagnosis , and its treatment have been considered controversial since the 1970s . The controversies have involved clinicians , teachers , policymakers , parents , and the media . Topics include ADHD 's causes and the use of stimulant medications in its treatment . Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder , and the debate in the scientific community mainly centers on how it is diagnosed and treated . The condition was officially known as attention deficit disorder ( ADD ) from 1980 to 1987 while before this it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Inattention , hyperactivity ( restlessness in adults ) , disruptive behavior , and impulsivity are common in ADHD . Academic difficulties are frequent as are problems with relationships . The symptoms can be difficult to define as it is hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention , hyperactivity , and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin .
According to the DSM @-@ 5 , symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the same age and they must cause significant problems functioning in at least two settings ( e.g. , social , school / work , or home ) . The full criteria must have been met prior to age 12 in order to receive a diagnosis of ADHD .
ADHD is divided into three subtypes : predominantly inattentive , predominantly hyperactive @-@ impulsive , and combined type .
An individual with ADHD inattentive type has most or all of following symptoms , excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition :
Be easily distracted , miss details , forget things , and frequently switch from one activity to another
Have difficulty maintaining focus on one task
Become bored with a task after only a few minutes , unless doing something enjoyable
Have difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task or learning something new
Have trouble completing or turning in homework assignments , often losing things ( e.g. , pencils , toys , assignments ) needed to complete tasks or activities
Not seem to listen when spoken to
Daydream , become easily confused , and move slowly
Have difficulty processing information as quickly and accurately as others
Struggle to follow instructions
Have trouble understanding minute details
An individual with ADHD hyperactive / impulsive type has most or all of the following symptoms , excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition :
Fidget and squirm in their seats
Talk nonstop
Dash around , touching or playing with anything and everything in sight
Have trouble sitting still during dinner , school , doing homework , and story time
Be constantly in motion
Have difficulty doing quiet tasks or activities
Be very impatient
Blurt out inappropriate comments , show their emotions without restraint , and act without regard for consequences
Have difficulty waiting for things they want or waiting their turns in games
Often interrupt conversations or others ' activities
Symptoms of hyperactivity tend to go away with age and turn into " inner restlessness " in teens and adults with ADHD .
People with ADHD are more likely to have problems with social skills , such as social interaction and forming and maintaining friendships . This is true for all subtypes . About half of children and adolescents with ADHD experience social rejection by their peers compared to 10 – 15 % of non @-@ ADHD children and adolescents . People with attention deficits are prone to having difficulty processing verbal and nonverbal language which can negatively affect social interaction . They also may drift off during conversations , and miss social cues .
Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD as are poor handwriting and delays in speech , language and motor development . Although it causes significant impairment , particularly in modern society , many children with ADHD have a good attention span for tasks they find interesting .
= = = Associated disorders = = =
In children , ADHD occurs with other disorders about ⅔ of the time . Some commonly associated conditions include :
Learning disabilities have been found to occur in about 20 – 30 % of children with ADHD . Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders and academic skills disorders . ADHD , however , is not considered a learning disability , but it very frequently causes academic difficulties .
Tourette syndrome has been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population .
Oppositional defiant disorder ( ODD ) and conduct disorder ( CD ) , which occur with ADHD in about 50 % and 20 % of cases respectively . They are characterized by antisocial behaviors such as stubbornness , aggression , frequent temper tantrums , deceitfulness , lying , and stealing . About half of those with hyperactivity and ODD or CD develop antisocial personality disorder in adulthood . Brain imaging supports that conduct disorder and ADHD are separate conditions .
Primary disorder of vigilance , which is characterized by poor attention and concentration , as well as difficulties staying awake . These children tend to fidget , yawn and stretch and appear to be hyperactive in order to remain alert and active .
Mood disorders ( especially bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder ) . Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder . Adults with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder , which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions .
Anxiety disorders have been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population .
Obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) can co @-@ occur with ADHD and shares many of its characteristics .
Substance use disorders . Adolescents and adults with ADHD are at increased risk of substance abuse . This is most commonly seen with alcohol or cannabis . The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals . This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult , with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks .
Restless legs syndrome has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and is often due to iron deficiency anaemia . However , restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders .
Sleep disorders and ADHD commonly co @-@ exist . They can also occur as a side effect of medications used to treat ADHD . In children with ADHD , insomnia is the most common sleep disorder with behavioral therapy the preferred treatment . Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning . Melatonin is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia .
There is an association with persistent bed wetting , language delay , and developmental coordination disorder ( DCD ) . Language delays can include auditory processing disorders such as short @-@ term auditory memory weakness , difficulty following instructions , slow speed of processing spoken language , and difficulties listening in distracting environments .
= = Cause = =
The cause of most cases of ADHD is unknown ; however , it is believed to involve interactions between genetic and environmental factors . Certain cases are related to previous infection of or trauma to the brain .
= = = Genetics = = =
Twin studies indicate that the disorder is often inherited from one 's parents with genetics determining about 75 % of cases . Siblings of children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to develop the disorder than siblings of children without the disorder . Genetic factors are also believed to be involved in determining whether ADHD persists into adulthood .
Typically , a number of genes are involved , many of which directly affect dopamine neurotransmission . Those involved with dopamine include DAT , DRD4 , DRD5 , TAAR1 , MAOA , COMT , and DBH . Other genes associated with ADHD include SERT , HTR1B , SNAP25 , GRIN2A , ADRA2A , TPH2 , and BDNF . A common variant of a gene called LPHN3 is estimated to be responsible for about 9 % of cases and when this variant is present , people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication . The 7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4 ( DRD4 – 7R ) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by dopamine and is associated with ADHD . The DRD4 receptor is a G protein @-@ coupled receptor that inhibits adenylyl cyclase . The DRD4 – 7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioral phenotypes , including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention .
Evolution may have played a role in the high rates of ADHD , particularly hyperactive and impulsive traits in males . Some have hypothesized that some women may be more attracted to males who are risk takers , increasing the frequency of genes that predispose to hyperactivity and impulsivity in the gene pool . Others have claimed that these traits may be an adaptation that helped males face stressful or dangerous environment with , for example , increased impulsivity and exploratory behavior . In certain situations , ADHD traits may have been beneficial to society as a whole even while being harmful to the individual . The high rates and heterogeneity of ADHD may have increased reproductive fitness and benefited society by adding diversity to the gene pool despite being detrimental to the individual . In certain environments , some ADHD traits may have offered personal advantages to individuals , such as quicker response to predators or superior hunting skills .
People with Down syndrome are more likely to have ADHD .
= = = Environment = = =
In addition to genetics , some environmental factors might play a role . Alcohol intake during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol spectrum disorders which can include ADHD or symptoms like it . Children exposed to certain toxic substances , such as lead or polychlorinated biphenyls , may develop problems which resemble ADHD . Exposure to the organophosphate insecticides chlorpyrifos and dialkyl phosphate is associated with an increased risk ; however , the evidence is not conclusive . Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy can cause problems with central nervous system development and can increase the risk of ADHD .
Extreme premature birth , very low birth weight , and extreme neglect , abuse , or social deprivation also increase the risk as do certain infections during pregnancy , at birth , and in early childhood . These infections include , among others , various viruses ( measles , varicella zoster encephalitis , rubella , enterovirus 71 ) . At least 30 % of children with a traumatic brain injury later develop ADHD and about 5 % of cases are due to brain damage .
Some studies suggest that in a minority of children , artificial food dyes or preservative may be associated with an increased prevalence of ADHD or ADHD @-@ like symptoms but the evidence is weak and may only apply to children with food sensitivities . The United Kingdom and the European Union have put in place regulatory measures based on these concerns . In a minority of children , intolerances or allergies to certain foods may worsen ADHD symptoms .
Research does not support popular beliefs that ADHD is caused by eating too much refined sugar , watching too much television , parenting , poverty or family chaos ; however , they might worsen ADHD symptoms in certain people .
= = = Society = = =
The diagnosis of ADHD can represent family dysfunction or a poor educational system rather than an individual problem . Some cases may be explained by increasing academic expectations , with a diagnosis being a method for parents in some countries to get extra financial and educational support for their child . The youngest children in a class have been found to be more likely to be diagnosed as having ADHD possibly due to their being developmentally behind their older classmates . Behaviors typical of ADHD occurs more commonly in children who have experienced violence and emotional abuse .
According to social construction theory it is societies that determine the boundary between normal and abnormal behavior . Members of society , including physicians , parents , and teachers , determine which diagnostic criteria are used and , thus , the number of people affected . This leads to the current situation where the DSM @-@ IV arrives at levels of ADHD three to four times higher than those obtained with the ICD @-@ 10 . Thomas Szasz , a supporter of this theory , has argued that ADHD was " invented and not discovered . "
= = Pathophysiology = =
Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain 's neurotransmitter systems , particularly those involving dopamine and norepinephrine . The dopamine and norepinephrine pathways that originate in the ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus project to diverse regions of the brain and govern a variety of cognitive processes . The dopamine pathways and norepinephrine pathways which project to the prefrontal cortex and striatum are directly responsible for modulating executive function ( cognitive control of behavior ) , motivation , reward perception , and motor function ; these pathways are known to play a central role in the pathophysiology of ADHD . Larger models of ADHD with additional pathways have been proposed .
= = = Brain structure = = =
In children with ADHD , there is a general reduction of volume in certain brain structures , with a proportionally greater decrease in the volume in the left @-@ sided prefrontal cortex . The posterior parietal cortex also shows thinning in ADHD individuals compared to controls . Other brain structures in the prefrontal @-@ striatal @-@ cerebellar and prefrontal @-@ striatal @-@ thalamic circuits have also been found to differ between people with and without ADHD .
= = = Neurotransmitter pathways = = =
Previously it was thought that the elevated number of dopamine transporters in people with ADHD was part of the pathophysiology but it appears that the elevated numbers are due to adaptation to exposure to stimulants . Current models involve the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway and the locus coeruleus @-@ noradrenergic system . ADHD psychostimulants possess treatment efficacy because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems . There may additionally be abnormalities in serotoninergic and cholinergic pathways . Neurotransmission of glutamate , a cotransmitter with dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway , seems to be also involved .
= = = Executive function and motivation = = =
The symptoms of ADHD arise from a deficiency in certain executive functions ( e.g. , attentional control , inhibitory control , and working memory ) . Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviors that facilitate the attainment of one 's chosen goals . The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organized , time keeping , excessive procrastination , maintaining concentration , paying attention , ignoring distractions , regulating emotions , and remembering details . People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long @-@ term memory , and deficits in long @-@ term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory . The criteria for an executive function deficit are met in 30 – 50 % of children and adolescents with ADHD . One study found that 80 % of individuals with ADHD were impaired in at least one executive function task , compared to 50 % for individuals without ADHD . Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older , ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood .
ADHD has also been associated with motivational deficits in children . Children with ADHD find it difficult to focus on long @-@ term over short @-@ term rewards , and exhibit impulsive behavior for short @-@ term rewards . In these individuals , a large amount of positive reinforcement effectively improves task performance . ADHD stimulants may improve persistence in ADHD children as well .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Overall , studies have shown that people with ADHD tend to have lower scores on intelligence quotient ( IQ ) tests . The significance of this is controversial due to the differences between people with ADHD and the difficulty determining the influence of symptoms , such as distractibility , on lower scores rather than intellectual capacity . In studies of ADHD , higher IQ ’ s may be over represented because many studies exclude individuals who have lower IQ ’ s despite those with ADHD scoring on average 9 points lower on standardized intelligence measures . As a result , we may have less of an accurate understanding of ADHD .
= = Diagnosis = =
ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a person 's childhood behavioral and mental development , including ruling out the effects of drugs , medications and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms . It often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns . It may be viewed as the extreme end of one or more continuous human traits found in all people . Whether someone responds to medications does not confirm or rule out the diagnosis . As imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals , they are only used for research purposes and not diagnosis .
In North America , DSM @-@ 5 criteria are used for diagnosis , while European countries usually use the ICD @-@ 10 . With the DSM @-@ IV criteria a diagnosis of ADHD is 3 – 4 times more likely than with the ICD @-@ 10 criteria . It is classified as neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorder . Additionally , it is classified as a disruptive behavior disorder along with oppositional defiant disorder , conduct disorder , and antisocial personality disorder . A diagnosis does not imply a neurological disorder .
Associated conditions that should be screened for include anxiety , depression , oppositional defiant disorder , conduct disorder , and learning and language disorders . Other conditions that should be considered are other neurodevelopmental disorders , tics , and sleep apnea .
Diagnosis of ADHD using quantitative electroencephalography ( QEEG ) is an ongoing area of investigation , although the value of QEEG in ADHD is currently unclear . In the United States , the Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of QEEG to evaluate the morbidity of ADHD .
= = = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual = = =
As with many other psychiatric disorders , formal diagnosis is made by a qualified professional based on a set number of criteria . In the United States , these criteria are defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the DSM . Based on the DSM criteria , there are three sub @-@ types of ADHD :
ADHD predominantly inattentive type ( ADHD @-@ PI ) presents with symptoms including being easily distracted , forgetful , daydreaming , disorganization , poor concentration , and difficulty completing tasks .
ADHD , predominantly hyperactive @-@ impulsive type presents with excessive fidgetiness and restlessness , hyperactivity , difficulty waiting and remaining seated , immature behavior ; destructive behaviors may also be present .
ADHD , combined type is a combination of the first two subtypes .
This subdivision is based on presence of at least six out of nine long @-@ term ( lasting at least six months ) symptoms of inattention , hyperactivity – impulsivity , or both . To be considered , the symptoms must have appeared by the age of six to twelve and occur in more than one environment ( e.g. at home and at school or work ) . The symptoms must be not appropriate for a child of that age and there must be evidence that it is causing social , school or work related problems .
= = = International Classification of Diseases = = =
In the ICD @-@ 10 , the symptoms of " hyperkinetic disorder " are analogous to ADHD in the DSM @-@ 5 . When a conduct disorder ( as defined by ICD @-@ 10 ) is present , the condition is referred to as hyperkinetic conduct disorder . Otherwise , the disorder is classified as disturbance of activity and attention , other hyperkinetic disorders or hyperkinetic disorders , unspecified . The latter is sometimes referred to as hyperkinetic syndrome .
= = = Adults = = =
Adults with ADHD are diagnosed under the same criteria , including that their signs must have been present by the age of six to twelve . Questioning parents or guardians as to how the person behaved and developed as a child may form part of the assessment ; a family history of ADHD also adds weight to a diagnosis . While the core symptoms of ADHD are similar in children and adults they often present differently in adults than in children , for example excessive physical activity seen in children may present as feelings of restlessness and constant mental activity in adults .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Symptoms of ADHD such as low mood and poor self @-@ image , mood swings , and irritability can be confused with dysthymia , cyclothymia or bipolar disorder as well as with borderline personality disorder . Some symptoms that are due to anxiety disorders , antisocial personality disorder , developmental disabilities or mental retardation or the effects of substance abuse such as intoxication and withdrawal can overlap with some ADHD . These disorders can also sometimes occur along with ADHD . Medical conditions which can cause ADHD type symptoms include : hyperthyroidism , seizure disorder , lead toxicity , hearing deficits , hepatic disease , sleep apnea , drug interactions , untreated celiac disease , and head injury .
Primary sleep disorders may affect attention and behavior and the symptoms of ADHD may affect sleep . It is thus recommended that children with ADHD be regularly assessed for sleep problems . Sleepiness in children may result in symptoms ranging from the classic ones of yawning and rubbing the eyes , to hyperactivity and inattentiveness . Obstructive sleep apnea can also cause ADHD type symptoms .
= = Management = =
The management of ADHD typically involves counseling or medications either alone or in combination . While treatment may improve long @-@ term outcomes , it does not get rid of negative outcomes entirely . Medications used include stimulants , atomoxetine , alpha @-@ 2 adrenergic receptor agonists , and sometimes antidepressants .
= = = Behavioral therapies = = =
There is good evidence for the use of behavioral therapies in ADHD and they are the recommended first line treatment in those who have mild symptoms or are preschool @-@ aged . Psychological therapies used include : psychoeducational input , behavior therapy , cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) , interpersonal psychotherapy , family therapy , school @-@ based interventions , social skills training , behavioral peer intervention , organization training , parent management training , and neurofeedback . Behavior modification and neurofeedback have the best support .
Parent training and education have been found to have short @-@ term benefits . There is little high quality research on the effectiveness of family therapy for ADHD , but the evidence that exists shows that it is similar to community care and better than a placebo . Several ADHD specific support groups exist as informational sources and may help families cope with ADHD .
Training in social skills , behavioral modification and medication may have some limited beneficial effects . The most important factor in reducing later psychological problems , such as major depression , criminality , school failure , and substance use disorders is formation of friendships with people who are not involved in delinquent activities .
Regular physical exercise , particularly aerobic exercise , is an effective add @-@ on treatment for ADHD in children and adults , particularly when combined with stimulant medication , although the best intensity and type of aerobic exercise for improving symptoms are not currently known . In particular , the long @-@ term effects of regular aerobic exercise in ADHD individuals include better behavior and motor abilities , improved executive functions ( including attention , inhibitory control , planning , and cognitive processing speed , among other cognitive domains ) , and better memory without causing any side effects . Exercising while on stimulant medication augments the effect of stimulant medication on executive function . It is believed that these short @-@ term effects of exercise are mediated by an increased abundance of synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain .
= = = Medication = = =
Stimulant medications are the pharmaceutical treatment of choice . They have at least some effect in the short term in about 80 % of people . Methylphenidate appears to improve symptoms as reported by teachers and parents .
There are a number of non @-@ stimulant medications , such as atomoxetine , bupropion , guanfacine , and clonidine that may be used as alternatives , or added to stimulant therapy . There are no good studies comparing the various medications ; however , they appear more or less equal with respect to side effects . Stimulants appear to improve academic performance while atomoxetine does not . There is little evidence on their effects on social behaviors . Medications are not recommended for preschool children , as the long @-@ term effects in this age group are not known . The long @-@ term effects of stimulants generally are unclear with one study finding benefit , another finding no benefit and a third finding evidence of harm . Magnetic resonance imaging studies suggest that long @-@ term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD . Atomoxetine , due to its lack of addiction liability , may be preferred in those who are at risk of recreational or compulsive stimulant use . Guidelines on when to use medications vary by country , with the United Kingdom 's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommending use only in severe cases , Switzerland strongly limits the authorised medications , while most United States guidelines recommend medications in most age groups .
Underdosing of stimulants may occur and result in a lack of response or later loss of effectiveness . This is particularly common in adolescents and adults as approved dosing is based on school @-@ aged children , causing some practitioners to use weight based or benefit based off @-@ label dosing instead .
While stimulants and atomoxetine are usually safe , there are side @-@ effects and contraindications to their use . A large overdose on ADHD stimulants is commonly associated with symptoms such as stimulant psychosis and mania ; although very rare , at therapeutic doses these events appear to occur in approximately 0 @.@ 1 % of individuals within the first several weeks after starting amphetamine or methylphenidate therapy . Administration of an antipsychotic medication has been found to effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis . Regular monitoring has been recommended in those on long @-@ term treatment . Stimulant therapy should be stopped periodically to assess for continuing need for medication , decrease possible growth delay , and reduce tolerance . Long @-@ term misuse of stimulant medications at doses above the therapeutic range for ADHD treatment is associated with addiction and dependence . Untreated ADHD , however , is also associated with elevated risk of substance use disorders and conduct disorders . The use of stimulants appears to either reduce this risk or have no effect on it . The safety of these medications in pregnancy is unclear .
= = = Diet = = =
Dietary modifications may be of benefit to some children with ADHD . A 2013 meta @-@ analysis found less than a third of children with ADHD see some improvement in symptoms with free fatty acid supplementation or decreased eating of artificial food coloring . These benefits may be limited to children with food sensitivities or those who are simultaneously being treated with ADHD medications . This review also found that evidence does not support removing other foods from the diet to treat ADHD . A 2014 review found that an elimination diet results in a small overall benefit . A 2016 review did not support a clear link between celiac disease and ADHD , and stated that routine screening for celiac disease in people with ADHD and the use of a gluten @-@ free diet as standard ADHD treatment are discouraged . Iron , magnesium and iodine may also have an effect on ADHD symptoms . There is a small amount of evidence that lower tissue zinc levels may be associated with ADHD . In the absence of a demonstrated zinc deficiency ( which is rare outside of developing countries ) , zinc supplementation is not recommended as treatment for ADHD . There is evidence of a modest benefit of omega 3 fatty acid supplementation , but it is not recommended in place of traditional medication .
= = Prognosis = =
An 8 @-@ year follow up of children diagnosed with ADHD ( combined type ) found that they often have difficulties in adolescence , regardless of treatment or lack thereof . In the US , fewer than 5 % of individuals with ADHD get a college degree , compared to 28 % of the general population aged 25 years and older . The proportion of children meeting criteria for ADHD drops by about half in the three years following the diagnosis and this occurs regardless of treatments used . ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30 – 50 % of cases . Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature , thus compensating for their previous symptoms .
= = Epidemiology = =
ADHD is estimated to affect about 6 – 7 % of people aged 18 and under when diagnosed via the DSM @-@ IV criteria . When diagnosed via the ICD @-@ 10 criteria rates in this age group are estimated at 1 – 2 % . Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East ; this is believed to be due to differing methods of diagnosis rather than a difference in underlying frequency . If the same diagnostic methods are used , the rates are more or less the same between countries . It is diagnosed approximately three times more often in boys than in girls . This difference between sexes may reflect either a difference in susceptibility or that females with ADHD are less likely to be diagnosed than males .
Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s . This is believed to be primarily due to changes in how the condition is diagnosed and how readily people are willing to treat it with medications rather than a true change in how common the condition is . It is believed that changes to the diagnostic criteria in 2013 with the release of the DSM @-@ 5 will increase the percentage of people diagnosed with ADHD , especially among adults .
= = History = =
Hyperactivity has long been part of the human condition . Sir Alexander Crichton describes " mental restlessness " in his book An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement written in 1798 . ADHD was first clearly described by George Still in 1902 .
The terminology used to describe the condition has changed over time and has included : in the DSM @-@ I ( 1952 ) " minimal brain dysfunction " , in the DSM @-@ II ( 1968 ) " hyperkinetic reaction of childhood " , in the DSM @-@ III ( 1980 ) " attention @-@ deficit disorder ( ADD ) with or without hyperactivity " . In 1987 this was changed to ADHD in the DSM @-@ III @-@ R and the DSM @-@ IV in 1994 split the diagnosis into three subtypes , ADHD inattentive type , ADHD hyperactive @-@ impulsive type and ADHD combined type . These terms were kept in the DSM @-@ 5 in 2013 . Other terms have included " minimal brain damage " used in the 1930s .
The use of stimulants to treat ADHD was first described in 1937 . In 1934 , Benzedrine became the first amphetamine medication approved for use in the United States . Methylphenidate was introduced in the 1950s , and enantiopure dextroamphetamine in the 1970s .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Controversies = = =
ADHD , its diagnosis , and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s . The controversies involve clinicians , teachers , policymakers , parents , and the media . Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behavior to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition . Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children , the method of diagnosis , and the possibility of overdiagnosis . In 2012 , the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence , while acknowledging the controversy , states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature . In 2014 , Keith Conners , one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder , spoke out against overdiagnosis in a New York Times article . In contrast , a 2014 peer @-@ reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults .
With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries , states within countries , races , and ethnicities , some suspect factors other than the presence of the symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis . Some sociologists consider ADHD to be an example of the medicalization of deviant behavior , that is , the turning of the previously non @-@ medical issue of school performance into a medical one . Most healthcare providers accept ADHD as a genuine disorder , at least in the small number of people with severe symptoms . Among healthcare providers the debate mainly centers on diagnosis and treatment in the much larger number of people with less severe symptoms .
As of 2009 , 8 % of all United States Major League Baseball players had been diagnosed with ADHD , making the disorder common among this population . The increase coincided with the League 's 2006 ban on stimulants , which has raised concern that some players are mimicking or falsifying the symptoms or history of ADHD to get around the ban on the use of stimulants in sport .
= = = Media commentary = = =
A number of public figures have given controversial statements regarding ADHD . Tom Cruise has described the medications Ritalin ( methylphenidate ) and Adderall ( a mixed @-@ salt amphetamine formulation ) as " street drugs " . Ushma S. Neill criticized this view , stating that the doses of stimulants used in the treatment of ADHD do not cause addiction and that there is some evidence of a reduced risk of later substance addiction in children treated with stimulants . In the UK , Susan Greenfield spoke out publicly in 2007 in the House of Lords about the need for a wide @-@ ranging inquiry into the dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ADHD , and possible causes . Her comments followed a BBC Panorama program that highlighted research that suggested medications are no better than other forms of therapy in the long term . In 2010 , the BBC Trust criticized the 2007 Panorama program for summarizing the research as showing " no demonstrable improvement in children 's behaviour after staying on ADHD medication for three years " when in actuality " the study found that medication did offer a significant improvement over time " although the long @-@ term benefits of medication were found to be " no better than children who were treated with behavior therapy . "
= = Special populations = =
= = = Adults = = =
It is estimated that between 2 – 5 % of adults have ADHD . Around 25 @-@ 50 % of children with ADHD continue to experience ADHD symptoms into adulthood , while the rest experiences fewer or no symptoms . Most adults remain untreated . Many have a disorganized life and use non @-@ prescribed drugs or alcohol as a coping mechanism . Other problems may include relationship and job difficulties , and an increased risk of criminal activities . Associated mental health problems include : depression , anxiety disorder , and learning disabilities .
Some ADHD symptoms in adults differ from those seen in children . While children with ADHD may climb and run about excessively , adults may experience an inability to relax , or they talk excessively in social situations . Adults with ADHD may start relationships impulsively , display sensation @-@ seeking behavior , and be short @-@ tempered . Addictive behavior such as substance abuse and gambling are common . The DSM @-@ IV criteria have been criticized for not being appropriate for adults ; those who present differently may lead to the claim that they outgrew the diagnosis .
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= Chimes at Midnight =
Chimes at Midnight ( UK release : Falstaff ( Chimes at Midnight ) , Spanish release : Campanadas a medianoche ) , is a 1966 English @-@ language Spanish @-@ Swiss co @-@ produced film directed by and starring Orson Welles . The film 's plot centres on William Shakespeare 's recurring character Sir John Falstaff and the father @-@ son relationship he has with Prince Hal , who must choose between loyalty to Falstaff or to his father , King Henry IV .
Welles said that the core of the film 's story was " the betrayal of friendship . " It stars Welles as Falstaff , Keith Baxter as Prince Hal , John Gielgud as Henry IV , Jeanne Moreau as Doll Tearsheet and Margaret Rutherford as Mistress Quickly . The script contains text from five of Shakespeare 's plays ; primarily Henry IV , Part 1 and Henry IV , Part 2 , but also Richard II , Henry V , and uses some dialogue from The Merry Wives of Windsor . Ralph Richardson 's narration is taken from the works of chronicler Raphael Holinshed .
Welles had previously produced a Broadway stage adaptation of nine Shakespeare plays called Five Kings in 1939 . In 1960 , he revived this project in Ireland as Chimes at Midnight , which was his final on @-@ stage performance . Neither of these plays was successful , but Welles considered portraying Falstaff to be his life 's ambition and turned the project into a film . Throughout its production , Welles struggled to find financing and at one point , to get money , he lied to producer Emiliano Piedra about intending to make a version of Treasure Island . Welles shot Chimes at Midnight throughout Spain between 1964 and 1965 , and premiered it at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival , where it won two awards .
Initially dismissed by most film critics , Chimes at Midnight is now regarded as one of Welles ' highest achievements , and Welles himself called it his best work . Welles felt a strong connection to the character of Falstaff and called him " Shakespeare 's greatest creation " . Some film scholars and Welles 's collaborators have made comparisons between Falstaff and Welles , while others see a resemblance between Falstaff and Welles 's father . Disputes over the ownership of Chimes at Midnight made it difficult to view the film legally until recently . It was released in the UK on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in 2015 . A new restoration by Janus Films and The Criterion Collection was screened at the Film Forum in New York January 1 – 12 , 2016 . The Criterion Collection will release the film on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on August 30 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with Sir John Falstaff and Justice Shallow walking through the snow , then to a warm fire inside the Boar 's Head Tavern as the two reminisce . After a main credit sequence , the narrator explains that King Henry IV of England has succeeded Richard II , whom he had killed . Richard II 's true heir , Edmund Mortimer , is a prisoner in Wales , and Mortimer 's cousins Northumberland , Worcester and Northumberland 's son Hotspur demand that Henry rescue Mortimer . Henry refuses and Northumberland , Worcester and Hotspur begin to plot his overthrow .
To Henry 's great dissatisfaction , his son Prince Hal spends most of his time at the Boar 's Head Tavern drinking and carousing with prostitutes , thieves and other criminals under John Falstaff 's patriarchal influence . Falstaff insists that he and Hal should think of themselves as gentlemen , but Hal warns Falstaff that one day he will reject both this lifestyle and Falstaff . The next morning Hal , Falstaff , Bardolph , Peto , and Poins disguise themselves in Gadshill to prepare to rob a group of traveling pilgrims . After Falstaff , Bardolph and Peto rob the pilgrims , Hal and Poins jump out in disguises and take the stolen treasure from Falstaff as a joke .
Back at the Boar 's Head Tavern , Falstaff begins to tell Hal and Poins with increasing exaggeration the story of how the money was stolen from him . Hal and Poins poke holes in Falstaff 's tale until they reveal their joke to the entire group . In celebration of the newly recovered stolen treasure , Falstaff and Hal take turns impersonating Henry , with a cooking pot crown and vocal impressions . Falstaff 's Henry chastises Hal for spending his time with common criminals , but names Sir John Falstaff as his one virtuous friend . Hal 's Henry calls Falstaff a " misleader of youth . "
Hal visits the King at the castle and Henry scolds him for his criminal and unethical lifestyle . Henry warns Hal about Hotspur 's growing army and its threat to his crown . Hal passionately vows to his unimpressed father that he will defend Henry and redeem his good name . The King 's army , including Falstaff , parades through the streets and off to war . Before the battle , Henry meets with Worcester and offers to forgive all of Hotspur 's men of treason if they surrender immediately . Hal vows to personally kill Hotspur . Worcester returns to his camp and lies to Hotspur , telling him that Henry intends to execute all traitors .
The two armies meet in the Battle of Shrewsbury , but Falstaff hides in shrubs for most of the conflict . After a long and bloody fight the King 's men win the battle , after which , Hotspur and Hal meet alone and duel . Falstaff watches as Hal kills Hotspur . Henry sentences Worcester to death and takes his men as prisoners . Falstaff brings Hotspur 's body to Henry , claiming that he killed Hotspur . Henry does not believe Falstaff but looks disapprovingly at Hal and the ignoble company that he chooses to keep .
The narrator explains that all of Henry IV 's rebellious enemies had been killed by 1408 , but that Henry 's health has begun to deteriorate . At the castle , Henry becomes upset when told that Hal is once again spending time with Falstaff , and collapses . Hal visits the castle and discovers that Henry is sicker than he had realized . Hal vows to Henry to be a good and noble king . Henry finally has faith in Hal and advises him on how to be a king . Henry dies and Hal tells his men that he is now King Henry V.
Falstaff , Shallow and Silence sit in front of a warm fire , continuing from the first scene of the film . They receive news of Henry IV 's death and that Hal 's coronation will be held that morning . Falstaff becomes ecstatic and goes directly to the castle , thinking that he will become a great and powerful nobleman under King Henry V. At the coronation , Falstaff cannot contain his excitement and interrupts the entire ceremony , announcing himself to Hal . Hal turns his back on Falstaff and proclaims that he is now finished with his former lifestyle . As Falstaff looks up at Hal with a mixture of pride and despair , the new king banishes Falstaff . The coronation continues into the castle as Falstaff walks away , stating that he will be sent for that evening . That night , Falstaff dies at the Boar 's Head Tavern and his friends mourn him , saying that he died of a broken heart . The narrator explains that Hal went on to become a good and noble king .
= = Cast = =
Orson Welles as Sir John Falstaff , a knight and father @-@ figure to Prince Hal
Keith Baxter as Prince Hal , the Prince of Wales and the heir to the throne of England
John Gielgud as King Henry IV , the King of England
Jeanne Moreau as Doll Tearsheet , a prostitute
Margaret Rutherford as Mistress Quickly , hostess of the Boar 's Head Tavern
Norman Rodway as Henry Percy , called Hotspur , Northumberland 's son and second cousin of Edmund Mortimer
Fernando Rey as Earl of Worcester , Leader of the Rebels . Northumberland 's brother and cousin of Edmund Mortimer
Marina Vlady as Kate Percy , Hotspur 's wife
Alan Webb as Justice Shallow , a country justice and old friend of Falstaff
Walter Chiari as Justice Silence , a country justice
Michael Aldridge as Pistol , a friend of Falstaff
Tony Beckley as Ned Poins , a friend of Falstaff and Hal
Andrew Faulds as Earl of Westmorland , an Earl loyal to the King
José Nieto as Earl of Northumberland , an Earl rebellious of the King and cousin of Edmund Mortimer
Jeremy Rowe as Prince John , Henry IV 's second son
Beatrice Welles as Falstaff 's Page , a servant
Patrick Bedford as Bardolph , a friend of Falstaff and Hal
Charles Farrell
Fernando Hilbeck
Andrés Mejuto
Julio Peña
Keith Pyott
Ralph Richardson as The Narrator ( voice )
= = Original stage productions = =
Welles 's inspiration for Chimes at Midnight began in 1930 when he was a student at the Todd School for Boys in Woodstock , Illinois . Welles tried to stage a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour combination of several of Shakespeare 's historical plays called The Winter of Our Discontent in which he played Richard III . School officials forced him to make cuts to the production . Chimes at Midnight originated in 1939 as a stage play called Five Kings , which Welles wrote and partially staged . It was an ambitious adaptation of several Shakespeare plays that chronicled the stories of Richard II , Henry IV , Henry V , Henry VI and Richard III . Its sources were Richard II , Henry IV , Part 1 , Henry IV , Part 2 , Henry V , The Merry Wives of Windsor , Henry VI , Part 1 , Henry VI , Part 2 , Henry VI , Part 3 and Richard III — sometimes collectively called the " War of the Roses cycle " . The grouping of Henry IV , Part 1 , Henry IV , Part 2 and Henry V are often referred to as the Henriad .
= = = Five Kings ( 1939 ) = = =
Five Kings was announced as part of the newly revived Mercury Theatre 's second season in 1938 . John Houseman had secured a partnership with the prestigious Theatre Guild to produce the play for US $ 40 @,@ 000 , with an initial tour of Baltimore , Boston , Washington D.C. and Philadelphia before debuting on Broadway . Welles 's intended to stage only the first part of the play — which was primarily taken from Henry IV Parts 1 and 2 and Henry V — during the tour while simultaneously rehearsing Part Two and finally debuting the full production on Broadway . Houseman stated that the play 's aim was " to combine the immediate quality of the Elizabethan with all the devices and techniques possible in the modern theatre . " The cast included Welles as Falstaff , Burgess Meredith as Prince Hal , John Emery as Hotspur , Morris Ankrum as Henry IV and Robert Speaight as the Narrator . The play 's music was composed by Aaron Copland . Welles commissioned an elaborate revolving set to be built , but it was not completed during the five weeks allotted to rehearsals .
Welles avoided attending the rehearsals or finishing the play 's final script and instead often went out drinking and socializing with co @-@ star Meredith , with the result that only specific scenes or fragments of the play were ever rehearsed . The Baltimore performance was eventually dropped and at the first dress rehearsal in Boston , it was discovered that the play was over five and a half hours long and contained 46 scenes . Welles cut 14 scenes and shortened others , which caused the built @-@ in timer for the revolving set to move out of synchronization . Five Kings , Part 1 premiered at the Colonial Theatre in Boston on February 27 , 1939 , and was a disaster . Critics were either scathing or apologetic , and only the play 's battle scenes received praise . By the end of the Boston run , the Theatre Guild was on the verge of dropping the production , and canceled the D.C. engagement . Welles then edited the show to three and a half hours . The play closed after only a few performances in Philadelphia , and the Theatre Guild terminated its contract with the Mercury Theater . Photographs of the play 's rehearsals show similarities to Chimes at Midnight , including the Boar 's Head Tavern set and the character blocking of the " chimes at midnight " scene with Falstaff , Shallow and Silence .
= = = Chimes at Midnight ( 1960 ) = = =
Welles returned to the project in 1960 , with performances in Belfast and Dublin . This version , now retitled Chimes at Midnight , was produced by Welles 's old friend Hilton Edwards through his Dublin @-@ based company Gate Theatre . The cast included Welles as Falstaff , Keith Baxter as Prince Hal , Hilton Edwards as the Narrator , Reginald Jarman as Henry IV and Alexis Kanner as Hotspur . At one point , Welles and Edwards wanted Micheál Mac Liammóir to replace Jarman as Henry IV , but Mac Liammóir would only accept the role of Prince Hal . Hilton Edwards was officially credited as director , but Welles is usually acknowledged as the actual director and was often the director throughout rehearsals . Welles 's alleged biological son Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg also worked on the play as an actor and as Edwards 's personal assistant . Welles 's opinion of Falstaff had intensified since first playing the part , and his new version of the play focused more upon the relationship between Falstaff and Prince Hal than on the historical story of Hal 's defeat of Hotspur . Most of the scenes from Henry V used in the first version before were removed . Welles intended to perform the play in Belfast , Dublin and London before filming it in Yugoslavia .
Rehearsals began in Russell Square , London , with a read through . After a week of rehearsing , Welles left to secure further funding and Edwards directed the play , working on blocking and lighting . Welles returned two days before the premiere and the cast had their first dress rehearsal , which lasted until 3 a.m. After premiering at the Grand Opera House in Belfast on February 13 , 1960 , and receiving a good review from a Variety correspondent , the play closed after five performances because of low attendances . It moved to the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin , where it fared no better . By the end of the second week , Welles had resorted to reading portions of the works of Irish author J. M. Synge , and from Riders to the Sea , to attract an audience . Eventually the play simply became a version of An Evening with Orson Welles , which would often include a question and answer section with the audience and Welles 's solo performance of Moby Dick — Rehearsed or the works of Isak Dinesen .
Welles continued to adjust the play throughout its short production , and at one point moved Mistress Quickly 's speech about Falstaff 's death to the very beginning of the play . Welles finally abandoned the entire project in late March 1960 , when his friend Laurence Olivier offered him the chance to direct him in Eugène Ionesco 's play Rhinoceros on London 's West End . According to Keith Baxter , Welles ended the play 's run because he was bored with it , and at one point told Baxter " This is only a rehearsal for the movie , Keith , and I 'll never make it unless you play Hal in that too . " Five years later , Baxter was the only cast member from the play to appear in the film . Chimes at Midnight was Welles 's final performance in a theatrical play .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In 1964 , Welles met and befriended Spanish film producer Emiliano Piedra , who wanted to work with him . Piedra did not think a Shakespearian film was marketable enough and proposed that Welles make a version of Treasure Island instead . Welles agreed to this on condition that he could simultaneously make Chimes at Midnight , and Piedra agreed not knowing that Welles had no intention of making Treasure Island . Although some B @-@ roll footage of the Alicante departing from port was shot early in the production , no scenes from Treasure Island were ever shot or even scripted . Welles got away with this trick throughout pre @-@ production by building sets that could be used in both films , such as Mistress Quickley 's Boar 's Head Tavern , which would double as the Admiral Benbow Inn . Welles also cast each actor in both films , casting himself as Long John Silver , Baxter as Dr. Livesey , Beckley as Israel Hands and Gielgud as Squire Trelawney . Ironically Welles would eventually play Long John Silver in the unrelated 1972 film version of Treasure Island .
Welles said that the Boar 's Head Tavern was the only full set built for the film , and the other sets were simply dressed or decorated on location . Welles stated that he designed , painted and blow @-@ torched the set , and designed all of the film 's costumes . Early in pre @-@ production Welles was approached by Anthony Perkins to play Prince Hal , but Welles had already promised the role to Keith Baxter . Hilton Edwards was initially cast as Justice Silence , but was replaced after he became ill . The title Chimes at Midnight derives from Henry IV , Part 2 , where in response to Justice Shallow 's reminiscing of their long @-@ past school days , Falstaff states : " We have heard the chimes at midnight , Master Shallow " . Welles scholar Bridget Gellert Lyons said that the film 's title , " which is given further resonance by the repeated intoning of bells throughout the film , is associated for the audience with sadness and mortality more than youthful carousal . "
= = = Filming = = =
The film was shot in Spain from September 1964 until April 1965 , with a break in filming from late December until late February . Welles 's limitations on the film included a budget of $ 800 @,@ 000 and actors Jeanne Moreau and John Gielgud being available for five and ten days respectively , while Margaret Rutherford was only available for four weeks . Welles later joked that during one scene which included seven principal characters , none of the actors were available and stand @-@ ins were used for over @-@ the @-@ shoulder shots of all seven characters . Filming began in Colmenar and included all of John Gielgud 's scenes . Welles then traveled to Cardona , where the Royal Court scenes and Marina Vlady 's scenes were shot , and to Madrid 's Casa de Campo Park , where the Gadshill robbery scene was filmed . Madrid was also the location of the Boar 's Head Tavern set , where Welles shot Moreau 's and Rutherford 's scenes . The production then traveled to Pedraza for some outdoor street scenes , and then to Soria to shoot in the snow for the opening shots . After shooting some scenes with Justice Shallow and Justice Silence in the Basque country , Welles returned to Madrid in December to film the battle scenes in Casa de Campo Park for ten days .
By late December Welles had run out of money and the film was put on hold while he searched for additional funding . However , some small scenes were shot during the break . Welles later said that he had rejected offers for funding that were conditional upon filming in color . Welles eventually secured funding from Harry Saltzman and production officially resumed in late February with most of Keith Baxter 's longer speeches and the Coronation scene in Madrid . Between March and April , Welles finished the film with filler shots , close @-@ ups , the final rejection scene and most of Falstaff 's speeches . According to Keith Baxter , Welles had stage fright and delayed all of his scenes until the very end of filming , except for scenes that included other actors . Welles was timid about shooting his love scene with Moreau , and used a double whenever possible . Other filming locations included the Chateau Calatañazor , Puerta de San Vincente and the Soria Cathedral . Welles was harsh with his crew members and according to actor Andrew Faulds , " he spoke in five different languages to them and was pretty offensive — very demanding . I suppose he 'd worked out that if you bullied actors , you didn 't get the best from them whereas , to hell with the technicians . They had to do as they were told , and pretty quick . " A scene depicting the assassination of King Richard II , originally intended to open the film , was cut .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Keith Baxter said that the film 's soundtrack was post @-@ dubbed months after filming was completed , and that actors Fernando Rey and Marina Vlady were dubbed by different actors because of their heavy accents . Baxter also stated that he , Welles and Michael Aldridge recorded voices for several characters in post @-@ production . Mistress Quickly 's speech after Falstaff 's death , which was disrupted by the audible hum of a power generator , used the original version of the soundtrack because Welles liked Margaret Rutherford 's performance enough to keep it . The score was composed by Angelo Francesco Lavagnino , who had worked with Welles on Othello . The score was recorded in an Italian studio , which paid Lavagnino for his work on the film in exchange for the rights to the music , and later released a soundtrack album in Italy and the UK . During the editing , Welles showed a rough cut to the visiting head of the Cannes Film Festival , who immediately wanted to include the film in the festival , and Welles had to finish the editing more quickly than he preferred .
= = Style = =
= = = Cinematography = = =
Welles had originally wanted the entire film to use high contrast cinematography , resembling engravings of the Middle Ages ; only the opening title sequence uses this technique . The film 's most famous sequence is the Battle of Shrewsbury ; only about 180 extras were available and Welles used editing techniques to give the appearance of armies of thousands . Welles filmed all of the battle scenes in long takes , but cut the shots into fragments to create the effect that he wanted . It took ten days to shoot the scenes and six weeks to edit what became a six @-@ minute sequence . In filming the sequence , Welles often used hand @-@ held cameras , wide @-@ angle lenses , slow motion and speed up shots , static shots , swish pans and constant rapid movement of the characters to create a kinetic and chaotic atmosphere . Anderegg has said that " in the end , both armies have become one huge , awkward , disintegrating war machine , a grotesque robot whose power source slowly begins to fail and finally comes to a frozen halt . Verbal rhetoric — language itself — seems , for the moment , both irrelevant and obscene . "
The Battle of Shrewsbury sequence has often been called an anti @-@ war statement by film critics and likened to contemporary films like Dr. Strangelove and Culloden . Shakespearean scholar Daniel Seltzer said that " the social consciousness of the movie is as alert as Shakespeare 's , and thematically pertinent in Shakespearean terms too ... the footage of the Battle of Shrewsbury itself must be some of the finest , truest , ugliest scenes of warfare ever shot and edited for a movie . " Welles scholar James Naremore said that " the underlying eroticism of the chivalric code ... is exposed in all its cruel perversity . " Tony Howard wrote that Welles used Shakespeare 's historical plays " to denounce modern political hypocrisy and militarism . "
= = = Sound = = =
Due to budgetary constraints , both the on @-@ set and post @-@ production sound was poorly recorded . Anderegg wrote that this , in combination with Welles ' fast @-@ paced camera movements and editing , makes the Shakespearean dialogue more difficult to understand . Many scenes are shot in long shots or with character 's backs facing the camera , most likely for practical purposes when actors were not present , creating more sound problems . " In effect , " Anderegg writes , " Welles generates a constant tension between what we see and what we hear , a tension that points to the ambiguous status of language in its relation to action . " During the Battle of Shrewsbury sequence Welles used a complex and layered soundtrack that included the sounds of swords and armor clanking , soldiers grunting and screaming , bones breaking , boots in the mud and the film 's musical score to add to the chaos of the scene .
= = = Interpretation of Shakespeare = = =
Welles 's adaptation of five Shakespeare plays was not a chronological transcription of the original texts . Shakespearean scholar Kenneth S. Rothwell said that Welles " goes beyond mere tinkering with Shakespeare 's scenes ; [ he ] massively reworks , transposes , revises and deletes , indeed reconstructs them . " These changes included taking lines of dialogue from one play and inserting them into scenes from another . Specific changes include a scene near the end of the film in which Hal pardons an imprisoned street rabble @-@ rouser just before his expedition to invade France ; Welles slightly altered this scene from Henry V , Act 2 , Scene 2 . In the film it is stated that this man is Falstaff , and that the incident he is pardoning is Falstaff 's disturbance of Hal 's coronation . Although both the pardoned prisoner and Falstaff are said to drink wine , Shakespeare does not imply that the pardoned prisoner is Falstaff . In both Chimes at Midnight and in Henry V , this scene is followed by Falstaff 's death . The film contains no true soliloquies , since characters are never alone and do not speak directly to the audience during their speeches . Henry IV is usually shown standing or sitting with very little action involved — this , says Anderegg , makes it appear that he speaks only to himself even when others are present . Gielgud was known for his classical interpretation of Shakespeare , and his performance consists almost entirely of words , which are unable to defeat either Northumberland 's rebels or Hal 's wild behavior . Throughout the film , Falstaff , Hal and Hotspur imitate Gielgud , mocking the words of Henry IV .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Chimes at Midnight premiered to a positive audience reception at the 1966 Cannes Film Festival . However , after New York Times critic Bosley Crowther 's unfavorable advance review , American distributor Harry Saltzman decided to give the film little publicity and minimal distribution when it was released in the U.S. the next year . Critical reception on its first release was mostly negative ; the film was not regarded as one of Welles 's best until years later . Crowther criticized the film 's poor audio track and called it " a confusing patchwork of scenes and characters ... designed to give major exposure to Jack Falstaff . " Welles 's performance , he said , was " a dissolute , bumbling street @-@ corner Santa Claus . " Penelope Houston called it " a film which seems to turn its back on brilliance . " A Time review also criticized Welles , stating that " [ he ] is probably the first actor in the history of the theater to appear too fat for the role ... he takes command of scenes less with spoken English than with body English " , but that he is " never entirely bad . "
Judith Crist praised the film as " stark , simple , concentrating on word and performance , serv [ ing ] as a reminder of where the substance of the play lies . " Pauline Kael also criticized the poor sound , but gave a favorable review overall , singling out the film 's casting and calling Welles 's performance " very rich , very full . " She said the Battle of Shrewsbury sequence was " unlike any battle scene done on the screen before . " Cahiers du Cinema critic Serge Daney also praised both the film and Welles 's ability to make great films on the subject of power . Roger Ebert praised the film as " a magnificent film , clearly among Welles ' greatest work . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Welles held Chimes at Midnight in high regard . " It 's my favorite picture , yes , " he told interviewer Leslie Megahey in a 1982 interview for BBC Arena :
If I wanted to get into heaven on the basis of one movie , that 's the one I would offer up . I think it 's because it is to me the least flawed ; let me put it that way . It is the most successful for what I tried to do . I succeeded more completely in my view with that than with anything else .
He also considered it to be his most personal film , along with The Magnificent Ambersons . Many critics , including Peter Bogdanovich and Jonathan Rosenbaum , also consider Chimes at Midnight to be Welles 's finest work . Several years after its initial release , film critic Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that Chimes at Midnight " may be the greatest Shakespearean film ever made , bar none . " Joseph McBride has called it " Welles 's masterpiece , the fullest , most completely realized expression of everything he had been working towards since Citizen Kane . " Welles was disappointed with the film 's reception , complaining that " almost nobody has seen it in America , and that drives me nuts . "
The Battle of Shrewsbury sequence has been particularly admired , and inspired later movies , including Braveheart and Saving Private Ryan . Film critics have compared it to the Odessa Steps sequence in Battleship Potemkin and the Battle on the Ice sequence in Alexander Nevsky , both directed by Sergei Eisenstein . Kenneth Branagh 's Henry V used Welles 's Battle of Shrewsbury sequence as an inspiration for the Battle of Agincourt , and depicted Prince Hal 's rejection of Falstaff in a way that was more influenced by Chimes at Midnight than from more traditional interpretations of the scene . In 1988 , director Patrick Garland staged a version of Chimes at Midnight starring Simon Callow as Falstaff at the Chichester Festival Theatre . Michael Anderegg said that Chimes at Midnight 's use of wide angle lenses , low @-@ key lighting and costumes , and its focus on the relationship between Falstaff and Prince Hal influenced My Own Private Idaho — Gus Van Sant 's 1991 loose adaptation of Henry IV Parts 1 and 2 .
In 2011 , Bonham 's Auction House sold a large archive of Welles 's material that had once belonged to the film 's executive producer Alessandro Tasca di Cuto . Most of the material was from Chimes at Midnight , and included Welles 's original artwork , photographs and memos . This collection was later donated to the University of Michigan for scholarly study .
In 2012 , for the British Film Institute 's Sight and Sound poll , 11 film critics and two directors voted Chimes at Midnight one of the 10 greatest films of all time , including McBride and Todd McCarthy .
Spanish writer and director of the Film Library of Catalonia Esteve Riambau published a book about the film called The Things We 've Seen : Welles and Falstaff in 2015 .
= = = Awards = = =
At the 1966 Cannes Film Festival , Chimes at Midnight was screened in competition for the Palme d 'Or and won the 20th Anniversary Prize and the Technical Grand Prize . Welles was nominated for a BAFTA award for Best Foreign Actor in 1968 In Spain , the film won the Citizens Writers Circle Award for Best Film in 1966 .
= = = Home media = = =
Because of legal disputes over the rights , Chimes at Midnight has only been released twice on VHS video in the United States , neither of which is currently available . Harry Saltzman 's widow Adriana Saltzman , the families of producers Emiliano Piedra and Angel Escolano and the estate of Orson Welles — maintained by Beatrice Welles — among others have all claimed ownership of the film . For many years the only available source was a region @-@ free DVD from Brazil . Mr Bongo Records screened a restored version in the UK at Picturehouse Cinemas on August 1 , 2011 . In February 2015 , the film was screened at the Sedona International Film Festival . Beatrice Welles attended and announced that " a major DVD / Blu @-@ ray label is interested in restoring and releasing Chimes at Midnight . " The pristine 35mm print was discovered by Distribpix Inc . , who said it was " in such great condition that it is begging for a full 4k scan restoration . "
The film had a European release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on June 29 , 2015 .
= = = 2016 Restoration = = =
Janus Films released a restored version of the film on DCP that premiered on January 1 , 2016 , at Film Forum in New York City and Cinefamily in Los Angeles . This restored version is not derived from the Distribpix print .
A new restoration by Janus Films and The Criterion Collection screened at the Film Forum in New York January 1 – 12 , 2016 . Peter Becker , Criterion 's president , said that the release is the product of more than 20 years of effort : " There is no film we have waited longer for or worked harder to free up , and none we are prouder to present " , he said . Criterion will release this restoration on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in August 2016 .
= = Welles and Falstaff = =
= = = Welles 's views on Sir John Falstaff = = =
Welles considered Falstaff to be " Shakespeare 's greatest creation " and said that the role was " the most difficult part I 've ever played . " Keith Baxter believed that making the film was Welles 's life 's ambition . Before the 1939 Boston premiere of Five Kings , Welles told journalists " I will play him as a tragic figure . I hope , of course , he will be funny to the audience , just as he was funny to those around him . But his humor and wit were aroused merely by the fact that he wanted to please the prince . Falstaff , however , had the potential of greatness in him . " Reviews for the 1939 play mention Welles ' choice to downplay the traditional comedic elements of Falstaff in his performance . This reverence for the character increased over the years and by the time Welles made Chimes at Midnight , his focus was entirely on the relationships between Falstaff , Hal and Henry IV . He believed that the core of the story was " the betrayal of friendship . " Welles called Hal 's rejection of Falstaff " one of the greatest scenes ever written , so the movie is really a preparation for it . Everything prepares for it . " Throughout the film , Hal constantly turns his back on Falstaff , foreshadowing the film 's ending .
Welles said , " the film was not intended as a lament for Falstaff , but for the death of Merrie England . Merrie England as a conception , a myth which has been very real to the English @-@ speaking world , and is to some extent expressed in other countries of the Medieval epoch : the age of chivalry , of simplicity , of Maytime and all that . It is more than Falstaff who is dying . It 's the old England dying and betrayed . " Many film theorists and Welles biographers have written about the recurrent theme of the " Lost Eden " in Welles 's work and of characters who are nostalgic for an idealized past , which Welles called " the central theme in Western culture . " Welles told Peter Bogdanovich that " even if the good old days never existed , the fact that we can conceive of such a world is , in fact , an affirmation of the human spirit . " Film scholar Beverle Houston argued that this nostalgia made Welles 's depiction of Falstaff infantile and called his performance a " [ p ] ower baby ... an eating , sucking , foetus @-@ like creature . " Welles also called Falstaff " the greatest conception of a good man , the most completely good man , in all of drama " , and said that " the closer I thought I was getting to Falstaff the less funny he seemed to me . When I played him before in the theater , he seemed more witty than comical . And in bringing him to the screen , I found him only occasionally , and only deliberately , a clown . "
= = = Welles 's personal connections to Sir John Falstaff = = =
Keith Baxter compared Welles to Falstaff , since they were both perpetually short of money , often lied and cheated people to get what they needed and were always merry and fun loving . Film scholar Jack Jorgens also compared Welles to Falstaff , stating that " to a man who directed and starred in a masterpiece and has since staggered through three decades of underfinanced , hurried , flawed films , scores of bit parts , narrations , and interviews which debased his talent , dozens of projects which died for want of persistence and financing , the story of a fat , aging jester exiled from his audience and no longer able to triumph over impossible obstacles with wit and torrential imagination might well seem tragic . " When Joss Ackland played Falstaff on the stage in 1982 , he said that he was more inspired by Welles than by Welles 's performance as Falstaff , stating that " like Falstaff , I believe he could have achieved so much , but it was frittered away . " Kenneth S. Rothwell has called Hal 's rejection of Falstaff allegorical to Hollywood 's rejection of Welles . Welles had become deeply depressed in the late 1950s after the disappointment of making Touch of Evil , his intended Hollywood comeback .
Welles 's biographer Simon Callow has compared Falstaff to Welles 's father Richard Head Welles , stating that like Falstaff , Welles 's father was " a drunkard , a trickster , a braggart , a womanizer , a gentleman and a charmer — and he is rejected by the person he loves the most . " Welles 's father was an alcoholic and womanizer who would often take a teenage Welles along with him when he was indulging in his vices . Welles observed his father much like Falstaff is observed by Hal and depends on his young protégé to bail him out of trouble . The love triangle between Prince Hal and his two father figures , Henry IV and Falstaff , is also similar to Welles 's relationships with his father and the two men who became surrogate fathers to him : family friend Dr. Maurice Bernstein and Todd School for Boys headmaster Roger Hill . Both of Welles 's surrogate fathers disapproved of Richard Welles 's lifestyle and negative influence on Welles . When he was fifteen Welles took the advice of Roger Hill and told his father that he would not see him again until he cleaned up his act and stopped drinking . Welles 's father died shortly afterwards , alone and lonely , and Welles always blamed himself for his father 's death , stating " I always thought I killed him . "
Welles 's alleged biological son Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg , who was born out of wedlock to Welles and actress Geraldine Fitzgerald , first met Welles when he was 15 and later worked on the 1960 stage play Chimes at Midnight . This was the only significant amount of time that the two spent together and afterwards Lindsay @-@ Hogg only saw Welles sporadically . Like Welles , Lindsay @-@ Hogg had two surrogate fathers in addition to his biological father . In the late 1950s when she was 16 , Welles 's eldest daughter Christopher Welles Feder cut off all ties with Welles under pressure from her mother , who disapproved of Welles 's influence on her . Welles and Feder later reconnected but their relationship never fully recovered . Welles 's youngest daughter Beatrice , who resembles her father as a young boy , appears in the film version of Chimes at Midnight .
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= Python ( programming language ) =
Python is a widely used high @-@ level , general @-@ purpose , interpreted , dynamic programming language . Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability , and its syntax allows programmers to express concepts in fewer lines of code than possible in languages such as C + + or Java . The language provides constructs intended to enable clear programs on both a small and large scale .
Python supports multiple programming paradigms , including object @-@ oriented , imperative and functional programming or procedural styles . It features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management and has a large and comprehensive standard library .
Python interpreters are available for many operating systems , allowing Python code to run on a wide variety of systems . Using third @-@ party tools , such as Py2exe or Pyinstaller , Python code can be packaged into stand @-@ alone executable programs for some of the most popular operating systems , so Python @-@ based software can be distributed to , and used on , those environments with no need to install a Python interpreter .
CPython , the reference implementation of Python , is free and open @-@ source software and has a community @-@ based development model , as do nearly all of its variant implementations . CPython is managed by the non @-@ profit Python Software Foundation .
= = History = =
Python was conceived in the late 1980s , and its implementation began in December 1989 by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica ( CWI ) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC language ( itself inspired by SETL ) capable of exception handling and interfacing with the operating system Amoeba . Van Rossum is Python 's principal author , and his continuing central role in deciding the direction of Python is reflected in the title given to him by the Python community , benevolent dictator for life ( BDFL ) .
About the origin of Python , Van Rossum wrote in 1996 :
Over six years ago , in December 1989 , I was looking for a " hobby " programming project that would keep me occupied during the week around Christmas . My office ... would be closed , but I had a home computer , and not much else on my hands . I decided to write an interpreter for the new scripting language I had been thinking about lately : a descendant of ABC that would appeal to Unix / C hackers . I chose Python as a working title for the project , being in a slightly irreverent mood ( and a big fan of Monty Python 's Flying Circus ) .
Python 2 @.@ 0 was released on 16 October 2000 and had many major new features , including a cycle @-@ detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode . With this release the development process was changed and became more transparent and community @-@ backed .
Python 3 @.@ 0 ( which early in its development was commonly referred to as Python 3000 or py3k ) , a major , backwards @-@ incompatible release , was released on 3 December 2008 after a long period of testing . Many of its major features have been backported to the backwards @-@ compatible Python 2.6.x and 2.7.x version series .
= = Features and philosophy = =
Python is a multi @-@ paradigm programming language : object @-@ oriented programming and structured programming are fully supported , and many language features support functional programming and aspect @-@ oriented programming ( including by metaprogramming and metaobjects ( magic methods ) ) . Many other paradigms are supported via extensions , including design by contract and logic programming .
Python uses dynamic typing and a mix of reference counting and a cycle @-@ detecting garbage collector for memory management . An important feature of Python is dynamic name resolution ( late binding ) , which binds method and variable names during program execution .
The design of Python offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition . The language has map ( ) , reduce ( ) and filter ( ) functions ; list comprehensions , dictionaries , and sets ; and generator expressions . The standard library has two modules ( itertools and functools ) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML .
The core philosophy of the language is summarized by the document The Zen of Python ( PEP 20 ) , which includes aphorisms such as :
Beautiful is better than ugly
Explicit is better than implicit
Simple is better than complex
Complex is better than complicated
Readability counts
Rather than requiring all desired functionality to be built into the language 's core , Python was designed to be highly extensible . Python can also be embedded in existing applications that need a programmable interface . This design of a small core language with a large standard library and an easily extensible interpreter was intended by Van Rossum from the start because of his frustrations with ABC , which espoused the opposite mindset .
While offering choice in coding methodology , the Python philosophy rejects exuberant syntax , such as in Perl , in favor of a sparser , less @-@ cluttered grammar . As Alex Martelli put it : " To describe something as clever is not considered a compliment in the Python culture . " Python 's philosophy rejects the Perl " there is more than one way to do it " approach to language design in favor of " there should be one — and preferably only one — obvious way to do it " .
Python 's developers strive to avoid premature optimization , and moreover , reject patches to non @-@ critical parts of CPython that would offer a marginal increase in speed at the cost of clarity . When speed is important , a Python programmer can move time @-@ critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C , or try using PyPy , a just @-@ in @-@ time compiler . Cython is also available , which translates a Python script into C and makes direct C @-@ level API calls into the Python interpreter .
An important goal of Python 's developers is making it fun to use . This is reflected in the origin of the name , which comes from Monty Python , and in an occasionally playful approach to tutorials and reference materials , such as using examples that refer to spam and eggs instead of the standard foo and bar .
A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic , which can have a wide range of meanings related to program style . To say that code is pythonic is to say that it uses Python idioms well , that it is natural or shows fluency in the language , that it conforms with Python 's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability . In contrast , code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from another programming language is called unpythonic .
Users and admirers of Python , especially those considered knowledgeable or experienced , are often referred to as Pythonists , Pythonistas , and Pythoneers .
= = Syntax and semantics = =
Python is intended to be a highly readable language . It is designed to have an uncluttered visual layout , often using English keywords where other languages use punctuation . Further , Python has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal .
= = = Indentation = = =
Python uses whitespace indentation , rather than curly braces or keywords , to delimit blocks ; this feature is also termed the off @-@ side rule . An increase in indentation comes after certain statements ; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block .
= = = Statements and control flow = = =
Python 's statements include ( among others ) :
The assignment statement ( token ' = ' , the equals sign ) . This operates differently than in traditional imperative programming languages , and this fundamental mechanism ( including the nature of Python 's version of variables ) illuminates many other features of the language . Assignment in C , e.g. , x |
= 2 , translates to " typed variable name x receives a copy of numeric value 2 " . The ( right @-@ hand ) value is copied into an allocated storage location for which the ( left @-@ hand ) variable name is the symbolic address . The memory allocated to the variable is large enough ( potentially quite large ) for the declared type . In the simplest case of Python assignment , using the same example , x =
2 , translates to " ( generic ) name x receives a reference to a separate , dynamically allocated object of numeric ( int ) type of value 2 . " This is termed binding the name to the object . Since the name 's storage location doesn 't contain the indicated value , it is improper to call it a variable . Names may be subsequently rebound at any time to objects of greatly varying types , including strings , procedures , complex objects with data and methods , etc . Successive assignments of a common value to multiple names , e.g. , x |
= 2 ; y =
2 ; z = 2 result in allocating storage to ( at most ) three names and one numeric object , to which all three names are bound . Since a name is a generic reference holder it is unreasonable to associate a fixed data type with it . However at a given time a name will be bound to some object , which will have a type ; thus there is dynamic typing .
The if statement , which conditionally executes a block of code , along with else and elif ( a contraction of else @-@ if ) .
The for statement , which iterates over an iterable object , capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block .
The while statement , which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true .
The try statement , which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses ; it also ensures that clean @-@ up code in a finally block will always be run regardless of how the block exits .
The class statement , which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class , for use in object @-@ oriented programming .
The def statement , which defines a function or method .
The with statement ( from Python 2 @.@ 5 ) , which encloses a code block within a context manager ( for example , acquiring a lock before the block of code is run and releasing the lock afterwards , or opening a file and then closing it ) , allowing Resource Acquisition Is Initialization ( RAII ) -like behavior .
The pass statement , which serves as a NOP . It is syntactically needed to create an empty code block .
The assert statement , used during debugging to check for conditions that ought to apply .
The yield statement , which returns a value from a generator function . From Python 2 @.@ 5 , yield is also an operator . This form is used to implement coroutines .
The import statement , which is used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program .
The print statement was changed to the print ( ) function in Python 3 .
Python does not support tail call optimization or first @-@ class continuations , and , according to Guido van Rossum , it never will . However , better support for coroutine @-@ like functionality is provided in 2 @.@ 5 , by extending Python 's generators . Before 2 @.@ 5 , generators were lazy iterators ; information was passed unidirectionally out of the generator . As of Python 2 @.@ 5 , it is possible to pass information back into a generator function , and as of Python 3 @.@ 3 , the information can be passed through multiple stack levels .
= = = Expressions = = =
Some Python expressions are similar to languages such as C and Java , while some are not :
Addition , subtraction , and multiplication are the same , but the behavior of division differs ( see Mathematics for details ) . Python also added the * * operator for exponentiation .
As of Python 3 @.@ 5 , it supports matrix multiplication directly with the @ operator , versus C and Java , which implement these as library functions . Earlier versions of Python also used methods instead of an infix operator .
In Python , = = compares by value , versus Java , which compares numerics by value and objects by reference . ( Value comparisons in Java on objects can be performed with the equals ( ) method . ) Python 's is operator may be used to compare object identities ( comparison by reference ) . In Python , comparisons may be chained , for example a < = b <
= c .
Python uses the words and , or , not for its boolean operators rather than the symbolic & & , | | , ! used in Java and C.
Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension . Python 2 @.@ 4 extended list comprehensions into a more general expression termed a generator expression .
Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions ; however , these are limited in that the body can only be one expression .
Conditional expressions in Python are written as x if c else y ( different in order of operands from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages ) .
Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples . Lists are written as [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] , are mutable , and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries ( dictionary keys must be immutable in Python ) . Tuples are written as ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) , are immutable and thus can be used as the keys of dictionaries , provided all elements of the tuple are immutable . The parentheses around the tuple are optional in some contexts . Tuples can appear on the left side of an equal sign ; hence a statement like x , y =
y , x can be used to swap two variables .
Python has a " string format " operator % . This functions analogous to printf format strings in C , e.g. " spam = % s eggs = % d " % ( " blah " , 2 ) evaluates to " spam = blah eggs = 2 " . In Python 3 and 2 @.@ 6 + , this was supplemented by the format ( ) method of the str class , e.g. " spam = { 0 } eggs = { 1 } " .format ( " blah " , 2 ) .
Python has various kinds of string literals :
Strings delimited by single or double quote marks . Unlike in Unix shells , Perl and Perl @-@ influenced languages , single quote marks and double quote marks function identically . Both kinds of string use the backslash ( \ ) as an escape character and there is no implicit string interpolation such as " $ spam " .
Triple @-@ quoted strings , which begin and end with a series of three single or double quote marks . They may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells , Perl and Ruby .
Raw string varieties , denoted by prefixing the string literal with an r . No escape sequences are interpreted ; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common , such as regular expressions and Windows @-@ style paths . Compare " @ -quoting " in C # .
Python has array index and array slicing expressions on lists , denoted as a [ key ] , a [ start : stop ] or a [ start : stop : step ] . Indexes are zero @-@ based , and negative indexes are relative to the end . Slices take elements from the start index up to , but not including , the stop index . The third slice parameter , called step or stride , allows elements to be skipped and reversed . Slice indexes may be omitted , for example a [ : ] returns a copy of the entire list . Each element of a slice is a shallow copy .
In Python , a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced , in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp , Scheme , or Ruby . This leads to duplicating some functionality . For example :
List comprehensions vs. for @-@ loops
Conditional expressions vs. if blocks
The eval ( ) vs. exec ( ) built @-@ in functions ( in Python 2 , exec is a statement ) ; the former is for expressions , the latter is for statements .
Statements cannot be a part of an expression , so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions , all being expressions , cannot contain statements . A particular case of this is that an assignment statement such as a |
= 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement . This has the advantage of avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an assignment operator =
for an equality operator
= = in conditions : if ( c =
1 ) { ... } is valid C code but if c = 1 : ... causes a syntax error in Python .
= = = Methods = = =
Methods on objects are functions attached to the object 's class ; the syntax instance.method ( argument ) is , for normal methods and functions , syntactic sugar for Class.method ( instance , argument ) . Python methods have an explicit self parameter to access instance data , in contrast to the implicit self ( or this ) in some other object @-@ oriented programming languages ( e.g. , C + + , Java , Objective @-@ C , or Ruby ) .
= = = Typing = = =
Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names . Type constraints are not checked at compile time ; rather , operations on an object may fail , signifying that the given object is not of a suitable type . Despite being dynamically typed , Python is strongly typed , forbidding operations that are not well @-@ defined ( for example , adding a number to a string ) rather than silently attempting to make sense of them .
Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes , which are most often used for object @-@ oriented programming . New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class ( for example , SpamClass ( ) or EggsClass ( ) ) , and the classes are instances of the metaclass type ( itself an instance of itself ) , allowing metaprogramming and reflection .
Before version 3 @.@ 0 , Python had two kinds of classes : old @-@ style and new @-@ style . Old @-@ style classes were eliminated in Python 3 @.@ 0 , making all classes new @-@ style . In versions between 2 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 0 , both kinds of classes could be used . The syntax of both styles is the same , the difference being whether the class object is inherited from , directly or indirectly ( all new @-@ style classes inherit from object and are instances of type ) .
= = = Mathematics = = =
Python has the usual C arithmetic operators ( + , - , * , / , % ) . It also has * * for exponentiation , e.g. 5 * * 3
= = 125 and 9 * * 0 @.@ 5 = =
3 @.@ 0 , and a new matrix multiply @ operator is included in version 3 @.@ 5 .
The behavior of division has changed significantly over time :
Python 2 @.@ 1 and earlier use the C division behavior . The / operator is integer division if both operands are integers , and floating @-@ point division otherwise . Integer division rounds towards 0 , e.g. 7 / 3
= = 2 and -7 / 3 = =
-2 .
Python 2 @.@ 2 changes integer division to round towards negative infinity , e.g. 7 / 3
= = 2 and -7 / 3 = =
-3 . The floor division / / operator is introduced . So 7 / / 3
= = 2 , -7 / / 3 = =
-3 , 7 @.@ 5 / / 3
= = 2 @.@ 0 and -7.5 / / 3 = =
-3.0 . Adding from _ _ future _ _ import division causes a module to use Python 3 @.@ 0 rules for division ( see next ) .
Python 3 @.@ 0 changes / to be always floating @-@ point division . In Python terms , the pre @-@ 3 @.@ 0 / is classic division , the version @-@ 3 @.@ 0 / is real division , and / / is floor division .
Rounding towards negative infinity , though different from most languages , adds consistency . For instance , it means that the equation ( a + b ) / / b
= = a / / b + 1 is always true . It also means that the equation b * ( a / / b ) + a % b = =
a is valid for both positive and negative values of a . However , maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of a % b is , as expected , in the half @-@ open interval [ 0 , b ) , where b is a positive integer , it has to lie in the interval ( b , 0 ] when b is negative .
Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer . For tie @-@ breaking , versions before 3 use round @-@ away @-@ from @-@ zero : round ( 0 @.@ 5 ) is 1 @.@ 0 , round ( -0.5 ) is − 1 @.@ 0 . Python 3 uses round to even : round ( 1 @.@ 5 ) is 2 , round ( 2 @.@ 5 ) is 2 .
Python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general use in mathematics . For example , the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c . C @-@ derived languages interpret this expression differently : in C , the expression would first evaluate a < b , resulting in 0 or 1 , and that result would then be compared with c .
Python has extensive built @-@ in support for arbitrary precision arithmetic . Integers are transparently switched from the machine @-@ supported maximum fixed @-@ precision ( usually 32 or 64 bits ) , belonging to the python type int , to arbitrary precision , belonging to the python type long , where needed . The latter have an " L " suffix in their textual representation . The Decimal type / class in module decimal ( since version 2 @.@ 4 ) provides decimal floating point numbers to arbitrary precision and several rounding modes . The Fraction type in module fractions ( since version 2 @.@ 6 ) provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers .
Due to Python 's extensive mathematics library , it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation .
= = Libraries = =
Python has a large standard library , commonly cited as one of Python 's greatest strengths , providing tools suited to many tasks . This is deliberate and has been described as a " batteries included " Python philosophy . For Internet @-@ facing applications , many standard formats and protocols ( such as MIME and HTTP ) are supported . Modules for creating graphical user interfaces , connecting to relational databases , pseudorandom number generators , arithmetic with arbitrary precision decimals , manipulating regular expressions , and doing unit testing are also included .
Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications ( for example , the Web Server Gateway Interface ( WSGI ) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333 ) , but most modules are not . They are specified by their code , internal documentation , and test suite ( if supplied ) . However , because most of the standard library is cross @-@ platform Python code , only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations .
The standard library is not needed to run Python or embed it in an application . For example , Blender 2 @.@ 49 omits most of the standard library .
As of January 2016 , the Python Package Index , the official repository of third @-@ party software for Python , contains more than 72 @,@ 000 packages offering a wide range of functionality , including :
graphical user interfaces , web frameworks , multimedia , databases , networking and communications
test frameworks , automation and web scraping , documentation tools , system administration
scientific computing , text processing , image processing
= = Development environments = =
Most Python implementations ( including CPython ) can function as a command line interpreter , for which the user enters statements sequentially and receives the results immediately ( read – eval – print loop ( REPL ) ) . In short , Python acts as a command @-@ line interface or shell .
Other shells add abilities beyond those in the basic interpreter , including IDLE and IPython . While generally following the visual style of the Python shell , they implement features like auto @-@ completion , session state retention , and syntax highlighting .
In addition to standard desktop integrated development environments ( Python IDEs ) , there are also web browser @-@ based IDEs , Sage ( intended for developing science and math @-@ related Python programs ) , and a browser @-@ based IDE and hosting environment , PythonAnywhere .
= = Implementations = =
The main Python implementation , named CPython , is written in C meeting the C89 standard . It compiles Python programs into intermediate bytecode , which is executed by the virtual machine . CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and Python . It is available in versions for many platforms , including Windows and most modern Unix @-@ like systems . CPython was intended from almost its very conception to be cross @-@ platform .
PyPy is a fast , compliant interpreter of Python 2 @.@ 7 and 3 @.@ 2 . Its just @-@ in @-@ time compiler brings a significant speed improvement over CPython . A version taking advantage of multi @-@ core processors using software transactional memory is being created .
Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads ; it does not use the C memory stack , thus allowing massively concurrent programs . PyPy also has a stackless version .
MicroPython is a lean , fast Python 3 variant that is optimised to run on microcontrollers .
Other just @-@ in @-@ time compilers have been developed in the past , but are now unsupported :
Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009 with the aims of speeding up the Python interpreter by 5 times , by using the LLVM , and of improving its multithreading ability to scale to thousands of cores .
Psyco is a just @-@ in @-@ time specialising compiler that integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime . The emitted code is specialised for certain data types and is faster than standard Python code .
In 2005 , Nokia released a Python interpreter for the Series 60 mobile phones named PyS60 . It includes many of the modules from the CPython implementations and some added modules to integrate with the Symbian operating system . This project has been kept up to date to run on all variants of the S60 platform and there are several third party modules available . The Nokia N900 also supports Python with GTK widget libraries , with the feature that programs can be both written and run on the target device .
There are several compilers to high @-@ level object languages , with either unrestricted Python , a restricted subset of Python , or a language similar to Python as the source language :
Jython compiles into Java byte code , which can then be executed by every Java virtual machine implementation . This also enables the use of Java class library functions from the Python program .
IronPython follows a similar approach in order to run Python programs on the .NET Common Language Runtime .
The RPython language can be compiled to C , Java bytecode , or Common Intermediate Language , and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python .
Pyjamas compiles Python to JavaScript .
Shed Skin compiles Python to C + + .
Cython and Pyrex compile to C.
A performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non @-@ numerical ( combinatorial ) workload was presented at EuroSciPy ' 13 .
= = Development = =
Python 's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal ( PEP ) process . The PEP process is the primary mechanism for proposing major new features , for collecting community input on an issue , and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python . Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented upon by the Python community and by Van Rossum , the Python project 's benevolent dictator for life .
Enhancement of the language goes along with development of the CPython reference implementation . The mailing list python @-@ dev is the primary forum for discussion about the language 's development ; specific issues are discussed in the Roundup bug tracker maintained at python.org. Development takes place on a self @-@ hosted source code repository running Mercurial .
CPython 's public releases come in three types , distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented :
Backwards @-@ incompatible versions , where code is expected to break and must be manually ported . The first part of the version number is incremented . These releases happen infrequently — for example , version 3 @.@ 0 was released 8 years after 2 @.@ 0 .
Major or " feature " releases , which are largely compatible but introduce new features . The second part of the version number is incremented . These releases are scheduled to occur roughly every 18 months , and each major version is supported by bugfixes for several years after its release .
Bugfix releases , which introduce no new features but fix bugs . The third and final part of the version number is incremented . These releases are made whenever a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release , or roughly every 3 months . Security vulnerabilities are also patched in bugfix releases .
Many alpha , beta , and release @-@ candidates are also released as previews , and for testing before final releases . Although there is a rough schedule for each release , this is often pushed back if the code is not ready . The development team monitors the state of the code by running the large unit test suite during development , and using the BuildBot continuous integration system .
The community of Python developers has also contributed over 72 @,@ 000 software modules ( as of January 2016 ) to the Python Package Index ( PyPI ) , the official repository of third @-@ party libraries for Python .
The major academic conference on Python is named PyCon . There are special mentoring programmes like the Pyladies .
= = Naming = =
Python 's name is derived from the television series Monty Python 's Flying Circus , and it is common to use Monty Python references in example code . For example , the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs , instead of the traditional foo and bar . Also , the official Python documentation often contains various obscure Monty Python references .
The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python . Examples of the use of this prefix in names of Python applications or libraries include Pygame , a binding of SDL to Python ( commonly used to create games ) ; PyS60 , an implementation for the Symbian S60 operating system ; PyQt and PyGTK , which bind Qt and GTK , respectively , to Python ; and PyPy , a Python implementation originally written in Python .
= = Uses = =
Since 2003 , Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages as measured by the TIOBE Programming Community Index . As of June 2016 , it is the fourth most popular language . It was ranked as Programming Language of the Year for the year 2007 and 2010 . It is the third most popular language whose grammatical syntax is not predominantly based on C , e.g. C + + , Objective @-@ C ( note , C # and Java only have partial syntactic similarity to C , such as the use of curly braces , and are closer in similarity to each other than C ) .
An empirical study found scripting languages ( such as Python ) more productive than conventional languages ( such as C and Java ) for a programming problem involving string manipulation and search in a dictionary . Memory consumption was often " better than Java and not much worse than C or C + + " .
Large organizations that make use of Python include Google , Yahoo ! , CERN , NASA , and some smaller ones like ILM , and ITA . The social news networking site , Reddit , is written entirely in Python .
Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications , e.g. , via mod _ wsgi for the Apache web server . With Web Server Gateway Interface , a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications . Web frameworks like Django , Pylons , Pyramid , TurboGears , web2py , Tornado , Flask , Bottle and Zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications . Pyjamas and IronPython can be used to develop the client @-@ side of Ajax @-@ based applications . SQLAlchemy can be used as data mapper to a relational database . Twisted is a framework to program communications between computers , and is used ( for example ) by Dropbox .
Libraries like NumPy , SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific computing , with specialized libraries such as BioPython and Astropy providing domain @-@ specific functionality . Sage is a mathematical software with a " notebook " programmable in Python : its library covers many aspects of mathematics , including algebra , combinatorics , numerical mathematics , number theory , and calculus .
Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language , including in finite element method software such as Abaqus , 3D parametric modeler like FreeCAD , 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max , Blender , Cinema 4D , Lightwave , Houdini , Maya , modo , MotionBuilder , Softimage , the visual effects compositor Nuke , 2D imaging programs like GIMP , Inkscape , Scribus and Paint Shop Pro , and musical notation program or scorewriter capella . GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to show complex structures such as C + + containers . Esri promotes Python as the best choice for writing scripts in ArcGIS . It has also been used in several video games , and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google App Engine , the other two being Java and Go .
Python has been used in artificial intelligence tasks . As a scripting language with module architecture , simple syntax and rich text processing tools , Python is often used for natural language processing tasks .
Many operating systems include Python as a standard component ; the language ships with most Linux distributions , AmigaOS 4 , FreeBSD , NetBSD , OpenBSD and OS X , and can be used from the terminal . Many Linux distributions use installers written in Python : Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer , while Red Hat Linux and Fedora use the Anaconda installer . Gentoo Linux uses Python in its package management system , Portage .
Python has also seen extensive use in the information security industry , including in exploit development .
Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO , now developed at Sugar Labs , is written in Python .
The Raspberry Pi single @-@ board computer project has adopted Python as its main user @-@ programming language .
LibreOffice includes Python and intends to replace Java with Python . Python Scripting Provider is a core feature since Version 4 @.@ 0 from 7 February 2013 .
= = Languages influenced by Python = =
Python 's design and philosophy have influenced several programming languages , including :
Boo uses indentation , a similar syntax , and a similar object model . However , Boo uses static typing ( and optional duck typing ) and is closely integrated with the .NET Framework .
Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax . Cobra 's " Acknowledgements " document lists Python first among languages that influenced it . However , Cobra directly supports design @-@ by @-@ contract , unit tests , and optional static typing .
ECMAScript borrowed iterators , generators , and list comprehensions from Python .
Go is described as incorporating the " development speed of working in a dynamic language like Python " .
Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java .
Julia was designed " with true macros [ .. and to be ] as usable for general programming as Python [ and ] should be as fast as C " . Calling to or from Julia is possible ; to with PyCall.jl and a Python package pyjulia allows calling , in the other direction , from Python .
OCaml has an optional syntax , named twt ( The Whitespace Thing ) , inspired by Python and Haskell .
Ruby 's creator , Yukihiro Matsumoto , has said : " I wanted a scripting language that was more powerful than Perl , and more object @-@ oriented than Python . That 's why I decided to design my own language . "
CoffeeScript is a programming language that cross @-@ compiles to JavaScript ; it has Python @-@ inspired syntax .
Swift is a programming language invented by Apple ; it has some Python @-@ inspired syntax .
Python 's development practices have also been emulated by other languages . The practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for , and issues surrounding , a change to the language ( in Python 's case , a PEP ) is also used in Tcl and Erlang because of Python 's influence .
Python has been awarded a TIOBE Programming Language of the Year award twice ( in 2007 and 2010 ) , which is given to the language with the greatest growth in popularity over the course of a year , as measured by the TIOBE index .
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= Lisa the Vegetarian =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " is the fifth episode of the seventh season of the American television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 15 , 1995 . In the episode , Lisa decides to stop eating meat after bonding with a lamb at a petting zoo . Her schoolmates and family members ridicule her for her beliefs , but with the help of Apu , Paul , and Linda McCartney , she commits to vegetarianism .
Directed by Mark Kirkland , " Lisa the Vegetarian " is the first full @-@ length episode David S. Cohen wrote for The Simpsons . David Mirkin , the show runner at the time , supported the episode in part because he had just become a vegetarian himself . Former Beatle Paul McCartney and his then wife Linda McCartney guest star in the episode . Paul McCartney 's condition for appearing was that Lisa would remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series . The episode makes several references to McCartney 's musical career , and his song " Maybe I 'm Amazed " plays during the closing credits .
The inaugural airing of " Lisa the Vegetarian " was watched by 14 @.@ 6 million viewers and finished 47th in the ratings for the week of October 9 – 15 , 1995 , with a 9 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . It has won two awards , an Environmental Media Award and a Genesis Award , for highlighting environmental and animal issues .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family visit Story Town Village , an amusement park for babies , as a special treat for Maggie . In the village , there is a petting zoo , where Lisa is enamored by a cute lamb . That night , Marge serves lamb chops for dinner , but Lisa is troubled by the connection between the dish and its living counterpart , and announces that she will no longer eat meat . In response , Bart and Homer mock her relentlessly . Reaction at school is no better ; when Lisa requests a vegetarian alternative to the cafeteria food , Principal Skinner labels her an " agitator " . The students are then forced to watch a Meat Council propaganda film , " The Meat Council Presents Meat and You : Partners in Patriotism " , starring Troy McClure , which portrays eating meat as a patriotic duty , and criticizes vegetarianism . Lisa is unimpressed by the film , but her classmates tease her .
Homer and Bart continue to give Lisa a hard time at home , particularly since Homer is preparing to host a barbecue , complete with roast pig . Bart and Homer even form a conga line and sing , " You don 't win friends with salad ! " On the day of the barbecue , Lisa makes gazpacho for all the guests as an alternative to meat , but the partygoers laugh in her face . Enraged and deeply hurt , she climbs aboard a riding mower and drives away with the roast pig in tow . Homer and Bart chase her , but she pushes the pig off a slope and they are too late . The pig rolls through bushes , into a river , and is shot into the air by a dam spillway 's suction .
At home , Homer reprimands Lisa for ruining his party and demands an apology , but Lisa refuses to apologize and chews him out for serving a meat @-@ based dish . They fight and she leaves the house , not wanting to live in a house with a " prehistoric carnivore . " As Lisa walks along , she decides that she can no longer fight the pressure to eat meat , prompting her to grab a hot dog from the grill at the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart and take a bite . However , Apu , himself a vegan , reveals that she has eaten a tofu dog , which he subtly switched out and none of his loyal customers had noticed the change .
Apu takes Lisa through a secret passageway hidden behind the cooler section assigned to non @-@ alcoholic beer leading to the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart roof where they meet Paul and Linda McCartney . The McCartneys explain that they are old friends of Apu from Paul 's days in India , and discuss their interest in animal rights . After a brief discussion , Apu asks Lisa what happened at home that made her upset . She reveals everything and while he understands , Apu warns Lisa that forcing others to accept her views can do a lot more harm than good . She is committed once more to vegetarianism , but realizes that she should tolerate those who disagree with her views .
Inspired , Lisa begins to return home and finds Homer frantically searching for her . Homer apologizes for his behavior , but Lisa admits she was wrong as well . She apologizes to Homer , admitting she had no right to ruin his barbecue ; he forgives her and offers her a " veggie back " ride home . The final credits play over the still airborne roast pig .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " was the first full @-@ length episode David X. Cohen wrote for The Simpsons . His most prominent work for the show to that point had been the " Nightmare Cafeteria " segment in the season six episode " Treehouse of Horror V " . The idea for " Lisa the Vegetarian " came to him while he was working on another Simpsons script . Cohen could not concentrate on his task because he was waiting for lunch , and on the back of the script he scribbled , " Lisa becomes a vegetarian ? " Cohen showed the note to Simpsons writer Brent Forrester , who liked the idea . Show runner David Mirkin then approved the story when Cohen pitched it to him . Mirkin had just become a vegetarian himself , and later noted that many of Lisa 's experiences in the episode were based on his own .
Writer Bill Oakley suggested the episode 's barbecue scenes . Cohen 's first draft contained a more philosophical argument between Lisa and Homer about eating meat , but Oakley told Cohen that the story needed something more specific to serve as the basis of Homer and Lisa 's dispute . George Meyer , a writer known among the Simpsons staff for his " bizarre physical jokes " , contributed the idea of the barbecue pig getting caught in the spillway and flying into the air . Cohen credits Simpsons writer John Swartzwelder for inspiring the scene in which Homer finds it impossible to believe that bacon , ham and pork chops could possibly come from the same animal . According to Cohen it was based on a real statement made by Swartzwelder , who was going on and on about how amazing the pig is for the variety of cuts of meat that come from it .
In the episode , Ralph Wiggum coins the phrase , " Oh boy , sleep ! That 's where I 'm a Viking ! " The term caused a point of contention with some fans curious whether or not he meant he was literally a Viking in his dreams or if he meant sleeping was just something he excelled at . Mirkin confirmed on Twitter that the line was meant to be taken literally , stating " We weren 't writing Ralph as capable of metaphor . "
= = = Voice acting = = =
At the time the episode was being written , Paul McCartney was the only living member of The Beatles who had never appeared on The Simpsons . John Lennon died before the show was created , but Ringo Starr and George Harrison had guest starred in 1991 ( " Brush with Greatness " ) and 1993 ( " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " ) , respectively . The Simpsons staff wanted to bring McCartney onto the show , and David Mirkin thought " Lisa the Vegetarian " would be an attractive story , since McCartney is a vegetarian himself . McCartney agreed to appear , but requested that Lisa remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series , rather than revert to meat @-@ eating in the next episode . The Simpsons staff promised that she would remain a vegetarian , resulting in one of the few permanent character changes made in the show . McCartney 's wife Linda was also recruited to appear in the episode . She told Entertainment Weekly that the episode was a chance for her and her husband " to spread the vegetarian word to a wider audience . " Paul and Linda were both long @-@ time fans of The Simpsons .
Mirkin later said that recording with the McCartneys was one of the most " amazing " experiences of his life . He flew to London and met the couple at Paul McCartney 's recording studio , where the McCartneys spent an hour recording their parts . Simpsons creator Matt Groening was supposed to go with Mirkin to London , but missed his plane . Groening commented that having McCartney and the rest of The Beatles on The Simpsons " was a dream come true for all of us . "
Linda McCartney died of cancer at age 56 on April 17 , 1998 . The Simpsons ' season nine episode " Trash of the Titans " , which aired on April 26 , 1998 , was dedicated to her memory . Simpsons executive producer Mike Scully said , " It just seemed like the right thing to do . Everyone here was surprised and saddened by her death . "
= = = Directing and animating = = =
The episode was directed by Mark Kirkland , who was intrigued by the story because he had not seen many television episodes about vegetarianism . The designs for Paul and Linda McCartney are unusual for The Simpsons in that the characters have brown and blue irises , respectively . Most Simpsons characters simply have black spots in the centers of their eyes .
In one scene of the episode , Homer sprays two bottles of lighter fluid onto his grill , causing viewers to anticipate an explosion when Homer throws a match on it . When he does release the match , however , the grill barely ignites . A similar scene appears in an older episode of The Simpsons , " Treehouse of Horror " , although in that episode , Homer uses a single bottle of lighter fluid and causes an explosion . Mirkin enjoyed the joke enough to reuse parts of it in " Lisa the Vegetarian " , adding new twists to further enhance the comedic effect . The old sketches from the " Treehouse of Horror " episode were used to help the animators animate the scene .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode features several references to The Beatles and McCartney 's solo career . For instance , McCartney tells Lisa that playing his 1970 song " Maybe I 'm Amazed " backwards will reveal " a recipe for a really rippin ' lentil soup " . A modified version of the song plays in the final scene , then over the closing credits of the episode ; when played backwards , McCartney can be heard reciting the recipe in the song . Mirkin had McCartney record the recipe , which was later added in reverse over the original song . McCartney thought it was " very funny " that the staff wanted to " send up the whole cult thing " of backmasking on the Beatles ' songs . " A secret lentil soup recipe seemed a nice parody of that , " he said . One of the backwards snippets says , " Oh , and by the way , I 'm alive , " a reference to the " Paul is dead " urban legend .
When Lisa , Apu , and the McCartneys gather on the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart roof , Apu tells Lisa , " I learned long ago to tolerate others rather than forcing my beliefs on them . You know , you can influence people without badgering them always . It 's like Paul 's song , ' Live and Let Live ' . " Paul corrects Apu and says the song 's title is actually " Live and Let Die " . In the same scene , Apu refers to himself as the " fifth Beatle " , and Linda alludes to a line in the Beatles ' 1969 song " Octopus 's Garden " . The McCartneys later ask Lisa if she would like to hear a song , and Apu sings part of " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " , to which the McCartneys snap along .
= = Release = =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 15 , 1995 . It finished 47th in the ratings for the week of October 9 – 15 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 63 million viewing households . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Fox NFL Sunday , and Melrose Place . " Lisa the Vegetarian " was later selected for release in a 2000 video collection of episodes titled The Simpsons – Raiders of the Lost Fridge . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Guess Who 's Coming to Criticize Dinner ? " , " King @-@ Size Homer " , and " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " . " Lisa the Vegetarian " was later included in The Simpsons ' season seven DVD set , which was released on December 13 , 2005 . David X. Cohen , Mark Kirkland , Matt Groening , and David Mirkin participated in the episode 's DVD audio commentary .
The episode won an Environmental Media Award in the " Best Television Episodic Comedy " category , which has been awarded every year since 1991 to the best television episode or film with an environmental message . The episode has also received a Genesis Award in the " Best Television Comedy Series , Ongoing Commitment " category . The Genesis Award is awarded annually by the Humane Society of the United States to honor works that raise the public 's understanding of animal issues .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
" Lisa the Vegetarian " has received positive reviews from television critics and the staff of The Simpsons . Among the show 's staff , Mirkin , Kirkland , Groening and writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham list it as one of their favorite episodes . In the DVD audio commentary for the episode , Mirkin called the opening sequence at the petting zoo one of his favorite set pieces in the show 's history . He thought it was " absolutely hilarious " , and praised Kirkland for his animation . Mirkin also enjoyed the use of Apu in the episode , because Apu shows Lisa that " the way to get people to change is through tolerance and understanding . " Groening considers the joke in which the family forms a conga line one of the " high @-@ points " in the history of The Simpsons .
Television critics praised " Lisa the Vegetarian " for its humor . John Serba of the Grand Rapids Press named it his favorite episode , " because the tale of Lisa 's conversion to vegetarianism has more humorous scenes per square inch than any other episode . " The Ventura County Reporter 's Matthew Singer thought it was " overflowing with great individual scenes " , particularly Troy McClure 's Meat Council propaganda video , which he said " may be the funniest isolated segment in the history of the show . " MSNBC 's Patrick Enright , who listed the episode as his second favorite of the series , highlighted the " You don 't win friends with salad ! " song as " one of those archetypal Simpsons moments , one in which the writers hit a joke so long that it goes from funny to unfunny and back to funny again . "
Reviewers of the episode have also praised it for its character development . Todd Gilchrist of IGN said he thinks the key to The Simpsons ' longevity is its " sentimental but not gooey " approach to storytelling and character development . He took " Lisa the Vegetarian " as an example and said : " Lisa sabotages Homer 's barbecue , which results in an unceremonious death for his prize pig . But rather than simply punctuating the episode with an iconic image of the porker soaring through the air , the writers actually develop a story into which the joke fits . The comedic effect is actually intensified because we care about the characters , are invested in the story , and primed for a great gag . " The Niagara Gazette 's Phil Dzikiy said that " the character development and storytelling is perfect " , noting that the episode was " equally hilarious , touching and satirical " .
The McCartneys ' guest appearance received mixed reactions from critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , called it a " superb " performance . Singer , however , thought their cameo was poorly integrated into the show , and Dzikiy thought it seemed " a little forced " . IGN ranked McCartney 's performance in this episode , along with Ringo Starr 's performance in " Brush with Greatness " , and George Harrison 's performance in " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons ' history . They added that " Although none of these appearances were really large , the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show . " Simon Crerar of Times Online named Paul and Linda McCartney 's performance in the episode as one of the thirty @-@ three " funniest Simpsons cameos ever " , and Larry Dobrow and Mike Errico of Blender listed it as the eighth best band cameo in the show 's history .
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= Marie Lloyd =
Matilda Alice Victoria Wood , ( 12 February 1870 – 7 October 1922 ) , professionally known as Marie Lloyd / ˈmɑːri / ; was an English music hall singer , comedian and musical theatre actress during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . She was best known for her performances of songs such as " The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery " , " My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " and " Oh Mr Porter What Shall I Do " . She received both criticism and praise for her use of innuendo and double entendre during her performances , and enjoyed a long and prosperous career , during which she was affectionately called the " Queen of the Music Hall " .
Born in London , she was showcased by her father at the Eagle Tavern in Hoxton . In 1884 , she made her professional début as Bella Delmere ; she changed her stage name to Marie Lloyd the following year . In 1885 , she had success with her song " The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery " , and she frequently topped the bill at prestigious theatres in London 's West End . In 1891 , she was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear in that year 's spectacular Theatre Royal , Drury Lane Christmas pantomime Humpty Dumpty . She starred in a further two productions at the theatre , Little Bo Peep ( 1892 ) and Robinson Crusoe ( 1893 ) . By the mid @-@ 1890s , Lloyd was in frequent dispute with Britain 's theatre censors due to the risqué content of her songs .
Between 1894 and 1900 , she became an international success when she toured France , America , Australia and Belgium with her solo music hall act . In 1907 , she assisted other performers during the music hall war and took part in demonstrations outside theatres , protesting for better pay and conditions for performers . During the First World War , in common with most other music hall artists , she supported recruitment into the armed services to help the war effort , touring hospitals and industrial institutions to help boost morale . In 1915 , she performed her only wartime song " Now You 've Got Your Khaki On " , which became a favourite among front @-@ line troops .
Lloyd had a turbulent private life that was often the subject of press attention : she was married three times , divorced twice , and frequently found herself giving court testimony against two of her husbands who had physically abused her . In later life , she was still in demand at music halls and had a late success in 1919 with her performance of " My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " , which earned her an extended audience . Privately , she suffered from bouts of ill @-@ health and became alcohol @-@ dependent , both of which imposed restrictions on her performing career by the 1920s . In 1922 , she gave her final performance at the Alhambra Theatre , London , during which she became ill on stage . She died a few days later at the age of 52 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early life = = =
Lloyd was born on 12 February 1870 in Hoxton , London . Her father John Wood ( 1847 – 1940 ) , was an artificial flower arranger and waiter , and his wife Matilda Mary Caroline née Archer ( 1849 – 1931 ) , was a dressmaker and costume designer . Lloyd was the eldest of nine children and became known within the family circle as Tilley . The Wood family were respectable , hard @-@ working , and financially comfortable . Lloyd often took career advice from her mother , whose influence was strong in the family . Lloyd attended a school in Bath Street , London , but disliked formal education and often played truant ; with both her parents working , she adopted a maternal role over her siblings , helping to keep them entertained , clean and well cared @-@ for . Along with her sister Alice , she arranged events in which the Wood children performed at the family home . She enjoyed the experience of entertaining her family and decided to form a minstrel act in 1879 called the Fairy Bell troupe comprising her brothers and sisters .
Lloyd and the troupe made their début at a mission in Nile Street , Hoxton , in 1880 and followed this with an appearance at the Blue Ribbon Gospel Temperance Mission later the same year . Costumed by Matilda , they toured local doss @-@ houses in East London , where they performed temperance songs , teaching people the dangers of alcohol abuse . Eager to show off his daughter 's talent , John secured her unpaid employment as a table singer at the Eagle Tavern in Hoxton , where he worked as a waiter . Among the songs she performed there was " My Soldier Laddie " . Together with her performances at the Eagle , Lloyd briefly contributed to the family income by making babies ' boots , and , later , curled feathers for hat making . She was unsuccessful at both and was sacked from the latter after being caught dancing on the tables by the foreman . She returned home that evening and declared that she wanted a permanent career on the stage . Although happy to have her performing in her spare time , her parents initially opposed the idea of her appearing on the stage full @-@ time . She recalled that when her parents " saw that they couldn 't kick their objections as high as [ she ] could kick [ her ] legs , they very sensibly came to the conclusion to let things take their course and said ' Bless you my child , do what you like ' . "
= = = Early career and first marriage = = =
On 9 May 1885 , at the age of 15 , Lloyd made her professional solo stage début at the Grecian music hall ( in the same premises as the Eagle Tavern ) , under the name " Matilda Wood " . She performed " In the Good Old Days " and " My Soldier Laddie " , which proved successful , and earned her a booking at the Sir John Falstaff music hall in Old Street where she sang a series of romantic ballads . Soon after this , she chose the stage name Bella Delmere and appeared on stage in costumes designed by her mother . Her performances were a success , despite her singing other artists ' songs without their permission , a practice which brought her a threat of an injunction from one of the original performers . News of her act travelled ; that October , she appeared at the Collins music hall in Islington in a special performance to celebrate the theatre 's refurbishment , the first time she had appeared outside Hoxton , and two months later , she was engaged at the Hammersmith Temple of Varieties and the Middlesex Music Hall in Drury Lane . On 3 February 1886 , she appeared at the prestigious Sebright Music Hall in Bethnal Green , where she met George Ware , a prolific composer of music hall songs . Ware became her agent and , after a few weeks , she began performing songs purchased from little @-@ known composers . As her popularity grew , Ware suggested that she change her name . " Marie " was chosen for its " posh " and " slightly French " sound , and " Lloyd " was taken from an edition of Lloyd 's Weekly Newspaper .
Lloyd established her new name on 22 June 1886 , with an appearance at the Falstaff Music Hall , where she attracted wide notice for the song " The Boy I Love Is Up in the Gallery " ( which was initially written for Nelly Power by Lloyd 's agent George Ware ) . By 1887 , her performance of the song had become so popular that she was in demand in London 's West End , including the Oxford Music Hall , where she excelled at skirt dancing . George Belmont , the Falstaff 's proprietor , secured her an engagement at the Star Palace of Varieties in Bermondsey . She soon began making her own costumes , a skill she learned from her mother , and one she used for the rest of her career . She undertook a month @-@ long tour of Ireland at the start of 1886 , earning £ 10 per week after which she returned to East London to perform at , amongst others , the Sebright Music Hall , Bethnal Green . On 23 October , The Era called her " a pretty little soubrette who dances with great dash and energy . "
By the end of 1886 , Lloyd was playing several halls a night and earned £ 100 per week . She was now able to afford new songs from established music hall composers and writers , including " Harry 's a Soldier " , " She Has a Sailor for a Lover " , and " Oh Jeremiah , Don 't you Go to Sea " . By 1887 , Lloyd began to display a skill for ad lib , and to gain a reputation for her impromptu performances . It was during this period that she first sang " Whacky @-@ Wack " and " When you Wink the Other Eye " , a song which introduced her famous wink at the audience . Unlike her West End audiences who enjoyed her coarse humour , her " blue " performances did not impress audiences in the East End .
While appearing at the Foresters music hall in Mile End , she met and began dating Percy Charles Courtenay , a ticket tout from Streatham , London . The courtship was brief , and the couple married on 12 November 1887 at St John the Baptist , Hoxton . In May 1888 , Lloyd gave birth to a daughter , Marie ( 1888 – 1967 ) . The marriage was mostly unhappy , and Courtenay was disliked by Lloyd 's family and friends . Before long , Courtenay became addicted to alcohol and gambling , and grew jealous of his wife 's close friendship with the 13 @-@ year @-@ old actress Bella Burge , to whom Lloyd had rented a room in the marital house . He also became angry at the numerous parties Lloyd hosted for fellow members of the music hall profession including Gus Elen , Dan Leno and Eugene Stratton .
In October 1888 , Lloyd returned from maternity leave and joined rehearsals for the 1888 – 89 pantomime The Magic Dragon of the Demon Dell ; or , The Search for the Mystic Thyme , in which she was cast as Princess Kristina . The production , which was staged between Boxing Day and February at the Britannia theatre in Hoxton , gave her the security of working close to home for a two @-@ month period . The engagement also gave her much @-@ needed experience of playing to a big audience . The following year , she appeared at more Bohemian venues including the Empire and the Alhambra theatres , the Trocadero Palace of Varieties , and the Royal Standard playhouse . In 1889 , she gave birth to a stillborn child , which further damaged her marriage .
By the start of the 1890s , Lloyd had built up a successful catalogue of songs , which included " What 's That For , Eh ? " , about a little girl who asks her parents the meaning of various everyday household objects . Her biographer and theatre historian W. J. MacQueen @-@ Pope described the song as being " blue " and thought that it spoke volumes about her reputation thanks to her " wonderful wink , and that sudden , dazzling smile , and the nod of the head . " Similar @-@ styled songs followed ; " She 'd Never had her Ticket Punched Before " , told the story of a young , naive woman travelling to London on her own by train . This was followed by " The Wrong Man Never Let a Chance go By " ; " We Don 't Want to Fight , But , by Jingo , If we Do " ; " Oh You Wink the Other Eye " and " Twiggy Vous " — a song which won her much success and increased her popularity abroad . After an evening 's performance at the Oxford music hall , a French well @-@ wisher requested a conversation and to meet Lloyd backstage . Flanked by Courtenay , she appeared at the stage door , where Courtenay threatened the man with violence as both had become suspicious of his interest in her . She took a chance and invited the man into her dressing room , where he identified himself as a member of the French government . He confirmed to her that " Twiggy Vous " was " most popular in Paris " ; she was delighted at the news . At the end of the year , Lloyd returned to London where she appeared in the Christmas pantomime Cinderella in Peckham alongside her sister Alice .
= = = 1890s = = =
= = = = Drury Lane and success = = = =
Between 1891 and 1893 , Lloyd was recruited by the impresario Augustus Harris to appear alongside Dan Leno in the spectacular and popular Theatre Royal , Drury Lane Christmas pantomimes . While lunching with Harris in 1891 to discuss his offer , Lloyd played coy , deliberately confusing the theatre with the lesser known venue the Old Mo so as not to appear conscious of Drury Lane 's successful reputation ; she compared its structure to that of a prison . Secretly , she was thrilled with the offer , for which she would receive £ 100 per week . The pantomime seasons lasted from Boxing Day to March and were highly lucrative , but Lloyd found working from a script restrictive . Her first role was Princess Allfair in Humpty Dumpty ; or , The Yellow Dwarf and the Fair One , which she dismissed as being " Bloody awful , eh ? " She received mixed reviews for her opening performance . The Times described her as being " playful in gesture , graceful in appearance , but not strong in voice . " Despite the weak start ( which Lloyd blamed on nerves ) , the pantomime received glowing reviews from the theatrical press . The London Entr 'acte thought that she " delivere [ d ] her text quite pungently , and sings and dances with spirit too . " She was noted for her acrobatic dancing on stage , and was able to display handstands , tumbles and high kicks . As a boy , the writer Compton Mackenzie was taken to the show 's opening night and admitted that he was " greatly surprised that any girl should have the courage to let the world see her drawers as definitely as Marie Lloyd . "
Lloyd 's biographer Midge Gillies defines 1891 as being the year that she officially " made it " thanks to a catalogue of hit songs and major success in the halls and pantomime . When she appeared at the Oxford music hall in June , the audience cheered so loudly for her return that the following act could not be heard ; The Era called her " the favourite of the hour " . During the summer months , she toured North England , including Liverpool , Birmingham and Manchester . At the last she stayed an extra six nights due to popular demand , which caused her to cancel a trip to Paris . The 1892 pantomime was Little Bo Peep ; or , Little Red Riding Hood and Hop O ' My Thumb , in which she played Little Red Riding Hood . The production was five hours long and culminated with the show 's harlequinade . During one scene , her improvisational skills caused some scandal when she got out of bed to pray , but instead reached for a chamber pot . The stunt angered Harris , who ordered her not to do it again or risk immediate dismissal . Max Beerbohm , who was in a later audience , asked " Isn 't Marie Lloyd charming and sweet in the pantomime ? I think of little besides her . " On 12 January 1892 , Lloyd and Courtenay brawled drunkenly in her Drury Lane dressing room after an evening 's performance of Little Bo @-@ Peep . Courtenay pulled a decorative sword off the wall and threatened to cut her throat ; she escaped from the room with minor bruises and reported the incident to the Bow Street police station . In early 1893 , she travelled to Wolverhampton where she starred as Flossie in another unsuccessful piece called The A.B.C Girl ; or , Flossie the Frivolous , which , according to MacQueen @-@ Pope , " ended the Queen of Comedy 's career as an actress " .
Lloyd made her American stage début in 1893 , appearing at Koster and Bial 's Music Hall in New York . She sang " Oh You Wink the Other Eye " , much to the delight of her American audiences . Other numbers were " After the Pantomime " and " You Should Go to France and See the Ladies Dance " , which both required her to wear provocative costumes . Her performances pleased the theatre proprietors , who presented her with an antique tea and coffee service . News of her success reached home , and the London Entr 'acte reported that " Miss Marie Lloyd made the biggest hit ever known at Koster and Bial 's variety hall , New York . "
Upon her return to London , Lloyd introduced " Listen With the Right Ear " , which was an intended follow @-@ up to " Oh You Wink the Other Eye " . Shortly after her return , she sailed to France , to take up an engagement in Paris . Her biographer Daniel Farson thought that she received " greater acclaim than any other English comedienne who had preceded her " . She changed the lyrics to some of her best @-@ known songs for her French audience and retitled them , " The Naughty Continong " ; " Twiggy Vous " ; " I 'm Just Back from Paris " and " The Coster Honeymoon in Paris " . At Christmas in 1893 , she returned to London to honour her final Drury Lane commitment , starring as Polly Perkins in Robinson Crusoe . The part allowed her to perform " The Barmaid " and " The Naughty Continong " and saw her perform a mazurka with Leno . Talking to a friend years later about her Drury Lane engagements , she admitted that she was " the proudest little woman in the world " .
In May 1894 , Courtenay followed Lloyd to the Empire , Leicester Square , where she was performing , and attempted to batter her with a stick , shouting : " I will gouge your eyes out and ruin you ! " His assault missed Lloyd , but struck Burge in the face instead . As a result of the incident , Lloyd was sacked from the Empire for fear of a reprisal . Lloyd left the marital home , moving to 73 Carleton Road , Tufnell Park and successfully applied for a restraining warrant , which prevented Courtenay from contacting her . A few weeks later , Lloyd began an affair with the music hall singer Alec Hurley , which resulted in Courtenay initiating divorce proceedings in 1894 on the grounds of her adultery . That year , together with a short tour of the English provinces , Lloyd travelled to New York with Hurley , where she appeared at the Imperial Theatre , staying for two months . On her return to England , she appeared in the Liverpool Christmas pantomime as the principal boy in Pretty Bo @-@ Peep , Little Boy Blue , and the Merry Old Woman who lived in a Shoe . Her performance was praised by the press , who called her " delightfully easy , graceful and self @-@ possessed . "
= = = = Risqué reputation and transatlantic tours = = = =
By 1895 , Lloyd 's risqué songs were receiving frequent criticism from theatre reviewers and influential feminists . As a result , she often experienced resistance from strict theatre censorship which dogged the rest of her career . The writer and feminist Laura Ormiston Chant , who was a member of the Social Purity Alliance , disliked the bawdiness of music hall performances , and thought that the venues were attractive to prostitutes . Her campaign persuaded the London County Council to erect large screens around the promenade at the Empire Theatre in Leicester Square , as part of the licensing conditions . The screens were unpopular and protesters , among them the young Winston Churchill , later pulled them down . That November at the Tivoli theatre , Lloyd performed " Johnny Jones " , a ditty about a girl who is taught the facts of life by her best male friend . The song , although not lyrically obscene , was considered to be offensive largely because of the manner in which Lloyd sang it , adding winks and gestures , and creating a conspiratorial relationship with her audience . Social reformers cited " Johnny Jones " as being offensive , but less so compared to other songs of the day . Upon the expiry of a music hall 's entertainments licence , the Licensing Committee tried to use the lyrical content of music hall songs as evidence against a renewal . As a result , Lloyd was summoned to perform some of her songs in front of a council committee . She sang " Oh ! Mr Porter " ( composed for her by George Le Brunn ) , " A Little of What You Fancy " and " She Sits Among the Cabbages and Peas " , which she retitled " I Sits Amongst the Cabbages and Leeks " after some protest . The numbers were sung in such a way that the committee had no reason to find anything amiss . Feeling disgruntled at the council 's interference , she then rendered Alfred Tennyson 's drawing @-@ room ballad " Come into the Garden , Maud " and displayed leers and nudges , to illustrate each innuendo . The committee were left stunned at the performance , but Lloyd argued afterwards that the rudeness was " all in the mind " .
Despite their opposing views on music hall entertainment , Lloyd and Chant shared similar political views , and were wrongly assumed by the press to be enemies . An inspector who reported on one of Lloyd 's performances at the Oxford music hall thought that her lyrical content was fine but her knowing nods , looks , smiles and the suggestiveness in her winks to the audience suggested otherwise . The restrictions imposed on the music halls were , by now beginning to affect trade , and many were threatened with closure . To avoid social unrest , Hackney council scrapped the licensing restrictions on 7 October 1896 . In 1896 , Lloyd sailed to South Africa with her daughter , who appeared as Little Maudie Courtenay on the same bill as her mother . Lloyd came to the attention of Barney Barnato , a British entrepreneur who was responsible for mining diamond and gold . Barnato lavished gifts on her in an attempt to woo her , but his attempts were unsuccessful ; nevertheless , the two remained friends until his death in 1897 . The tour was a triumph for Lloyd , and her songs became popular among her South African audience . She performed " Wink the Other Eye " , " Twiggy @-@ Vous " , " Hello , Hello , Hello " , " Whacky , Whacky , Whack ! " , " Keep Off the Grass " , and " Oh ! Mr Porter " . Feeling satisfied at the success she had achieved , Lloyd returned to London once the two @-@ month tour had ended .
The following year , Lloyd travelled to New York where she re @-@ appeared at Koster and Bial 's Music Hall . Her first song was about a young woman who lacked confidence in finding a suitor . The chorus , " Not for the very best man that ever got into a pair of trousers " , proved hilarious ; The Era observed that the line " tickled the audience immensely " . Following this , she performed a song about a French maid who appeared innocent and petite at first sight , but turned out not to be so . The Era described the character as being " not so demure as she looked , for she confided to her auditors that she ' knew a lot about those tricky little things they don 't teach a girl at school ' . " Many other songs followed and were all warmly received . At the conclusion of each performance , she received gifts from the audience including bouquets and floral structures . The Era commented that " Miss Lloyd 's clever character work , her versatility and unflagging endeavours to please were rewarded with deserved success " . After the tour , Lloyd returned to London , and moved to Hampstead with Hurley . That Christmas , she appeared in pantomime , this time at the Crown Theatre in Peckham in a production of Dick Whittington in which she played the title role . In it , she sang " A Little Bit Off the Top " , which MacQueen @-@ Pope describes as being " one of the pantomime songs of the year " . The Music Hall and Theatre Review was equally complimentary , saying : " Brilliant Repertory , Charming Dresses , A Unique Personality ! " During the Christmas period of 1898 – 9 , Lloyd returned to the Crown where she took her benefit , during which she appeared in Dick Whittington . The entertainment culminated with a song from Vesta Victoria , and a short piece called The Squeaker , starring Joe Elvin .
= = = 1900s = = =
In February 1900 , Lloyd was the subject of another benefit performance at the Crown Theatre in Peckham . Kate Carney , Vesta Tilley and Joe Elvin were among the star turns who performed before the main piece , Cinderella , which starred Lloyd , her sister Alice , Kittee Rayburn and Jennie Rubie . The same year , although her divorce was not yet finalised , Lloyd went to live with Hurley in Southampton Row , London . Hurley , an established singer of coster songs , regularly appeared on the same bill as Lloyd ; his calm nature was a contrast to the abusive personality of Courtenay . Lloyd and Hurley set sail for a tour of Australia in 1901 , opening at Harry Rickards Opera House in Melbourne on 18 May with their own version of " The Lambeth Walk " . After the successful two @-@ month tour , Lloyd and Hurley returned to London where she appeared in the only revue of her career . Entitled The Revue , it was written by Charles Raymond and Phillip Yorke with lyrics by Roland Carse and music by Maurice Jacobi . It was staged at the Tivoli theatre , in celebration of the Coronation of King Edward VII . Lloyd and Courtenay 's divorce became absolute on 22 May 1905 , and she married Hurley on 27 October 1906 . Hurley , although ecstatic with his earlier success in Australia , began feeling sidelined by his wife 's popularity . MacQueen @-@ Pope suggested that " [ Hurley ] was a star who had married a planet . Already the seeds of disaster were being sown . "
= = = = Music hall strikes of 1907 = = = =
Shortly after her marriage to Hurley , Lloyd went to Bournemouth to recuperate from exhaustion . Within days she was back performing in London music halls . From the start of the new century , music hall artistes and theatre managers had been in dispute over working conditions , a reduction in pay and perks , and an increased number of matinée performances . The first significant rift was a 1906 strike , initiated by The Variety Artistes ' Federation . The following year , the Music Hall War commenced , which saw the Federation fight for more freedom and better working conditions on behalf of music @-@ hall performers . Although popular enough to command her own fees , Lloyd supported the strike , acted as a picket for the strikers and gave generously to the strike fund . To raise spirits , she often performed on picket lines and took part in a fundraising performance at the Scala Theatre . During one demonstration , she recognised someone trying to enter and shouted , " Let her through , girls , she 'll close the music hall faster than we can . " The singer was Belle Elmore , later murdered by her husband , Dr. Crippen . The dispute ended later the same year with a resolution broadly favourable to the performers . In 1909 , Lloyd appeared at the Gaiety Theatre in Dundee where a critic for The Courier noted " Her bright smile and fascinating presence has much to do with her popularity , while her songs are of the catchy style , perhaps not what a Dundee audience is familiar with , but still amusing and of an attractive style . "
= = = = Relationship with Bernard Dillon = = = =
Despite their marital problems , Lloyd went on an American tour with Hurley in 1908 . She was eager to equal the success of her sister Alice , who had become popular in the country a few years previously . By 1910 , Marie 's relationship with Hurley had ended , due in part to her endless parties and her developing friendship with the jockey Bernard Dillon , winner of the 1910 Derby . Lloyd and the young sportsman began an open and passionate affair . For the first time , her private life eclipsed her professional career . She was seldom mentioned in the theatrical press in 1910 , and when she did perform , it was not to the best of her abilities . The writer Arnold Bennett , who witnessed her on stage at the Tivoli Theatre in 1909 , admitted that he " couldn 't see the legendary cleverness of the vulgarity of Marie Lloyd " and accused her songs of being " variations of the same theme of sexual naughtiness . " As with Courtenay years previously , the shy and retiring Dillon was finding it hard to adapt to Lloyd 's elaborate and sociable lifestyle . Dillon 's success on the racecourse was short lived . In 1911 , he was expelled from the Jockey Club for borrowing £ 660 to bet on his own horses to win . Dillon 's horses lost , and he ended up in debt to trainers . He became jealous of Lloyd 's successful life in the spotlight . Depression led to drink and obesity , and he started to abuse her . Hurley , meanwhile , had initiated divorce proceedings , the strain of which caused him to drink heavily , which in turn finished his theatrical career . Lloyd left the marital home in Hampstead and moved to Golders Green with Dillon , a move which MacQueen @-@ Pope describes as being " the worst thing she ever did . "
= = = Later years = = =
A new show in London in 1912 showcased the best of music hall 's talent . The Royal Command Performance took place at the Palace Theatre in London , which was managed by Alfred Butt . The show was organised by Oswald Stoll , an Australian impresario who managed a string of West End and provincial theatres . Stoll , although a fan of Lloyd 's , disliked the vulgarity of her act and championed a return to a more family @-@ friendly atmosphere within the music hall . Because of this , and her participation in the earlier music hall war , Stoll left her out of the line @-@ up . He placed an advert in The Era on the day of the performance warning that " Coarseness and vulgarity etc are not allowed ... this intimation is rendered necessary only by a few artists " . In retaliation , Lloyd staged her own show at the London Pavilion , advertising that " every one of her performances was a command performance by order of the British public " . She performed " One Thing Leads to Another " , " Oh Mr Porter " , and " The Boy I Love Is up in the Gallery " and was hailed as " the Queen of Comedy " by critics . The same year , she travelled to Devon where she appeared at the Exeter Hippodrome to much success . The Devon and Exeter Gazette , reported that Lloyd 's performance of " Every Movement Tells a Tale " , was " thoroughly enjoyed " by the audience and " [ received ] round after round of applause " . The paper also praised her recital of a " Cockney girl 's honeymoon in Paris " , which was met by " roars of laughter " .
= = = = Scandal in America = = = =
In 1913 , Lloyd was booked by the Orpheum Syndicate to appear at the New York Palace Theatre . She and Dillon set sail on the RMS Olympic under the name Mr and Mrs Dillon and were met at the American port by her sister Alice , who had resided in the country for many years . Upon arrival , Lloyd and Dillon were refused entry when the authorities found out that they were not married , as they had claimed when applying for entry visas . They were detained and threatened with deportation on the grounds of moral turpitude and were sent to Ellis Island while an enquiry took place . Dillon was charged under the White Slave Act with attempting to take into the country a woman who was not his wife , and Lloyd was charged with being a passive agent . After a lengthy enquiry , a surety of $ 300 each , and an imposed condition that they were to live apart while in America , the couple were allowed to stay until March 1914 . Alice later stated that " the indignity of the subsequent experience [ while in custody ] went to Marie 's heart in a way she never survived . She could not bear to talk of that awful twenty @-@ four hours . "
Despite the problems , the tour was a success , and Lloyd performed to packed theatres throughout America . Her act featured the songs " The Tiddly Wink " , " I 'd Like to Live in Paris All the Time ( The Coster Girl in Paris ) " , and " The Aviator " . The numbers were popular , partly due to the Americanisation of each song 's lyrics . On a personal level , Lloyd 's time in America was miserable and was made worse by the increasing domestic abuse she received from Dillon . The assaults caused her to miss several key performances , which angered the theatre manager , Edward Albee , who threatened her with a breach of contract action . She claimed that illness made it difficult for her to perform and protested at her billing position . The theatrical press were not convinced . The New York Telegraph speculated " In vaudeville circles her domestic relations are thought to be at the bottom of her attacks of disposition . " Back in England , Hurley had died of pleurisy and pneumonia on 6 December 1913 . Lloyd heard the news while appearing in Chicago and sent a wreath with a note saying " until we meet again " . She was reported in The Morning Telegraph as saying : " With all due respect to the dead , I can cheerfully say that 's the best piece of news I 've heard in many years , for it means that Bernard Dillon and I will marry as soon as this unlucky year ends . " Lloyd married Dillon on 21 February 1914 , the ceremony taking place at the British Consulate in Portland , Oregon . When the tour finished , Lloyd commented , " [ I will ] never forget the humiliation to which I have been subjected and I shall never sing in America again , no matter how high the salary offered . "
= = = = First World War and final years = = = =
Lloyd and Dillon returned to England in June 1914 . Lloyd started a provincial tour of Liverpool , Aldershot , Southend , Birmingham and Margate , and finished the summer season at the London Hippodrome . She sang " The Coster Honeymoon in Paris " and " Who Paid the Rent for Mrs Rip Van Winkle ? " , the latter of which had been received particularly well with her American audiences . Within a fortnight , Britain was at war , which threw the music @-@ hall world into disarray . The atmosphere in London 's music halls had turned patriotic , and theatre proprietors often held charity events and benefits to help the war effort . Lloyd played her part and frequently visited hospitals , including the Ulster Volunteer Force Hospital in Belfast , where she interacted with wounded servicemen . She also toured munitions factories to help boost public morale , but received no official recognition for her work . During 1914 , she scored a hit with " A Little of What you Fancy " , which critics thought captured her life perfectly up until that point . The song is about a middle @-@ aged woman who encourages the younger generation to enjoy themselves , rather than indulging in life 's excitement herself . During the rendition , Lloyd depicts a young couple who cuddle and kiss on a railway carriage , while she sits back and recalls memories of her doing the same in years gone by .
In January 1915 , Lloyd appeared at the Crystal Palace where she entertained over ten thousand troops . At the end of that year , she performed her only war song , " Now You 've Got your Khaki On " , composed for her by Charles Collins and Fred W. Leigh , about a woman who found the army uniform sexy and thought that wearing it made the average pot @-@ bellied gentleman look like a muscle @-@ toned soldier . Lloyd 's brother John appeared with her on stage dressed as a soldier and helped characterise the ditty . Following this , she sang the already well @-@ established songs " If You Want to Get On in Revue " , which depicted a young girl who offered sexual favours to promote her theatrical career , and " The Three Ages of Woman " , which took a cynical look at men from a woman 's perspective . She seldom toured during the war , but briefly performed in Northampton , Watford and Nottingham in 1916 . By the end of that year , she had suffered a nervous breakdown which she blamed on her hectic workload and a delayed reaction to Hurley 's death . During the war years , Lloyd 's public image had deteriorated . Her biographer Midge Gillies thought that Lloyd 's violent relationship with Dillon and professional snubs in public had left the singer feeling like " someone 's mother , rather than their sweetheart . "
In July 1916 , Dillon was conscripted into the army , but disliked the discipline of regimental life . He applied for exemption on the grounds he had to look after his parents and four brothers , but his claim was rejected . In a later failed attempt , he tried to convince army officials that he was too obese to carry out military duties . On the rare occasions when Dillon was allowed home on leave , he would often indulge in drinking sessions . One night , Lloyd 's friend Bella Burge received a knock at the front door to find a hysterical Lloyd covered in blood and bruises . When asked to explain what had caused her injuries , she stated that she had caught Dillon in bed with another woman and had had a showdown with her husband . By 1917 , Dillon 's drinking had become worse . That June , two constables were called to Lloyd and Dillon 's house in Golders Green after Dillon committed a drunken assault on his wife . Police entered the house and found Lloyd and her maid cowering beneath a table . Dillon confronted the constables and assaulted one of them , which resulted in him being taken to court , fined and sentenced to a month 's hard labour . Lloyd began drinking to escape the trauma of her domestic abuse . That year , she was earning £ 470 per week performing in music halls and making special appearances . The following year , she performed perhaps her best known song , " My Old Man ( Said Follow the Van ) " , which was written for her by Fred W. Leigh and Charles Collins . The song depicts a mother fleeing her home to avoid the rent man . The lyrics reflected the hardships of working class life in London at the beginning of the 20th century , and gave her the chance to costume the character in a worn out dress and black straw boater , while carrying a birdcage . By 1918 , she had become popular with the British @-@ based American soldiers , but had failed to capture the spirits of their English counterparts , and began feeling sidelined by her peers ; Vesta Tilley had led a very successful recruitment drive into the services , and other music hall performers had been honoured by royalty .
In July 1919 , Lloyd was again left off the cast list for the Royal Variety Performance , which paid tribute to the acts who helped raise money and boost morale during the war years . She was devastated at the snub and grew bitter towards her rivals who had been acknowledged . Her biographer Midge Gillies compared Lloyd to a " talented old aunt who must be allowed to have her turn at the piano even though all everyone really wants is jazz or go to the Picture Palace " . She toured Cardiff in 1919 , and in 1920 she was earning £ 11 @,@ 000 a year . Despite the high earnings , she was living beyond her means , with a reckless tendency to spend money . She was famous for her generosity , but was unable to differentiate between those in need and those who simply exploited her kindness . Her extravagant tastes , an accumulation of writs from disgruntled theatre managers , an inability to save money , and generous hand @-@ outs to friends and family , resulted in severe money troubles during the final years of her life .
= = = Decline and death = = =
In 1920 , Lloyd appeared twice at Hendon Magistrates Court and gave evidence of the abuse she had suffered from Dillon . Soon afterwards , she separated from him and , as a result , became depressed . When asked by prosecutors how many times Dillon had assaulted her since Christmas 1919 , Lloyd replied " I cannot tell you , there were so many [ occasions ] . It has happened for years , time after time , always when he is drunk . " By now , she was becoming increasingly unreliable on stage ; she appeared at a theatre in Cardiff for a mere six minutes before being carried off by stage hands . During the performance , she seemed dazed and confused , and she stumbled across the stage . She was conscious of her weak performances and frequently cried between shows . Virginia Woolf was among the audience at the Bedford Music Hall on 8 April 1921 and described Lloyd as " A mass of corruption – long front teeth – a crapulous way of saying ' desire ' , and yet a born artist – scarcely able to walk , waddling , aged , unblushing . "
In April 1922 , Lloyd collapsed in her dressing room after singing " The Cosmopolitan Girl " at the Gateshead Empire in Cardiff . Her doctor diagnosed exhaustion , and she returned to the stage in August . Her voice became weak , and she reduced her act to a much shorter running time . Her biographer Naomi Jacob thought that Lloyd was " growing old , and [ she ] was determined to show herself to her public as she really was ... an old , grey @-@ faced , tired woman " . On 12 August 1921 , Lloyd failed to show for an appearance at the London Palladium , choosing instead to stay at home and write her will .
In early 1922 , Lloyd moved in with her sister Daisy to save money . On 4 October , against her doctor 's advice , she appeared at the Empire Music Hall in Edmonton , North London , where she sang " I 'm One of the Ruins That Cromwell Knocked About a Bit " . Her performance was weak , and she was unsteady on her feet , eventually falling over on stage . Her erratic and brief performance proved hilarious for the audience , who thought that it was all part of the act . A week later , while appearing at the Alhambra Theatre , she was taken ill on stage and was found later in her dressing room crippled with pain , complaining of stomach cramps . She returned home later that evening , where she died of heart and kidney failure three days later , aged 52 . More than 50 @,@ 000 people attended her funeral at Hampstead Cemetery on 12 October 1922 . Lloyd was penniless at the time of her death and her estate , which was worth £ 7 @,@ 334 , helped to pay off debts that she and Dillon had incurred over the years .
Writing in The Dial magazine the following month , T.S. Eliot claimed : " Among [ the ] small number of music @-@ hall performers , whose names are familiar to what is called the lower class , Marie Lloyd had far the strongest hold on popular affection . " Her biographer and friend MacQueen @-@ Pope thought that Lloyd was " going downhill of her own volition . The complaint was incurable , some might call it heartbreak , perhaps a less sentimental diagnosis is disillusionment . " The impersonator Charles Austin paid tribute by saying " I have lost an old pal , and the public has lost its principal stage favourite , one who can never be replaced . "
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= Prince Oana =
Henry " Hank " Kawaihoa " Prince " Oana , Jr . ( January 22 , 1910 – June 19 , 1976 ) was a professional baseball player for 23 years from 1929 to 1951 . He played portions of three seasons in Major League Baseball as an outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1934 , and as a pinch hitter and pitcher for Detroit Tigers in 1943 and 1945 . When Oana debuted with the Phillies , he became the fourth Hawaiian player to appear in the major leagues . He compiled a .308 batting average and a 3 @.@ 77 earned run average ( ERA ) in three major league seasons .
Born in Hawaii , Oana played five sports in high school , and took up baseball professionally after he was noticed by Ty Cobb . He spent a few seasons in the minor leagues before joining the Phillies , who sent him back to the minors after six games in 1934 . For the next decade , he played for various minor league teams , where his Hawaiian heritage proved to be both a selling point for teams and a hindrance to him making the majors , until the outbreak of World War II . Facing a shortage of active players , the Tigers signed him , and Oana played parts of 1943 and 1945 with the team . After 1945 , he was sold to the Dallas Rebels , and he finished his professional career in 1951 . He later operated a lakeside fishing business until his death in 1976 .
= = Early years = =
Oana was born at Waipahu , Hawaii , the site of the former Oahu Sugar Company plantation , in 1910 . His father , Henry Kawaihoa Oana , Sr. , was a Native Hawaiian from Waialua and a 1896 graduate of Kamehameha School , who later worked as a bookkeeper at the sugarcane plantation and as a station agent at the local railroad depot . His mother Mary was of Portuguese descent .
Oana attended Saint Louis School in Honolulu where he had the nickname " Nutsky , " and was " a five @-@ sport star " in baseball , football , basketball , track and swimming . He was a running back in football and was twice ( 1926 and 1927 ) selected for the Interscholastic League of Honolulu all @-@ star team .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Pacific Coast League = = =
In his youth , Oana played for a Hawaiian " Aratani " baseball team that went on a tour of Japan in 1928 . While barnstorming in Japan , Ty Cobb saw Oana playing and suggested he play professionally in the United States , and recommended Oana to the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League . Oana heeded Cobb 's advice and traveled to California in the winter of 1929 to try out with the Seals .
He spent the 1929 season with the Globe Bears , San Francisco 's affiliate in the Class D Arizona State League . Oana compiled a .374 batting average with the Bears in his first year of professional play . He compiled a .413 average in 79 games for the Globe Bears at the start of the 1930 season , and was promoted to San Francisco . He joined the Seals organization with the ability to pitch or play in the infield or the outfield . Ultimately , " [ h ] e found himself as an outfielder being blessed with a powerful throwing arm , great speed and an ability to whack the ball to the far reaches of the parks . "
Oana spent the next several seasons as an outfielder for the Seals ( 1929 – 1932 ) and the Portland Beavers ( 1933 – 1934 ) , also in the Pacific Coast League . Oana compiled batting averages of .326 in 1930 , .345 in 1931 , and .332 in 1933 . He also totaled 29 home runs , 63 doubles , and 11 triples in 686 at bats during the 1933 season , and led the Pacific Coast League with 163 RBIs .
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
In November 1933 , the Philadelphia Phillies acquired Oana from Portland in exchange for cash , Frank Ragland , Jimmy McLeod , and a player to be named later . Portland manager Spencer Abbott noted that the deal required the Phillies to pay " $ 2500 for a look " and $ 20 @,@ 000 if he was retained for the years . " Oana made his major league debut on April 22 , 1934 , becoming the fourth Hawaiian player to play Major League Baseball . He appeared in only six games for the Phillies , four as the starting left fielder . He compiled a .238 batting average with one double and three RBIs in 21 at bats . On May 1 , 1934 the Phillies sent Oana back to Portland after less than 10 days in the big leagues .
= = = Hawaiian heritage and nickname = = =
Oana 's Hawaiian heritage was both a selling point for Pacific Coast League promoters and a handicap in terms of Oana 's ability to make it to the major leagues . When Oana signed with the San Francisco Seals , team owner Charlie Graham advertised Oana as " a Hawaiian prince . " Graham claimed that , while vacationing in Honolulu , he discovered Oana playing baseball in bare feet . With the popularity of swimmer Duke Kahanamoku , The Sporting News noted : " If Kahanamoku , the great swimmer , could be listed as a duke , Graham figured Oana should be at least a prince . " Portland manager Spencer Abbott also boasted that he was the one who had invested Oana " with the halo of Hawaiian royalty . "
Oana 's Hawaiian heritage was also a handicap in an era before racial integration of Major League Baseball . In January 1934 , shortly after Oana had been acquired by the Phillies , The Sporting News wrote a feature story about Oana under the headline , " ' Prince ' Oana Pops Into the Big League Melting Pot : Adding Dash of Hawaii to Cuban and Indian Spice . " Author Daniel M. Daniel offered Oana 's promotion to the Phillies as evidence that , " while baseball is as American as America itself , it is also as cosmopolitan as our national population . " Daniel wrote that , without going into the justice of the color line , the color line in baseball " is adhered to most strictly . " Daniel wrote that , despite Oana 's batting record , San Francisco owner Charlie Graham had difficulty selling Oana to a major league club , as some suggested that a full @-@ blooded " Kanaka " may " not be welcome in the ranks of the big leagues . " When the Seals signed Oana , he was rated as " an ' important money ' prospect " who would likely draw five figures in a sale to a big league club .
To overcome the color line , Graham backed away from the story that Oana was a full @-@ blooded Hawaiian prince and noted that Oana 's mother was Portuguese . However , Graham could still not find a major league buyer for Oana . When Oana was acquired by the Phillies at the end of the 1933 season , The Sporting News published a front @-@ page story referring to Oana as a " full @-@ blooded Hawaiian " and a " dark @-@ skinned islander " who " comes from the royal stock of the old Hawaiian dynasty that ruled the islands before the United States took over the country . Hence , the title of prince , which he wears proudly . "
= = = Atlanta Crackers = = =
After his brief stint with the Phillies , Oana was returned to Portland and shortly thereafter sold to the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association . Spencer Abbott , who had previously managed Portland and was then the manager in Atlanta , offered to allow Portland to name its price for Oana . Abbott paid $ 5 @,@ 000 for Oana and recalled Atlanta 's racially segregated bleachers furthered the rationale for acquiring Oana :
At Atlanta we needed a powerful right @-@ handed hitter who could hit the ball into those Negro bleachers in left field . We needed a hero for our colored citizens . Oana was the man .
Abbott agreed to fly Oana to Atlanta and asked him to dress sharply and wear a lei . Abbott arranged for press and photographers to meet Oana at the Atlanta airport . He later recalled : " I sold them on the Hawaiian royalty stuff . It was not far off the beam , either , for Hank comes from the best stock in the islands – and he looked like a prince , tall , dark and handsome . " Oana spent most of the 1934 season with the Crackers , compiling a .289 batting average and 17 home runs in 480 at bats . Despite playing less than the full season in the Southern Association , he led the circuit in home runs and finished second in the league with 100 RBIs . Finding no interest from major league clubs after his 1934 season in Atlanta , Oana reportedly expressed interest in pursuing a career as a professional wrestler , with one account indicating that he hoped to " cash in " on his " wrestling experience on the island with Japanese grapplers . "
= = = Later 1930s = = =
Oana spent the 1935 and 1936 seasons with the Syracuse Chiefs of the International League . He hit .300 with 21 doubles , 8 triples , and 12 home runs in 320 at bats during the 1935 season . Oana spent the 1937 season with Knoxville and Little Rock in the Southern Association , but an injury in Little Rock forced him to finish the season playing semipro ball in North Carolina . Oana next spent two years playing for the Jackson Senators in 1938 and 1939 . In 1938 , he hit .320 with 39 doubles and 26 home runs , and in 1939 , he hit .323 with 20 doubles , 12 triples , and a career @-@ high 39 home runs .
= = = Conversion to pitcher at Ft . Worth = = =
At the end of the 1939 season , the Jackson club sole Oana to the Fort Worth Cats in the Texas League . He continued to play as an outfielder for Fort Worth in 1940 and 1941 . However , his offensive production dropped with batting averages of .264 in 1940 and .253 in 1941 .
After the 1941 season , with his batting in decline , Oana worked as a pitcher during a barnstorming tour of Mexico . Rogers Hornsby took over as the manager at Fort Worth in 1942 , and Oana badgered Hornsby for a chance as a pitcher . According to one account , Hornsby was reportedly prepared to release Oana , who was not hitting well , and said to Oana , " Hank , you hit like a pitcher , " to which Oana replied , " I am a good pitcher . " Hornsby initially thought that Oana was joking about being a pitcher , but finally relented and allowed him to pitch in relief one day in Houston . In Oana 's first 76 innings as a pitcher in 1942 , he compiled a 0 @.@ 76 earned run average ( ERA ) , threw 50 consecutive innings without an earned run , and pitched a no @-@ hitter . In mid @-@ July 1942 , Oana 's scoreless streak became national news , and resulted in a feature story in The Sporting News . In a total of 25 games as a pitcher during the 1942 season , Oana compiled a 16 – 5 record with a 1 @.@ 72 ERA .
= = = Detroit Tigers = = =
In 1943 , the Texas League disbanded due to the shortage of players during World War II . Oana was sold to the Milwaukee Brewers in February 1943 , and he appeared in 20 games for that team . However , baseball commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis ruled that Oana was a free agent since the Texas League had disbanded . In late June 1943 , Oana signed with the Detroit Tigers . In an introductory interview with the Detroit press , Oana had this to say about his supposed connection to Hawaiian royalty :
When I first joined the Seals , stories were published that I was a Hawaiian prince . The more I denied them , the more people believed them . I 'm plain plain Henry Oana . Just call me Hank .
On July 3 , 1943 , Oana played a key role in a double @-@ header sweep of the New York Yankees that Detroit general manager Jack Zeller said brought " the greatest thrills of any game he witnessed . " In the second game of the double header , the Yankees led 5 – 2 in the third inning . Detroit manager Steve O 'Neill brought in his newly acquired pitcher , Oana . O 'Neill reportedly concluded that " the game was lost and so why waste his good pitchers . " Oana gave up four more runs , and the Yankees led 9 – 3 after seven innings . Oana then held the Yankees scoreless in the eighth inning and hit a three @-@ run home run in the bottom of the eighth inning . He held the Yankees scoreless again in the ninth inning , and the Tigers won the game with four runs in the bottom of the ninth . Oana was the winning pitcher and had his first major league home run in the same game . In all , Oana appeared in 10 games for the Tigers in 1943 , all as a reliever , compiling a 3 – 2 record with a 4 @.@ 50 ERA in 34 innings pitched . Oana also compiled a .385 batting average with two doubles , a triple , a home run , and seven RBIs in only 26 at bats for the 1943 Tigers .
Late in the 1943 season , Oana was returned to the Milwaukee Brewers , appearing in several games until he sustained a fractured wrist . In December 1943 , the Brewers sold Oana to the Buffalo Bisons of the International League . Oana compiled a 13 – 13 record with a 3 @.@ 63 ERA in 38 games for the Bisons in 1944 . He also spent most of the 1945 season in Buffalo , compiling a 15 – 14 record ( 4 @.@ 20 ERA ) in 31 games .
In August 1945 , on the recommendation of Buffalo manager Bucky Harris , the Tigers called him back up to the big leagues . With the Tigers were competing for the American League pennant , Oana appeared in three games , one as a starter . Oana compiled a 1 @.@ 59 ERA in 11 innings for the 1945 Tigers team that won the pennant and the 1945 World Series . His only major league game as a starting pitcher was on September 12 , 1945 , against the Philadelphia Athletics : Oana allowed one hit through the first eight innings , pitched 10 @-@ 2 / 3 innings and allowed only two runs , though the Tigers lost the game , 3 – 2 , in the 16th inning .
= = = Final years in the minors = = =
After the 1945 season , Oana was sold to the Dallas Rebels of the Texas League . By July 1946 , he was ranked among the league 's top hitters and pitchers . He finished the 1946 season with a 24 – 10 record , a 2 @.@ 54 ERA , a .303 batting average and seven home runs in 185 at bats .
Oana remained in Dallas for two years , 1946 and 1947 . He then played three years as a player @-@ manager for the Austin Pioneers of the Big State League from 1948 to 1950 . He concluded his career as the player @-@ manager for the Texarkana Bears in 1951 . He ended his minor league career with a .304 batting average with 2 @,@ 292 hits , including 428 doubles , 130 triples , and 261 home runs .
= = Personal and later life = =
During his playing career , Oana developed a " reputation as a playboy , " who " had too many extra @-@ curricular activities . " He was reported to have dressed like " a dandy " , been " the Beau Brummel of baseball , " and been idolized by fans for his " S @-@ S appeal , socks and sex . "
Oana was married multiple times . With his first wife , Arma Puninani Richardson , he had two sons , George ( born 1928 ) and Henry ( born 1929 ) . On October 1 , 1935 , he was married to Joyce Powell of Winter Haven , Florida . By 1942 , he had remarried to Patricial Hall of Atlanta . In 1946 , he was reported to be happily married to a Texas girl . He also had at least two marriages late in life , in 1968 to a woman named Cynthia , and in 1974 to Opal Gunn . Spencer Abbott , Oana 's minor league manager in Portland and Atlanta , recalled that Oana " worried hell out of me . " According to Abbott , Oana had friends in every town , and " it was tough for him to live anything resembling a Spartan life . " Abbott speculated that , despite having major league talent , Oana 's lifestyle may have held him back from becoming a star in the major leagues . In 1946 , Abbott opined : " If he had been a less handsome fellow with the same ability he might have been a ten @-@ year star now in the major leagues . "
Oana 's baseball career ended in 1951 , in part due to vision problems . In the spring of 1952 , Oana underwent surgery in Austin , Texas , to remove cataracts from his right eye . He reportedly underwent eye surgery five times over the next 10 years and lived and worked during the late 1950s and early 1960s in a rehabilitation center for the blind in Austin , Texas . He worked there as an instructor teaching crafts to the totally blind . In 1965 , the Associated Press reported that Oana 's vision had returned and that he hoped to secure a job as a baseball coach , which would enable him to reimburse the Travis Association for the Blind for the assistance it provided while his vision was substantially lost due to cataracts in both eyes .
In his later years , Oana regained much of his vision and continued living in Austin , Texas . He operated a lakeside fishing business and was also a captain with the Travis County Sheriff 's Department . Oana died of a heart attack in 1976 at his home in Austin , Texas at the age of 66 , and was buried at the Oakwood Cemetery Annex in Austin .
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= M @-@ 209 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 209 was a state trunkline highway in the lower peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It was located in Leelanau County in the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . Until it was decommissioned , it was Michigan 's shortest state highway . M @-@ 209 started at M @-@ 109 and went 0 @.@ 543 miles ( 0 @.@ 874 km ) or just 956 yards ( 874 m ) to Glen Haven . In 1996 , M @-@ 209 's designation was " abandoned " , and the road was turned over to the jurisdiction of the Leelanau County Road Commission .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 209 was the short connector route from M @-@ 109 to the Glen Haven unit of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore west of Glen Arbor . The southern terminus of the highway was at the intersection with M @-@ 109 south of Glen Haven , a restored logging village on the shore of Lake Michigan on the Leelanau Peninsula . The roadway ran north from this intersection where M @-@ 109 made a 90 – degree corner through the south and east legs of a four @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 209 and Dune Valley Road . M @-@ 209 ran past such attractions as the restored General Store and Blacksmith Shop . Also located in Glen Haven is the former Glen Haven Canning Co. building . This building was first used as a warehouse and later as a cannery for cherries in the 1920s . It has since been restored as the Cannery Boathouse housing historic wooden boats used in the Manitou Passage between Glen Haven , Glen Arbor and the North and South Manitou Islands . The northern terminus of M @-@ 209 was located in front of the former U.S. Coast Guard Life Saving Station , now restored as a maritime museum . The museum is located at the intersection of Glen Haven Road and Sleeping Bear Dunes Road . At the time of decommissioning , M @-@ 209 was a two @-@ lane , paved road .
Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore is a United States National Lakeshore located on the " little finger " of the lower peninsula of Michigan in Leelanau and Benzie counties . The park covers a 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) stretch of Lake Michigan 's eastern coastline , as well as North and South Manitou Islands . The park was authorized on October 21 , 1970 .
= = History = =
From its inception in the 1920s , M @-@ 209 was Michigan 's shortest highway . It connected the small community of Glen Haven to M @-@ 109 just south of the community . Glen Haven was founded as a settlement called Sleeping Bearville with a sawmill and an inn in 1857 . By 1881 , there were 11 buildings in the community . The lifesaving station was built in 1901 and moved to its present location in 1931 before closing in 1941 . M @-@ 209 was first assumed as a state trunkline in the 1920s . It would later serve the national lakeshore when the park was created on October 21 , 1970 . The Park Service purchased all of the village by the mid @-@ 1970s . The highway was turned over to Leelanau County control on June 5 , 1996 . It is now known only as Glen Haven Road . Since the transfer , M @-@ 212 in Cheboygan County is now the shortest highway in the state .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Glen Arbor Township , Leelanau County .
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= Eastern Area Command ( RAAF ) =
Eastern Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in May 1942 , and controlled units based in New South Wales and southern Queensland . Headquartered in Sydney , Eastern Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . The area continued to function following the end of the war , transferring its headquarters to Glenbrook , in the Blue Mountains , in 1949 . By this time most of the RAAF 's operational units were based within Eastern Area 's boundaries . It was re @-@ formed in October 1953 as Home Command ( renamed Operational Command in 1959 , and Air Command in 1987 ) under the RAAF 's new functional command @-@ and @-@ control system .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . When war broke out , the RAAF began to decentralise its command structure , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Between March 1940 and May 1941 , Australia and Papua were divided into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) who controlled the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary .
Central Area was disbanded in August 1941 and its responsibilities divided between Southern Area , Northern Area , and the newly formed No. 2 ( Training ) Group . The outbreak of the Pacific War resulted in Northern Area being split in January 1942 into North @-@ Western and North @-@ Eastern Areas , to counter separate Japanese threats to Northern Australia and New Guinea . Southern Area was also considered appropriate for division owing to its size , so the Air Board proposed assigning responsibility for operational and maintenance units within New South Wales to a new area command , Eastern Area , which would also assume control of units in southern Queensland from North @-@ Eastern Area .
Headquartered in the Sydney suburb of Edgecliff , Eastern Area Command was formed on 15 May 1942 under the leadership of Air Vice Marshal Bill Anderson . Staff numbered 114 , including forty @-@ five officers . Training units in New South Wales remained part of No. 2 ( Training ) Group . No. 5 ( Maintenance ) Group was formed in Sydney on 1 June , and took responsibility for all maintenance units initially controlled by Eastern Area Command . In September , the Allied Air Forces commander in the South West Pacific Area , Major General George Kenney , formed the majority of his US flying units into the Fifth Air Force , and most of their Australian counterparts into RAAF Command , led by Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock . Bostock exercised control of Australian air operations through the area commands , although RAAF Headquarters continued to hold overarching administrative authority , meaning that Bostock and his area commanders were ultimately dependent on the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , for supplies and equipment .
Of necessity , the RAAF 's two northerly area commands were primarily responsible for bombing and air defence , while the other commands focussed on maritime patrol and anti @-@ submarine warfare . Aircraft from Eastern Area flew over 400 patrol , anti @-@ submarine , and convoy escort missions in January 1943 . By April , the command was operating seven combat units : No. 5 Squadron , flying army cooperation missions with CAC Wirraways out of Kingaroy , Queensland ; No. 23 Squadron , flying dive @-@ bombing missions with Wirraways from Lowood , Queensland ; No. 24 Squadron , flying dive @-@ bombing missions with Wirraways from Bankstown , New South Wales ; No. 32 Squadron , flying reconnaissance and bombing missions with Lockheed Hudsons from Camden , New South Wales ; No. 71 Squadron , flying maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine missions with Avro Ansons from Lowood ; No. 73 Squadron , flying maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine missions with Ansons from Nowra , New South Wales ; and No. 83 Squadron , flying fighter missions with Wirraways from Strathpine , Queensland . Area headquarters staff numbered 626 , including ninety @-@ nine officers . Bristol Beauforts of No. 32 Squadron were credited with damaging a Japanese submarine on 19 June , but neither the RAAF nor the Royal Australian Navy was able to destroy any enemy submarines in coastal waters during 1943 .
Anderson handed over command of Eastern Area to Air Commodore John Summers in July 1943 . Group Captain Alister Murdoch became senior air staff officer ( SASO ) . On 22 October , Avro Lancaster Q @-@ for @-@ Queenie , piloted by Flight Lieutenant Peter Isaacson , " buzzed " the Eastern Area headquarters building in Edgecliff before flying under the Sydney Harbour Bridge , flouting regulations and becoming the largest aircraft to pull such a stunt . The same month , the Air Board proposed carving a new area command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for division . The new command , to be known as Central Area , would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland ; the War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland ; once again , nothing came of the proposal .
Air Commodore Alan Charlesworth was appointed AOC Eastern Area in December 1943 . Japanese submarine activity had decreased in the months prior to Charlesworth taking command , and he was concerned that Allied ships were becoming complacent . He observed " a general slackening off in procedure ; ships are seldom where they should be , and a minority of merchant ships identify themselves to aircraft " . The RAAF 's patrols had also settled into a predictable pattern that an observant submarine captain could easily avoid . Charlesworth relinquished command in September 1944 to take over North @-@ Western Area . In December , aircraft from Eastern Area took part in the search for the German submarine U @-@ 862 , but could not prevent it sinking the Liberty ship Robert J. Walker on Christmas ; a Beaufort of No. 15 Squadron , based at Camden , located the wreck . No. 32 Squadron lost a Beaufort with its crew shortly after takeoff from Lowood during the search for U @-@ 862 , which was called off in January 1945 . That month , Air Commodore Leon Lachal became AOC Eastern Area , and held command for the duration of the Pacific War .
= = = Post @-@ war activity and reorganisation = = =
Following the end of the Pacific War in August 1945 , South West Pacific Area was dissolved and RAAF Headquarters again assumed full control of all its operational elements , including the area commands . According to the official history of the post @-@ war Air Force , the AOC Eastern Area was considered " Australia 's senior operational airman " and delegated by the Chief of the Air Staff with day @-@ to @-@ day responsibility for the nation 's air defence . Most of the RAAF 's bases and aircraft employed in operations were situated within Eastern Area 's sphere of control in New South Wales and southern Queensland . Air Commodore Frank Lukis succeeded Lachal as AOC in December 1945 . By the end of the month , headquarters staff numbered 1 @,@ 122 , including 104 officers . No. 82 ( Bomber ) Wing came under the control of Eastern Area Command in April 1946 , when it moved to RAAF Station Amberley , Queensland ; initially operating B @-@ 24 Liberators , the wing re @-@ equipped with Avro Lincolns soon after . By this time Eastern Area headquarters occupied seven mansions in Point Piper , Sydney ; it subsequently relocated to Bradfield Park . Lukis retired from the Air Force in May , and Charlesworth took over command .
In July – August 1946 , Eastern Area Command oversaw the establishment of No. 86 ( Transport ) Wing , operating C @-@ 47 Dakotas , at RAAF Station Schofields , New South Wales , displacing No. 78 ( Fighter ) Wing , which moved to RAAF Station Williamtown , and began operating P @-@ 51 Mustangs . The following month , Air Vice Marshal Jones proposed reducing the five mainland area commands ( North @-@ Western , North @-@ Eastern , Eastern , Southern , and Western Areas ) to three : Northern Area , covering Queensland and the Northern Territory ; Eastern Area , covering New South Wales ; and Southern Area , covering Western Australia , South Australia , Victoria and Tasmania . The proposal was part of a much larger plan to restructure the post @-@ war RAAF ; the Federal government rejected the plan and the wartime area command boundaries largely remained in place . Lachal succeeded Charlesworth as AOC Eastern Area in October , and held command until his retirement from the Air Force in July 1947 .
Lachal 's successor as AOC Eastern Area , Air Vice Marshal Frank Bladin , was responsible for preparing the transfer of its headquarters from Bradfield Park to the former Lapstone Hotel at Glenbrook in the Lower Blue Mountains , a process that was completed in 1949 . As well as commanding a view of the surrounding countryside , the property was within five kilometres ( three miles ) of the City of Penrith and thirty kilometres ( twenty miles ) of RAAF Station Richmond , and incorporated a disused railway tunnel that offered , according to government correspondence , " complete protection from Atom Bomb attack " . An adjoining property , " Briarcliffe " , was purchased soon afterwards to augment the new headquarters ' accommodation facilities . Bladin completed his term as AOC Eastern Area in October 1948 . Air Vice Marshal John McCauley was appointed AOC in March the following year . McCauley commanded Eastern Area during the early years of the Malayan Emergency , and oversaw the deployment of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing to administer RAAF units stationed there — a Lincoln squadron detached from No. 82 Wing and a Dakota squadron from No. 86 Wing . Having re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Vampire jets , No. 78 Wing departed Williamtown for garrison duties with the RAF on Malta in July 1952 . In May 1953 , Eastern Area 's SASO , Group Captain Frank Headlam , announced that the Air Force was planning to re @-@ equip No. 82 Wing with English Electric Canberra jet bombers , and also procure CAC Sabre swept @-@ wing jet fighters .
The Federal government retired Air Marshal Jones in 1952 and replaced him with Air Marshal Donald Hardman , RAF , who proceeded to re @-@ organise the RAAF command @-@ and @-@ control system along functional lines , establishing Home ( operational ) , Training , and Maintenance Commands in October 1953 . The first was re @-@ formed from Eastern Area Command as it was considered the RAAF 's de facto operational organisation . The second was re @-@ formed from Southern Area Command , as it was the hub of training services , controlling those in New South Wales and Queensland as well as Victoria and South Australia . The third and last functional command was formed from the extant Maintenance Group headquarters in Melbourne . The transition to a functional system was completed in February 1954 , when the three new commands assumed control of operations , training and maintenance from Western , North @-@ Western , and North @-@ Eastern Areas .
= = Aftermath = =
The functional commands established in 1953 – 54 were revised in 1959 . Home Command was renamed Operational Command , and Training and Maintenance Commands merged to become Support Command . Operational Command was renamed Air Command in 1987 , and three years later Support Command split into Logistics Command and Training Command . Throughout the evolution from Home to Operational to Air Command , the headquarters remained at Glenbrook in the Blue Mountains . In 1997 , logistics management became the responsibility of Support Command ( Air Force ) , the RAAF component of the Defence @-@ wide Support Command Australia ( later subsumed by the Defence Materiel Organisation ) . Training Command was re @-@ formed as Air Force Training Group , a force element group under Air Command , in 2006 . Air Command thus became the sole command @-@ level organisation in the RAAF .
= = Order of battle = =
As at May 1944 , Eastern Area controlled the following squadrons :
No. 11 Squadron , equipped with Consolidated PBY Catalinas , based in Rathmines
No. 21 Squadron , equipped with Vultee Vengeances , based at Camden
No. 32 Squadron , equipped with Bristol Beauforts , based at Lowood
No. 107 Squadron , equipped with Vought Kingfishers , based at St. George 's Basin
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= Nels Nelsen =
Nels Nelsen ( 3 June 1894 – 3 June 1943 ) , born Nils Johan Nilsen and sometimes incorrectly referred to as Nels Nelson , was a Norwegian @-@ born Canadian ski jumper and later ski jumping organizer . He was among the world 's best ski jumpers during the 1920s , and held the world record of 73 meters from 1925 to 1930 . Born in Salangen , he moved with his family to Revelstoke , British Columbia , in 1913 . He quickly became the town 's best ski jumper , making his debut in the town 's Big Hill in 1916 . He competed throughout Canada and the United States , and became Canadian champion five times . Despite holding the world record at the time , he was not allowed to participate in the 1928 Winter Olympics because the officials did not find it suitable for him to have to work his way to Switzerland .
Nelsen worked for the Canadian Pacific Railway , and moved to North Vancouver , British Columbia , where he raised a family . Nelsen lost his hand in a hunting accident in 1933 , and was forced to retire as a ski jumper . He continued as an organizer , and was among other things president of the Western Canada Amateur Ski Association and later vice @-@ president of the Canadian Amateur Ski Association . In 1948 , after Big Hill had been expanded , it was renamed Nels Nelsen Hill . Nelsen was inscribed in the U.S. National Ski Hall of Fame in 1971 and the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame in 1983 .
= = Early and personal life = =
He was born Nils Johan Nilsen to a Norwegian family in Seljeskog in Salangen on 3 June 1894 , as the oldest of six children . As a child , Nelsen was an active skier and ski jumper , with more than fifteen ski jumps located in the area . In 1913 , his family emigrated to Big Eddy near Revelstoke . Once in Canada , he anglicized his name . His brother , Ivind Nilsen was also a champion ski jumper , and became among other things Boy 's World Champion in 1922 . Ivind , who chose not to anglicize his last name , was known for his supreme style , while Nels was better known for his length . Nelsen married Emma Pickard , with whom he had ten children . Except for a brief period as a ski instructor , he worked as a brakeman and conductor for the Canadian Pacific Railway , whose flexibility made it easer to participate in tournaments . He moved to North Vancouver where he raised his family .
= = Athletic career = =
Nelsen won the home @-@ town Winter Carnival Tournament , setting the hill record of 56 meters ( 183 ft ) in Big Hill in the inauguration tournament in 1916 . With this and subsequent better distances , he would hold the hill record in Revelstoke until 1932 . In 1916 , he won the Championship of Canada Ski Jumping Contest , which he would subsequently defend every year until 1920 . He continued by setting the Canadian amateur record in 1920 , and breaking it again in 1921 and 1923 . He was among the most successful jumpers in Canada from 1916 to 1925 , taking home most trophies . Among his methods to improve his jumps was placing pieces of lead at the front or back of the skies to give optimal balance .
Nelsen traveled throughout Canada and the United States to attend ski jumping competitions . In British Columbia , he attended competitions in Nelson , Trail , Rossland , Princeton , Kamloops , Sandon , Nakusp , Kimberley and Cranbrook . In Alberta , he attended tournaments in Calgary , Edmonton , Banff and Camrose ; in eastern Canada in Ottawa and Montreal . In the United States , he attended events in Mount Rainier and Leavenworth in Washington ; Dillon , Steamboat Springs and Denver in Colorado ; Salt Lake City ; and Brattleboro , Vermont . He became Canadian champion five times , in 1917 , 1918 , 1919 , 1920 and 1922 . His various best jumps were Canadian records from 1916 to 1932 .
During the 1925 Winter Carnival Tournament , Nelsen , sick with influenza , set a world record at the Big Hill . Jumping 73 meters ( 240 ft ) , the record remained until it was broken by Adolph Badrut at Bernina @-@ Roseg @-@ Schanze in Switzerland in 1930 , who jumped 75 meters ( 246 ft ) . However , Bob Lymburne was able to again claim the world record for the Big Hill , when he jumped 82 meters ( 269 ft ) in 1932 . Although accepted as a record , it was not at the time favored in Europe to stress distance records . This was because it was regarded that simply building a larger hill would undoubtedly give a longer jump , and in part because such records did not take style into consideration . Nelsen and Melbourne McKenzie planned to travel to St. Moritz , Switzerland , to attend the 1928 Winter Olympics , but lack of funding meant that they planned for work for their fare on a freighter . These plans were stopped by officials from the British delegation , who felt it was inappropriate and not fitting for the team , and Nelsen never competed in any Winter Olympics . Nelsen kept his amateur status , but did well against professionals those times he competed against them . During the winter of 1932 , he worked as a ski instructor in Quebec . In a hunting accident in 1932 , he lost an arm , and never jumped again .
= = Organizer career and legacy = =
After arriving in Revelstoke , Nelsen was instrumental in the establishment of Revelstoke Ski Club and the Big Hill located within Mount Revelstoke National Park . In 1927 , he helped establish a ski jump in Grouse Mountain in North Vancouver . After his accident , he started working to establish Field Ski Club in Field , British Columbia , where he spent time between trains . He promoted a strict adherence to the amateur code , and stated that debates regarding professionalism were disruptive for the United States National Ski Association .
Traditionally , governing of skiing in Canada was split between the Canadian Amateur Ski Association ( CASA ) and the Western Canada Amateur Ski Association ( WCASA ) . Nelsen was the latter 's president , and after years of rivalry , which even reached the point where they did not recognize each other , Nelsen eventually was part of the negotiation for an amalgamation which took into consideration the needs of the western clubs . Nelsen subsequently became vice @-@ president of CASA from 1934 .
He died of heart failure in Field on 3 June 1943 — his 49th birthday . In 1948 , after Big Hill had been expanded , it was renamed Nels Nelsen Hill . Nelsen was inscribed in the U.S. National Ski Hall of Fame in 1971 , the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame in 1983 , and the following year in the BC Sports Hall of Fame .
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= Manny Malhotra =
Emmanuel " Manny " Noveen Malhotra ( born May 18 , 1980 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre , who is currently an unrestricted free agent who last played with the Lake Erie Monsters in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) on a try @-@ out basis . He previously played in the NHL for the Montreal Canadiens , Carolina Hurricanes , Vancouver Canucks , San Jose Sharks , Columbus Blue Jackets , Dallas Stars and the New York Rangers . Malhotra is known as a two @-@ way forward and for his faceoff proficiency .
= = Playing career = =
Malhotra was drafted in the first round as the seventh overall pick of the 1998 NHL Entry Draft by the New York Rangers . He joined the NHL after a two @-@ year career in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) with the Guelph Storm , with served as captain in his final year . Winning a J. Ross Robertson Cup championship and subsequently appearing in the 1998 Memorial Cup with the Storm , Malhotra also earned a Bobby Smith Trophy , George Parsons Trophy and Memorial Cup All @-@ Star honours as a junior .
He played with the Rangers from 1998 to 2002 . During this time he was assigned on numerous occasions to the team 's AHL affiliate , the Hartford Wolf Pack , with whom he won a Calder Cup championship in 2000 . At the 2001 – 02 trade deadline , he was dealt to the Stars and spent parts of three seasons with the club . Beginning in 2003 – 04 , Malhotra began to see increased offensive production , marked by his acquisition off waivers by the Blue Jackets . After four seasons in Columbus , he signed a one @-@ year contract with the Sharks in September 2009 . He recorded a career @-@ high in goals with San Jose , before joining the Canucks on a three @-@ year deal . In his first season with Vancouver , Malhotra suffered a major injury to his left eye , requiring several surgeries . Despite having lost a significant amount of his vision , he returned the same year to compete in the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . He struggled to play with the injury until Canucks management placed him on the injured reserve for the remainder of the 2012 @-@ 13 season in February 2013 .
Internationally , Malhotra has represented Canada in under @-@ 18 competition , two World Junior Championships and one World Championship . Serving as team captain at the 2000 World Junior Championships , Malhotra led Canada to a bronze medal .
= = = Guelph Storm = = =
After playing minor hockey with the Mississauga Reps of the Metro Toronto Hockey League ( MTHL ) , After being selected in the first round ( 17th overall ) of the 1996 OHL Priority Selection , Malhotra played two seasons in the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) with the Guelph Storm , beginning in 1996 – 97 . He scored 16 goals and 44 points over 61 games in his rookie season . In the 1997 playoffs , he added 14 points in 18 games as Guelph lost in the semifinals to the Ottawa 67 's . The following season , he improved to 16 goals and 51 points over 57 games . He served as team captain while being assigned the primary role of shutting down opposing team 's top forwards . Guelph advanced to the OHL Finals , where they defeated Ottawa in five games to capture the J. Ross Robertson Cup . Malhotra had 13 points in 12 games in the championship @-@ winning playoff season . Earning a berth into the 1998 Memorial Cup , Guelph made it to the final , where they lost to the Portland Winter Hawks 4 – 3 in overtime . Malhotra ranked third in tournament scoring with a goal and seven points over five games . He was named to the Memorial Cup All @-@ Star Team and was awarded the George Parsons Trophy as the tournament 's most sportsmanlike player .
= = = New York Rangers = = =
In the off @-@ season , Malhotra was drafted by the New York Rangers in the first round , seventh overall , of the 1998 NHL Entry Draft . The Rangers scouted him as a strong , physical player with good hockey sense and character , comparing him to Adam Graves . He was surprised to have been selected by the Rangers , as they were one of the only teams to have not interviewed or met with him prior to the draft . He anticipated being drafted by the Calgary Flames at sixth overall , as the team 's general manager , Al Coates had previously drafted him into the OHL as general manager of the Storm .
With the 1998 – 99 approaching , Malhotra had not yet signed an NHL contract with the Rangers by October . League rules stipulated that if he did not sign by October 8 , 1998 , he would be required to return to junior for the entire campaign . The night before the deadline , Malhotra and the Rangers agreed to a three @-@ year deal worth the rookie @-@ maximum of $ 975 @,@ 000 with performance @-@ based incentives that could have increased his salary to $ 2 million . Making the immediate jump from junior to the NHL at the age of 18 , he became the second player of Indian heritage to play in the NHL . Malhotra recorded eight goals and 16 points over 73 games as a rookie .
During the season , the Rangers were interested in acquiring Vancouver Canucks forward Pavel Bure . It was reported that Canucks general manager Brian Burke had requested Malhotra to be involved in a trade that would have sent him along with Niklas Sundstrom , Dan Cloutier and the Rangers ' first @-@ round pick in the 1999 draft in exchange for Bure . However , Rangers general manager Neil Smith refused to include Malhotra and the deal never materialized .
The following season , he struggled to earn a regular spot on the Rangers ' roster and was often a healthy scratch . Rangers head coach John Muckler publicly declared before the beginning of the Malhotra 's second NHL campaign that he would be nothing more than a career third @-@ liner . Malhotra 's potential was often at the centre of an ongoing dispute between Muckler and Smith .
Malhotra suffered an ankle injury in November that sidelined him for four games . Upon his recovery , his play was judged by team management to have suffered and he began to be benched . Meanwhile , the Canadian national junior team wanted the Rangers to loan him to them for the 2000 World Junior Championships . On December 12 , 1999 , general manager Neil Smith obliged and assigned Malhotra for the international tournament . He was then sent for a two @-@ week conditioning assignment with the Rangers ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Hartford Wolf Pack . On March 14 , 2000 , he was sent back down to the OHL on March 14 , 2000 , in order to retain his eligibility for later AHL assignment in the season . Malhotra had dressed for only four games in the two months between his return from the World Junior Championships in early @-@ January and his junior reassignment . He was pointless in the 27 games total he played with the Rangers that season .
Returning to Guelph , he played in five regular season and six playoff games . Upon his junior club 's first @-@ round playoff elimination , he was reassigned to the Wolf Pack where he recorded a goal and six points over 12 games to finish the regular season . He then added three points in 23 post @-@ season contests , helping the Wolf Pack to the franchise 's first Calder Cup championship .
Malhotra returned to the Wolf Pack the following season after failing to make the Rangers ' roster out of training camp . With New York deep at the centre position , his AHL assignment was predicated on him learning to play wing . He received numerous call @-@ ups to New York and finished the 2000 – 01 campaign with 11 points over 28 games in the AHL and 12 points over 50 games in the NHL . The season also marked a management change as Glen Sather took over as general manager , marking the departure of Smith , who had drafted Malhotra and regarded him as untradeable during his tenure .
Fifty @-@ six games into his 2001 – 02 season with the Rangers , Sather dealt Malhotra to the Dallas Stars at the trade deadline , along with winger Barrett Heisten , in exchange for forwards Martin Rucinsky and Roman Lyashenko . Although he had established himself as an effective forechecker and defensive forward , Malhotra did not materialize into the offensive player the Rangers hoped he would be .
= = = Post @-@ New York = = =
Malhotra welcomed the trade to Dallas as an opportunity for more playing time , as he was sparsely used with the Rangers . However , he saw limited success with the Stars . Following his trade , he recorded one point , a goal , in 16 games to finish the 2001 – 02 season . He was re @-@ signed by Dallas to a two @-@ year contract on June 27 , 2002 . In 2002 – 03 , he recorded 10 points over 59 games . He appeared in his first Stanley Cup playoffs as the Stars qualified for the 2003 post @-@ season as the top seed in the Western Conference . They were eliminated in the second round by the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim .
After going pointless in nine games early the following season , the Stars waived Malhotra on November 19 , 2003 . Two days later , he was picked up by the Columbus Blue Jackets . Malhotra improved with the Blue Jackets , notching 12 goals and 25 points over 56 games following the trade . He missed the final six games of the regular season with a bruised ankle . His ice time rose from an average of nine minutes a game with Dallas the previous season to 14 minutes in Columbus .
Due to the NHL lockout , Malhotra spent the 2004 – 05 season overseas in Europe . He initially signed with HDD Olimpija Ljubljana of Slovenia on October 8 , 2004 , and recorded 27 points over 26 games ( including both Slovenian league and inter @-@ league play ) . On December 12 , he signed with HV71 Jönköping of the Swedish Elite League . He notched seven points in 20 games with the club .
Returning to Columbus as NHL resumed play the following season , Malhotra spent 2005 – 06 centering Columbus ' third line . Despite missing 24 games due to injury with back spasms in November and a shoulder injury in January , he improved his points total for the second straight NHL season with 10 goals and 21 assists . The Blue Jackets re @-@ signed him in the off @-@ season to a three @-@ year contract on June 20 , 2006 . In the first year of his new contract , he tallied nine goals and 25 points over a full 82 @-@ game season .
Malhotra missed 11 games with a recurring knee injury in December 2007 . Late in the 2007 – 08 season , on March 17 , 2008 , he recorded a career @-@ high three points in one game ( two goals and an assist ) in a 4 – 3 win against the Detroit Red Wings . He finished the campaign with 11 goals and 29 points . Early in the 2008 – 09 season , Malhotra missed five games with a lower @-@ body injury . He recorded a career @-@ high 24 assists and 35 points over 77 games during the campaign . As Columbus was plagued with numerous injuries over the course of the season , Malhotra was used on various lines while also in a shutdown role , playing against top opposing forwards .
His contract was not renewed by the Blue Jackets in the 2009 off @-@ season and he became an unrestricted free agent . After failing to sign with an NHL team , Malhotra accepted an invitation to the San Jose Sharks ' training camp on September 17 , 2009 . Five days later , he signed a one @-@ year , $ 700 @,@ 000 deal with the team . He went on to record a career @-@ high 14 goals and plus @-@ 17 rating , along with 19 assists for 33 points , in his only season with the Sharks . He centred the team 's third line and earned time playing wing on the powerplay . The Sharks did not re @-@ sign him , however , and he became an unrestricted free agent for the second consecutive summer on July 1 , 2010 . Looking back on his time in San Jose , Malhotra called it the " most enjoyable season [ he 's ] had as a pro , " being able to play for a winning team and have a long playoff run for the first time in his NHL career .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
On his first day of free agency on July 1 , 2010 , Malhotra signed a three @-@ year , $ 7 @.@ 5 million deal with the Vancouver Canucks that included a no @-@ trade clause . Malhotra was named an alternate captain during away games for the Canucks before the season began . He scored his first goal as a Canuck on October 22 , during a 5 – 1 win against the Minnesota Wild . Malhotra settled into to the Canucks ' lineup as the team 's third @-@ line centre , often playing with wingers Raffi Torres and Jannik Hansen , while playing significant time on the penalty kill and matching up against opposing team 's best forwards . His success as a defensive specialist earned him early consideration for the Selke Trophy as the league 's best two @-@ way forward . In an article on the NHL 's website , he was chosen as the front @-@ runner for the award at the mid @-@ way point of the campaign . He was also credited with allowing the team to use Ryan Kesler in a more offensive role ( Kesler was the team 's previous shutdown centre ) ; as a result , the second @-@ line centre recorded career @-@ highs in goals and points .
Near the end of the season , Malhotra was struck in the eye by a puck during a game against the Colorado Avalanche on March 16 , 2011 . He immediately left the ice and underwent eye surgery the following day . It was announced on March 21 , 2011 that Malhotra would not be returning to the lineup for the rest of the regular season and the playoffs , without further comment on Malhotra 's condition . Eight days later , he underwent a second successful surgery on his eye . Limited to 72 games , Malhotra recorded his third consecutive 30 @-@ point season with 11 goals and 19 assists , while playing on the Canucks ' third line with Raffi Torres and Jannik Hansen . His 61 @.@ 7 % faceoff percentage ranked second in the league behind David Steckel . The campaign also included the 100th goal of his NHL career , scored in a 3 @-@ 0 win against the Anaheim Ducks on March 6 , 2011 .
On a team @-@ basis , Malhotra 's first season with the Canucks saw them earn the Presidents ' Trophy for having the best regular season record in the league . In the midst of his recovery , Malhotra made an appearance during the team 's pre @-@ game ceremony at Rogers Arena , co @-@ accepting the trophy with captain Henrik Sedin . Despite original statements from the team that he would not return for the playoffs , Malhotra began working his way up from light practices with the team in May 2011 . By the end of the month , he was cleared by doctors to play in the Stanley Cup Finals . Though he remained out of the lineup for Game 1 , he returned for the following contest and played the rest of the series as the team 's fourth @-@ line centre ( late @-@ season acquisition Maxim Lapierre filled in for Malhotra on the third line ) . Playing against the Boston Bruins , the Finals went to a seventh game , which the Canucks lost . Malhotra 's regular season performance earned him six first @-@ place votes out of 125 for the Selke Trophy . He ranked fifth in balloting , as teammate Ryan Kesler won the distinction at the year @-@ end Awards Ceremony .
Having lost a significant amount of his vision in his left eye , Malhotra struggled in his first full season since the injury in 2011 – 12 . He was supplanted as the Canucks ' third @-@ line centre by rookie Cody Hodgson and later Samuel Pahlsson . Canucks head coach Alain Vigneault assessed Malhotra during the season as " not the same physical player he was before , " adding that " He 's still contributing but not maybe to the degree that he was before he got injured . " Playing left wing on the fourth line , he remained an integral part of the team by playing on the penalty kill and taking important defensive zone faceoffs . Near the end of the campaign , Malhotra was chosen as the Canucks ' nominee for the Bill Masterton Trophy , an annual NHL award for perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey . With a diminished offensive role , Malhotra finished his second season in Vancouver with 7 goals and 18 points over 78 games , as well as a -10 plus @-@ minus rating . He remained among the league 's elite in terms of faceoffs , however , ranking fourth with a 58 @.@ 5 % percentage .
Continuing to struggle with his eye injury , Malhotra was put on the injured reserve a month into the 2012 @-@ 13 season . Fearing for his long @-@ term health , Canucks general manager Mike Gillis took him out of the lineup for the season , a decision that he described as the " hardest thing [ he has ] done in [ his ] job . " Malhotra had appeared in nine games without recording a point .
= = = Carolina Hurricanes = = =
At the end of the 2013 NHL season , Malhotra became an unrestricted free agent . After being unsigned by an NHL team at the start of the 2013 – 14 season and looking to continue his playing career Malhotra signed a 25 @-@ game professional try out ( PTO ) contract with the AHL 's Charlotte Checkers . The Carolina Hurricanes signed Malhotra to a one @-@ year two way contract on October 31 and he made his Carolina debut against the New York Rangers on November 2 . On November 6 , Manny scored his first NHL goal in 19 months , scoring a game winner in overtime against the Flyers . As a measure of the amount of respect he has earned in the locker room in just a few weeks , Manny was selected to be an interim Assistant Captain while Tim Gleason is out with an injury . After Gleason was traded to the Toronto Maple Leafs , Malhotra was officially declared Alternate Captain for the remainder of the season .
= = = Montreal Canadiens = = =
On July 1 , 2014 , Malhotra signed as a free agent to a one @-@ year deal with the Montreal Canadiens . In the 2014 – 15 season , Malhotra was primarily used as the Canadiens fourth line center and face @-@ off specialist . On February 28 , 2015 , Malhotra scored his first and only goal with Montreal in his 53rd appearance in a 4 @-@ 0 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs . Malhotra completed the season registering only 4 points in 58 contests .
On May 15 , 2015 , it was announced by Canadiens GM Marc Bergevin , that Malhotra would not return to the Montreal Canadiens next season . In July 2015 , Malhotra officially became a Free Agent and proceeded to go un @-@ signed over the summer . Two months into the 2015 – 16 season , Malhotra returned within the Columbus Blue Jackets organization by signing a professional try @-@ out contract with American Hockey League affiliate , the Lake Erie Monsters on December 3 , 2015 .
= = International career = =
In the summer of 1997 , Malhotra captained Canada 's under @-@ 18 team to a championship at the 3 Nations Cup in the Czech Republic . Canada finished as tournament champions , going undefeated over six games against the Czech Republic and Slovakia in the three @-@ country competition .
The following year , Malhotra was named to the Canadian national under @-@ 20 team for the 1998 World Junior Championships , held in Finland . He was the second @-@ youngest player on the team , behind Vincent Lecavalier . Malhotra was pointless in seven games as Canada was defeated in the quarterfinal by Russia 2 – 1 . The following year , he was not available for the tournament as he was playing in the NHL with the Rangers . In 2000 , however , he was loaned to Team Canada by the Rangers ' organization , as he was still eligible as a junior . Serving as team captain , he notched two assists over seven games in the tournament , held in Sweden . Canada earned the bronze medal , defeating the United States 4 – 3 in a shootout .
Malhotra debuted with Canada 's men 's team at the 2002 World Championships in Sweden . He recorded no points in seven games as Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinal by Slovakia .
= = Personal life = =
Malhotra was born and raised in Mississauga , Ontario . His father , Shadi was born in Lahore and worked as a research chemist for Xerox . He holds over 110 patents and is now retired . His mother , Lise , is a French @-@ Canadian and was a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom . His parents both hold doctorate degrees from the Université Laval in Quebec City – his father 's in polymer chemistry and his mother 's in biochemistry – and prioritized education for Malhotra . Due to his mother 's French background , he spoke both French and English at home . Malhotra has three siblings , two brothers and a sister .
Malhotra started playing organized hockey at the age of seven . He attended John Fraser Secondary School in Mississauga before graduating from Our Lady of Lourdes in Guelph , Ontario . Malhotra moved to Guelph to begin his OHL career with the Guelph Storm , during which time he was awarded the Bobby Smith Trophy as the OHL 's scholastic player of the year in 1998 . He has referred to it as the award he is most proud of in his hockey career . In 2009 , he received the National Leadership Award in a ceremony at his former high school in Guelph .
In his initial years with the Rangers , the organization arranged for him to live with former player Doug Sulliman and his family . In September 2007 , Malhotra married Joann Nash , sister of National Basketball Association ( NBA ) star Steve Nash and former Vancouver Whitecaps FC midfielder Martin Nash . Malhotra and Joann had their first child in the summer of 2008 , a boy named Caleb . Their second son , Isaiah , was born on September 30 , 2012 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
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= Ways and Means ( The West Wing ) =
" Ways and Means " is the 47th The West Wing episode and 3rd of the third season . It originally aired on NBC October 24 , 2001 . The episode sees the beginnings of President Bartlet 's Congressional hearings , as well as negotiations over the estate tax . Written by Aaron Sorkin , Eli Attie and Gene Sperling , and directed by Alex Graves , the episode contains the first appearances by Mark Feuerstein as Clifford " Cliff " Calley . There are also guest appearances by Thom Barry , Nicholas Pryor and Miguel Sandoval .
= = Plot = =
The subpoenas are handed out in the hearing over Bartlet 's concealment of his multiple sclerosis . The special prosecutor , Clement Rollins ( Pryor ) , appears to be both fair and responsible , but C.J. believes the White House will be better served in the public eye if investigated by a partisan agent . She therefore decides — against the strong objections of White House counsel Oliver Babish — to present Rollins as an ally of the administration , thereby forcing Congress to take control over the investigation . Meanwhile Donna , unwittingly , becomes entangled in potential problems over the hearings . Ainsley Hayes sets her up on a date with the Republican House Government Oversight Committee counsel Clifford Calley , but even though the date seems to go well , Calley then leaves her quite abruptly in the middle of the street . Donna later realizes the reason : his congressional committee is the one that will be in charge of the investigation , and a relationship between the two could constitute a conflict of interest .
While Sam and Bruno are concerned about the loyalty of a powerful California union official ( Sandoval ) , Toby and Josh are preparing for a meeting with the congressional opposition to re @-@ negotiate the estate tax — or the " death tax " as the Republicans have labeled it — but are then surprised by a last @-@ minute cancellation . It soon becomes clear that the Republicans are planning to repeal the estate tax altogether , and might have the votes to do so . An attempt to win over the black caucus , led by Congressman Mark Richardson ( Barry ) , fails . At a loss over what to do , an initiative comes from unexpected quarters . The previously over @-@ cautious political strategist , Doug Wegland , suggests the president responds by doing something he has never done before : veto the bill .
President Bartlet himself is confronted with a forest fire in Wyoming , and decides to follow the counter @-@ intuitive advice of his experts , and let the fire burn . Meanwhile he is still struggling to deal with the death of his perennial personal secretary , Mrs. Landingham . Charlie insists that it is necessary to appoint a new person to fill the position , but the president is reluctant to take the step . As the episode ends , Bartlet is searching for a good pen , and realizes the full depth of his dependence on Mrs. Landingham .
= = Production = =
According to Sorkin , the episode benefited greatly from input by two former White House employees . The scene where Donna stays up all night sorting through documents in cartons was the idea of Eli Attie , Al Gore 's chief speechwriter . Meanwhile Gene Sperling , Bill Clinton 's chief economic adviser , came up with the sub @-@ plot involving the estate tax . Sorkin , however , had certain misgivings about the estate tax story 's appeal , considering the prevalent bipartisan spirit of the time , in the aftermath of the 9 / 11 attacks .
In one scene Sam Seaborn speaks to a Latino labor leader , and as the discussion heats up he switches into Spanish . The lobbyist , Victor Campos , claims that he has been used for public relations purposes , something Sam denies . Rob Lowe , who plays Seaborn , had to learn to speak the language convincingly especially for this episode . Sorkin commented , " I tend to torture Rob a little . "
= = Cultural references = =
In one scene , C.J. says that special prosecutor Rollins was the editor of the Yale Law Review . There is no such thing as the Yale Law Review , though the journal of legal scholarship affiliated with the Yale Law School is called the Yale Law Journal .
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