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= Fantasy ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Fantasy " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on September 12 , 1995 by Columbia Records as the lead single for her fifth studio album , Daydream ( 1995 ) . The song was written by Carey and Dave Hall , both serving as primary producers alongside Sean Combs . The song heavily samples Tom Tom Club 's 1981 song " Genius of Love , " and incorporates various other beats and grooves arranged by the former . The song 's lyrics describe a woman who is in love with a man , and how every time she sees him she starts fantasizing about an impossible relationship with him . The remix for the song features rap verses from Ol ' Dirty Bastard , something Carey arranged to assist in her transition into the hip @-@ hop market .
The song was positively reviewed by contemporary music critics , many of whom complimented its clever use of the " Genius of Love " hook as well as Carey 's vocal performance . " Fantasy " experienced strong success around the world , especially in the United States . It became the second song in Billboard history , and the first by a female , to debut atop the Hot 100 . Additionally , aside from topping the chart for eight consecutive weeks , the song achieved strong success outside the United States , topping the charts in Australia , Canada and New Zealand and becoming a top @-@ five hit in Belgium , Finland , France and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " Fantasy " live on several television and award show appearances around the world . Carey performed the song at the 23rd annual American Music Awards , held on January 29 , 1996 . Additionally , it was performed live on British music chart program Top of the Pops and on French television . " Fantasy " was part of the set @-@ lists on several of Carey 's succeeding tours , making its debut during the album 's accompanying set of concerts , the Daydream World Tour and is featured on her compilation albums , # 1 's ( 1998 ) , Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) , The Remixes ( 2003 ) and Playlist : The Very Best of Mariah Carey ( 2010 ) .
The cover of the single was shot by top fashion photographer Steven Meisel . The cover for her album Daydream is a cropped version of the single cover . Carey directed the music video for " Fantasy " , making it her directorial debut . Carey created the video 's concept and chose the filming location . After being disappointed with the final result in many of her previous videos , Carey decided to single handedly direct the video . The video showed Carey 's roller blading through an amusement park , singing and enjoying herself . Mid @-@ way through the video , Ol ' Dirty Bastard makes a cameo appearance as a clown . The video concludes with Carey dancing atop the sunroof of a car , with many others present and enjoying the music and celebration .
= = Background = =
With Daydream , Carey began incorporating urban R & B and hip hop into her music , something very noticeable in " Fantasy . " After Carey began writing songs for her new album Daydream , she decided to include the hook from the Tom Tom Club song " Genius of Love " into an up @-@ tempo song . Afterwards , Carey and Hall began incorporating the sample into the lyrics and melody she had already produced . Carey described how the idea to sample the song became a reality :
I was listening to the radio and heard ' Genius of Love ' , and I hadn 't heard it in a long time . It reminded me of growing up and listening to the radio and that feeling the song gave me seemed to go with the melody and basic idea I had for " Fantasy . " I initially told Dave about the idea , and we did it . We called up the Tom Tom Club and they were really into it .
Carey recalled how the writers of the song were really intrigued by the idea of Carey sampling the song , and immediately signed over the rights . After Carey presented Hall with the sample , the chorus and beat , he developed a familiar groove that he felt would " highlight Carey 's voice . " After they completed the song , Carey 's husband and CEO of Columbia , Tommy Mottola listened to " Fantasy " and agreed to include it on the album . The cover of the single was shot by top fashion photographer Steven Meisel . A cropped version of the photograph was used as the album cover as well . Hall described his experience with writing the song with Carey :
[ It ] was a fun song to do . Mariah brought me ' Genius of Love ' and I laid some strings on it and put it into a groove I felt really fit and highlighted her voice . And that song didn 't take us but a minute to do , because she really busted that out within two days . We did a rough copy and let Tommy Mottola hear it and he loved it , so all we had to do was bring it back in and mix it .
= = Composition = =
" Fantasy " is an uptempo pop , contemporary R & B , and dance @-@ pop song , which blends elements of funk , hip hop , and bubblegum pop . " Fantasy " moves at a tempo of 102 beats per minute . The remix , which features rap verses from O.D.B , also incorporates hip @-@ hop into the bridge . The song uses heavy bass and percussion , as well as a sample from " Genius of Love " . The song is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of G major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ -1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of D3 to the high note of F6 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from D ♭ 4 to E ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who also developed the song 's melody and original beat . Instrumentation and production was performed by Dave Hall , while co @-@ arranging and producing the track as well . The members of the Tom Tom Club , Tina Weymouth , Chris Frantz , Steven Stanley and Adrian Belew are all credited as writers due to the inclusion of the music sample they wrote .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Fantasy " garnered mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Bill Lamb from About.com was very positive on the song , calling it " truly inspiring " and a " career high water mark " for Carey . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic also praised the song , saying " Carey continues to perfect her craft and that she has earned her status as an R & B / pop diva . " Stephen Holden from The New York Times gave the song praise , writing " with ' Fantasy , ' Ms. Carey glides confidently into the territory where gospel @-@ flavored pop @-@ soul meets light hip @-@ hop and recorded some of the most gorgeously spun choral music to be found on a contemporary album . " Additionally , he claimed " Fantasy " held some of the album 's best moments , writing " she continues to make pop music as deliciously enticing as the best moments of " Fantasy . " Slant Magazine ranked the song at number sixty on their " Best Singles of the ' 90s " list , writing it is " escapism perfected , [ a ] summer bubblegum gem with a sweet , flawless vocal line driven by a diva in her prime . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Fantasy " achieved strong commercial success around the world . The song became Carey 's ninth number one single on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart . It became the first single by a female artist to debut atop the chart , and only the second single to do so after " You Are Not Alone " by Michael Jackson . It debuted at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 due to the strong sales , which were expected to exceed 229 @,@ 000 copies . It spent eight weeks at the top of the chart , from September 24 to November 18 , 1995 , Carey 's longest stay at the time alongside " Dreamlover " ( 1993 ) . It replaced " Gangsta 's Paradise " by Coolio , and was replaced by Whitney Houston 's " Exhale ( Shoop Shoop ) " . " Fantasy " spent 23 weeks in the top 40 and was successful on other Billboard formats , including the R & B and dance charts . Its strong sales led it to be certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , Carey 's first single to do so . " Fantasy " was the second best @-@ selling single of 1995 in the US , with sales of 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . It was ranked seventh on the Hot 100 year @-@ end charts for 1995 and 49th on the 1996 year @-@ end charts . " Fantasy " ranked at number 15 on the Hot 100 decade @-@ end chart for the 1990s .
In Australia , the song topped the chart and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In Canada , the song debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 95 on the RPM issue dated October 2 , 1995 , and reached the top of the chart on November 20 , 1995 . It was present on the chart for a total of 20 weeks , and ranked 18 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1995 . " Fantasy " also reached the top 10 in most countries across Europe , and the top 20 on the Oricon chart in Japan . It peaked within the top @-@ five in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Finland , France and the United Kingdom ; and in the top 10 in Belgium ( Flanders ) , The Netherlands , Ireland , Norway and Switzerland . " Fantasy " was certified silver in France and the United Kingdom , by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) and British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , respectively . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 280 @,@ 000 copies in United Kingdom . The song also topped the charts in New Zealand , where it was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) .
= = Remixes = =
Carey worked with producer Puff Daddy to create the official remix , the Bad Boy remix of " Fantasy " . While Columbia allowed Carey more leniency with the music she recorded , they became hesitant when she featured Ol ' Dirty Bastard in the remix for " Fantasy . " They feared the sudden change was completely left field for her music , and worried it would jeopardize the album 's success . Finally , the Bad Boy remix used guest raps from O.D.B and background vocals by Puff Daddy . Some of the song 's R & B elements were removed for the remix , while the bassline and " Genius of Love " sample were emphasized & the bridge from the original version was used as the chorus . There is a version omitting Ol ' Dirty Bastard 's verses . The " Bad Boy Fantasy Remix " , combines the chorus from the original version and the chorus of the Bad Boy Remix together , removing Ol ' Dirty Bastard 's vocals from his 2nd verse . Carey re @-@ recorded vocals for club remixes of the song by David Morales , titled " Daydream Interlude ( Fantasy Sweet Dub Mix ) . " The Bad Boy remix garnered positive reviews from music critics . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly praised the song , claiming its one of the few tracks where Carey " defines herself . " Additionally , he complimented the song , writing " At her best , as she is on this clipped , spunky track , Carey is a disco diva for the ' 90s , a worthy successor to trailblazing women like Donna Summer and Vicki Sue Robinson , R & B singers with an affinity for the endless groove . Disco ? No wonder most rock critics can 't get behind her . Party on , Mariah . "
Carey has stated that the Bad Boy remix contributed to over half of the sales of " Fantasy " .
The " Bad Boy Mix " and " Def Club Mix " would be featured on 2003 's The Remixes , while the " Bad Boy Fantasy " version would feature on 2015 's # 1 to Infinity .
= = Music video = =
The single 's music video was the first that Carey directed entirely on her own . Carey had been open about the fact that she had not been happy with some of her previous music videos . She therefore decided to single handedly direct the video , so the outcome would to her exact choosing . Carey said her inspiration for the video was to give off a " free and open feeling , " trying to portray the freedom she had finally achieved in being allowed to direct her first video . The video for " Fantasy " debuted on September 7 , at the " MTV Video Music Awards . " The video begins with Carey exploring the Playland amusement park , located in Rye , New York , on roller blades and riding a wooden coaster . The video continues showing snippets of Carey at the park , until the end of the second verse . Afterwards , Carey proceeds to an outdoor celebration that involves people dancing atop their cars .
I 'd done a lot of videos and wasn 't always a hundred percent thrilled . For the most part , I was never thrilled with the results , so I figured I would give directing a shot . It was a pretty simple concept . Most of the scenes were featured at the amusement park , at a late @-@ night outdoor celebration . I was really happy to be able to include O.D.B in the remix video .
Following in their actions , Carey joins in the festivities and hops atop a car and begins singing and dancing to the strong bass and R & B beat playing from the stereos . The video also contains a scene involving a lovable young girl who tries to emulate Carey and whose character reappears in the video for Carey 's single " Shake It Off " ( 2005 ) . The video shoot took place in mid @-@ August 1995 . In the official video for the song 's remix , O.D.B makes a few cameo appearances as a clown , as well as on the Boardwalk during additional scenes with Carey .
= = Awards and accolades = =
" Fantasy " won many prestigious awards throughout the music industry in 1995 and 1996 . At the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards , the song won the award for " Favorite Single . " Additionally , the song was a warded the " Pop Award " honor at the 1996 annual American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) . Carey won the " Dance Record of the Year " award at the " National Dance Music Awards " in 1996 . " Fantasy " won two awards at the 1996 " Winter Music Conference National Dance Music Awards , " for " Favorite Single " and " Dance Record of the Year . " The song won a Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) " Pop Song of the Year " award in 1997 , as well as the " Favorite Single " award at the annual " Archer Awards . " The song also was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 38th Grammy Awards .
= = Live performances = =
" Fantasy " was performed at the 23rd Annual American Music Awards , where Carey won two of the top awards . For the performance , Carey wore a long black trench coat and matching boots , pants and blouse , and was backed by three background vocalists . Additionally , Carey sang " Fantasy " on the British music chart program Top of the Pops , during a promotional stop in the United Kingdom on September 12 , 1995 . During its taping , she wore a blue blouse and black jumper . Two days later , Carey appeared on French television where she performed the song alongside several male and female dancers . Carey donned a mid @-@ waist baring white blouse and black leather pants and matching heeled boots . Trey Lorenz and two female back up vocalists were also featured on stage during the show 's taping . Aside from live television appearances , the song was performed on several legs of Carey 's tours .
" Fantasy " was performed at every show on her Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) set to the album version . The performance was tuned similarly to Carey 's recital at the American Music Awards , featuring a similar outfit , dance routines and set up . The remix version was performed on her Butterfly World Tour ( 1998 ) , Rainbow World Tour ( 2000 ) , Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey ( 2004 ) , and The Adventures of Mimi tour ( 2006 ) , and The Elusive Chanteuse Show ( 2014 ) each of which featured a varying synopsis . In 1998 , it became the first time Carey performed the remix version in concert , placing a large projection screen on to the stage , and featuring snippets and cuts of O.D.B. throughout the video . Additionally , Carey was dressed in blue jeans and a white blouse , and danced several chair routines with several male dancers . During the Charmbracelet Tour and Rainbow Tour , the shows segment was similar to her previous tour . The song was featured on the select set @-@ list on three of Carey 's live taped shows , Fantasy : Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden , The Adventures of Mimi , and Around the World . Carey also featured the song as the ninth in the setlist for her 2015 Las Vegas residency , Mariah Carey Number 1 's .
= = Legacy = =
" Fantasy " exemplified how a music sample could be transformed " into a fully realized pop masterpiece " . The song and its remix arguably remains as one of Carey 's most important singles to date . Due to the success and influence of the song , Carey is credited for introducing R & B and hip hop collaboration into mainstream pop culture , and for popularizing rap as a featuring act through her post @-@ 1995 songs . Sasha Frere @-@ Jones , editor of The New Yorker commented in referencing to the song 's remix , " It became standard for R & B / hip @-@ hop stars like Missy Elliott and Beyoncé , to combine melodies with rapped verses . And young white pop stars — including Britney Spears , ' N Sync , and Christina Aguilera — have spent much of the past ten years making pop music that is unmistakably R & B. " Moreover , Jones concludes that " Her idea of pairing a female songbird with the leading male MCs of hip @-@ hop changed R & B and , eventually , all of pop . Although now anyone is free to use this idea , the success of " Mimi " [ ref. to The Emancipation of Mimi , her tenth studio album released almost a decade after Fantasy ] suggests that it still belongs to Carey . "
John Norris of MTV News has stated that the remix was " responsible for , I would argue , an entire wave of music that we 've seen since and that is the R & B @-@ hip @-@ hop collaboration . You could argue that the ' Fantasy ' remix was the single most important recording that she 's ever made . " Norris echoed the sentiments of TLC 's Lisa Lopes , who told MTV that it 's because of Mariah that we have " Hip @-@ Pop . " Judnick Mayard , writer of TheFader , wrote that in regarding of R & B and hip hop collaboration , " The champion of this movement is Mariah Carey . " Mayard also expressed that " To this day ODB and Mariah may still be the best and most random hip hop collaboration of all time " , citing that due to the record " Fantasy , " " R & B and Hip Hop were the best of step siblings . " In the 1998 film Rush Hour , Soo Yong is singing the song while it plays on the car radio , shortly before her kidnapping . In 2011 the experimental metal band Iwrestledabearonce used the song at the beginning and end of the video " You Know That Ain 't Them Dogs ' Real Voices " .
Indie artist Grimes has called " Fantasy " one of her favorite songs of all @-@ time and has said Mariah is the reason there is a Grimes .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Daydream liner notes .
Mariah Carey – co @-@ production , songwriting , vocals
Dave Hall – co @-@ production , songwriting
Tina Weymouth – songwriting
Chris Frantz – songwriting
Steven Stanley – songwriting
Adrian Belew – songwriting
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Chart successions = =
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= Droeshout portrait =
The Droeshout portrait or Droeshout engraving is a portrait of William Shakespeare engraved by Martin Droeshout as the frontispiece for the title page of the First Folio collection of Shakespeare 's plays , published in 1623 . It is one of only two works of art definitively identifiable as a depiction of the poet ; the other is the statue erected as his funeral monument in Shakespeare 's home town of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Both are posthumous .
While its role as a portrait frontispiece is typical of publications from the era , the exact circumstances surrounding the making of the engraving are unknown . It is uncertain which of two " Martin Droeshouts " created the engraving and it is not known to what extent the features were copied from an existing painting or drawing . Critics have generally been unimpressed by it as a work of art , although the engraving has had a few defenders , and exponents of the Shakespeare authorship question have claimed to find coded messages within it .
= = States = =
The portrait exists in two " states " , or distinct versions of the image , printed from the same plate by Droeshout himself . Examples of the first state are very rare , existing in only four copies . These were probably test printings , created so that the engraver could see whether some alterations needed to be made . The overwhelming majority of surviving copies of the First Folio use the second state , which has heavier shadows and other minor differences , notably in the jawline and the moustache .
Later copies of the second state , with minor retouching , were also printed from the plate by Thomas Cotes in 1632 , for Robert Allot 's Second Folio , a new edition of the collected plays . It was also reused in later folios , although by then the plate was beginning to wear out and was heavily re @-@ engraved . The original plate was still being used into the 1660s , and then disappears . Already in 1640 William Marshall had copied and adapted the design on a new plate for John Benson 's edition of Shakespeare 's sonnets . All subsequent engraved reprintings of the portrait were made by later engravers copying the original printed image .
= = Which Martin Droeshout ? = =
The engraving is signed under the image at the left , " Martin Droeshout. sculpsit . London " . The Droeshouts were a family of artists from the Netherlands , who had moved to Britain . Because there were two members of the family named Martin there has been some dispute about which of the two created the engraving . Most sources state that the engraver was Martin Droeshout the Younger ( 1601 – after 1639 ) , the son of Michael Droeshout , an immigrant from Brussels . Except for his date of birth and parentage , very little is known about Martin the Younger , but since his father was an engraver , it has been assumed that Martin followed in his father 's footsteps , and that he made the engraving of Shakespeare . As he was 15 when Shakespeare died , he may never have seen him and it has been assumed that he worked from an existing image .
Research by Mary Edmond into the Droeshout family revealed new information about Martin Droeshout the Elder ( c . 1560s – 1642 ) , who was the uncle of the younger Martin . Edmond shows that Droeshout the Elder was a member of the Painter @-@ Stainer 's Company . Edmond writes ,
It seems perverse to attribute the Shakespeare engraving to the obscure and unsuitably young Martin Droeshout , born in 1601 , as is customary , when there is a quite well @-@ documented artist of the same name to hand , in the person of his uncle " .
In 1991 Christiaan Schuckman discovered a set of signed plates in Madrid that can be attributed to the engraver of the First Folio portrait . These plates bear Droeshout 's signature and are stylistically similar to his portrait of Shakespeare . ( They include a portrait of the priest and writer Franciso de la Peña that has a striking resemblance to the English poet ) . On the evidence of these plates , which were made between 1635 and 1639 , Schuckman attributed the portrait of Shakespeare to the younger Martin and suggested that the engraver had converted to Catholicism and emigrated to Spain in 1635 , where he continued to work .
More recently , June Schlueter has found evidence that Martin the Elder was in London when the engraver of the First Folio portrait was known to be in Madrid . Although she began her archival research hoping to prove Edmond 's assertion that the elder Martin was the Shakespeare engraver , Schlueter concludes that the newly discovered evidence actually supports the younger .
The traditional attribution to Droeshout the younger can also be supported on stylistic grounds . A drawing known to be by Droeshout the elder appears to show superior artistic skill than the work of his nephew , and the clumsy features of the depiction of Shakespeare 's body resemble other prints by Droeshout the Younger . The attribution to the younger artist is provisionally accepted by the National Portrait Gallery .
= = Significance = =
The engraving is praised by Shakespeare 's friend Ben Jonson in his poem To the Reader printed alongside it , in which he says that it is a good likeness of the poet . He writes that " the graver had a strife / With nature to outdo the life " and that he has " hit his face " accurately . He adds that the engraver could not represent Shakespeare 's " wit " , for which the viewer will have to read the book .
Because of this testimony to the accuracy of the portrait , commentators have used the Droeshout print as a standard by which to judge other portraits alleged to depict Shakespeare . As the 19th @-@ century artist and writer Abraham Wivell put it ,
It is , as I may say , the key to unlock and detect almost all the impositions that have , at various times , arrested so much of public attention . It is a witness that can refute all false evidence , and will satisfy every discerner , how to appreciate , how to convict .
In a similar vein , Tarnya Cooper , in 2006 , writes that " it is the only portrait that definitely provides us with a reasonable idea of Shakespeare 's appearance " .
= = = Source image = = =
In addition to its use as a template to judge the authenticity of other images , scholars have also speculated about the original source used by Droeshout himself . The 19th @-@ century scholar George Scharf argued on the basis of the inconsistencies in the lights and shadows that the original image would have been " either a limning or a crayon drawing " . These typically used outlines rather than chiaroscuro modelling . He deduced that Droeshout had inexpertly attempted to add modelling shadows . Mary Edmond points out that Droeshout the Elder seems to have had an association with Marcus Gheeraerts the portraitist , and notes that there is evidence that a portrait of Shakespeare by Gheeraerts may have once existed . She surmises that Droeshout 's engraving may have been derived from this lost portrait . Cooper argues that the poor drawing and modelling of the doublet and collar suggests that Droeshout was copying a lost drawing or painting that only depicted Shakespeare 's head and shoulders . The body was added by the engraver himself , as was common practice .
In the 19th century a painting that came to be known as the Flower portrait was discovered , inscribed with the date 1609 and painted on an authentic 17th @-@ century panel . It was initially widely accepted as the original work from which Droeshout had copied his engraving , but in 1905 the art scholar Marion Spielmann demonstrated that the portrait corresponded to the second state of Droeshout 's print . Taking the view that if it were the source , the first state would be closest , he concluded that it was a copy from the print . In 2005 chemical analysis proved the portrait to be a 19th @-@ century fake painted over an authentic 17th @-@ century image .
= = Critical evaluations = =
The poor modelling and the clumsy relationship between the head and the body have led many critics to see the print as a poor representation of the poet . J. Dover Wilson called it a " pudding faced effigy " . Sidney Lee wrote that " The face is long and the forehead high ; the one ear which is visible is shapeless ; the top of the head is bald , but the hair falls in abundance over the ears . " Samuel Schoenbaum was equally dismissive :
In the Shakespeare engraving a huge head , placed against a starched ruff , surmounts an absurdly small tunic with oversized shoulder @-@ wings ... Light comes from several directions simultaneously : it falls on the bulbous protuberance of forehead – that " horrible hydrocephalous development " , as it has been called – creates an odd crescent under the right eye and ( in the second state ) illuminates the edge of the hair on the right side .
Northrop Frye said that the portrait makes Shakespeare " look like an idiot . " Cooper notes that " the art of printmaking in England was underdeveloped and there were relatively few skilled engravers . Yet even by the less exacting standards observed in England , the Droeshout engraving is poorly proportioned . " Benjamin Roland Lewis observes that " virtually all of Droeshout 's work shows the same artistic defects . He was an engraver after the conventional manner , and not a creative artist . "
Not all critics have been so harsh . The 19th @-@ century writer James Boaden wrote that " to me the portrait exhibits an aspect of calm benevolence and tender thought , great comprehension and a kind of mixt feeling , as when melancholy yields to the suggestions of fancy " . He added that his friend John Philip Kemble thought this " despised work " was more characteristic of Shakespeare than any other known portrait . More recently , Park Honan has written that " if the portrait lacks the ' sparkle ' of a witty poet , it suggests the inwardness of a writer of great intelligence , an independent man who is not insensitive to the pain of others . "
= = = Conspiracy theories = = =
Proponents of the Shakespeare authorship question , who assert that someone other than Shakespeare was the real author of the plays attributed to him , have claimed to find hidden signs in the portrait pointing to this supposed secret . Indeed , Dover Wilson suggested that the poor quality of the Droeshout and funeral effigy images are the underlying reason for " the campaign against ' the man from Stratford ' and the attempts to dethrone him in favour of Lord Bacon , the Earl of Derby , the Earl of Oxford , or whatever coroneted pretender may be in vogue at the present moment . " In 1911 William Stone Booth published a book claiming to demonstrate that the features of the engraving were " anatomically identical " to those of Francis Bacon , proving that he wrote the works . He achieved this by creating " combination images " from several portraits of Bacon and then superimposing them on the engraving . Using similar methods Charles Sidney Beauclerk subsequently concluded that the portrait depicted the Earl of Oxford . In 1995 Lillian Schwartz , using a computerised version of the same technique , argued that it was based on a portrait of Queen Elizabeth I.
An alternative approach has been to claim that the portrait depicts William Shakespeare , but does so in a way designed to ridicule him by making him look ugly , or to suggest that he is a mask for a hidden author . The double line created by the gap between the modelling shadow and the jawline has been used to suggest that it is a mask , as has the shape of the doublet , which is claimed to represent both the back and front of the body . Thus Edwin Durning @-@ Lawrence asserts that " there is no question – there can be no possible question – that in fact it is a cunningly drawn cryptographic picture , shewing two left arms and a mask ... Especially note that the ear is a mask ear and stands out curiously ; note also how distinct the line shewing the edge of the mask appears . "
None of these views are accepted by mainstream art historians . Lewis writes that these features are all characteristic of engravings of the era and that none are unusual . An engraving of John Davies of Hereford shares most of these quirks for example , including the uncertain placing of the head on the body and the " same awkward difference in design between the right and left shoulders " .
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= Boy Scouts of America =
The Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) is one of the largest youth organizations in the United States , with more than 2 @.@ 4 million youth members and nearly one million adult volunteers . Since its founding in 1910 as part of the international Scout Movement , more than 110 million Americans have been at some point members of the BSA .
The BSA 's goal is to train youth in responsible citizenship , character development , and self @-@ reliance through participation in a wide range of outdoor activities , educational programs , and , at older age levels , career @-@ oriented programs in partnership with community organizations . For younger members , the Scout method is part of the program to inculcate typical Scouting values such as trustworthiness , good citizenship , and outdoors skills , through a variety of activities such as camping , aquatics , and hiking . The BSA has several locations in Florida , Minnesota , New Mexico , and West Virginia in the United States and Manitoba and Ontario in Canada that allow Scouts to participate in the various aforementioned outdoor activities which are collectively called high @-@ adventure bases .
The BSA is a constituent member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement . The traditional Scouting divisions are Cub Scouting for boys ages 7 to 10 ½ years , Boy Scouting for boys ages 10 ½ to 18 and Venturing for young men and women ages 14 ( or 13 and having completed the 8th grade ) through 21 . Learning for Life is a non @-@ traditional subsidiary that provides in @-@ school and career education . The BSA operates traditional Scouting by chartering local organizations , such as churches , clubs , civic associations , or educational organization , to implement the Scouting program for youth within their communities . Units are led entirely by volunteers appointed by the chartering organization , who are supported by local councils using both paid Professional Scouters and volunteers .
= = Origins = =
The progressive movement in the United States was at its height during the early 20th century . With the migration of families from farms to cities , there were concerns among some people that young men were no longer learning patriotism and individualism . The YMCA was an early promoter of reforms for young men with a focus on social welfare and programs of mental , physical , social and religious development . : 72 – 82
= = = Precursors = = =
BSA had two notable predecessors in the United States : the Woodcraft Indians started by Ernest Thompson Seton in 1902 and the Sons of Daniel Boone founded by Daniel Carter Beard in 1905 in Cincinnati , Ohio . In 1907 , Robert Baden @-@ Powell , founded the Scouting movement in England using elements of Seton 's works among other influences . Several Scout programs for boys started independently in the U.S. ( see Scouting in the United States ) . Many of these Scout programs in the U.S. merged with the BSA . : 52
= = = Founding of the Boy Scouts of America = = =
In 1909 , Chicago publisher W. D. Boyce was visiting London , where he encountered a boy who came to be known as the Unknown Scout . Boyce was lost on a foggy street when an unknown Scout came to his aid , guiding him to his destination . The boy then refused Boyce 's tip , explaining that he was a Boy Scout and was merely doing his daily good turn . Interested in the Boy Scouts , Boyce met with staff at the Boy Scouts Headquarters and , by some accounts , Baden @-@ Powell . Upon his return to the U.S. , Boyce incorporated the Boy Scouts of America on February 8 , 1910 . Edgar M. Robinson and Lee F. Hanmer became interested in the nascent BSA and convinced Boyce to turn the program over to the YMCA for development in April 1910 . Robinson enlisted Seton , Beard , Charles Eastman and other prominent leaders in the early youth movements . Former president Theodore Roosevelt , who had long complained of the decline in American manhood , became an ardent supporter . In January 1911 , Robinson turned the movement over to James E. West who became the first Chief Scout Executive and Scouting began to expand in the U.S. : 148
The BSA 's stated purpose at its incorporation in 1910 was " to teach [ boys ] patriotism , courage , self @-@ reliance , and kindred values . " : 7 Later , in 1937 , Deputy Chief Scout Executive George J. Fisher expressed the BSA 's mission ; " Each generation as it comes to maturity has no more important duty than that of teaching high ideals and proper behavior to the generation which follows . " The current mission statement of the BSA is " to prepare young people to make ethical and moral choices over their lifetimes by instilling in them the values of the Scout Oath and Law . " The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints was the first partner to sponsor Scouting in the United States , adopting the program in 1913 as part of its Mutual Improvement Association program for young men .
= = = Federally chartered corporation = = =
The BSA holds a Congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code , which means that it is one of the comparatively rare " Title 36 " corporations in the United States . The 1916 statute of incorporation established this institution amongst a small number of other patriotic and national organizations which are similarly chartered , such as the Girl Scouts of the USA , the American Legion , the Red Cross , Little League Baseball , and the National Academy of Sciences . The federal incorporation was originally construed primarily as an honor , however it does grant the chartered organization some special privileges and rights , including freedom from antitrust and monopoly regulation , and complete control over the organization 's symbols and insignia . The special recognition neither implies nor accords Congress any special control over the BSA , which remains free to function independently .
On behalf of the BSA , Paul Sleman , Colin H. Livingstone , Ernest S. Martin and James E. West successfully lobbied Congress for a federal charter for the BSA which President Woodrow Wilson signed on June 15 , 1916 . One of the principal reasons for seeking a Congressional Charter was as a way to deal with competition from other Scout organizations including the United States Boy Scouts and the Lone Scouts of America , The Congressional Charter reads , in part , :
That the purpose of this corporation shall be to promote , through organization and cooperation with other agencies , the ability of boys to do things for themselves and others , to train them in Scoutcraft , and to teach them patriotism , courage , self @-@ reliance , and kindred values , using the methods which are now in common use by Boy Scouts .
= = Membership = =
= = = Traditional membership = = =
In the BSA , Scouting is considered to be one movement with four main programs :
Cub Scouting is the largest program , available to boys from first to fifth @-@ grade or 7 to 11 years . The program is designed to pursue the aims of character development , citizenship training , and personal fitness . Cub Scouting is divided into age @-@ based levels of Tiger , Wolf , Bear , and Webelos Scouts .
Boy Scouting is the flagship program of the BSA for boys ages 11 to 18 . ( Boys who have achieved the Cub Scout Arrow of Light Award or have completed the 5th grade can join as young as 10 years old ) It uses outdoor activities such as camping , aquatics and hiking to achieve the aims of character , citizenship and personal fitness training.Varsity Scouting is a sub @-@ division of Boy Scouting available to boys ages 14 to 18 ; it adds a program of high adventure and sporting activities .
The Order of the Arrow is the Boy Scouting national honor society for experienced campers , based on American Indian traditions and is dedicated to the ideals of brotherhood and cheerful service .
Venturing is the program for young men and women ages 14 through 21 . Its purpose is to provide positive experiences to help youth mature and to prepare them to become responsible adults .
Sea Scouting is the program for young men and women ages 14 through 21 focused on nautical activities .
Lone Scouting is a program designed to allow those who would otherwise not be able to become Boy Scouts or Cub Scouts — usually due to residence in an overseas , isolated , or unsafe community — to participate in the Scouting experience .
There are about 100 @,@ 000 physically or mentally disabled Scouts throughout the United States . Anyone certified as disabled " may enroll in Scouting and remain in its program beyond the regulation age limits . This provision allows all members to advance in Scouting as far as they wish . " Advancement is measured by the achievement to the best of the Scout 's abilities .
= = = Learning for life = = =
Learning for Life is a school and work @-@ site based program that is a subsidiary of the BSA . It utilizes programs designed for schools and community @-@ based organizations that are designed to prepare youth for the complexities of contemporary society and to enhance their self @-@ confidence , motivation , and self @-@ esteem . Exploring is the worksite @-@ based program of Learning for Life with programs based on five areas of emphasis : career opportunities , life skills , citizenship , character education , and leadership experience .
Learning for Life is not considered a traditional Scouting program ; it does not use the Scout Promise , Scout Law , uniforms , or insignia of traditional Scouting . All Learning for Life programs are open to youth and adults without restriction based on gender , residence , sexual orientation , or other considerations other than age requirements .
= = = Membership controversies = = =
Unlike the BSA 's Learning for Life , membership in the traditional BSA programs is more restricted and controversial . Girls may not join Cub Scouting or Boy Scouting , but may join Venturing and Sea Scouting ; women can be adult volunteers in all programs . Today , the BSA does not prohibit gay and lesbian adults or youth from participation . The BSA does prohibit members who are atheist and agnostic based on its " Duty to God " principle .
In 2000 , the Supreme Court ruled in Boy Scouts of America v. Dale that Boy Scouts , and all similar private voluntary organizations , have the constitutionally protected right under the First Amendment of freedom of association to set membership standards . In 2004 , the BSA adopted a new policy statement , including a " Youth Leadership " policy that disallowed members to continue in leadership positions in the event they were to hold themselves out as " open and avowed homosexuals . "
At the Scouts annual meeting in April 2012 , a leader from the Northeast presented a resolution that " would allow individual units to accept gays as adult leaders " . However , in July 2012 , at the culmination of a review started in 2010 , an 11 @-@ person committee convened by the BSA reached a " unanimous consensus " recommending retaining the current policy . Intel , UPS , and Merck cut financial ties with the BSA over the policy decision . Within the BSA National Executive Board , members James Turley , CEO of Ernst & Young , and Randall Stephenson , CEO of AT & T and who was then " on track to become president of the Scout 's national board in 2014 " and later was , publicly opposed the policy and stated their intention " to work from within the BSA Board to actively encourage dialogue and sustainable progress " in changing the policy . On January 28 , 2013 , the BSA announced they were considering rescinding the ban on homosexuals , allowing chartered organizations to determine local policy .
On May 23 , 2013 , 61 % of the 1 @,@ 400 @-@ member BSA National Council voted to remove the restriction denying membership to youth on the basis of sexual orientation while emphasizing that any sexual conduct , whether heterosexual or homosexual , is not allowed . The resolution went into effect on January 1 , 2014 , but Scout leaders who were " open and avowed homosexuals " were still prohibited . The policy specifically states that BSA does not inquire into a person 's sexuality . Gay rights groups hailed the decision , but vowed to press on until all gay members were accepted . Some churches and conservative members threatened to quit the Boy Scouts in response . On June 12 , 2013 , the Southern Baptist Convention passed non @-@ binding resolutions urging the BSA not to change their policy . In September 2013 , a new Scouting group called Trail Life USA was created . Subsequently , some Christian denomination congregations replaced their Boy Scouts of America troops with those of Trail Life USA .
In May 2015 , Boy Scouts of America President Robert Gates said it was time to end the ban on gay leaders . Gates said , it “ cannot be sustained , ” any longer . On July 10 , 2015 , the Boy Scouts of America Executive Committee agreed , and referred the matter to the National Executive Board . On July 27 , 2015 , the Boy Scouts of America National Executive Board voted to lift the organization 's blanket ban on openly gay leaders and employees . Local chartering organizations are still permitted to set their own standards based on religious principle for selecting the adult volunteers for their unit .
= = Aims , methods , and ideals = =
The objectives of the BSA are referred to as Aims of Scouting : moral character development ; citizenship training ; and development of physical , mental , and emotional fitness . The BSA pursues these aims through an informal education system called the Scout method , with variations that are designed to be appropriate for the age and maturity of each membership division . Each unit is sponsored by a community organization as part of their youth program and is involved in the neighborhood and community .
Cub Scouts wear a uniform that gives each boy a level of identity within the den , the pack and the community . The boys learn teamwork by meeting and working together in a den of four to ten boys under adult leadership . They learn and apply the ideals codified in the Cub Scout Promise and the Law of the Pack , and in the Character Connections program that develops the core values of citizenship , compassion , cooperation , courage , faith , health and fitness , honesty , perseverance , positive attitude , resourcefulness , respect and responsibility . The advancement system uses both age @-@ based ranks and an optional Academics and Sports Program designed for the development of physical , mental and emotional fitness . Most advancement is done in the home and is intended to involve the entire family and many Cub Scout activities include family members .
Boy Scouts learn to use the ideals spelled out in the Scout Oath , the Scout Law , the Outdoor Code , the Scout motto ( " Be prepared " ) , and the Scout slogan ( " Do a good turn daily " ) . They wear a uniform and work together in patrols of four to ten boys with an elected patrol leader . Scouts share responsibilities , apply skills learned at meetings and live together in the outdoors . The advancement system provides opportunities for personal growth and self @-@ reliance . Scouts interact with adult leaders who act as role models and mentors , but they are expected to plan their own activities within the troop and to participate in community service . Opportunities are provided for leadership training with practical application .
= = = Scout Motto = = =
Be Prepared
= = = Scout Oath = = =
This is always said while holding up the right hand with the three middle fingers raised in the Scout sign :
" On my honor , I will do my best , to do my duty , to God and my country , and to obey the Scout Law , to help other people at all times , to keep myself physically strong , mentally awake , and morally straight . "
= = = Scout Law = = =
" A Scout is trustworthy , loyal , helpful , friendly , courteous , kind , obedient , cheerful , thrifty , brave , clean , and reverent . "
These twelve values are often referred to as the Twelve Points of the Scout Law .
= = = Outdoor Code = = =
" As an American , I will do my best to be clean in my outdoor manner , to be careful with fire , to be considerate in the outdoors , and to be conservation minded . "
Venturers are expected to know and live by the Venturing Oath and Venturing Code . They associate and work directly with adults as partners , but the crew is led by elected youth officers who are given opportunities to learn and apply leadership skills . Venturers plan and participate in interdependent group experiences dependent on cooperation . An emphasis on high adventure provides opportunities for team @-@ building and practical leadership applications . A series of awards provide opportunities for recognition and personal growth . Each award requires the Venturer to teach what they have learned to others returning the skill and knowledge back to the community and enabling the Venturer to master those skills .
In October 2012 , the National Council announced that , as a result of the findings and recommendations of a select committee made up of volunteer Scouters , the Cub Scout and Venturing programs would transition to use of the Boy Scout Oath and Promise , and in the case of the Venturers , the Boy Scout three @-@ finger salute and sign as well . The Venturing change will occur in late 2013 or early 2014 ; the Cub Scout change will take effect in mid @-@ 2015 .
= = Organization = =
= = = National Council = = =
The National Council is the corporate membership of the Boy Scouts of America and consists of volunteer Scouters who meet annually . The day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the National Council are administered by the Chief Scout Executive and other national professional staff . National Council members include volunteers who are elected National Officers and Executive Board members , regional presidents , the local council representatives , members at large , and honorary members . The National Headquarters has been in Irving , Texas since 1979 .
The BSA was granted a Congressional charter in 1916 , now codified as ( 36 USC 309 ) , stating that their purpose is to :
promote , through organization , and cooperation with other agencies , the ability of boys to do things for themselves and others , to train them in scoutcraft , and to teach them patriotism , courage , self @-@ reliance , and kindred virtues , using the methods that were in common use by boy scouts on June 15 , 1916 .
The charter authorized and set standards for the incorporation of the BSA and provided for the " exclusive right to use emblems , badges , descriptive or designating marks , and words or phrases " that they adopt .
Finally , since the founding of the BSA in 1910 , the President of the United States has served as the organization 's honorary president during his term in office .
= = = Governance and the National Executive Board = = =
The BSA National Executive Board governs the organization . One source reports that there were 72 members of the NEB in 2001 , while the BSA 's 2011 report lists 77 members .
The board is led by the national president , a volunteer elected by the National Council . Board members included regular elected members , regional presidents , and up to five appointed youth members . The Chief Scout Executive is the board secretary and non @-@ voting member . The National Executive Board has a number of standing committees that correspond to the professional staff organization of the National Council .
Present and past members of the National Executive Board include former presidential nominee Mitt Romney , Ernst & Young CEO James Turley and AT & T CEO Randall Stephenson . Other members include LDS Church President Thomas S. Monson .
= = = Groups and divisions = = =
The Program Impact Division is responsible for developing the Scouting program and includes the volunteer committees and staff working on volunteer training , youth development , and other program impact needs . The All Markets membership emphasis includes focus groups and special committees working to improve outreach to youth and families in various underserved ethnic populations , with literature and marketing materials targeting Hispanic / Latino families , Asian @-@ American families , and African @-@ American families . The BSA also participates in the American Indian Scouting Association in partnership with the Girl Scouts of the USA .
The Outdoor Adventure Division oversees four " High Adventure " bases Philmont Scout Ranch , Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases , The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve , and Florida National High Adventure Sea Base , as well as other special programs and the Order of the Arrow .
Other divisions provides support for the world and national jamborees and International Scouting relations . The Membership Impact Division works to sustain marketing efforts and relationships with the national organizations that make up the predominant number of chartered organizations , such as Lions International , Rotary International , Kiwanis International , American Legion , Elks , VFW , and all religious denominations chartering BSA units .
The National Supply Group is responsible for developing and selling uniforms , apparel , insignia , literature , and equipment . It sells equipment and supplies through National Scout Shops , local council trading posts , authorized independent resellers , and online at ScoutStuff.org. Supply Group also licenses trademarks for use by other commercial vendors . The Administrative Group provides internal administration service and support . It includes the Marketing and Communications Division responsible for marketing the BSA program , administering the national websites , and publishing Scouting for adult leaders and Boys ' Life for youth .
The National Scouting Museum is located in Irving , Texas . Exhibits include Norman Rockwell paintings , high adventure sections , hands @-@ on learning experiences , interactive exhibits , and a historical collection tracing uniforms , themes , and documents from the beginning of the Scouting movement in America . Among the museum 's artifacts are the Eagle Scout medal of Arthur Rose Eldred , the first Eagle Scout .
The National Court of Honor certifies the BSA 's highest awards : lifesaving and meritorious action awards , Distinguished service awards , Eagle Scout and Quartermaster .
= = = Regions and areas = = =
For administrative purposes , the BSA is divided into four regions — Western , Central , Southern and Northeast . Each region is then subdivided into areas .
Each region has a volunteer president , assisted by volunteer officers , board members , and committee members . The day @-@ to @-@ day work of Scouting is managed by the regional director , assistant and associate regional directors , and area directors . Regions and areas are subdivisions of the National Council and do not have a corporate status separate from the BSA .
Central Region covers all of Iowa , Kansas , Michigan , Minnesota , Missouri , North Dakota , Ohio , Wisconsin , and parts of Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Montana , Nebraska , South Dakota , Virginia , and West Virginia .
Northeast Region covers all of Connecticut , District of Columbia , Delaware , Massachusetts , Maine , New Hampshire , New Jersey , New York , Pennsylvania , Puerto Rico , Rhode Island , Vermont , Virgin Islands ( U.S. ) , parts of Maryland , Virginia , and West Virginia , and members of the BSA Transatlantic Council .
Southern Region covers all of Alabama , Arkansas , Florida , Georgia , Louisiana , Mississippi , North Carolina , Oklahoma , South Carolina , and Tennessee , and parts of Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Maryland , Texas , Virginia , and West Virginia .
Western Region covers all of Alaska , Arizona , California , Colorado , Hawaii , Idaho , New Mexico , Nevada , Oregon , Utah , Washington , Wyoming , most of Montana , parts of Nebraska , South Dakota , and Texas , territories located in the Pacific Ocean , and members of the BSA Far East Council .
= = = Local councils = = =
The BSA program is administered through 272 local councils , with each council covering a geopolitical area that may vary from a single city to an entire state . Councils receive an annual charter from the National Council and are usually incorporated as a charitable organization .
The council level organization is similar to that of the National Council . The council executive board is headed by the council president and is made up of annually elected local community leaders . The board establishes the council program and carries out the resolutions , policies , and activities of the council . Board members serve without pay and some are volunteer Scouters working at the unit level . Youth members may be selected to the council executive board according to the council by @-@ laws .
The Scout executive manages council operations — including finance , property management , advancement and awards , registrations , and Scout Shop sales — with a staff of other professionals and para @-@ professionals . Volunteer commissioners lead the unit service functions of the council , help maintain the standards of the BSA , and assures a healthy unit program .
The BSA charters two councils for American Scouts living overseas , largely on military bases in Europe and Asia . The Transatlantic Council , headquartered in Livorno , Italy , serves BSA units in much of Europe , and the Far East Council , headquartered in Japan , serves units in the western Pacific areas . The Direct Service branch makes the Scouting movement available to U.S. citizens and their dependents living in countries outside these jurisdictions or in isolated areas . The Aloha Council in Hawaii also serves BSA units in the American territories of American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands and in the sovereign countries of the Federated States of Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau .
The Greater New York Councils are unique in that they are divided into five boroughs with each led by a borough Scout executive and each borough then divided into districts . Similarly , due to Scouting population and geographic distance , the Utah National Parks Council is divided into 12 Sectors with each led by a volunteer assistant Vice president and assistant council commissioner with each sector then divided into districts .
Councils are divided into districts with leadership provided by the district executive , district chairman , and the district commissioner . Districts are directly responsible for the operation of Scouting units and , except for the district executive , are mostly staffed with volunteers . The voting members of each district consist of volunteer representatives from each chartered organization having at least one BSA unit , plus annually elected members @-@ at @-@ large who in turn elect the district chairman . Boroughs and districts are subdivisions of the local council and do not have a separate corporate status .
= = = Chartered organizations and units = = =
The Boy Scouts of America partners with community organizations , such as religious congregations , fraternal groups , service clubs , and other community associations , to provide the Scouting program for the particular neighborhood or community in which the particular organization wishes to outreach to youth and families . These organizations hold charters issued by the BSA and are known then as chartered organizations . Each chartered organization provides the meeting place for BSA youth , oversees the volunteer leaders , and agrees to follow the basic BSA safety policies and values @-@ based program , and the organization is considered the " owner " of its local program , much like a franchise .
Within each chartered organization , there may be one or more " units " . A unit is a group of youth and adults which are collectively designated as a Cub Scout pack , Boy Scout troop , Varsity Scout team , or Venturing crew / Sea Scout ship . Each chartered organization may charter as many units as it wishes , but usually only 3 or 4 ( one unit for each program level ) . The BSA council provides the leader training , inter @-@ unit activities , camping programs , volunteer and professional support , and insurance coverage . Units also create their own activities ( such as monthly camping trips , outings , or service projects ) , and most meet weekly at the place of the chartered organization for youth to learn basic skill development and practice leadership in small groups known as dens and patrols .
= = National Camping School = =
The Boy Scouts of America operates a National Camping School program , which trains people how to run various departments or areas at the Boy Scout summer camps . Some online training is offered , but most areas require an in @-@ person week @-@ long training program at one of the National Camping Schools . After successfully completing a week @-@ long program , a person is entitled to wear the National Camp School patch . The regular size patch may be worn on the right breast shirt pocket , in the temporary patch spot . National Camping School certification is valid for five years .
= = Finance = =
The National Council is incorporated as a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non @-@ profit organization and is funded from private donations , membership dues , corporate sponsors , and special events . In 2005 , the BSA ranked as the twelfth @-@ largest non @-@ profit organization in the U.S. , with total revenues of $ 665 @.@ 9 million . As of January 2007 , the American Institute of Philanthropy listed former Chief Scout Executive Roy Williams as having the fifth @-@ highest compensation of any nonprofit chief in the United States , at $ 916 @,@ 028 . In 2005 , Williams ' pay was 0 @.@ 26 % of total expenses , whereas the national average among charities was a higher 0 @.@ 34 % . Williams was honored in 2005 and 2006 as one of the top fifty most effective non @-@ profit leaders by The NonProfit Times .
Robert Mazzuca , Chief Scout Executive of Boy Scouts of America , received $ 1 @,@ 211 @,@ 572 in salary and compensation . This is the 4th highest compensation package given by any charity to the head of the charity , according to Charity Watch . Charity Watch rates BSA an " A " .
= = = Corporate funding = = =
In addition to donations from individuals , the BSA receives extensive donations from major corporations . In 2010 , their top corporate donors were , in order , Intel , Emerson , Verizon , 3M , Bank of America , Wells Fargo , Pfizer , Valero , UPS , U.S. Bank , Eli Lilly , GE , and Monsanto . However , Intel and UPS cut funding to BSA in 2012 .
= = Leadership training = =
The BSA offers a wide variety of mandatory and optional training programs in youth protection , outdoor skills and leadership .
= = = Adult leadership training = = =
Every adult leader must complete Youth Protection Training , and then is strongly encouraged to complete a general overview training called This is Scouting , and a Fast Start training specific to his / her program level . Position @-@ specific training is then offered for all direct @-@ contact leaders . Upon completion of basic training , a leader may wear the Trained emblem on his / her BSA uniform .
Supplemental skill @-@ specific training is also available to BSA volunteers to gain knowledge in outdoors skills including camping , hiking , first aid , Leave No Trace , swim safety , climbing safety , hazardous weather , and other skills .
The highest level of BSA training is Wood Badge , which is focused on helping participants develop leadership skills while participating in an outdoor program over two weekends . Some councils offer high @-@ adventure training for adults using the Powder Horn program . Sea Scouting leaders can take the Seabadge advanced leadership and management course .
= = = Youth leadership training = = =
Boy Scout and Varsity Scout youth leaders may attend the unit @-@ level Troop Leadership Training . Local councils offer the advanced National Youth Leadership Training and the National Council offers the National Advanced Youth Leadership Experience conducted at Philmont Training Center . The Boy Scouts of America also offers the NYLT Leadership Academy which trains youth staff members from across the country for council @-@ level NYLT courses .
Venturers and Sea Scouts may attend the unit @-@ level Introduction to Leadership Skills for Crews or Introduction to Leadership Skills for Ships . Crew officers can attend Crew Officer Orientation , and then a council @-@ provided Kodiak leadership training program .
Order of the Arrow members may attend the National Leadership Seminar , run multiple times each year by each region .
= = Impact on American life = =
Scouting and Boy Scouts are well known throughout American culture . The term " Boy Scout " is used to generally describe someone who is earnest and honest , or who helps others cheerfully ; it can also be used as a pejorative term for someone deemed to be overly idealistic .
Prominent Americans in diverse walks of life , from filmmaker Steven Spielberg ( who helped launch a merit badge in cinematography ) to adventurer Steve Fossett to politicians , were BSA members as youths . Over two @-@ thirds of all astronauts have had some type of involvement in Scouting , and eleven of the twelve men to walk on the Moon were Scouts , including Eagle Scouts Neil Armstrong and Charlie Duke . The pinewood derby — a wood car racing event for Cub Scouts — has been declared " a celebrated rite of spring " and was named part of " America 's 100 Best " by Reader 's Digest .
President Gerald Ford said , " I can say without hesitation , because of Scouting principles , I know I was a better athlete , I was a better naval officer , I was a better Congressman , and I was a better prepared President . "
Famed American illustrator Norman Rockwell 's works were closely associated with the Boy Scouts of America for much of the 20th century . : 43 Beginning in 1913 , Rockwell began illustrating covers of Boys ' Life , the magazine for BSA youth . He also drew the organization 's annual calendar illustrations between 1925 and 1976 . : 89
In 1969 , as a tribute to Rockwell 's 75th birthday , officials of Brown & Bigelow and the Boy Scouts of America asked Rockwell to pose in Beyond the Easel for a calendar illustration . As part of the U.S. Bicentennial celebrations in 1976 , Rockwell 's Scouting paintings toured the nation and were viewed by 280 @,@ 000 people . : 155 In 2008 , a twelve @-@ city U.S. tour of Rockwell 's works was scheduled .
Alvin Townley wrote in Legacy of Honor about the large positive impact of Eagle Scouts in America . Townley cited such examples as how Scouts , especially Eagle Scouts , were disproportionately represented among Hurricane Katrina 's volunteer relief workers ; just as they are disproportionately represented among members of the United States Senate . : 152 Governor Rick Perry of Texas is an Eagle Scout who defended BSA policies and restrictions against ACLU criticisms in his book , On My Honor : Why the American Values of the Boy Scouts Are Worth Fighting For .
Mark Mays , CEO of Clear Channel Communications , told a magazine interviewer in May 2008 that , " Particularly in the very impactful ages of youth 11 to 14 years old , when they can really go astray and you 're taking the time to spend with them and focus on cultural core values like reverent , trustworthy , loyal , and helpful — all of those different things ... Scouting has a huge positive impact on boys and their lives , and that in turn positively impacts our communities and society as a whole . "
Mayor of New York City and business tycoon Michael Bloomberg , said that the BSA 's Scout Law required of all Boy Scouts — a Scout is trustworthy , loyal , helpful , friendly , courteous , kind , obedient , cheerful , thrifty , brave , clean , and reverent — are " all the American values ... Americans have quaintly simplistic ways and direct ways of phrasing things ... I think it 's one of the great strengths of this country . " : 116
Peter Applebome , an editor of The New York Times , wrote in 2003 of his experience as an adult participating with his son in Scouting activities , " I feel lucky to have had this unexpected vehicle to share my son 's youth , to shape it , and to be shaped by it as well . " He concluded that , although Scouting is viewed by some as old @-@ fashioned , " Scouting 's core values ... are wonderful building blocks for a movement and a life . Scouting 's genuinely egalitarian goals and instincts are more important now than they 've ever been . It 's one of the only things that kids do that 's genuinely cooperative , not competitive . " : 319 – 320
At the turn of the 20th century , Halloween had turned into a night of vandalism , with destruction of property and cruelty to animals and people . Around 1912 , the BSA , Boys Clubs and other neighborhood organizations came together to encourage a safe celebration that would end the destruction that had become so common on this night .
The Boy Scouts of America are quite particular about how and when the Scout uniforms and insignia may be used in film and other portrayals ; and for that reason , most films and television productions made in the U.S. utilize " ersatz " Scouting organizations . Examples of this include the " Order of the Straight Arrow " , portrayed in the King of the Hill cartoon series , and the " Indian Guides " depicted in the 1995 Chevy Chase film , Man of the House . One exception to this policy is the Walt Disney movie Follow Me , Boys ! with Fred McMurray portraying a Scoutmaster of a rural troop . It was released to theaters in 1966 and re @-@ released in 1976 . Another is the final scene of The Sopranos television show , where Tony Soprano sits down to dinner in a restaurant . At another table , several Cub Scouts , in full uniform , are seated .
= = = Good Turns = = =
From the inception of the Scouting movement , Scouts have been urged to " Do a Good Turn Daily " , as it is the slogan for the Boy Scouts of America . The first national Good Turn was the promotion of a safe and sane Fourth of July in 1912 . During World War I , Every Scout to Save a Soldier was a slogan used to motivate children involved in Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts to help sell War savings stamps . Scouting for Food is an ongoing annual program begun in 1986 that collects food for local food banks . In 1997 , the BSA developed Service to America with a commitment to provide 200 million hours of service by youth members by the end of the year 2000 . As part of Service to America , the BSA provided service projects in conjunction with the National Park Service ( NPS ) . In October 2003 , the Department of the Interior expanded the program with the creation of Take Pride in America , opening service to all Americans .
Service to America became Good Turn for America in 2004 and expanded to address the problems of hunger , homelessness , and inadequate housing and poor health in conjunction with the Salvation Army , the American Red Cross , Habitat for Humanity , and other organizations .
= = = Sex abuse cases = = =
Scouting sex abuse cases are situations where youth involved in Scouting programs have been sexually abused by someone who is also involved in the Scouting program . J.L. Tarr , a Chief Scout Executive in the United States , was quoted in the 1980s in an article regarding sexual assault cases against Scout leaders across all 50 states : " That 's been an issue since the Boy Scouts began . " Several reports have surfaced over the years regarding incidents of sexual abuse within the Boy Scouts of America to include incidents of repeat offenders . There have also been several high profile court cases that resulted in convictions and settlements involving such incidents . On October 19 , 2012 , the Boy Scouts of America were forced by court order to release over 20 @,@ 000 pages of documentation on 1200 alleged child sexual abuse cases within the organization from between 1965 and 1985 .
In the 1980s BSA developed its Youth Protection program , to educate youth , leaders and parents about the problem as a whole , and to introduce barriers to sexual abuse of children using the Scout program to reach victims . " Two deep " leadership dictates that no adult member can be alone with any youth member ( other than their own child ) . Before joining , youth must discuss with their parents a pamphlet on sexual abuse and adults must take youth protection training and , since 2003 , new adult members must pass a criminal background check ( adults who were already members had to pass a background check by 2008 ) . The Youth Protection Plan from the organization is linked to in a CDC report on such programs .
= = National Scout jamboree = =
The national Scout jamboree is a gathering of Boy Scouts from across the US . It is usually held every four years , with some adjustment for special years such as the 2010 National Scout Jamboree that celebrated the BSA centennial . The first jamboree was held in 1937 at the Washington Monument in Washington , D.C. Since then , jamborees have been held in varying locations . Beginning in 1981 , the jamboree has been held at Fort A.P. Hill , Virginia . A permanent location owned by the BSA was sought in 2008 for future jamborees , high adventure programs and training . The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve near Beckley , West Virginia is now the permanent site beginning with the 2013 National Scout Jamboree .
= = High adventure bases = =
The Boy Scouts of America operates several high adventure bases at the national level . Each offers a wide range of programs and training — a typical core program may include sailing , wilderness canoeing or wilderness backpacking trips . These bases are administered by the High Adventure Division of the National Council .
Current high @-@ adventure bases of the Boy Scouts of America include Philmont Scout Ranch , Northern Tier National High Adventure Bases , Florida National High Adventure Sea Base , and The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve which was the site of the 2013 Jamboree .
= = Eagle Scout = =
A Scout who attains this rank is called an Eagle Scout . Since its introduction in 1911 , the Eagle Scout rank has been earned by more than two million young men . Requirements include earning at least 21 merit badges and demonstrating Scout Spirit through the Boy Scout Oath and Law , service , and leadership . This includes an extensive service project that the Scout plans , organizes , leads , and manages . Eagle Scouts are presented with a medal and a badge that visibly recognizes the accomplishments of the Scout . Additional recognition can be earned through Eagle Palms , awarded for completing additional tenure , leadership , and merit badge requirements . Many famous Americans are Eagle Scouts : astronaut Neil Armstrong , film director Michael Moore , TV host Mike Rowe , Steven Spielberg , Mayor Michael Bloomberg , Secretary of Defense Robert Gates , and President Gerald Ford are just a small sample of Eagle Scouts .
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= Loch Leven Castle =
Loch Leven Castle is a ruined castle on an island in Loch Leven , in the Perth and Kinross local authority area of Scotland . Possibly built around 1300 , the castle was the location of military action during the Wars of Scottish Independence ( 1296 – 1357 ) . In the latter part of the 14th century , the castle was granted by his uncle to William Douglas , 1st Earl of Douglas , and remained in Douglas ' hands for the next 300 years . Mary , Queen of Scots was imprisoned here in 1567 – 1568 , and forced to abdicate as queen , before escaping with the help of her gaoler 's family . In 1588 , the Queen 's gaoler inherited the title Earl of Morton , and moved away from the castle . It was bought , in 1675 , by Sir William Bruce , who used the castle as a focal point in his garden ; it was never again used as a residence .
Today , the remains of the castle are protected as a category A listed building , in the care of Historic Scotland . Loch Leven Castle is accessible in summer by the public via a ferry .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
A castle may have been constructed on Castle Island by 1257 , when the 16 @-@ year @-@ old King Alexander III of Scotland was forcibly brought there by his regents . During the First War of Scottish Independence ( 1296 – 1328 ) , the invading English army held the castle , then named Loch Leven Castle , which lies at a strategically important position between the towns of Edinburgh , Stirling and Perth . Parts of the present fortification , the curtain wall , may date from this time and were perhaps built by the occupying English . The castle was captured by the Scots before the end of the 13th century , possibly by the forces of William Wallace .
English forces laid siege to Loch Leven in 1301 , but the garrison was relieved in the same year when the siege was broken by Sir John Comyn . King Robert the Bruce ( reigned 1306 – 1329 ) is known to have visited the castle in 1313 and again in 1323 . Following Bruce 's death , the English invaded again , and laid siege to Loch Leven Castle in 1335 in support of the pretender Edward Balliol ( d . 1364 ) . According to the 14th @-@ century chronicle of John of Fordun , the English attempted to flood the castle by building a dam across the outflow of the loch . The water level rose for a month , until the captain of the English force , Sir John de Stirling , left to attend the festival of Saint Margaret of Scotland . The defenders , under Alan de Vipont , took the opportunity to come out of the castle at night , and damaged the dam , causing it to collapse and flood the English camp . The story has , however , been doubted by later historians .
Loch Leven Castle was strengthened in the 14th or early 15th century , by the addition of the five @-@ storey tower house or keep . According to Historic Scotland , it is of the 14th century , making it one of the oldest tower houses in Scotland which still substantially survives . In 1390 King Robert II ( reigned 1371 – 1390 ) granted the castle to Sir Henry Douglas , the husband of his niece Marjory . From the 14th century , the castle served as a state prison . Prior to becoming king , Robert II was held here in 1369 , as was Archibald Douglas , 5th Earl of Douglas ( d . 1439 ) in the first half of the 15th century . Patrick Graham , Archbishop of St Andrews , died in captivity at the castle in 1478 .
= = = The 16th century = = =
Mary , Queen of Scots ( reigned 1542 – 1567 ) first visited Loch Leven in 1565 as a guest of Sir William Douglas of Lochleven ( d . 1606 ) . She held an interview here with the Calvinist preacher John Knox .
Mary returned to Loch Leven as a prisoner , from 17 June 1567 until her escape on 2 May 1568 . At the " battle " of Carberry Hill on 15 June , Mary surrendered to her noblemen , who opposed her marriage to the Earl of Bothwell . She was taken to Loch Leven and given into the custody of Sir William Douglas of Lochleven , spending most of her captivity living in the early 16th @-@ century Glassin Tower , at the south @-@ east corner of the castle . Aside from Sir William , the household included his mother Lady Margaret Douglas , mother of Mary 's half brother the Earl of Moray , and his brother George Douglas , as well as Willie Douglas , a young orphaned relative . Mary fell ill on arrival , and sometime before 24 July she miscarried twins that she had conceived with Bothwell . Only a few days later she was forced to abdicate as Queen of Scots , in favour of her infant son James .
Mary recovered during the autumn and winter , and gradually won over George Douglas to her own cause . A contemporary wrote that George was " in fantasy of love wythe hir . " On the night of the escape , Willie Douglas stole the keys and let Mary , dressed as a servant , out of the castle . She was rowed across the lake to where George Douglas and others awaited her , and they fled to Niddry Castle in Lothian . The Castle is one of many in Scotland said to be haunted by Mary 's spirit .
The English Earl of Northumberland was also held here , after fleeing to Scotland following the failure of the Catholic Rising of the North in 1570 . He was captured by the Earl of Morton , and confined at Loch Leven before being sent back to England for execution . In 1588 , Sir William Douglas of Lochleven succeeded to the earldom of Morton , as the 6th earl . With the title he inherited other properties , including Aberdour Castle in Fife , and Loch Leven Castle became less frequently used .
= = = Sir William Bruce = = =
From around 1546 , Margaret Erskine and her son William Douglas built a house on the shore of the Loch which was known as " Newhouse . " The " Newhouse " replaced the island castle as the legal centre of the estate in 1619 .
In 1675 , the Loch Leven estate was bought from the Douglases by Sir William Bruce ( c.1630 – 1710 ) , royal architect in Scotland . Bruce built nearby Kinross House on the lake shore from 1686 , aligning the principal axis of house and garden on the distant castle . The " Newhouse " , which was finally demolished in 1723 , was just to the north of Bruce 's site . Kinross was one of the first buildings in the classical style erected in Scotland . Thereafter Loch Leven Castle was no longer used as a dwelling , but it was preserved by Bruce as a picturesque focus for his gardens .
= = = Recent years = = =
Loch Leven Castle had fallen into ruin by the 18th century , but the ruins were conserved and rubbish removed in 1840 . The estate passed from the Bruces to the Graham family in the 18th century and then , in the 19th century , to the Montgomerys , who still occupy Kinross House .
Loch Leven Castle was given in to state care in 1939 , and is now managed by Historic Scotland . Today , the castle can be reached by a 12 @-@ person ferry operated from Kinross by Historic Scotland during the summer months . The remains of the castle are protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument , and as a category A listed building , the highest level of protection for a historic building in Scotland .
= = Description = =
The castle , and an outer enclosure of which little trace remains , originally took up almost the entire area of Castle Island . The present wooded , and considerably larger , island was formed in the early 19th century when the canalising of the outflow of the River Leven , which enters the Firth of Forth at the town of Leven , led to a substantial lowering of the water level .
The castle comprises a rectangular courtyard surrounded by a curtain wall , with a tower house , or keep , at one corner , and the round Glassin Tower projecting from the opposite corner . The foundations of demolished ranges of buildings remain around two sides of the courtyard . Of the outer court , only an earth bank shows the position of the walls , with fragmentary remains of a bakehouse the only visible structures .
= = = The tower house = = =
The tower house , or keep , at the west corner of the enclosure , measures 36 @.@ 5 feet ( 11 @.@ 1 m ) by 31 @.@ 5 feet ( 9 @.@ 6 m ) and originally had five storeys , although the roof and timber floors are now gone . The lowest level is a vaulted basement , with a vaulted kitchen above . The hall was on the next floor , with chambers above , all linked by a spiral stair .
= = = The Glassin Tower = = =
The Glassin Tower is a round tower , added to the south @-@ east corner of the ancient curtain wall in the 16th century . The tower has a vaulted basement , defended by a gun hole , and two small rooms above . The lower room has an oriel window .
= = = Archaeological findings = = =
A minor excavation in 1995 found the footings and two steps of a stone stairway that provided access to the Great Hall of the tower . 16th @-@ century pottery and animal bones were found in 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) of debris near the forestair .
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= Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete =
Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete , originally released in Japan as simply Lunar : Silver Star Story ( ルナ ~ シルバースターストーリー , Runa ~ Shirubā Sutā Sutōrī ) , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Game Arts and Japan Art Media as a remake of 1992 's Lunar : The Silver Star . While the overall plot remains true to the original , accommodations are made to the game 's story to allow for a larger , richer cast , as well as additional scenarios .
Initially released on the Sega Saturn in 1996 , the game has gone through several variations , beginning with enhanced video support in conjunction with the Saturn 's MPEG graphics add @-@ on in 1997 , and later being ported to Sony 's PlayStation in 1998 . The PlayStation version was released in North America by Working Designs , who had also produced the English adaptation of the original game , in May 1999 .
Like its forerunner , the game follows the exploits of Alex , a young boy from a small , humble town who enters a life of adventure and intrigue after being chosen as the heir @-@ apparent to the title of " Dragonmaster " , guardian of the forces of the planet . With the help of his expanding band of companions , Alex must pass the trials set by ancient dragons to claim his place in history , and stop a powerful sorcerer and former hero from controlling the world .
Since its English release , Silver Star Story has garnered much attention from critics for its use of fluid full @-@ motion animated sequences , lavish game packaging , and quality of the English script . The game was followed by a sequel , Lunar 2 : Eternal Blue Complete , in 1998 . Two more remakes of Lunar : The Silver Star , Lunar Legend and Lunar : Silver Star Harmony , were released in 2002 by Media Rings and Ubisoft and in 2009 by GungHo Online Entertainment and Xseed Games , respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
Silver Star Story Complete is a traditional , top @-@ down role @-@ playing video game featuring two @-@ dimensional character and background graphics . Using the Sega Saturn and PlayStation 's advanced hardware , many elements of the original game 's presentation have been altered , including a larger color palette , more sophisticated visual effects , and improved sound quality . Throughout gameplay , the story is interspersed with fully animated cut scenes designed to give the game a cinematic feel , and allow the player to get more involved in the game 's plot . Players advance the game 's narrative by completing story @-@ based objectives and interacting with non @-@ player characters . In the original version , players encountered enemy monsters randomly every few steps when traveling in a harsh environments , while the remake now makes enemies visible , with combat ensuing only after a character has come in contact with one .
Many of the game 's new battle features were adapted from Lunar : Eternal Blue , including the auto @-@ battle feature that allows players to set moves and actions in advance . While in combat , a player may choose to attack an enemy , move about the battlefield , use magic or items , stand their ground and defend , or flee the battle entirely . Silver Star Story Complete retains the original version 's movement feature , which requires characters to be within a certain distance of an enemy before it can be attacked . Battles are won when all enemies are defeated , yielding experience points that allow characters to gain levels , making them stronger as well as allowing access to better abilities . By gaining levels , as well as finding or purchasing increasingly more powerful weapons and armor , characters can battle increasingly more powerful enemies as the game progresses .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The cast of The Silver Star all return for the game 's remake , retaining their original designs by anime and manga artist Toshiyuki Kubooka . Players assume the role of Alex , who is joined by a menagerie of playable and supporting characters who aid him on his quest .
Alex - a young boy from a small town who dreams of becoming an adventurer like his idol , Dyne .
Luna - his childhood friend and sweetheart
Nall - a winged , white , cat @-@ like creature with an uncertain origin
Ramus - son of the town mayor with dreams of becoming a rich businessman
Nash - a boisterous magician @-@ in @-@ training from a prestigious magic school
Mia - quiet daughter of the magic guild 's headmistress
Jessica - a tomboyish priestess
Kyle - a self @-@ absorbed vagrant and ladies ' man as well as Jessica 's strained boyfriend .
Each character 's personalities were expanded for the new version to make them easier for the player to relate to , and give each of them more presence in the game 's story . As the game ’ s designers felt that Luna was lacking presence in the original game , she was included in the player 's party for a longer period and her past was expanded by giving her confounding dream sequences .
Ghaleon , a dark magician who seeks godhood , serves as the primary antagonist , and initially appears as an ally to Alex 's cause . In the new version , Ghaleon 's personality is altered to make him a more sympathetic character . Motivation for his plans to rule the world were shifted from revenge to misplaced concern for humanity not having a true leader . He is still undeniably ruthless and cruel , however . Game Arts added new villains to the story , feeling that the game 's opposition lacked enough characterization . These include Royce and Phacia , two powerful sorceresses who are sisters to Xenobia , Ghaleon 's top general who appeared in the original as his sole underling ( who , in this version , actually has romantic feelings for him ) .
= = = Story = = =
The plot of Silver Star Story Complete remains true to the original Sega @-@ CD version written by Kei Shigema . Novelist Keisuke Shigematsu was recruited as the remake 's scenario writer , and was tasked with expanding the previous script written by Shigema to make the game more current . As in the original version , players assume the role of Alex , a young boy who hopes to become a great hero like his idol , the legendary Dragonmaster Dyne . At the insistence of his fortune @-@ hunting friend Ramus , Alex travels to the nearby Dragon 's Cave with his cat @-@ like companion Nall , and sweetheart Luna , to seek a precious gem . When the team reaches the cave 's interior , they find Quark , an aged , wise dragon who sees hidden potential in Alex , and beckons him to travel the world and become its protector as the new Dragonmaster . Returning home , the group expresses mutual interest in Alex 's quest ; Ramus wishes to sell the dragon gem at a large city , Nall wants to find out what he is , and Luna merely to protect Alex . The group sets off across the frontier to the port town of Saith to continue their journey .
Traveling through the Weird Woods , Luna sings a magic song to clear a patch of thick fog in their path , yet is not sure how she knew it would work . The group is surrounded by a horde of monsters , and are defended by a traveling warrior named Laike . Finding Alex 's quest to become Dragonmaster humorous , Laike nonetheless wishes him and his friends luck as they leave the forest . Arriving at Saith , the group meets Nash , a magician @-@ in @-@ training from a prestigious magic school who needs transport back to his home , and joins the group on a boat to the eastern continent . Unlike the original Sega @-@ CD version , Luna continues with Alex rather than stay behind to give her a bigger role in the plot . After arriving in the port town of Meribia , Ramus leaves the group to become a salesman at his own shop , while the rest of the team travels to the floating city of Vane to meet Ghaleon , a former adventurer who traveled with Dyne before his death . Ghaleon sends Alex and Luna on a quest to stop a false Dragonmaster from harassing a village where he meets Jessica , a priestess and daughter of the legendary hero " Hell " Mel . Returning to Vane , Ghaleon tells Alex he wants to see Quark to discuss his future as Dragonmaster , with Luna joining them on a return trip to Burg . After arriving at the dragon cave , Ghaleon and Quark reminisce before Ghaleon cryptically asks whether Luna is " the one from back then " . Upon hearing an affirmation , Ghaleon 's mood changes , and suddenly transforms into a more sinister form , The Magic Emperor , who turns Quark to energy and kidnaps Luna , remarking that he will now use her in his quest to rule the world .
The game 's final scenario and the reason for Ghaleon 's actions differ slightly from the original , with the Goddess Althena 's instability serving as the catalyst for the events rather than a rampaging Black Dragon . In this version , Laike relates the story of how one day fifteen years ago , the Goddess Althena concluded that people were depending too much on her , rather than growing as people and as a civilization , and that by continuing to mother them , she was doing more harm than good . Despite Ghaleon 's pleas , Dyne and Althena used their powers to spread her life force throughout the world , transforming her into an infant , to live out a mortal life as a human . Ghaleon , believing humanity could not survive without a god watching over them , cut off all ties to his former friend and set his plan into motion to ascend to godhood himself in Althena 's place ; his cause set on rule rather than revenge as in the original . Believing that humanity was strong and resourceful enough to live on their own , Dyne left the young girl in the care of Alex 's parents to raise her as their own daughter before he began his new life as a traveling adventurer . Now knowing the truth of Luna 's origins , Alex and his friends travel to the Goddess tower to save her and stop Ghaleon from seizing control of the world . Defeating his generals , Alex confronts Ghaleon at the tower 's upper pagoda , where the ritual to transfer Luna 's power to him has already begun . Echoing Dyne 's earlier declaration on the strength of humanity , Alex 's team attacks and defeats Ghaleon as his fortress crumbles around them . With Luna still caught in a trance , Alex attempts to reason with her to leave while the others are teleported to safety . Playing his ocarina , Alex awakens Luna 's memories before the two are transported to the surface as the tower collapses , re @-@ uniting with their companions .
= = Development = =
The remake initially began as Lunar : Silver Star Story , developed by a collaboration between Game Arts and Japan Art Media . Immediately after producing Lunar : Eternal Blue for the Sega @-@ CD console in 1994 , much of the original staff expressed interest in remaking the first Lunar title on current , more advanced hardware . Displeased with many aspects of the original game 's design , Game Arts sought to improve the original version to coincide with their initial vision of the project , including more sophisticated animation , better quality CD music , and a more engaging script . Silver Star Story was headed by producer Youichi Miyaji , who had previously worked on the first two Sega @-@ CD Lunar titles , who enlisted help from the staff of Japan Art Media to aid in the heavy @-@ cost production of the game . While the original game contained roughly ten minutes of animation produced internally , the remake features fifty minutes of new , fully animated cut scenes by Studio Gonzo . For the game 's first release on the Sega Saturn in October 1996 , in @-@ game movies could only display in quarter @-@ screen and low fidelity due to the system 's video limitations . This was corrected for the game 's second release in June 1997 with the introduction of the Saturn 's MPEG card adapter , which allowed for full @-@ screen playback at better quality . Both Saturn versions would be published by Kadokawa Shoten . In May 1998 , Silver Star Story was ported to the PlayStation system in Japan , this time published by Entertainment Software Publishing . This version , while retaining all the extra features of the second Saturn release , including full @-@ screen movies , was unable to produce the same high @-@ fidelity playback as its video card @-@ enhanced predecessor .
= = = English version = = =
In late 1995 , California @-@ based software company Working Designs , who had previously provided the translation for the original Silver Star , signed on to produce the English @-@ language version . The company originally expressed interest in localizing the Saturn version under the name Lunar : Silver Star Story Director 's Cut to be released in Fall 1996 . The initial project was dropped due to internal conflicts between Working Designs and Sega of America , and work began on the PlayStation version in 1998 . Silver Star Story Complete was headed by company president Victor Ireland , who also served as head translator and localizer . Like the original game , the English version features a lighthearted , non @-@ literal interpretation of the original Japanese script while retaining the same basic story , which now includes American pop culture references , breaking the fourth wall , and slapstick humor . Working Designs kept in close contact with the original Japanese team , adding several new features to the North American version including DualShock controller support , the ability to switch between memory card slots on the save screen , and the ability to create up to fifteen save files instead of three . Programming and production difficulties stifled progress , resulting in numerous delays and changing release dates until the game 's eventual release in May 1999 . A stand @-@ alone demo version of the game was distributed to several game stores across the United States which preceded the final version , as well as a Ghaleon punching puppet available with pre @-@ order of Lunar 2 Eternal Blue
Silver Star Story Complete was initially released in North America as a limited collector 's edition which included two game discs , a hardbound instruction manual , a soundtrack CD , a " Making of Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete " special disc , and a cloth map of the Lunar world . The package retailed for $ 60 @.@ 00 to cover the cost of the elaborate extras . Working Designs would also publish their own strategy guide for the game , also billed as a collector 's item . Ireland 's team would add an easter egg to the " Making of " video disc in the form of a minigame based on Atari 's arcade game Warlords called Lords of Lunar accessed by using a code found in @-@ game . In February 2002 , a special " Fan @-@ Art Edition " of the game was released featuring disc artwork by contributors to the Working Designs website , which lacked the extras of the collector 's edition . A Windows @-@ based PC version of Silver Star Story was released in Japan in December 1999 by DigiCube featuring higher resolution graphics and video playback . Working Designs had expressed interest in bringing this version to North America in 2002 , but claimed that the English version was too buggy and unstable to be released .
= = Audio = =
The music for Silver Star Story Complete consists of entirely new background themes by Noriyuki Iwadare . While Hiroshi Fujioka , Isao Mizoguchi , and Yoshiaki Kubodera collaborated with Iwadare on the Sega @-@ CD version , only Iwadare would return for the remake , composing nearly one hundred new songs . When creating the music for Silver Star Story Complete , Iwadare drew from his own experiences , admitting that he was trying to put a personal touch on his work and " express [ myself ] through [ my ] honest emotions " . Music director Isao Mizoguchi claims that the music process was " a little different " than the companies ' previous works , with the game 's main themes being composed before they viewed the scenes that required them , making adjustments as they went along . Each song was divided into four categories : town or village , dungeon , battle , or field ; each with their own pacing and emotional direction . Iwadare described the game 's music as " very well received " according to fan feedback . The Japanese version features a new opening theme , " Tsu · Ba · Sa " ( TSU ・ BA ・ SA , lit . Wings ) performed by Kyōko Hikami . An intermediary song , " Kaze no Nocturne " ( 風のノクターン , Kaze no Nokutān , lit . Wind 's Nocturne ) , also called " The Boat Song " , was added to the game to heighten the emotion of Alex and Luna 's departure into the world , which was kept at Mizoguchi 's insistence even as material was being cut for time .
For the North American release , Victor Ireland had expressed interest in replacing many of the new themes with ones from the Sega @-@ CD version , including the original opening theme " Fighting Through the Darkness " . After translating the game , however , Working Designs was left with very little extra space on each game disc , and the idea was abandoned . Many of the arranged songs meant for the English release were included on a special soundtrack packaged with the collector 's edition . The English version features the opening theme , " Wings " , performed by Jennifer Stigile , who also performs " Wind 's Nocturne " . Additionally , Working Designs ' arrangements of classic Lunar : The Silver Star pieces were used to replace the new music in two animation sequences , " A Trinity of Terror " and " The Green Earth " .
= = = Voice = = =
Silver Star Story Complete features twenty voiced characters , four times the original version . The characters ' voices are used in pre @-@ designated cut scenes , animated interludes and when using special attacks in battle . The English cast was composed of family and friends of the Working Designs staff , as well as local talent from the area . Ashley Angel , Jenny Stigile ( Magallanes ) , Rhonda Gibson , Jackie Powers , Hal Delahousse , and John Truitt reprise their roles , and were joined by a number of talents to fill out the game 's expanded speaking roles . Working Designs had considered replacing Angel , as Victor Ireland felt he may have aged too much to convincingly play a young boy , but reconsidered after his rehearsal , commenting that " the players have all aged a bit since the original , so Alex could have aged a bit , too " . Jenny Stigile ( Magallanes ) sings the intro song as well as the " Boat Song " in the English version . While the English cast returned , the Japanese version was completely re @-@ cast from the Sega @-@ CD original , bringing in several established anime and game voice actors , including pop idol Sakura Tange . A four @-@ volume sound drama album series , Lunatic Festa , was released in Japan between August and November 1996 featuring the Japanese voice actors performing skits and songs in @-@ character , as well as arranged music tracks from the game .
= = Reception = =
The Saturn version of Silver Star Story was well received in Japan , with Weekly Sega Saturn Magazine recognizing it as one of the most memorable gaming experiences of 1997 . The PlayStation version received a 7 out of 10 score from Hyper PlayStation magazine , remarking that although it contained lower quality visual effects and movie playback than the previous Saturn releases , it still remained a solid role @-@ playing game . It sold enough to qualify for Sony 's PlayStation the Best distinction , and was subsequently re @-@ released in Japan in April 1999 at a budget price .
Silver Star Story Complete sold over 223 @,@ 000 units within its first year in North America , including the entire production run of the four @-@ disc collector 's edition . The game became the highest @-@ selling Working Designs title to date , and the third highest @-@ selling role @-@ playing game of 1999 behind Final Fantasy VIII and Planescape : Torment . A heavy media push in magazines and websites brought recognition to the game , and alerted customers that Working Designs planned to cease production of the title starting December 31 , 1999 . English reviews of the game were typically favorable , with critics such as Electronic Gaming Monthly remarking that Lunar 's " plot , writing and voice acting are about the best you 'll find " , awarding the game an editor 's choice gold award . The game 's translation was equally applauded by PlayStation : The Official Magazine , calling it " spotless " , and remarking that Working Designs ' unique humor was applied to every bit of text in the game , including weapon descriptions . Official PlayStation Magazine remarked that " what little [ Lunar ] lacks in visual punch , it more than makes up for in style , story and wholly engrossing gameplay " calling attention to the game 's programming and extra packaging .
The game 's two @-@ dimensional graphics were among its most panned feature , with GamePro commenting that the " flat battle areas , wimpy spells , and itty @-@ bitty enemies will assault your eyes " , citing the in @-@ game animated cut scenes as the only saving grace . Game Informer conversely declared that the animated interludes were grainy and often would not display in true fullscreen , but remarked that it was " really a small gripe because Lunar has an entertaining story filled with enjoyable quips " . Gamers ' Republic recognized the inferiority of Lunar 's graphics to current role @-@ playing games , but nonetheless found them " charming " . GameSpot simply described the graphics as " truly dated " , adding that many of Lunar 's aesthetic qualities could be re @-@ created on a Super Nintendo . Technology magazine Silicon Mag called the game a " masterpiece " , awarding it a 95 % rating and declared it an asset to the game industry , calling it " a game that will sell systems , with gamers actually buying PlayStations just to play it . " In 2000 , Silver Star Story Complete ranked 22nd in IGN 's list of top PlayStation games of all time , while in 2001 Electronic Gaming Monthly ranked it 75th on its list of the top 100 games of all time .
= = Legacy = =
The game 's engine and several design concepts , such as fully animated video interludes and collectible bromides , would later be used in the development of Magic School Lunar ! in 1997 and Lunar 2 : Eternal Blue Complete in 1998 . Working Designs used the game 's strong sales as justification to produce the English version of Eternal Blue Complete in North America , which also featured an elaborate collector 's edition . A four @-@ part Japanese novelization of Silver Star Story 's events would later be written by Kei Shigema and published in 2001 .
Silver Star Story Complete would be the first of three major revamps of the first Lunar game . In 2002 , a new version of the game developed by Media Rings was released for the Game Boy Advance handheld system under the name Lunar Legend ( ルナレジェンド , Runa Rejendo ) , with the title 's English version being the first game in the series not published by Working Designs , but rather Ubisoft . Then , on March 2 , 2010 , Lunar : Silver Star Harmony was released for psp ; marking the last major revamp of the series .
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= Broadhurst Park =
Broadhurst Park is a football stadium in Moston , Manchester , England . It is the home of F.C. United of Manchester and Moston Juniors F.C. The stadium was known by its project name , Moston Community Stadium , before being changed at a members ' meeting in 2014 .
F.C. United were formed in 2005 , and aimed to construct a ground in Manchester by 2012 . After plans for an initial site collapsed , the development of a new stadium at the Ronald Johnson Playing fields in Moston was announced . A protracted planning process followed , and construction began in November 2013 . Broadhurst Park was completed with a capacity of 4 @,@ 400 in May 2015 . The opening match was a friendly between F.C. United and Benfica on 29 May 2015 . F.C. United played host to Stockport County in their first ever competitive league match at Broadhurst Park on 11 August 2015 , eventually losing 2 – 1 .
= = Background = =
= = = F.C. United = = =
F.C. United were formed in 2005 by a group of Manchester United supporters following the club 's controversial takeover by Malcolm Glazer which led to hundreds of supporters defecting from the club . Without a stadium of their own they agreed to use Bury 's Gigg Lane stadium , but the agreement continued at the cost of approximately £ 5 @,@ 000 per match . Within a year , the fan @-@ owned club set aspirations to build its own 7 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 capacity stadium as close to Manchester city centre as possible by 2012 and consequently entered into negotiations with New East Manchester and Manchester City Council to develop their plans . Despite attendances averaging over 2 @,@ 000 in their first few seasons , the fact that the club did not have access to a stadium of its own on its match days was a contributory factor in the club 's financial loss for three years ( £ 42 @,@ 267 in 2007 , £ 40 @,@ 669 in 2008 and £ 9 @,@ 663 in 2009 ) .
F.C. United initially proposed a stadium at Ten Acres Lane in Newton Heath , on the site of an existing leisure centre and Astroturf outdoor football pitch . The plans indicated that these community facilities would have been maintained within the new scheme . Newton Heath is 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) east north east of Manchester city centre and has close links to Manchester United , who were formed in the urban area and were originally known as Newton Heath LYR Football Club between 1878 and 1902 . However , on 4 March 2011 it was announced that Manchester City Council had backed out of plans to fund the new stadium with grants , despite the fact that the previously agreed £ 1 @.@ 5 million was close to being raised by fans , and F.C. United moved to search for other sites . Despite this the Council stated that they were still committed to helping F.C. United build a ground in Manchester and on 5 April 2011 it was announced that , after considering three possible alternative sites , Ronald Johnson Playing Fields in Moston was the preferred location for the stadium to be built according to Manchester City Council .
= = = Moston Juniors = = =
Moston Juniors is a youth football club , formed in 1993 . The club has Active Sports and Charity Club status and was the first club in Manchester to receive FA Charter Standard Community Club status . The club signed the lease for Ronald Johnson Playing fields in 2007 , with work to improve the site being completed in 2009 due to a grant from Manchester City Council and the Football Foundation . The club had further plans with the help of a proposed £ 750 @,@ 000 council grant to build a clubhouse and upgrade their pitches , however they were unable to secure sufficient additional funding to make the project happen . On announcement of the intended redevelopment of the Ronald Johnson Playing fields into a new stadium , Moston Juniors entered into a partnership with F.C. United and Manchester City Council so that they could lease the new ground facilities .
= = History prior to construction = =
The surrounding area was part of the manor of Moston , near the now demolished Moston Hall . It was owned by Sir Edward Tootal Broadhurst , a local industrialist , who in 1920 donated 80 acres of the land for use as a park , as a recognition of victory in the First World War .
The ground on which the stadium is built has long been used for sport . The playing fields in Moston were purchased on behalf of the workers of " Johnson , Clapham and Morris " , a metal working and fabrication business . The fields were named for Ronald Lindsay Johnson ( 24 September 1889 – 29 May 1917 ) , a member of the Johnson family who died while serving as an Acting Captain and Divisional Trench Mortar Officer ( DTMO ) in the First World War . As DTMO for the 23rd Division , Johnson was responsible for co @-@ ordinating the targeting and positioning of mortar batteries and it was during preparation for the Battle of Messines that he was mortally wounded on 29 May 1917 . He had ascended to chairman of his family business following the deaths of his father in February 1914 and his brother William in July 1916 . His will ( compiled before Christmas 1916 ) originally left his shares in the family business in trust for the benefit of the employees of the firm ; but when this bequest was deemed to be impractical , the trustees decided instead that eight acres of land should be purchased for the staff as playing fields and a recreation ground . They were opened in the presence of his mother on 17 June 1925 .
In April 1934 , following the moving of the Richard Johnson , Clapham and Morris Ltd firm to Trafford Park , the playing grounds were offered to the Parks Committee of the Manchester Corporation for £ 2 @,@ 400 . At the time , the ground was described as being fenced all round with iron railings , containing bowling greens , a number of tennis courts and a cricket pitch , together with two well @-@ built pavilions . For many years the land was used for community events including football and funfairs . A cycle speedway track was built during the 1980s . In 2005 , a 2 @.@ 4 m green powder coated weld mesh fence with gates was erected at the perimeter of the fields . Moston Juniors Football Club secured a lease for the site in 2007 , with a view to future development .
= = Development = =
= = = Planning = = =
The original plans for the Moston scheme remained similar to the original Ten Acres Lane proposal with a total capacity of 5 @,@ 000 expected . The plans were developed by architects Taylor Young ( now known as IBI Group ) and structural engineers Scott Hughes Design .
Some local objections emerged in response to the plans to use of the fields for the stadium . Residents opposed to the stadium were concerned that it would lead to parking problems and devaluation of their property . There were also concerns about the loss of green space . There were also Moston residents who supported the stadium proposals , believing the stadium would provide sports facilities and activities for local children and teenagers , improving the overall health of people in the area . By the end of the consultation process 5 @,@ 635 letters of support and 2 @,@ 226 letters of objection were received . – of these 7 @,@ 653 ( 97 @.@ 3 % ) were " standard letters " with supporters and objectors simply adding a signature . There were also six petitions with 854 names in support and 1 @,@ 420 names in objection .
In April 2011 , the Executive Committee of Manchester City Council approved the proposal to site the ground development subject to a planning application and consultation with residents , local community groups and Moston Juniors F.C. Detailed information about the new facility , including the tentative name Moston Community Stadium , was released on 9 June 2011 . A decision by the planning officers from Manchester City Council regarding consent had to be moved from 15 September to 27 October due to the volume of interest in the application . The Head of Planning recommended that the Committee were " Minded to Approve " the planning application subject to a total of 42 attached conditions including the signing of an agreement for the site to have community use , an ongoing travel plan and off @-@ site parking provision . At the planning meeting on 27 October , Manchester City Council approved the planning permission for the new stadium .
= = = Judicial review = = =
After the planning approval was granted , local residents hired barristers to consider an appeal against the decision . The activation of the planning permission allowed solicitors on behalf of a group called Residents United Residents Association ( RURA ) to launch its Judicial Review Pre @-@ Action Protocol , which challenged the council 's decision making process . One of the original areas for appeal revolved around historic covenants on parts of the land , but the Charities Commission ruled that the fields are not charitable land .
The residents gained legal aid to launch the judicial review and argued that there were flaws in the planning process . The review took place on 18 – 19 December 2012 in Manchester to decide whether the council 's planning process was legal . The judge reserved his decision for a month , but decided to reject RURA 's claim to quash the planning permission . The final legal action from RURA came to an end after an unsuccessful challenge was made to the Court of Appeal in March 2013 .
= = = Funding = = =
In total , £ 6 @.@ 5 million was required to fund construction of the ground : –
£ 2 million – F.C. United Community Shares scheme ( target reached on 26 Feb 2015 )
£ 1 million – from other fundraising , e.g. £ 467 @,@ 000 from the F.C. United Development Fund ( including £ 51 @,@ 000 from crowdfunding ) and £ 345 @,@ 000 from a Loan Stock scheme
£ 918 @,@ 000 – Sport England ( Iconic facilities fund )
£ 550 @,@ 000 – Manchester City Council ( approved January 2012 )
£ 500 @,@ 000 – Football Foundation Community Facilities Fund
£ 500 @,@ 000 – Manchester City Council loan ( approved January 2012 )
£ 303 @,@ 000 – Government grant , Community Assets and Services Fund ( announced January 2014 )
£ 150 @,@ 000 – Football Foundation Football Stadia Improvement Fund
£ 90 @,@ 000 – Viridor Waste Management
= = = Construction = = =
The club signed a Section 106 and lease agreement in July 2012 , activating the planning permission which had been granted subject to the 42 conditions recommended by the Head of Planning back in October 2011 . Many of these conditions would be routinely applied to applications , such as the ground must be completed within three years ( July 2015 ) and the building matching the submitted drawings . Other conditions include the recommendation that F.C. United not play any home games when Manchester City are also at home , or there being a major event at the City of Manchester Stadium due to the grounds being just over 3 miles apart and the possible impact on traffic and car parking availability within the area . Floodlights on one of the community pitches must be switched off at 8pm , with the other pitches being allowed to operate until 9pm . The club 's original target was to open the Ten Acres Lane site in August 2012 . However , several delays ensued including the change of site to Moston and a 13 @-@ week " cooling off period " after the successful application . The F.C. United board had initially identified a tentative construction start date of May 2012 , but the legal challenge to the council 's decision delayed this for nearly 18 months until work finally began in November 2013 .
The ground was then scheduled to be completed by September 2014 with the work being undertaken by Barnes Construction . The project manager was Frank Whittle Partnerships . The completion target was to be 40 weeks after construction had commenced . The club had hoped to play the 2014 – 15 season in their own ground . However , some difficulties with the steel and logistics led to delays . The opening was initially moved back to December 2014 but further delays led to F.C. United playing the entire 2014 – 15 season at Bower Fold in Stalybridge and at Curzon Ashton 's Tameside Stadium . Much of the stadium 's fittings were constructed by fans and volunteers , while one terrace was recycled from the Drill Field ground in Northwich which had closed in 2002 . The facilities were largely completed by April 2015 and a test event was held at the ground on 16 May 2015 .
= = = Ground naming = = =
The " Moston Community Stadium " was the project name for the ground announced in the summer of 2011 . However , the official ground name was chosen by F.C. United members at the club 's Annual General Meeting on 10 April 2014 . The members were able to propose suggestions and these were reduced to a shortlist of seven .
Broadhurst
Broadhurst Park
FCUM Hall
Lightbowne Road
Ronald Johnson Ground
The Boardwalk
United of Manchester Stadium
The name was announced as " Broadhurst Park " on 11 April 2014 , after a members ' vote . The surrounding area has been named for Edward Tootal Broadhurst since he donated land to the people of Moston in 1920 .
= = Opening = =
F.C. United hosted a test event on 16 May 2015 , staging a short match between their first team and an Invitational XI made up of past players . This event was organized to test the facilities and prove that the stadium can hold a large capacity crowd , and took place with 3 @,@ 241 supporters in attendance . The official opening game was a friendly between F.C. United of Manchester and Benfica B on 29 May , the anniversary of Manchester United 's victory over Benfica in the 1968 European Cup Final . The date also happened to be the anniversary of the death of Ronald Johnson . Benfica won the opening game 0 – 1 in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 232 . The ground 's first league game was on 11 August 2015 , the second match of the 2015 – 16 season for F.C. United , in a National League North local derby against Stockport County , a 1 – 2 loss .
= = Facilities = =
The pitch at Broadhurst Park is surrounded on all sides by covered stands : the St. Mary 's Road End ( east ) , the North Stand , the Lightbowne Road End ( west ) and the Main Stand ( south ) , the last of which has seating sections . Spectators enter via twelve turnstiles in the corners of the stadium . The Main Stand contains a clubhouse with a bar and catering facilities , club offices , changing rooms , a medical suite and a classroom . There is an additional bar under the St. Mary 's Road End and food , concessions and merchandise areas are located both inside and outside the ground . Broadhurst Park also has a 3G pitch and two grass pitches adjacent to it as well as training and community facilities . The 3G pitch is used for home fixtures by F.C. United 's Reserve and Women 's teams . The ends of the main stand have been constructed with future expansion in mind , specifically with space to trial a safe standing area . The club has a partnership with Pennine Telecom to provide free Wi @-@ Fi to supporters at the ground .
Broadhurst Park has 50 – 60 car parking spaces , though on match days these are only available via booking in advance . The stadium is also served by Newton Heath and Moston tram stop ( tram / light rail ) , Moston railway station ( heavy rail ) , and several bus routes , including match day special buses from the city 's Northern Quarter . 80 bicycle stands have also been installed by the club to encourage cycling to the ground .
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= Talon ( roller coaster ) =
Talon is a 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) steel inverted roller coaster at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom in South Whitehall Township , Pennsylvania , United States . It features 4 inversions and close to the ground encounters . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , Talon was known to be one of the longest inverted roller coasters in the Northeast when it opened in 2001 . Unlike many roller coasters , Talon 's track is filled with sand to reduce the noise made by the trains .
= = History = =
On April 28 , 2000 , Dorney Park announced that a 135 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 41 m ) four inversion inverted roller coaster would be built for the 2001 season . No further details were given until August 30 , 2000 when Dorney Park announced the full details of the new $ 13 million roller coaster and its name , Talon . The ride would be the Northeast 's longest inverted roller coaster and would be built on a portion of land set aside for a major attraction by Cedar Fair when they purchased the park in 1992 . Construction began on September 5 , 2000 and continued through the winter . The first parts of Talon to be put into place were the brake run and transfer track in October 2000 . The roller coaster was topped off ( the highest piece of the lift hill ) on November 21 , 2000 and the track was completed in early 2001 . After testing was complete , Talon opened on May 5 , 2001 .
= = Experience = =
Having dispacted from the station , the train immediately begins to climb the 135 @-@ foot ( 41 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train goes through a pre @-@ drop before making a sharp 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) downward right turn . The train then enters a 98 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) tall vertical loop . After exiting the loop , the train goes through a zero @-@ gravity roll before dropping back to the ground and entering an immelmann loop . The train then makes a full 360 @-@ degree upward right turn followed by a left turn leading into another drop . After the drop , the train makes highly banked right turn into a flat spin . Next , the train makes a left turn ( extremely close to the ground ) before heading to an airtime , and back up which leads into the brake run . After exiting the brake run , the train makes a right turn into a second , shorter , set of brakes before entering the station .
One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Trains = = =
Talon operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that can seat four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . The train structure is coloured blue and turquoise , the seats are black , and the over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints are yellow .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Talon is approximately 3 @,@ 110 feet ( 950 m ) long , the height of the lift is approximately 135 feet ( 41 m ) high , and the entire track weighs just under 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 kg ) . It was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio . To reduce the noise made by the trains , the track is filled with sand . Also , the track is painted orange and yellow while the supports are blue .
= = = Slogan & theme = = =
The entrance sign has a mini @-@ slogan as , " The Grip Of Fear " , after a claw . The word , " Talon " , is another meaning for , " Claw " , specifically on Bald eagles and mythical creatures .
= = Awards = =
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= Dare to Be Stupid =
Dare to Be Stupid is the third studio album by " Weird Al " Yankovic , released in 1985 . The album was one of many produced by former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer . Recorded between August 1984 and March 1985 , the album was Yankovic 's first studio album released following the success of 1984 's In 3 @-@ D , which included the Top 40 single " Eat It " .
The music on Dare to Be Stupid is built around parodies and pastiches of pop and rock music of the mid @-@ 1980s , featuring jabs at Madonna , Cyndi Lauper , Huey Lewis and the News , and The Kinks . The album also features many " style parodies " , or musical imitations that come close to , but do not copy , existing artists . These style parodies include imitations of specific artists like Devo and Elvis , as well as imitations of various musical genres like doo @-@ wop , sci @-@ fi soundtracks , and music from the 1920s and 1930s .
Despite the mixed reception , Dare to Be Stupid sold well and peaked at number fifty on the Billboard 200 . The album also produced one of Yankovic 's more famous singles , " Like a Surgeon " , a parody of Madonna 's " Like a Virgin " , which peaked at number forty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was Yankovic 's second Gold record , and went on to be certified Platinum for sales of over one million copies in the United States . The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1986 .
= = Production = =
= = = Recording = = =
In January 1985 Yankovic entered the recording studio to begin the sessions to his In 3 @-@ D follow @-@ up album . To produce the album , Yankovic brought in former The McCoys guitarist Rick Derringer who also produced Yankovic 's previous albums . Backing Yankovic were Jon " Bermuda " Schwartz on drums , Steve Jay on bass , and Jim West on guitar . The first session yielded four originals : " Dare to Be Stupid " , " Cable TV " , " Slime Creatures from Outer Space " , and " One More Minute " . The band also recorded a cover tune of the theme from " George Of The Jungle " . The following month , Yankovic began recording the four parodies and polka medley that would appear on the album , " Yoda " , " Like a Surgeon " , " I Want a New Duck " , " Girls Just Want to Have Lunch " , and " Hooked on Polkas " .
= = = Originals = = =
" This Is The Life " had already been recorded and released as a single in November 1984 . The song describes the narrator 's overly lavish lifestyle and had originally been commissioned for the gangster spoof movie Johnny Dangerously . The album 's title track , " Dare to Be Stupid " , is an ode to living life stupidly . According to the liner notes of The Ultimate Video Collection , the song represents " Al 's motto in life " . The song is a style parody of the band Devo . Devo 's reaction was very positive . Yankovic said , " Right after I finished " Dare To Be Stupid " , I went over to Mark Mothersbaugh 's house and played it for him . He seemed to enjoy it a lot . " The song was later released on the soundtrack to the 1986 film The Transformers : The Movie . Yankovic later mused that more people were introduced to " Dare to Be Stupid " the song through the Transformers movie than through the actual Dare to Be Stupid album itself .
" One More Minute " , about an ex @-@ girlfriend , was written in the style of an Elvis Presley @-@ like Doo @-@ wop . According to the liner notes of Permanent Record , Yankovic was preparing to write songs for Dare to Be Stupid when his then @-@ girlfriend broke up with him . In order to mentally deal with the heartbreak , Yankovic decided to write a humorous song to express his anger , eventually into " One More Minute " . Yankovic tears up her picture in the video . " Slime Creatures from Outer Space " was Yankovic 's attempt to emulate the sound of " cheesy 50s sci @-@ fi soundtracks . " The track features prominent usage of a theremin , courtesy of Steve Jay .
= = = Parodies and polka = = =
On February 21 , 1985 , Yankovic began recording the parodies for Dare to Be Stupid . The first parody recorded for the album was " Yoda " . " Yoda " was originally written by Yankovic during the initial run of the 1980 American film The Empire Strikes Back . After the success of the movie , Yankovic toyed with the idea of writing a song based on the break @-@ out character , but was unable to find a suitable song to use as the base . Yankovic remembers , " I was still in college at the time , and a friend of mine named Mike suggested that I do the song to the tune of ' Lola ' — which I couldn 't believe that I hadn 't thought of myself , since I was such a huge Kinks fan . " Yankovic wrote and recorded a version of the song , using only an accordion , on a four @-@ track cassette Portastudio . This version of " Yoda " was a hit on the " Dr. Demento Show " , and even managed to hit , and hold onto , number one on the Funny Five countdown for several weeks . This early demo was later released on one of Dr. Demento 's Basement Tapes .
After the large success of the demo version , Yankovic wanted to put the song on one of his albums . However , the immensely complex process of getting permission from George Lucas and the publishers of the Kinks ' " Lola " delayed the release of the song for about five years . Eventually , after Lucas gave Yankovic permission , the song 's publishers turned Al down . Several versions of why the parody was turned down exist . In a 1985 interview with Spin , Yankovic explained that , " We approached Ray Davies [ the song 's composer ] , we 've been approaching him every year and a half , two years before each album comes out and he 's always been a little skeptical , a little afraid because ' Lola ' was a very personal song for him . Then just out of the blue he decided this time to let us do it . " However , the liner notes to the Permanent Record present a different story . According to the album 's notes , the song may have remained unreleased for some time had it not been for a chance encounter Yankovic had with the song 's original songwriter , Ray Davies . When Yankovic asked why he hadn 't given him permission , Davies remarked that he had never been asked . Davies immediately gave Yankovic permission to record the song , and the song was later released on Dare to Be Stupid .
The day after recording " Yoda " , Yankovic started recording " Like a Surgeon " , the lead single for the album . Although Yankovic normally refuses to use parody ideas from other people , Madonna is partly responsible for " Like a Surgeon " . Madonna asked one of her friends how long it would take until Yankovic satirized her song " Like a Virgin " into " Like a Surgeon " . This friend was a mutual friend of Al 's manager , Jay Levey . When word got back to Yankovic , he decided it was a good idea and wrote the song . This is the only known time that Yankovic has gotten a parody idea directly from the original artist .
The third parody recorded for the album was a parody of " I Want a New Drug " by Huey Lewis and the News entitled " I Want a New Duck " . After the recording of " I Want a New Duck " , Yankovic was comfortable with releasing the album as it was . However , Scotti Bros. insisted that Yankovic include a parody of a Cyndi Lauper song . Yankovic begrudgingly complied , producing " Girls Just Wanna Have Lunch " . Yankovic has cited it as one of his least favorite songs , and ultimately left it off his 1993 compilation album The Food Album . Yankovic also approached Prince about a potential parody of " When Doves Cry " , circa 1984 . Prince refused , and did not accept any future parody ideas Yankovic presented to him .
On March 25 , 1985 , Yankovic rounded out the recording of his new album with a polka medley of then @-@ popular songs in music . Dare to Be Stupid also includes " George of the Jungle " , the only straight cover song released by Yankovic , not counting his polka medleys . The song later ended up on the soundtrack to the 1997 film of the same name .
= = Reception = =
= = = Promotion = = =
After the release of the album , Yankovic undertook the 70 @-@ city " Stupid Tour " ; this was his biggest tour of the 1980s , and featured " costume changes , carefully designed lighting , and several of Al 's videos cleverly integrated into the stage show " . Yankovic 's on @-@ stage wardrobe changed dramatically during the tour , and he specifically stipulated that every promoter " had to supply one garish Hawaiian shirt " for him to wear . Yankovic eventually acquired " a couple closets full " of them . Yankovic also started wearing exclusively Vans , and joked that " whenever I need some they let me go to their warehouse and take home an armload . "
The videos that were made to promote Dare to Be Stupid were later compiled , with additional material into a direct @-@ to @-@ video mockumentary called The Compleat Al . The video , directed by Yankovic 's manager Jay Levey and Robert K. Weiss , was one of " the first programs of its kind to be made specifically for the home video market " . A 60 @-@ minute version was later aired on Showtime . To go along with the video , the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek book The Authorized Al was also released . The book , co @-@ written by Yankovic and Tino Insana , has since gone out of print .
= = = Critical response = = =
Dare to Be Stupid received moderately favorable reviews from critics . AllMusic reviewer Eugene Chadbourne awarded the album three and a half stars , and cited " Like a Surgeon " and " Dare to Be Stupid " as some of Yankovic 's best songs . Christopher Thelen from The Daily Vault wrote that " while Dare To Be Stupid is not Yankovic 's finest album [ ... ] there 's enough on this one to recommend it " . The song " Yoda " has gone on to become one of Yankovic 's most famous songs . Although it was left off his first greatest hits album , the song was featured on the second volume , the box set Permanent Record , and the 2009 compilation The Essential " Weird Al " Yankovic . The song has appeared on the " Time Machine " episode of The Weird Al Show and on the compilation album Radio Disney : Kid Jams .
Although the lead single " Like a Surgeon " and the parody " Yoda " were met with praise , many criticized the album 's other parodies . Many critics were split on the amount of emphasis the original songs were given . Rolling Stone writer David Hinkley positively wrote that " the pick of this album 's original litter is ' One More Minute ' , which is a parody of a style ( Fifties vocal group ) rather than a specific song and is a superb tune besides – right down to the perfect little gasp right before the final chorus " . In contrast , Chadbourne was disappointed with the original material , stating that " only someone who is missing important brain cells would suggest this artist 's original songs are any good " . The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1986 , though it lost to Whoopi Goldberg 's Whoopi : Original Broadway Recording .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Dare to Be Stupid was released on June 18 , 1985 ; it was the first album of musical comedy to be released on Compact Disc . Dare to Be Stupid eventually peaked on the Billboard 200 at number 50 . The album spent a total of eight weeks on the chart . On January 27 , 1986 , a little less than a year after its release , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . On February 24 , 2003 , the album was certified Platinum by the RIAA .
= = Track listing = =
The following is adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo =
The Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo ( French : Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo or FARDC ) is the state organisation responsible for defending the Democratic Republic of the Congo . The FARDC is being rebuilt as part of the peace process which followed the end of the Second Congo War in July 2003 .
The majority of FARDC members are land forces , but it also has a small air force and an even smaller navy . Together the three services may number between 144 @,@ 000 and 159 @,@ 000 personnel . In addition , there is a presidential force called the Republican Guard , but it and the National Congolese Police ( PNC ) are not part of the Armed Forces .
The government in the capital city Kinshasa , the United Nations , the European Union , and bilateral partners which include Angola , South Africa , and Belgium are attempting to create a viable force with the ability to provide the Democratic Republic of Congo with stability and security . However , this process is being hampered by corruption , inadequate donor coordination , and competition between donors . The various military units now grouped under the FARDC banner are some of the most unstable in Africa after years of war and underfunding .
To assist the new government , since February 2000 the United Nations has had the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo ( now called MONUSCO ) , which currently has a strength of over 16 @,@ 000 peacekeepers in the country . Its principal tasks are to provide security in key areas , such as the South Kivu and North Kivu in the east , and to assist the government in reconstruction . Foreign rebel groups are also in the Congo , as they have been for most of the last half @-@ century . The most important is the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda ( FDLR ) , against which Laurent Nkunda 's troops were fighting , but other smaller groups such as the anti @-@ Ugandan Lord 's Resistance Army are also present .
The legal standing of the FARDC was laid down in the Transitional Constitution , articles 118 and 188 . This was then superseded by provisions in the 2006 Constitution , articles 187 to 192 . Law 04 / 023 of November 12 , 2004 establishes the General Organisation of Defence and the Armed Forces . In mid @-@ 2010 , the Congolese Parliament was debating a new defence law , provisionally designated Organic Law 130 .
= = History = =
The first organized Congolese troops , known as the Force Publique , were created in 1888 when King Leopold II of Belgium , who held the Congo Free State as his private property , ordered his Secretary of the Interior to create military and police forces for the state . In 1908 , under international pressure , Leopold ceded administration of the colony to the government of Belgium as the Belgian Congo . It remained under the command of a Belgian officer corps through to the independence of the colony in 1960 . The Force Publique saw combat in Cameroun , and successfully invaded and conquered areas of German East Africa , notably present day Rwanda , during World War I. Elements of the Force Publique were also used to form Belgian colonial units that fought in the East African Campaign during World War II .
At independence on 30 June 1960 , the army suffered from a dramatic deficit of trained leaders , particularly in the officer corps . This was because the Force Publique had always only been officered by Belgian or other expatriate whites . The Belgian Government made no effort to train Congolese commissioned officers until the very end of the colonial period and there were only about 20 African cadets in training on the eve of independence . Ill @-@ advised actions by Belgian officers led to an enlisted ranks ' rebellion on 5 July 1960 , which helped spark the Congo Crisis . Lieutenant General Émile Janssens , the Force Publique commander , wrote during a meeting of soldiers that ' Before independence = After Independence ' , pouring cold water on the soldiers ' desires for an immediate raise in their status .
Vanderstraeten says that on the morning of 8 July 1960 , following a night during which all control had been lost over the soldiers , numerous ministers arrived at Camp Leopold with the aim of calming the situation . Both Patrice Lumumba and Joseph Kasa @-@ Vubu eventually arrived , and the soldiers listened to Kasa @-@ Vubu " religiously . " After his speech , Kasa @-@ Vubu and the ministers present retired into the camp canteen to hear a delegation from the soldiers . Vanderstraeten says that , according to Joseph Ileo , their demands ( revendications ) included the following :
that the defence portfolio not be given to the Prime Minister
that the name Force publique be changed to Armée nationale congolaise
and that the commander @-@ in @-@ chief and chief of staff should not necessarily be Belgians
The " laborious " discussions which then followed were later retrospectively given the label of an " extraordinary ministerial council . " Gérald @-@ Libois writes that ' .. the special meeting of the council of ministers took steps for the immediate Africanisation of the officer corps and .. named Victor Lundula , who was born in Kasai and was burgomaster of Jadotville , as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armée Nationale Congolaise ( ANC ) ; Colonel Joseph @-@ Désiré Mobutu as chief of staff ; and the Belgian , Colonel Henniquiau , as chief advisor to the ANC . ' Thus General Janssens was dismissed . Both Lundula and Mobutu were former sergeants of the Force Publique . It appears that Maurice Mpolo , Minister of Youth and Sports , was given the defence portfolio .
On 8 – 9 July 1960 , the soldiers were invited to appoint black officers , and ' command of the army passed securely into the hands of former sergeants , ' as the soldiers in general chose the most @-@ educated and highest @-@ ranked Congolese army soldiers as their new officers . Most of the Belgian officers were retained as advisors to the new Congolese hierarchy , and calm returned to the two main garrisons at Leopoldville and Thysville . The Force Publique was renamed the Armée nationale congolaise ( ANC ) , or Congolese National Armed Forces . However , in Katanga Belgian officers resisted the Africanisation of the army .
On 9 July 1960 , there was a Force Publique mutiny at Camp Massart at Elizabethville ; five or seven Europeans were killed . The army revolt and resulting rumours caused severe panic across the country , and Belgium despatched troops and the naval Task Group 218 @.@ 2 to protect its citizens . Belgian troops intervened in Elisabethville and Luluabourg ( 10 July ) , Matadi ( 11 July ) , Leopoldville ( 13 July ) and elsewhere . There were immediate suspicions that Belgium planned to re @-@ seize the country while doing so . Large numbers of Belgian colonists fled the country . At the same time , on 9 July , Albert Kalonji proclaimed the independence of South Kasai . Two days later on 11 July , Moise Tshombe declared the independence of Katanga province in the south @-@ east , closely backed by remaining Belgian administrators and soldiers .
On 14 July 1960 , in response to requests by Prime Minister Lumumba , the UN Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 143 . This called upon Belgium to remove its troops and for the UN to provide ' military assistance ' to the Congolese forces to allow them ' to meet fully their tasks ' . Lumumba demanded that Belgium remove its troops immediately , threatening to seek help from the Soviet Union if they did not leave within two days . The UN reacted quickly and established the United Nations Operation in the Congo ( ONUC ) . The first UN troops arrived the next day but there was instant disagreement between Lumumba and the UN over the new force 's mandate . Because the Congolese army had been in disarray since the mutiny , Lumumba wanted to use the UN troops to subdue Katanga by force . Referring to the resolution , Lumumba wrote to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld , ' From these texts it is clear that , contrary to your personal interpretation , the UN force may be used to subdue the rebel government of Katanga . ' Secretary General Hammarskjöld refused . To Hammarskjöld , the secession of Katanga was an internal Congolese matter and the UN was forbidden to intervene by Article 2 of the United Nations Charter . Disagreements over what the UN force could and could not do continued throughout its deployment .
The last Belgian troops left the country by 23 July , as United Nations forces continued to deploy throughout the Congo .
During the crucial period of July – August 1960 , Joseph @-@ Désiré Mobutu built up " his " national army by channeling foreign aid to units loyal to him , by exiling unreliable units to remote areas , and by absorbing or dispersing rival armies . He tied individual officers to him by controlling their promotion and the flow of money for payrolls . Researchers working from the 1990s have concluded that money was directly funnelled to the army by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency , the UN , and Belgium . Despite this , by September 1960 , following the four @-@ way division of the country , there were four separate armed forces : Mobotu 's ANC itself , numbering about 12 @,@ 000 , the South Kasai Constabulary loyal to Albert Kalonji ( 3 @,@ 000 or less ) , the Katanga Gendarmerie which were part of Moise Tshombe 's regime ( totalling about 10 @,@ 000 ) , and the Stanleyville dissident ANC loyal to Antoine Gizenga ( numbering about 8 @,@ 000 ) .
In August 1960 , due to rejection of requests to the UN for aid to suppress the South Kasai and Katanga revolts , Lumumba 's government decided to request Soviet help. de Witte writes that ' Leopoldville asked the Soviet Union for planes , lorries , arms , and equipment . .. Shortly afterwards , on 22 or 23 August , about 1 @,@ 000 soldiers left for Kasai . ' de Witte goes on to write that on 26 – 27 August , the ANC seized Bakwanga , Albert Kalonji 's capital in South Kasai , without serious resistance . ' In the next two days it temporarily put an end to the secession of Kasai.'
The Library of Congress Country Study for the Congo says at this point that : " [ On 5 September 1960 ] Kasavubu also appointed Mobutu as head of the ANC . Joseph Ileo was chosen as the new prime minister and began trying to form a new government . Lumumba and his cabinet responded by accusing Kasa @-@ Vubu of high treason and voted to dismiss him . Parliament refused to confirm the dismissal of either Lumumba or Kasavubu and sought to bring about a reconciliation between them . After a week 's deadlock , Mobutu announced on September 14 that he was assuming power until December 31 , 1960 , in order to " neutralize " both Kasavubu and Lumumba . "
In early January 1961 , ANC units loyal to Lumumba invaded northern Katanga to support a revolt of Baluba tribesmen against Tshombe 's secessionist regime .
United Nations Security Council Resolution 161 of 21 February 1961 , called for the withdrawal of Belgian officers from command positions in the ANC , and the training of new Congolese officers with UN help . The various efforts made by ONUC to retrain the ANC from August 1960 to their effective end in June 1963 are described in Arthur House 's book The UN in the Congo : The Civilian Operations , pages 145 @-@ 155 . By March 1963 however , after the visit of Colonel Michael Greene of the United States Army , and the resulting ' Greene Plan , ' the pattern of bilaterally agreed military assistance to various Congolese military components , instead of a single unified effort , was already taking shape .
In early 1964 , a new crisis broke out as Congolese rebels calling themselves " Simba " ( Swahili for " Lion " ) rebelled against the government . They were led by Pierre Mulele , Gaston Soumialot and Christophe Gbenye who were former members of Gizenga 's Parti Solidaire Africain ( PSA ) . The rebellion affected Kivu and Eastern ( Orientale ) provinces . By August they had captured Stanleyville and set up a rebel government there . As the rebel movement spread , discipline became more difficult to maintain , and acts of violence and terror increased . Thousands of Congolese were executed , including government officials , political leaders of opposition parties , provincial and local police , school teachers , and others believed to have been Westernized . Many of the executions were carried out with extreme cruelty , in front of a monument to Lumumba in Stanleyville . Tshombe decided to use foreign mercenaries as well as the ANC to suppress the rebellion . Mike Hoare was employed to create the English @-@ speaking 5 Commando ANC at Kamina , with the assistance of a Belgian officer , Colonel Frederic Vanderwalle , while 6 Commando ANC was French @-@ speaking and originally under the command of a Belgian Army colonel , Lamouline . By August 1964 , the mercenaries , with the assistance of other ANC troops , were making headway against the Simba rebellion . Fearing defeat , the rebels started taking hostages of the local white population in areas under their control . These hostages were rescued in Belgian airdrops ( Dragon Rouge and Dragon Noir ) over Stanleyville and Paulis with U.S. airlift support . The operation coincided with the arrival of mercenary units ( seemingly including the hurriedly formed 5th Mechanised Brigade ) at Stanleyville which was quickly captured . It took until the end of the year to completely put down the remaining areas of rebellion .
After five years of turbulence , in 1965 Mobutu used his position as ANC Chief of Staff to seize power in the Congo . Although Mobutu succeeded in taking power , his position was soon threatened by the Kisangani Mutinies , also known as the Stanleyville Mutinies or Mercenaries ' Mutinies , which were eventually suppressed .
As a general rule , since that time , the armed forces have not intervened in politics as a body , rather being tossed and turned as ambitious men have shaken the country . In reality , the larger problem has been the misuse and sometimes abuse of the military and police by political and ethnic leaders .
On 16 May 1968 a parachute brigade of two regiments ( each of three battalions ) was formed which eventually was to grow in size to a full division .
= = = Zaire 1971 – 1997 = = =
The country was renamed Zaire in 1971 and the army was consequently designated the Forces Armées Zaïroises ( FAZ ) . In 1971 the army 's force consisted of the 1st Groupement at Kananga , with one guard battalion , two infantry battalions , and a gendarmerie battalion attached , and the 2nd Groupement ( Kinshasa ) , the 3rd Groupement ( Kisangani ) , the 4th Groupement ( Lubumbashi ) , the 5th Groupement ( Bukavu ) , the 6th Groupement ( Mbandaka ) , and the 7th Groupement ( Boma ) . Each was about the size of a brigade , and commanded by ' aging generals who have had no military training , and often not much positive experience , since they were NCOs in the Belgian Force Publique . ' By the late 1970s the number of groupements reached nine , one per administrative region . The parachute division ( Division des Troupes Aéroportées Renforcées de Choc , DITRAC ) operated semi @-@ independently from the rest of the army .
In July 1972 a number of the aging generals commanding the groupements were retired . Général d 'armée Louis Bobozo , and Generaux de Corps d 'Armée Nyamaseko Mata Bokongo , Nzoigba Yeu Ngoli , Muke Massaku , Ingila Grima , Itambo Kambala Wa Mukina , Tshinyama Mpemba , and General de Division Yossa Yi Ayira , the last having been commander of the Kamina base , were all retired on 25 July 1972 . Taking over as military commander @-@ in @-@ chief , now titled Captain General , was newly promoted General de Division Bumba Moaso , former commander of the parachute division .
A large number of countries supported the FAZ in the early 1970s . Three hundred Belgian personnel were serving as staff officers and advisors throughout the Ministry of Defence , Italians were supporting the Air Force , Americans were assisting with transport and communications , Israelis with airborne forces training , and there were British advisors with the engineers .
On 11 June 1975 several military officers were arrested in what became known as the coup monté et manqué . Amongst those arrested were Générals Daniel KATSUVA wa Katsuvira , Land Forces Chief of Staff , UTSHUDI Wembolenga , Commandant of the 2nd Military Region at Kalemie ; FALLU Sumbu , Military Attaché of Zaïre in Washington , Colonel MUDIAYI wa Mudiayi , the military attaché of Zaïre in Paris , the military attache in Brussels , a paracommando battalion commander , and several others . The regime alleged these officers and others ( including Mobutu 's civil secrétaire particulier ) had plotted the assassination of Mobutu , high treason , and disclosure of military secrets , among other offences . The alleged coup was investigated by a revolutionary commission headed by Boyenge Mosambay Singa , at that time head of the Gendarmerie . Writing in 1988 , Michael Schatzberg said the full details of the coup had yet to emerge .
In late 1975 , Mobutu , in a bid to install a pro @-@ Kinshasa government in Angola and thwart the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola ( MPLA ) ' s drive for power , deployed FAZ armored cars , paratroopers , and three infantry battalions to Angola in support of the National Liberation Front of Angola ( FNLA ) . On 10 November 1975 , an anti @-@ Communist force made up of 1 @,@ 500 FNLA fighters , 100 Portuguese Angolan soldiers , and two FAZ battalions passed near the city of Quifangondo , only 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of Luanda , at dawn on 10 November . The force , supported by South African aircraft and three 140 mm artillery pieces , marched in a single line along the Bengo River to face an 800 @-@ strong Cuban force across the river . Thus the Battle of Quifangondo began . The Cubans and MPLA fighters bombarded the FNLA with mortar and 122 mm rockets , destroying most of the FNLA 's armored cars and six Jeeps carrying antitank rockets in the first hour of fighting .
Mobutu 's support for the FNLA policy backfired when the MPLA won in Angola . The MPLA , then , acting ostensibly at least as the Front pour la Libération Nationale du Congo ( Front for the National Liberation of the Congo ) , occupied Zaire 's Katanga Province , then known as Shaba , in March 1977 , facing little resistance from the FAZ . This invasion is sometimes known as Shaba I. Mobutu had to request assistance , which was provided by Morocco in the form of regular troops who routed the MPLA and their Cuban advisors out of Katanga . The humiliation of this episode led to civil unrest in Zaire in early 1978 , which the FAZ had to put down .
The poor performance of Zaire 's military during Shaba I gave evidence of chronic weaknesses ( which extend to this day ) . One problem was that some of the Zairian soldiers in the area had not received pay for extended periods . Senior officers often kept the money intended for the soldiers , typifying a generally disreputable and inept senior leadership in the FAZ . As a result , many soldiers simply deserted rather than fight . Others stayed with their units but were ineffective . During the months following the Shaba invasion , Mobutu sought solutions to the military problems that had contributed to the army 's dismal performance . He implemented sweeping reforms of the command structure , including wholesale firings of high @-@ ranking officers . He merged the military general staff with his own presidential staff and appointed himself chief of staff again , in addition to the positions of minister of defence and supreme commander that he already held . He also redeployed his forces throughout the country instead of keeping them close to Kinshasa , as had previously been the case . The Kamanyola Division , at the time considered the army 's best formation , and considered the president 's own , was assigned permanently to Shaba . In addition to these changes , the army 's strength was reduced by 25 percent . Also , Zaire 's allies provided a large influx of military equipment , and Belgian , French , and American advisers assisted in rebuilding and retraining the force .
Despite these improvements , a second invasion by the former Katangan gendarmerie , known as Shaba II in May – June 1978 , was only dispersed with the despatch of the French 2e régiment étranger de parachutistes and a battalion of the Belgian Paracommando Regiment . Kamanyola Division units collapsed almost immediately . French units fought the Battle of Kolwezi to recapture the town from the FLNC . The U.S. provided logistical assistance .
In July 1975 , according to the IISS Military Balance , the FAZ was made up of 14 infantry battalions , seven " Guard " battalions , and seven other infantry battalions variously designated as " parachute " ( or possibly " commando " ; probably the units of the new parachute brigade originally formed in 1968 ) . There were also an armored car regiment and a mechanized infantry battalion . Organisationally , the army was made up of seven brigade groups and one parachute division . In addition to these units , a tank battalion was reported to have formed by 1979 .
In January 1979 General de Division Boyenge Mosambay Singa was named as both military region commander and Region Commissioner for Shaba .
In 1984 , a militarised police force , the Guard Civile , was formed . It was eventually commanded by Général d 'armée Kpama Baramoto Kata .
Further details of FAZ operations in the 1980s and onwards can be found in John W. Turner 's book A Continent Ablaze .
Thomas Turner wrote in the late 1990s that .. ' [ m ] ajor acts of violence , such as the killings that followed the ' Kasongo uprising ' in Bandundu Region in 1978 , the killings of diamond miners in Kasai @-@ Oriental Region in 1979 , and , more recently , the massacre of students in Lubumbashi in 1990 , continued to intimidate the population.'
The authors of the Library of Congress Country Study on Zaire commented in 1992 @-@ 93 that : " The maintenance status of equipment in the inventory has traditionally varied , depending on a unit 's priority and the presence or absence of foreign advisers and technicians . A considerable portion of military equipment is not operational , primarily as a result of shortages of spare parts , poor maintenance , and theft . For example , the tanks of the 1st Armored Brigade often have a nonoperational rate approaching 70 to 80 percent . After a visit by a Chinese technical team in 1985 , most of the tanks operated , but such an improved status generally has not lasted long beyond the departure of the visiting team . Several factors complicate maintenance in Zairian units . Maintenance personnel often lack the training necessary to maintain modern military equipment . Moreover , the wide variety of military equipment and the staggering array of spare parts necessary to maintain it not only clog the logistic network but also are expensive .
The most important factor that negatively affects maintenance is the low and irregular pay that soldiers receive , resulting in the theft and sale of spare parts and even basic equipment to supplement their meager salaries . When not stealing spare parts and equipment , maintenance personnel often spend the better part of their duty day looking for other ways to profit . American maintenance teams working in Zaire found that providing a free lunch to the work force was a good , sometimes the only , technique to motivate personnel to work at least half of the duty day .
The army 's logistics corps is to provide logistic support and conduct direct , indirect , and depot @-@ level maintenance for the FAZ . But because of Zaire 's lack of emphasis on maintenance and logistics , a lack of funding , and inadequate training , the corps is understaffed , underequipped , and generally unable to accomplish its mission . It is organized into three battalions assigned to Mbandaka , Kisangani , and Kamina , but only the battalion at Kamina is adequately staffed ; the others are little more than skeleton " units .
The poor state of discipline of the Congolese forces became apparent again in 1990 . Foreign military assistance to Zaire ceased following the end of the Cold War and Mobutu deliberately allowed the military 's condition to deteriorate so that it did not threaten his hold on power . Protesting low wages and lack of pay , paratroopers began looting Kinshasa in September 1991 and were only stopped after intervention by French ( ' Operation Baumier ' ) and Belgian ( ' Operation Blue Beam ' ) forces .
In 1993 , according to the Library of Congress Country Studies , the 25 @,@ 000 @-@ member FAZ ground forces consisted of one infantry division ( with three infantry brigades ) ; one airborne brigade ( with three parachute battalions and one support battalion ) ; one special forces ( commando / counterinsurgency ) brigade ; the Special Presidential Division ; one independent armored brigade ; and two independent infantry brigades ( each with three infantry battalions , one support battalion ) . These units were deployed throughout the country , with the main concentrations in Shaba Region ( approximately half the force ) . The Kamanyola Division , consisting of three infantry brigades operated generally in western Shaba Region ; the 21st Infantry Brigade was located in Lubumbashi ; the 13th Infantry Brigade was deployed throughout eastern Shaba ; and at least one battalion of the 31st Airborne Brigade stayed at Kamina . The other main concentration of forces was in and around Kinshasa : the 31st Airborne Brigade was deployed at N 'djili Airport on the outskirts of the capital ; the Special Presidential Division ( DSP ) resided adjacent to the presidential compound ; and the 1st Armored Brigade was at Mbanza @-@ Ngungu ( in Bas @-@ Congo , approximately 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) southwest of Kinshasa ) . Finally the 41st Commando Brigade was at Kisangani .
This superficially impressive list of units overstates the actual capability of the armed forces at the time . Apart from privileged formations such as the Presidential Division and the 31st Airborne Brigade , most units were poorly trained , divided and so badly paid that they regularly resorted to looting . What operational abilities the armed forces had were gradually destroyed by politicisation of the forces , tribalisation , and division of the forces , included purges of suspectedly disloyal groups , intended to allow Mobutu to divide and rule . All this occurred against the background of increasing deterioration of state structures under the kleptocratic Mobutu regime .
For a concise general description of the FAZ in the 1990s , see René Lemarchand , The dynamics of violence in Central Africa , University of Pennsylvania Press , 2009 , pages 226 @-@ 228 .
= = = Mobutu 's overthrow and after = = =
Much of the origins of the recent conflict in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo stems from the turmoil following the Rwandan Genocide of 1994 , which then led to the Great Lakes refugee crisis . Within the largest refugee camps , beginning in Goma in Nord @-@ Kivu , were Rwandan Hutu fighters , who were eventually organised into the Rassemblement Démocratique pour le Rwanda , who launched repeated attacks into Rwanda . Rwanda eventually backed Laurent @-@ Désiré Kabila and his quickly organised Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo in invading Zaire , aiming to stop the attacks on Rwanda in the process of toppling Mobutu 's government . When the militias rebelled , backed by Rwanda , the FAZ , weakened as is noted above , proved incapable of mastering the situation and preventing the overthrow of Mobutu in 1997 .
When Kabila took power in 1997 , the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo and so the name of the national army changed once again , to the Forces armées congolaises ( FAC ) . Tanzania sent six hundred military advisors to train Kabila 's new army in May 1997 . Command over the armed forces in the first few months of Kabila 's rule was vague . Gérard Prunier writes that ' there was no minister of defence , no known chief of staff , and no ranks ; all officers were Cuban @-@ style ' commanders ' called ' Ignace ' , ' Bosco ' , Jonathan ' , or ' James ' , who occupied connecting suites at the Intercontinental Hotel and had presidential list cell @-@ phone numbers . None spoke French or Lingala , but all spoke Kinyarwanda , Swahili , and , quite often , English . ' On being asked by Belgian journalist Colette Braeckman what was the actual army command structure apart from himself , Kabila answered ' We are not going to expose ourselves and risk being destroyed by showing ourselves openly ... . We are careful so that the true masters of the army are not known . It is strategic . Please , let us drop the matter . ' Kabila 's new Forces armées congolaises were riven with internal tensions . The new FAC had Banyamulenge fighters from South Kivu , kadogo child soldiers from various eastern tribes , such as Thierry Nindaga , Safari Rwekoze , etc ... [ the mostly ] Lunda Katangese Tigers of the former FNLC , and former FAZ personnel . Mixing these disparate and formerly warring elements together led to mutuny . On 23 February 1998 , a mostly Banyamulenge unit mutiniued at Bukavu after its officers tried to disperse the soldiers into different units spread all around the Congo . By mid @-@ 1998 , formations on the outbreak of the Second Congo War included the Tanzanian @-@ supported 50th Brigade , headquartered at Camp Kokolo in Kinshasa , and the 10th Brigade — one of the best and largest units in the army — stationed in Goma , as well as the 12th Brigade in Bukavu . The declaration of the 10th Brigade 's commander , former DSP officer Jean @-@ Pierre Ondekane , on 2 August 1998 that he no longer recognised Kabila as the state 's president was one of the factors in the beginning of the Second Congo War .
The FAC performed poorly throughout the Second Congo War and " demonstrated little skill or recognisable military doctrine " . At the outbreak of the war in 1998 the Army was ineffective and the DRC Government was forced to rely on assistance from Angola , Chad , Namibia and Zimbabwe . As well as providing expeditionary forces , these countries unsuccessfully attempted to retrain the DRC Army . North Korea and Tanzania also provided assistance with training . During the first year of the war the Allied forces defeated the Rwandan force which had landed in Bas @-@ Congo and the rebel forces south @-@ west of Kinshasa and eventually halted the rebel and Rwandan offensive in the east of the DRC . These successes contributed to the Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement which was signed in July 1999 . Following the Lusaka Agreement , in mid @-@ August 1999 President Kabila issued a decree dividing the country into eight military regions . The first military region , Congolese state television reported , would consist of the two Kivu provinces , Orientale Province would form the second region , and Maniema and Kasai @-@ Oriental provinces the third . Katanga and Équateur would fall under the fourth and fifth regions , respectively , while Kasai @-@ Occidental and Bandundu would form the sixth region . Kinshasa and Bas @-@ Congo would form the seventh and eighth regions , respectively . In November 1999 the Government attempted to form a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong paramilitary force designated the People 's Defence Forces . This force was intended to support the FAC and national police but never became effective .
= = = 1999 @-@ present = = =
The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement was not successful in ending the war , and fighting resumed in September 1999 . The FAC 's performance continued to be poor and both the major offensives the Government launched in 2000 ended in costly defeats . President Kabila 's mismanagement was an important factor behind the FAC 's poor performance , with soldiers frequently going unpaid and unfed while the Government purchased advanced weaponry which could not be operated or maintained . The defeats in 2000 are believed to have been the cause of President Kabila 's assassination in January 2001 . Following the assassination , Joseph Kabila assumed the presidency and was eventually successful in negotiating an end to the war in 2002 @-@ 2003 .
The December 2002 Global and All @-@ Inclusive Agreement devoted Chapter VII to the armed forces . It stipulated that the armed forces chief of staff , and the chiefs of the army , air force , and navy were not to come from the same warring faction . The new ' national , restructured and integrated ' army would be made up from Kabila 's government forces ( the FAC ) , the RCD , and the MLC . Also stipulated in VII ( b ) was that the RCD @-@ N , RCD @-@ ML , and the Mai @-@ Mai would become part of the new armed forces . An intermediate mechanism for physical identification of the soldiers , and their origin , date of enrolment , and unit was also called for ( VII ( c ) ) . It also provided for the creation of a Conseil Superieur de la Defense ( Superior Defence Council ) which would declare states of siege or war and give advice on security sector reform , disarmament / demobilization , and national defence policy .
A decision on which factions were to name chiefs of staff and military regional commanders was announced on 19 August 2003 as the first move in military reform , superimposed on top of the various groups of fighters , government and former rebels . Kabila was able to name the armed forces chief of staff , Lieutenant General Liwanga Mata , who previously served as navy chief of staff under Laurent Kabila . Kabila was able to name the air force commander ( John Numbi ) , the RCD @-@ Goma received the Land Force commander 's position ( Sylvain Buki ) and the MLC the navy ( Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa ) . Three military regional commanders were nominated by the former Kinshasa government , two commanders each by the RCD @-@ Goma and the MLC , and one region commander each by the RCD @-@ K / ML and RCD @-@ N. However these appointments were announced for Kabila 's Forces armées congolaises ( FAC ) , not the later FARDC . Another report however says that the military region commanders were only nominated in January 2004 , and that the troop deployment on the ground did not change substantially until the year afterward .
On 24 January 2004 , a decree created the Structure Militaire d 'Intégration ( SMI , Military Integration Structure ) . Together with the SMI , CONADER also was designated to manage the combined tronc commun DDR element and military reform programme . The first post @-@ Sun City military law appears to have been passed on 12 November 2004 , which formally created the new national Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo ( FARDC ) . Included in this law was article 45 , which recognized the incorporation of a number of armed groups into the FARDC , including the former government army Forces Armées Congolaises ( FAC ) , ex @-@ FAZ personnel also known as former President Mobutu 's ' les tigres ' , the RCD @-@ Goma , RCD @-@ ML , RCD @-@ N , MLC , the Mai @-@ Mai , as well as other government @-@ determined military and paramilitary groups .
Turner writes that the two most prominent opponents of military integration ( brassage ) were Colonel Jules Mutebusi , a Munyamulenge from South Kivu , and Laurent Nkunda , a Rwandaphone Tutsi who Turner says was allegedly from Rutshuru in North Kivu . In May – June 2004 Mutebusi led a revolt against his superiors from Kinshasa in South Kivu . Nkunda began his long series of revolts against central authority by helping Mutebusi in May – June 2004 . In November 2004 a Rwandan government force entered North Kivu to attack the FDLR , and , it seems , reinforced and resupplied RCD @-@ Goma ( ANC ) at the same time . Kabila despatched 10 @,@ 000 government troops to the east in response , launching an attack which was called ' Operation Bima . ' In the midst of this tension , Nkunda 's men launched attacks in North Kivu in December 2004 .
There was another major personnel reshuffle on 12 June 2007 . FARDC chief General Kisempia Sungilanga Lombe was replaced with General Dieudonne Kayembe Mbandankulu . General Gabriel Amisi Kumba retained his post as Land Forces commander . John Numbi , a trusted member of Kabila 's inner circle , was shifted from air force commander to Police Inspector General . U.S. diplomats reported that the former Naval Forces Commander Maj. General Amuli Bahigua ( ex @-@ MLC ) became the FARDC 's Chief of Operations ; former FARDC Intelligence Chief General Didier Etumba ( ex @-@ FAC ) was promoted to Vice Admiral and appointed Commander of Naval Forces ; Maj. General Rigobert Massamba ( ex @-@ FAC ) , a former commander of the Kitona air base , was appointed as Air Forces Commander ; and Brig. General Jean @-@ Claude Kifwa , commander of the Republican Guard , was appointed as a regional military commander .
Much of the east of the country remains insecure , however . In the far northeast this is due primarily to the Ituri conflict . In the area around Lake Kivu , primarily in North Kivu , fighting continues among the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and between the government FARDC and Laurent Nkunda 's troops , with all groups greatly exacerbating the issues of internal refugees in the area of Goma , the consequent food shortages , and loss of infrastructure from the years of conflict . In 2009 , several United Nations officials stated that the army is a major problem , largely due to corruption that results in food and pay meant for soldiers being diverted and a military structure top @-@ heavy with colonels , many of whom are former warlords . In a 2009 report itemizing FARDC abuses , Human Rights Watch urged the UN to stop supporting government offensives against eastern rebels until the abuses ceased .
In 2010 , thirty FARDC officers were given scholarships to study in Russian military academies . This is part of a greater effort by Russia to help improve the FARDC . A new military attaché and other advisers from Russia visited the DRC .
On 22 November 2012 , Gabriel Amisi Kumba was suspended from his position in the Forces Terrestres by president Joseph Kabila due to an inquiry into his alleged role in the sale of arms to various rebel groups in the eastern part of the country , which may have implicated the rebel group M23 . In December 2012 it was reported that members of Army units in the north east of the country are often not paid due to corruption , and these units rarely counter attacks made against villages by the Lord 's Resistance Army .
The FARDC deployed 850 soldiers and 150 PNC police officers as part of an international force in the Central African Republic , which the DRC borders to the north . The country had been in a state of civil war since 2012 , when the president was ousted by rebel groups . The DRC was urged by French president François Hollande to keep its troops in CAR .
In July 2014 , the Congolese army carried out a joint operation with UN troops in the Masisi and Walikale territories of the North Kivu province . In the process , they liberated over 20 villages and a mine from the control of two rebel groups , the Mai Mai Cheka and the Alliance for the Sovereign and Patriotic Congo .
= = Current organisation = =
The President , Major General Joseph Kabila is the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Armed Forces . The Minister of Defence , formally Ministers of Defence , Disarmament , and Veterans ( Ancien Combattants ) , with the French acronym MDNDAC , is Alexandre Luba Ntambo .
The Colonel Tshatshi Military Camp in the Kinshasa suburb of Ngaliema hosts the defence department and the Chiefs of Staff central command headquarters of the FARDC . Jane 's data from 2002 appears inaccurate ; there is at least one ammunition plant in Katanga .
Below the Chief of Staff , the current organisation of the FARDC is not fully clear . There is known to be a Military Intelligence branch - Service du Renseignement militaire ( SRM ) , the former DEMIAP . The FARDC is known to be broken up into the Land Forces ( Forces Terrestres ) , Navy and Air Force . The Land Forces are distributed around ten military regions , up from the previous eight , following the ten provinces of the country . There is also a training command , the Groupement des Écoles Supérieurs Militaires ( GESM ) or Group of Higher Military Schools , which , in January 2010 , was under the command of Major General Marcellin Lukama . The Navy and Air Forces are composed of various groupments ( see below ) . There is also a central logistics base .
It should be made clear also that Joseph Kabila does not trust the military ; the Republican Guard is the only component he trusts . Major General John Numbi , former Air Force chief , now inspector general of police , ran a parallel chain of command in the east to direct the 2009 Eastern Congo offensive , Operation Umoja Wetu ; the regular chain of command was by @-@ passed . Previously Numbi negotiated the agreement to carry out the mixage process with Laurent Nkunda . Commenting on a proposed vote of no confidence in the Minister of Defence in September 2012 , Baoudin Amba Wetshi of lecongolais.cd described Ntolo as a ' scapegoat ' . Wetshi said that all key military and security questions were handled in total secrecy by the President and other civil and military personalities trusted by him , such as John Numbi , Gabriel Amisi Kumba ( ' Tango Four ' ) , Delphin Kahimbi , and others such as Kalev Mutond and Pierre Lumbi Okongo .
= = = Armed Forces Chiefs of Staff = = =
The available information on armed forces ' Chiefs of Staff is incomplete and sometimes contradictory . In addition to armed forces chiefs of staff , in 1966 Lieutenant Colonel Ferdinand Malila was listed as Army Chief of Staff .
= = = Command structure in January 2005 = = =
Virtually all officers have now changed positions , but this list gives an outline of the structure in January 2005 . Despite the planned subdivision of the country into more numerous provinces , the actual splitting of the former provinces has not taken place .
FARDC chief of staff : Major General Sungilanga Kisempia ( PPRD )
FARDC land forces chief of staff : General Sylvain Buki ( RCD @-@ G ) Major General Gabriel Amisi Kumba appears to have been appointed to the position in August 2006 , and retained this position during the personnel reshuffle of 12 June 2007 . In November 2012 he was succeeded by François Olenga .
FARDC navy chief of staff : General Major Dieudonne Amuli Bahigwa ( MLC ) ( Commander of the Kimia II operation in 2009 )
FARDC air force chief of staff : Brigadier General Jean Bitanihirwa Kamara ( MLC ) . Military training at the Ecole de formation d 'officiers ( EFO ) , Kananga , and other courses while in the FAZ . Brigade commander in the MLC , then named in August 2003 ' chef d 'etat @-@ major en second ' of the FARDC air force .
1st Military Region / Bandundu : Brigadier General Moustapha Mukiza ( MLC )
2nd Military Region / Bas @-@ Congo : Unknown . General Jean Mankoma 2009 .
3rd Military Region / Equateur : Brigadier @-@ General Mulubi Bin Muhemedi ( PPRD )
4th Military Region / Kasai @-@ Occidental : Brigadier @-@ General Sindani Kasereka ( RCD @-@ K / ML )
5th Military Region / Kasai Oriental : General Rwabisira Obeid ( RCD )
6th Military Region / Katanga : Brigadier @-@ General Nzambe Alengbia ( MLC ) - 62nd , 63rd , and 67th Brigades in Katanga have committed numerous acts of sexual violence against women .
7th Military Region / Maniema : Brigadier @-@ General Widi Mbulu Divioka ( RCD @-@ N )
8th Military Region / North Kivu : General Gabriel Amisi Kumba ( RCD ) . General Amisi , a.k.a. ' Tango Fort ' now appears to be Chief of Staff of the Land Forces . Brig. Gen. Vainqueur Mayala was Commander 8th MR in September 2008
9th Military Region / Province Orientale : Major @-@ General Bulenda Padiri ( Mayi @-@ Mayi )
10th Military Region / South Kivu : Major Mbuja Mabe ( PPRD ) . General Pacifique Masunzu , in 2010 . Region included 112th Brigade on Minembwe plateuxes . This grouping was " an almost exclusively Banyamulenge brigade under the direct command of the 10th Military Region , [ which ] consider [ ed ] General Masunzu as its leader . "
= = = Updates to command structure in 2014 = = =
As of 2014 , several changes took place among the FARDC command staff :
Chief of General Staff : Army General Didier Etumba Longomba
Land forces chief of staff : Major General Dieudonné Banze Lubundji
Navy chief of staff : Vice Admiral Rombault Mbuayama Nsiona
Air force chief of staff : Brigadier General Numbi Ngoie Enoch
= = Land forces = =
The land forces are made up of about 14 integrated brigades , of fighters from all the former warring factions which have gone through a brassage integration process ( see next paragraph ) , and a not @-@ publicly known number of non @-@ integrated brigades which remain solely made up from single factions ( the Congolese Rally for Democracy ( RCD ) ' s Armée national congolaise , the ex @-@ government former Congolese Armed Forces ( FAC ) , the ex @-@ RCD KML , the ex @-@ Movement for the Liberation of Congo , the armed groups of the Ituri conflict ( the Mouvement des Révolutionnaires Congolais ( MRC ) , Forces de Résistance Patriotique d 'Ituri ( FRPI ) and the Front Nationaliste Intégrationniste ( FNI ) ) and the Mai @-@ Mai ) .
It appears that about the same time that Presidential Decree 03 / 042 of 18 December 2003 established the National Commission for Demobilisation and Reinsertion ( CONADER ) , ' .. all ex @-@ combatants were officially declared as FARDC soldiers and the then FARDC brigades [ were to ] rest deployed until the order to leave for brassage .
The reform plan adopted in 2005 envisaged the formation of eighteen integrated brigades through the brassage process as its first of three stages . The process consists firstly of regroupment , where fighters are disarmed . Then they are sent to orientation centres , run by CONADER , where fighters take the choice of either returning to civilian society or remaining in the armed forces . Combatants who choose demobilisation receive an initial cash payment of US $ 110 . Those who choose to stay within the FARDC are then transferred to one of six integration centres for a 45 @-@ day training course , which aims to build integrated formations out of factional fighters previously heavily divided along ethnic , political and regional lines . The centres are spread out around the country at Kitona , Kamina , Kisangani , Rumangabo and Nyaleke ( within the Virunga National Park ) in Nord @-@ Kivu , and Luberizi ( on the border with Burundi ) in South Kivu . The process has suffered severe difficulties due to construction delays , administration errors , and the amount of travel former combatants have to do , as the three stages ' centres are widely separated . Following the first 18 integrated brigades , the second goal is the formation of a ready reaction force of two to three brigades , and finally , by 2010 when MONUC is anticipated to have withdrawn , the creation of a Main Defence Force of three divisions .
In February 2008 , the current reform plan was described as :
" The short term , 2008 @-@ 2010 , will see the setting in place of a Rapid Reaction Force ; the medium term , 2008 -2015 , with a Covering Force ; and finally the long term , 2015 @-@ 2020 , with a Principal Defence Force . " He added that the reform plan rests on a programme of synergy based on the four pillars of dissuasion , production , reconstruction and excellence . " The Rapid Reaction Force is expected to focus on dissuasion , through a Rapid Reaction Force of 12 battalions , capable of aiding MONUC to secure the east of the country and to realise constitutional missions , " Defence Minister Chikez Diemu said .
Amid the other difficulties in building new armed forces for the DRC , in early 2007 the integration and training process was distorted as the DRC government under Kabila attempted to use it to gain more control over the dissident general Laurent Nkunda . A hastily negotiated verbal agreement in Rwanda saw three government FAC brigades integrated with Nkunda 's former ANC 81st and 83rd Brigades in what was called mixage . Mixage brought multiple factions into composite brigades , but without the 45 @-@ day retraining provided by brassage , and it seems that actually , the process was limited to exchanging battalions between the FAC and Nkunda brigades in North Kivu , without further integration . Due to Nkunda 's troops having greater cohesion , Nkunda effectively gained control of all five brigades , which was not the intention of the DRC central government . However , after Nkunda used the mixage brigades to fight the FDLR , strains arose between the FARDC and Nkunda @-@ loyalist troops within the brigades and they fell apart in the last days of August 2007 . The International Crisis Group says that ' by 30 August [ 2007 ] Nkunda 's troops had left the mixed brigades and controlled a large part of the Masisi and Rutshuru territories ' ( of North Kivu ) .
Both formally integrated brigades and the non @-@ integrated units continue to conduct arbitrary arrests , rapes , robbery , and other crimes and these human rights violations are " regularly " committed by both officers and members of the rank and file . Members of the Army also often strike deals to gain access to resources with the militias they are meant to be fighting .
The various brigades and other formations and units number at least 100 @,@ 000 troops . The status of these brigades has been described as " pretty chaotic . " A 2007 disarmament and repatriation study said " army units that have not yet gone through the process of brassage are usually much smaller than what they ought to be . Some non @-@ integrated brigades have only 500 men ( and are thus nothing more than a small battalion ) whereas some battalions may not even have the size of a normal company ( over a 100 men ) . "
= = = Known integrated brigades in 2007 = = =
See also U.S. State Department , 07KINSHASA452 Congolese Military Proposes Redeployment , Renaming Of Integrated Brigades , 19 April 2007 . Like the Force Publique in the Congo Free State , FARDC brigades have been deploying to their areas of operation with their families in tow . 2nd Commando Battalion of the Belgian Paracommando Brigade trained one of the first integrated brigades from January to June 2004 . By 13 September 2006 , the Government had established 13 out of the 18 integrated brigades it had planned to create before the elections . ( S / 2006 / 759 , 21 September 2006 , 12 ) A fourteenth brigade was created by March 2007 . ( S / 2007 / 156 , 20 March 2007 , 7 )
1st Brigade ( integrated ) , Belgium began training this brigade in Kisangani on 9 February 2004 , graduated June 2004 . Human rights reports in April and August 2007 place the Brigade in the Mahagi territory , Ituri area , Orientale Province . At Bavi , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) south of Bunia , between August and November 2006 forty civilians were slaughtered and buried in three different graves by soldiers of the 1st integrated Brigade .
2nd Brigade ( integrated ) , trained by Angola at Kitona. ordered to move to North Kivu from Kinshasa , February 2006 . ( 06KINSHASA178 , 2 February 2006 ) Butembo , North Kivu , 28 July 2007 See also U.S. State Department , 06KINSHASA629 North Kivu : Struggling to Survive in Rutshuru Territory , 20 April 2006 .
3rd Brigade ( integrated ) , trained by Belgium and South Africa at Kamina . Graduated 1 June 2005 . ( 05KINSHASA950 , 10 June 2005 ) In the Bukavu area , late March 2007 ( now 101st Brigade )
4th Brigade ( integrated ) , training process finished [ Monday ] c.23 August 2005 , then under the command of Colonel Willy Bonané RCD @-@ G ) , a Tutsi officer close to Governor Eugene Serufuli , and was dispatched to Ituri . ( ICG Africa Report 108 , 27 April 2006 , p . 16 , and IRIN , Former militiamen now form army 's 4th Brigade , 23 August 2005 ) Cholera broke out amongst the brigade , Aug @-@ Sept 2005 . Elements reported at Lopa , Ituri area , 24 – 25 July 2007
5th Brigade ( integrated ) , deployed to North Kivu in August – September 2005 . See ICG Africa Report 108 , 27 April 2006 , p . 16 . " In January [ 2006 ] , tensions escalated after human rights abuses were committed by soldiers of the FARDC 5th integrated brigade against Kinyarwanda speakers in Rutshuru territory , in command the colonel Thierry Nindaga . Insurgents belonging to the Laurent Nkunda militia , with elements of the 83rd brigade , attacked the FARDC 5th integrated brigade . They subsequently took over Rwindi and Kibrizi , prompting the withdrawal of FARDC from Rutshuru to Kanyabayonga . On 21 January , MONUC launched operations and successfully cleared Rwindi and Kibrizi of rebel elements . " Brigade now at Kananga , Kasai @-@ Occidental . See also U.S. State Department , 06KINSHASA481 , 23 March 2006 .
6th Brigade ( integrated ) , said that ' the sixth and last brigade from the first phase of army integration is expected to be ready for deployment in late September ' [ 2005 ] . Located Jiba , Ituri area , Orientale Province , May 2007 . Ordered to leave Ituri for North Kivu for offensive against Laurent Nkunda , June 2007 .
7th Brigade ( integrated ) , finished forming Kitona March 2006 . On 3 May 2006 , it was reported that ' elements such as the 7th Integrated Brigade are still taking up space at the Rumangabu brassage center ( North Kivu ) , for instance , and because they have not been fully deployed to Luberu ( North Kivu ) , it isn 't possible for the next group of soldiers to arrive at Rumangabu for integration . ' ( State Department , 06KINSHASA711 , SSR : Blockages Remain , 8 May 2006 ) Stationed in Maluku , Kinshasa August 2006 Elements of this brigade at Bolobo , Bandundu province , May 2007 .
8th Brigade ( integrated ) , Elements at Luberizi & Luvungi , in South Kivu , May 2007 .
9th Brigade ( integrated ) , North Kivu . Involved in a 5 August 2006 , firefight between the 94th Battalion ( of the 9th Integrated Brigade ) against the 834th Battalion ( of the non @-@ integrated 83rd Brigade ) , at Sake , North Kivu .
10th Brigade ( integrated ) , headquartered at Gemena , Equateur , 31 August 2007 . ( 07KINSHASA1033 , 31 August 2007 ) Deployed to the Dongo crisis in October 2009 , suffering two defeats at the hands of Odjani Mangbama 's forces . ( Congo Siasa )
12th Brigade ( integrated ) , HQ at Baraka , South Kivu
13th Brigade ( integrated ) , Marabo , North Kivu , mid June 2007 . Second battalion of this brigade in process of formation near Bunia mid August 2007 .
14th Brigade ( integrated ) , Kalima , South Kivu , May 2007 , now numbered 105th Brigade . Africa Confidential reported in January 2008 that the brigade was a part of a 25 @,@ 000 strong government attack on 4 @,@ 000 of Laurent Nkunda 's soldiers in December 2007 , but was beaten back , with the loss of its ' entire arms and equipment . ' Human Rights Watch 's ' Soldiers Who Rape , Commanders Who Condone : Sexual Violence and Military Reform in the Democratic Republic of Congo , ' July 2009 , is a detailed study of this brigade 's history and crimes .
15th Brigade ( integrated ) ( waiting for deployment on 30 May 2007 , with 2 @,@ 837 men assigned . Ordered to leave Kisangani for North Kivu for offensive against Laurent Nkunda , June , and then routed by Nkunda troops in the Sake area , early September 2007 .
16th and 17th Brigades ( integrated ) ( beginning ' brassage ' integration process on 30 May 2007 , both over 4 @,@ 000 strong at the beginning of the process ) 17th Bde was later referred to in the Oxfam report ' Waking the Devil , ' as well as later being in the Luhago / Kabona localities of Kabare territoire .
18th Brigade
103rd Brigade ( integrated ) — previously designated 11th Brigade . Elements reported at Walungu , 110 km SW of Bukavu , South Kivu in the course of rape allegation 27 March 2007 .
A number of outside donor countries are also carrying out separate training programmes for various parts of the Forces du Terrestres ( Land Forces ) . The People 's Republic of China has trained Congolese troops at Kamina in Katanga from at least 2004 to 2009 , and the Belgian government is training at least one ' rapid reaction ' battalion . When Kabila visited U.S. President George W. Bush in Washington D.C. , he also asked the U.S. Government to train a battalion , and as a result , a private contractor , Protection Strategies Incorporated , started training a FARDC battalion at Camp Base , Kisangani , in February 2010 . The company is being supervised by Special Operations Command @-@ Africa Command . The various international training programmes are not well integrated .
= = = Equipment = = =
Attempting to list the equipment available to the DRC 's land forces is difficult ; most figures are unreliable estimates based on known items delivered in the past . The IISS 's Military Balance 2007 and Orbat.com 's Concise World Armies 2005 give only slightly differing figures however ( the figures below are from the IISS Military Balance 2007 ) . Much of the Army 's equipment is non @-@ operational due to insufficient maintenance — in 2002 only 20 percent of the Army 's armoured vehicles were estimated as being serviceable .
Main Battle Tanks : 30 x Type 59 , 30 x T @-@ 55 , 100 x T 72
Reconnaissance vehicles : 40 + Type 62 light tanks , 40 + Panhard AML armoured cars
Infantry Fighting Vehicles : 20 BMP @-@ 1
Armoured Personnel Carriers : IISS reports M @-@ 113 , Type 63 , and wheeled vehicles including Casspir , Panhard M3 , TH 390 Fahd , Wolf Turbo 2
Artillery : 100 field guns , ranging from M116 howitzer 75 mm to D @-@ 30 130 mm , and 30 Type 81 MRL
In addition to these 2007 figures , In March 2010 , it was reported that the DRC 's land forces had ordered USD $ 80 million worth of military equipment from Ukraine which included 20 T @-@ 72 main battle tanks , 100 trucks and various small arms . 20 x T @-@ 72 have been reported by World Defence Almanac . Tanks have been used in the Kivus in the 2005 @-@ 9 period .
In February 2014 , Ukraine revealed that it had achieved the first export order for the T @-@ 64 tank to the DRC Land Forces for 50 T @-@ 64BV @-@ 1s .
In June 2015 it was reported that Georgia had sold 12 of its Didgori @-@ 2 to the DRC for $ 4 million . The vehicles were specifically designed for reconnaissance and special operations . Two of the vehicles are a recently developed conversion to serve for medical field evacuation .
= = = Republican Guard = = =
In addition to the other land forces , President Joseph Kabila also has a Republican Guard presidential force ( Garde Républicaine or GR ) , formerly known as the Special Presidential Security Group ( GSSP ) . FARDC military officials state that the Garde Républicaine is not the responsibility of FARDC , but of the Head of State . Apart from Article 140 of the Law on the Army and Defence , no legal stipulation on the DRC 's Armed Forces makes provision for the GR as a distinct unit within the national army . In February 2005 President Joseph Kabila passed a decree which appointed the GR 's commanding officer and " repealed any previous provisions contrary " to that decree . The GR , more than 10 @,@ 000 strong ( the ICG said 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 in January 2007 ) , has better working conditions and is paid regularly , but still commits rapes and robberies in the vicinity of its bases .
In an effort to extend his personal control across the country , Joseph Kabila has deployed the GR at key airports , ostensibly in preparation for an impending presidential visit . At the beginning of 2007 there were Guards deployed in the central prison of Kinshasa , N 'djili Airport , Bukavu , Kisangani , Kindu , Lubumbashi , Matadi , and Moanda , where they appear to answer to no local commander and have caused trouble with MONUC troops there .
The GR is also supposed to undergo the integration process , but in January 2007 , only one battalion had been announced as having been integrated . Formed at a brassage centre in the Kinshasa suburb of Kibomango , the battalion included 800 men , half from the former GSSP and half from the MLC and RCD Goma .
= = = Other forces active in the country = = =
There are currently large numbers of United Nations troops stationed in the DRC . The United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( MONUSCO ) , on had a strength of over 19 @,@ 000 peacekeepers ( including 16 @,@ 998 military personnel ) and has a mission of assisting Congolese authorities maintain security . The UN and foreign military aid missions , the most prominent being EUSEC RD Congo , are attempting to assist the Congolese in rebuilding the armed forces , with major efforts being made in trying to assure regular payment of salaries to armed forces personnel and also in military justice . Retired Canadian Lieutenant General Marc Caron also served for a time as Security Sector Reform advisor to the head of MONUC .
Groups of anti @-@ Rwandan government rebels like the FDLR , and other foreign fighters remain inside the DRC . The FDLR which is the greatest concern , was some 6 @,@ 000 strong , in July 2007 . By late 2010 the FDLR 's strength however was estimated at 2 @,@ 500 . The other groups are smaller : the Ugandan Lord 's Resistance Army , the Ugandan rebel group the Allied Democratic Forces in the remote area of Mt Rwenzori , and the Burundian Parti pour la Libération du Peuple Hutu — Forces Nationales de Liberation ( PALIPEHUTU @-@ FNL ) .
Finally there is a government paramilitary force , created in 1997 under President Laurent Kabila . The National Service is tasked with providing the army with food and with training the youth in a range of reconstruction and developmental activities . There is not much further information available , and no internet @-@ accessible source details the relationship of the National Service to other armed forces bodies ; it is not listed in the constitution . President Kabila , in one of the few comments available , says National Service will provide a gainful activity for street children . Obligatory civil service administered through the armed forces was also proposed under the Mobutu regime during the ' radicalisation ' programme of December 1974 @-@ January 1975 ; the FAZ was opposed to the measure and the plan ' took several months to die.'
= = Air Force = =
All military aircraft in the DRC are operated by the Air Force . Jane 's World Air Forces states that the Air Force has an estimated strength of 1 @,@ 800 personnel and is organised into two Air Groups . These Groups command five wings and nine squadrons , of which not all are operational . 1 Air Group is located at Kinshasa and consists of Liaison Wing , Training Wing and Logistical Wing and has a strength of five squadrons . 2 Tactical Air Group is located at Kaminia and consists of Pursuit and Attack Wing and Tactical Transport Wing and has a strength of four squadrons . Foreign private military companies have reportedly been contracted to provide the DRC 's aerial reconnaissance capability using small propeller aircraft fitted with sophisticated equipment . Jane 's states that National Air Force of Angola fighter aircraft would be made available to defend Kinshasa if it came under attack .
Like the other services , the Congolese Air Force is not capable of carrying out its responsibilities . Few of the Air Force 's aircraft are currently flyable or capable of being restored to service and it is unclear whether the Air Force is capable of maintaining even unsophisticated aircraft . Moreover , Jane 's states that the Air Force 's Ecole de Pilotage is ' in near total disarray ' though Belgium has offered to restart the Air Force 's pilot training program .
= = Navy = =
The 2002 edition of Jane 's Sentinel described the Navy as being " in a state of near total disarray " and stated that it did not conduct any training or have operating procedures . The Navy shares the same discipline problems as the other services . It was initially placed under command of the MLC when the transition began : the current situation is uncertain .
The 2007 edition of Jane 's Fighting Ships states that the Navy is organised into four commands , based at Matadi , near the coast ; the capital Kinshasa , further up the Congo river ; Kalemie , on Lake Tanganyika ; and Goma , on Lake Kivu .
The IISS , in its 2007 edition of the Military Balance , confirms the bases listed in Jane 's and adds a fifth base at Boma , a coastal city near Matadi .
Various sources also refer to numbered Naval Regions . Operations of the 1st Naval Region have been reported in Kalemie , the 4th near the northern city of Mbandaka , and the 5th at Goma .
The IISS lists the Navy at 1 @,@ 000 personnel and a total of eight patrol craft , of which only one is operational , a Shanghai II Type 062 class gunboat designated " 102 " . There are five other 062s as well as two Swiftships which are not currently operational , though some may be restored to service in the future . According to Jane 's , the Navy also operates barges and small craft armed with machine guns .
Before the downfall of Mobutu , a small navy operated on the Congo river . One of its installations was at the village of N 'dangi near the presidential residence in Gbadolite . The port at N 'dangi was the base for several patrol boats , helicopters and the presidential yacht .
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= Murder of Ross Parker =
Ross Andrew Parker ( 17 August 1984 – 21 September 2001 ) , from Peterborough , England , was a 17 @-@ year @-@ old English male murdered in an unprovoked racially motivated crime . He bled to death after being stabbed , beaten with a hammer and repeatedly kicked by a gang of Pakistani youths . The incident occurred in Millfield , Peterborough .
In December 2002 , Shaied Nazir , Ahmed Ali Awan , and Sarfraz Ali were all , unanimously , found guilty of Parker 's murder and sentenced to life imprisonment , each receiving minimum terms ranging from 16 to 18 years . A fourth defendant , Zairaff Mahrad , was cleared of murder and manslaughter .
Parker 's murder is cited as an example of the lack of attention the media and society give to white victims of racist attacks compared with the coverage given to ethnic minorities . Organisations such as the BBC and some newspaper journalists later admitted to failing to cover the case sufficiently . It is also suggested the case demonstrates how society has been forced to redefine racism so as to no longer exclude white victims .
A memorial plaque for Parker is located in the Netherton area of Peterborough where a football match is played each year in his memory .
= = Background = =
Ross Parker was born in Peterborough in 1984 to Davinia and Tony Parker . His mother worked as a waitress and his father ran a car bodywork repair business ; he was one of two children . Parker was an avid football player and , having completed a GNVQ in business studies at Jack Hunt School , hoped to join the police force when he was 18 . He was nicknamed " Half @-@ Pint " owing to his 5 feet 5 inch height and had twice broken his leg previously . Parker lived in the Westwood area of the city and worked part @-@ time as bar support at The Solstice , a local public house where he had met his girlfriend Nicola Toms .
= = Murder = =
Parker was murdered shortly after 1 : 15 am on Friday 21 September 2001 while walking with his girlfriend . The attack took place on a cycle path alongside Bourges Boulevard in Millfield , Peterborough , near to Russell Street . Racial tensions in the area were high as the September 11 attacks had only occurred ten days earlier .
Having finished work early , Parker and Toms were walking to visit her friend 's house when they were confronted by a gang of around ten Pakistani youths , some of whom were wearing balaclavas ; they had planned to find " a white male to attack simply because he was white " . They warned Parker he had " better start running " , but then blocked his path and quickly sprayed him in the face with CS gas . He was punched in the stomach then stabbed three times from behind through the throat and chest with a foot @-@ long hunting knife . The knife penetrated completely through his body on two occasions and as he was lying on the ground he was repeatedly kicked and struck with a panel beater 's hammer .
Toms ran to a nearby petrol station for help and a man there gave her his mobile phone to call the police . While making the call , she twice heard Parker cry out in pain . By chance she spotted a passing police car . She entered the car and guided the officer to the scene of the assault . Although Toms had only been away for a few minutes , by the time she returned Parker had already bled to death and the gang had disappeared .
After the murder , four of the gang returned to a garage which they used as their headquarters . Ahmed Ali Awan , brandishing the bloodied knife , exclaimed " cherish the blood " . The police informed Parker 's family of his death at 4 : 30 am ; his body remained at the scene during the day while an investigation was conducted . A post @-@ mortem revealed Parker had died as a result of stab wounds inflicted by a bladed instrument .
= = Arrests and charges = =
Parker 's murder sparked what became one of the biggest police inquiries in the history of Peterborough . During the weekend following the attack , twelve suspects of Pakistani descent were arrested on suspicion of murder . Members of the local community posted a £ 1 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the killers , later increasing to £ 1 @,@ 500 . A number of those arrested were recorded chanting " Taliban , Osama bin Laden " in their cells and while being transported in the police van , which they also vandalised . Detective Chief Inspector Dick Harrison , who was overseeing the case , praised the city 's Muslim community for their involvement in capturing the murderers .
On 26 September 2001 , Sarfraz Ali , Ahmed Ali Awan and Shaied Nazir appeared in court charged with Parker 's murder . Zairaff Mahrad was charged the following day . However , by March 2002 all four defendants had been controversially released on police bail . Parker 's sister , Leanne , stated " we can 't begin to comprehend why they 've been allowed out of prison at this stage " . Parker 's family were so concerned about the decision that they wrote a letter of complaint to the Home Secretary , David Blunkett . The Home Office refused to comment on the case and the men remained free on bail .
= = Trial = =
On 7 November 2002 , Awan , Nazir , Ali and Mahrad all of Millfield , Peterborough , stood trial for Parker 's murder at Northampton Crown Court , pleading not guilty .
Awan , 22 , ran a recruitment company and had previously attended the city 's Deacon 's School . He was an unofficial police informer and the court was told he thought of himself as a gangster and had a " fantasy for knives " . Nazir , 22 , was close friends with Awan . He was married in Kashmir the month prior to the murder and had a son . He was educated at Bretton Woods School , had worked in a factory and later in a takeaway restaurant with Mahrad , whom he had known since childhood . Ali , 25 , had also attended Bretton Woods School and was also married , though his wife left him during the trial . He was given a reference at the trial by the Deputy Mayor of Peterborough , Raja Akhtar. and Labour Party councillor Mohammed Choudhary , with Akhtar stating he had " known him to be caring and responsible " . Mahrad , 21 , owned a takeaway restaurant business in King 's Lynn .
During the six week trial , transcripts of covert police recordings of the suspects discussing the attack were submitted as evidence . These conversations took place in police vehicles when the suspects were arrested and were translated from Punjabi . Nazir was heard describing Parker 's death as a " bloodbath " , and how the third blow from the knife had split the whole of his neck open . Awan and Nazir were both heard discussing the statements they had given to police and the plan they had " made up " . The court was also told of an exchange between Awan and an inmate at Bedford Prison , in which Awan described the killing of Parker in lurid detail . Contents of a letter written by Mahrad were also presented in which he stated he would " pray to Allah for forgiveness " .
The jury heard how the murder weapons had been found in a shed at Nazir 's house along with two bags of bloodied clothes . DNA and fingerprints belonging to Nazir was found on the hunting knife and Parker 's blood was found on both the hammer and knife . His blood was also found on the clothes of two of the accused , along with Nazir and Mahrad 's DNA and a pathologist told how marks on Parker 's body matched the hammer found in Nazir 's shed . Three balaclavas were also recovered from the property , again containing traces of Parker 's blood , Nazir 's younger brother Wyed told the court he had seen his brother cleaning the murder weapon on the night of the killing and witnessed all four defendants with blood on their clothing . Further witnesses reported Nazir admitting to beating someone up , Mahrad admitting to kicking Parker and Awan recalling stabbing him . A witness also saw all four defendants kicking Parker .
In court Nazir admitted to seeing the victim lying on the ground and attempting to spray him with CS gas and kicking him . He also acknowledged washing the murder weapon and stated Ali had hit Parker with the hammer and Awan used the knife . Nazir also alleged prosecution witnesses Zaheer Abbas and Adeel Rehman had been involved in the attack too . Mahrad had also admitted to being present at the murder scene , and claimed that the blood stains found on his trousers occurred as a result of his accidentally falling across Parker . Ali , defended by Mohammed Latif , denied being at the scene and claimed to have been asleep at the time of the murder , although a recording from a police van indicated this was a " story " that he had encouraged the others to " stick to " . Awan also denied being present and claimed he had been at home playing on his PlayStation with Shokat Awan , his brother . Nigel Rumfitt QC , defending Awan , summarised the crime by stating : " These people were not taking the night air . Every member of the group knew what was going on . These weapons had been selected before they set off . The knife was far too big to be hidden from the others . There is no doubt there was a hunting party looking for a victim . "
On 19 December 2002 , Nazir , Awan and Ali were all found guilty of murder in unanimous verdicts . The judge summarised the murder during sentencing :
You put your heads together with the purpose of arming yourselves and of attacking an innocent man you might find by chance simply because he was of a different race to yourselves . A racist killing must be one of the gravest kinds of killing .
The judge concluded that Awan had wielded the knife , was the ringleader of the group and had intended to kill . The three received life sentences , with Awan to serve a minimum of 18 years and the others at least 16 . Mahrad was cleared of murder and manslaughter .
= = Post @-@ trial and appeals = =
After the trial it was revealed that Nazir had previously been cautioned for using threatening behaviour in 1999 and fined for resisting arrest . The two Labour politicians , Akhtar and Choudhary , who provided Ali 's references were later jailed themselves for forgery in relation to vote rigging .
Awan and Nazir appealed against their jail terms in January 2008 but the original sentences were upheld . Judge Justice Davis said he had taken into account " moving " statements from Parker 's family . Ali appealed his sentence in July 2009 and also had his sentence upheld . In his appeal Ali continued to deny his guilt in the murder , Davis adjudged " true remorse is therefore lacking " . After the first two appeals Parker 's father suggested that the killers of his son should never be freed . As noted by Justice Davis , had the crime occurred post @-@ 2005 , then it is likely that significantly higher minimum terms would have been imposed on the perpetrators owing to reforms in the Criminal Justice Act 2003 . These reforms recommend a minimum term of 30 years for racially aggravated murder .
= = Reporting = =
The media were criticised for their lack of coverage of the Parker case in comparison to similar racially motivated murders occurring in the UK , such as the killings of Anthony Walker and Stephen Lawrence . The BBC later admitted that " it was a mistake not to report the case of Ross Parker more extensively " , noting the " stark " parallels with the Walker case though also suggesting the story had been " squeezed out " by other news such as a conviction of the killer of Danielle Jones . However it was noted that in hindsight that BBC had " underplayed " the story , and the crime was " worthy of coverage " " by any standards " .
Yasmin Alibhai @-@ Brown and Kelvin MacKenzie expressed similar sentiments . MacKenzie criticised newspapers including his own employer , The Sun . He stated , " if you believe you 're a victim of an ethnic minority and you 're white there is nowhere to go . Editors are so liberal that they are scared to be seen that they 're moving to the right of their paper " . Parker 's mother Davinia Parker expressed similar concerns that white victims of race crime are ignored . She said " because we are white , English , we didn 't get the coverage " , adding " " it 's as if we don 't count " . In 2006 , a Times investigation by Brendan Montague examined British newspaper archives for coverage of racist crimes , finding " an almost total boycott of stories involving the white victims of attacks " whereas " cases involving black and minority ethnic victims are widely reported " .
Others have noted that the lack of coverage is not simply a media issue . Peter Fahy , the spokesman on race issues for the Association of Chief Police Officers said : " A lot of police officers and other professionals feel almost the best thing to do is to try and avoid [ discussing such attacks ] for fear of being criticised . This is not healthy " . Montague suggests the lack of police appeals in cases involving white victims may be a cause of the lack of media coverage . Evidence of this was seen in the Parker case , with the police initially appearing keen to dismiss the possible racist aspect of the murder , stating " there was no reason to believe that the attack was racially motivated " .
The newspaper that covered Parker 's murder more extensively faced some criticism . The Government Office for the East of England produced a report by Dr Roger Green examining race relations in Peterborough . The document suggested that the Peterborough Evening Telegraph had a history of insensitivity , and coverage of the case was " possibly adding to any climate of racial and communal unrest " . The criticism of the paper was rejected by a senior police officer and an Asian community leader , both of whom praised its handling of the case . The leader of Peterborough City Council also suggested the accusation was unfair .
= = Impact = =
Parker 's murder led to increased racial tensions in Peterborough . At his former school , three Asian pupils were suspended for an attack on an Afro @-@ Caribbean pupil ; a relative of the victim then attacked an Asian teacher . A number of taxi firms stopped work early in the days after the attack in fear of reprisals . In November 2001 Home Secretary David Blunkett banned all marches in Peterborough for three months as it was feared violence would be caused by the Anti @-@ Nazi League and National Front who both sought to hold protests on the same day .
Parker 's death also had a major impact on his family . His mother , Davinia , was unable to work for three months after Parker 's funeral and came close to attempting suicide on a number of occasions . Parker 's room was left largely untouched for three years after the incident because his parents were reluctant to tidy it . They described the room as a place they " feel close to Ross " .
= = Legacy = =
As a result of the murder of Parker , local authorities set up a unity scheme , whereby gang members from different communities were trained as youth workers to ease racial tensions and reduce violence . However , some problems still persisted , with racist graffiti painted near the murder scene two years after the incident reading " no go area for whites " , " Paki powa " and " death to whites " .
Some , such as Mark Easton cite the Parker case as demonstrating how society has been forced to redefine racism and discard the erroneous definition of " prejudice plus power " – a definition which , In Easton 's view , tended to only allow ethnic minorities to be victims and whites to be perpetrators . Others such as Yasmin Alibhai @-@ Brown condemned the double standards of racial equality campaigners in relation to the case , suggesting black activists should " march and remember victims like Ross Parker " , stating " our values are worthless unless all victims of these senseless deaths matter equally " . She went on to write that " to treat some victims as more worthy of condemnation than others is unforgivable and a betrayal of anti @-@ racism itself " .
= = Tributes = =
Parker 's funeral took place at Peterborough Crematorium in Marholm on 23 October 2001 and more than 400 mourners attended . His " number 14 " Netherton United football shirt was draped over his coffin and his teammates formed a guard of honour dressed in the same strip ( kit ) . The Reverend Geoffrey Keating described Parker as " a beacon of light who inspired so many people " and " an extremely popular young man " . The murder received little attention from politicians , although in 2003 Peterborough Member of Parliament Helen Clark made a statement in the House of Commons sending condolences to Parker 's family , paying tribute to the Peterborough community and in particular Parker 's former school . She described Parker 's killers as " men older than him " and her tributes were echoed by John Denham .
A plaque was installed in Netherton in Peterborough as a memorial to Parker , and a further memorial is located at Peterborough Crematorium . His former football team mates and friends also play a match every May in his memory and formed a team called " Ross ' Rangers " . A rose bush was also planted at the Parker family home in remembrance .
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= Candice Michelle =
Candice Michelle Beckman ( born September 30 , 1978 ) better known as Candice ( Michelle ) is an American model , actress , and retired professional wrestler best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment .
After spending years modeling and acting , Candice Michelle was hired by WWE in 2004 , after she participated in the WWE Diva Search . Outside of wrestling , she is known as the Go Daddy Girl , performing in the company 's annual Super Bowl commercials . She also posed for a cover and nude pictorial in the April 2006 issue of Playboy . At Vengeance in 2007 , she defeated Melina to win her first WWE Women 's Championship and became the first former Diva Search contestant to win a WWE title . She was released from her WWE contract on June 19 , 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Beckman grew up in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , and she is of German and Costa Rican descent . She played varsity and college basketball and has an avid interest in many sports . Because she is from the state of Wisconsin , Candice is a Green Bay Packers fan .
At sixteen , Beckman won a modeling competition at her local skating rink . Around 1999 , she moved to Los Angeles , California to become a professional model and actress . She studied Theater Arts at Santa Monica College and had on @-@ camera acting and Meisner technique training at The Piero Dusa Acting Studio . It was during this time that Beckman adopted her middle name Michelle as her working last name . She appeared in numerous bodybuilding and car magazines such as FLEX and Lowrider Magazine , as well as being named Cyber Girl of the Week in the June 2002 issue of Playboy . Beckman also made appearances on television programs such as Party of Five , 7th Heaven and Hotel Erotica , as well as appearing in such films as Tomcats , Anger Management , DodgeBall and A Man Apart .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Vince 's Devils ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = = =
In July 2004 , Beckman auditioned to be a contestant for World Wrestling Entertainment 's Raw Diva Search . Despite not being chosen to be in the final ten , she was hired by the company under the gimmick of a makeup artist . She competed on Raw in several Diva contests , including lingerie fashion shows and limbo contests , until the end of the year .
On June 30 , 2005 , Candice was moved to SmackDown ! where she became involved in a storyline between Torrie Wilson and Melina . On July 24 , Candice made her pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at The Great American Bash where she served as the Special Guest Referee for the Bra and Panties match between Wilson and Melina . She was then moved back to Raw in a trade along with Wilson . In her next storyline , Candice and Torrie became villains by taunting 2005 Diva Search winner Ashley Massaro , and they joined forces with fellow Raw Diva Victoria to form an alliance known as Ladies in Pink ( later Vince 's Devils ) . On the September 5 episode of Raw , Wilson defeated Massaro after the interference from Victoria and Candice . They continued feuding with Massaro until Trish Stratus returned from a legitimate injury to help Massaro " retaliate " against Vince 's Devils . On the October 17 episode of Raw , where she , Torrie and Victoria faced off against the team of Stratus , Massaro , and their new ally Mickie James in a winning effort after Wilson pinned James . On November 28 episode of Raw , Candice teamed up with Victoria and Torrie Wilson in losing effort to Trish , Ashley and Mickie . In November , Candice signed on to pose for the April 2006 issue of Playboy . She had her first shot at the WWE Women 's Championship in a Fulfill Your Fantasy Battle Royal at Taboo Tuesday but was eliminated from the match by Massaro . At the Tribute to The Troops on December 19 , Michelle teamed up with Maria Kanellis in a winning effort defeating then Women 's Champion Trish Stratus and Ashley Massaro in a divas @-@ tag @-@ team match after Candice pinned Ashley .
In January , Candice appeared at New Year 's Revolution in the first ever Bra and Panties Gauntlet match , where she was eliminated by Maria . On the February 13 episode of Raw , Michelle accompanied Torrie in a losing effort to Ashley . After winning a number one contender 's Diva battle royal on Raw , Candice got her first singles WWE Women 's Championship match , but lost to then @-@ champion Trish Stratus on February 27 . After the match , Candice slapped Wilson , blaming her , in storyline , for the loss . Vince 's Devils later broke up when Torrie became a fan favorite after Candice and Victoria turned on her during Candice 's Playboy cover unveiling . This feud led to a match at WrestleMania 22 in which both Playboy cover girls competed in a Playboy Pillow Fight . Torrie Wilson won the match . On the June 12 , 2006 episode of Raw , Candice was defeated by Torrie in the first ever " Wet and Wild match " , a wrestling match involving water balloons and squirt guns , in which the winner of the match would be on the cover of the WWE 2006 Summer Special magazine. but the feud continued sporadically in backstage segments where Candice was depicted as Vince McMahon 's " sex slave " . On the July 11 episode of ECW , the villainous Candice appeared as Kelly Kelly 's dance partner on that night 's Kelly 's Exposé segment , and attempted to seduce Kelly in a backstage segment before their performance .
= = = = Singles competition and Women 's Champion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
On the July 17 episode of Raw , Candice was the Special Guest Referee during a tag team match of Stratus and Wilson against Victoria and Mickie James . James entered the match without being tagged in , so Candice threw her out of the ring . Afterwards , Victoria tried to clothesline Candice , but she ducked out of the way , allowing Stratus to perform a Stratusfaction for the victory . As a result of her participation in the match , Candice became a fan favorite . On the Raw following Unforgiven , Candice won a match against Lita . The next week , in her second match against Lita , Candice was pinned after she was speared by guest referee Edge , in the first round of the WWE Women 's Championship tournament . On the November 27 episode of Raw , during the Diva battle royal , Candice suffered a legitimate broken nose when Victoria kicked her in the face . She had surgery on November 30 to repair her deviated septum .
Candice returned at New Year 's Revolution on January 7 , when she went to the ring with Maria to fight off Melina as she tried to interfere in the Women 's Championship match between then @-@ champion Mickie James and Victoria . Candice made her in @-@ ring return on January 22 when she and Mickie James defeated Victoria and Melina in a tag team match with Candice scoring the pinfall . Candice then resumed her feud with Melina , who claimed in her blogs that no Playboy cover model was capable of defeating her in the ring . Candice took offense to this , which led to a Bra and Panties match between the two , which she lost . During this time , Candice began training on her off @-@ days to improve her in @-@ ring abilities . Weeks later , Candice was beginning to receive more air @-@ time and higher profile matches , and she won tag matches that pitted her with Mickie James against Victoria and Melina . She also picked up several wins against the latter two in singles matches , which culminated at One Night Stand , where Candice defeated Melina in the first ever match held in a swimming pool full of pudding . Candice defeated Melina to capture her first WWE Women 's Championship at Vengeance , becoming the first ever WWE Diva Search contestant to win the Women 's Title . Candice retained her title against Melina in a rematch at The Great American Bash as well as debuting a new finisher called the Candywrapper .
Beth Phoenix became the number one contender for the Women 's Title after winning a Diva battle royal at SummerSlam . At the Unforgiven pay @-@ per @-@ view , however , Candice successfully retained her title in their match by countering one of Phoenix 's moves with a crucifix pin . Their feud continued when Phoenix pinned Candice during a non @-@ title mixed tag team match on Raw on September 24 . At No Mercy on October 7 , Candice dropped the title to Phoenix , ending her reign as Women 's Champion . On October 22 , Candice legitimately cracked her clavicle during her rematch for the Women 's Title against Phoenix in a two out of three falls match ; Phoenix ran into the ropes , causing Candice to fall face @-@ first off of the turnbuckle onto her face , neck , and shoulders necessitating a rushed finish and putting her out of action for 14 weeks .
= = = = Injuries and release ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
Candice made her on @-@ screen return on the February 18 , 2008 episode of Raw , distracting Beth Phoenix during a match with Maria . She returned to in @-@ ring action on March 17 , teaming up with Maria to defeat Jillian Hall and Victoria . During the match , Candice injured her left shoulder by tearing the scar tissue over her previously broken left clavicle . Unlike her previous injury , Candice broke her clavicle in four separate places , in essence , shattering it . As a result , Candice was replaced by Ashley for her scheduled match at WrestleMania XXIV . On March 23 , Candice underwent successful surgery on her re @-@ broken clavicle .
On the September 1 episode of Raw , Candice made her in @-@ ring return match teaming up with Kelly Kelly and Mickie James to defeat Jillian Hall , Katie Lea Burchill and Beth Phoenix , with Candice pinning Phoenix . Candice received a push upon her return as she was named the number one contender for the Women 's Championship , but lost to Beth Phoenix at No Mercy . On the February 2 episode of RAW , Candice unsuccessfully challenged Beth Phoenix for the Women 's Championship after the interference by Mendes and Marella . On the February 16 episode of RAW , Candice , James and Kelly stopped Marella and Mendes from interfering in the Women 's Championship match between Melina and Phoenix , which was won by Melina .
On April 15 , 2009 , Candice was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . She , however , never reappeared on the brand and was released from her WWE contract on June 19 , 2009 .
= = Other media = =
= = = Music videos = = =
In December 2011 , Candice along with Torrie Wilson filmed Lilian Garcia 's music video " U Drive Me Loca " .
= = = Television and modeling = = =
During the week of November 5 , 2007 , Candice appeared on five episodes of Family Feud with several other WWE superstars and Divas . Also in 2007 , Candice Michelle was No. 82 on AskMen.com 's " 100 Most Desirable Women " list .
Beckman appeared on the February 6 , 2008 episode of Project Runway , in an episode where the contestants were challenged to design wrestling attire for several of WWE 's female wrestlers . Beckman made a special appearance on the November 12 , 2008 episode of Redemption Song , which is hosted by fellow WWE wrestler Chris Jericho , with several other Divas . She also appeared in the February 2009 issue of FLEX magazine .
Go Daddy
Beckman gained national attention in 2005 when she appeared in a commercial for internet domain provider Go Daddy , which aired during Super Bowl XXXIX . She played a character named " Nikki Cappelli " who had trouble with a snapped spaghetti strap on her tank top as she testified before a panel holding broadcast censorship hearings . The commercial was a parody of the 2004 " wardrobe malfunction " in which Janet Jackson 's right breast was exposed . She then became widely known as " Miss GoDaddy.com " and the " Go Daddy Girl " .
The following year , she was featured in several more Go Daddy commercials . During the 2006 NFC playoffs , she was featured cleaning windows . She later appeared in a commercial during Super Bowl XL , where she seduced an ABC executive to acquire an advertising slot for Go Daddy . She appeared in another commercial for Super Bowl XLI in 2007 , where she danced in a room being doused with champagne . Beckman appeared on American Chopper to promote the commercial as well as Go Daddy 's custom made chopper . In 2008 , she was featured in her fourth consecutive Go Daddy commercial for Super Bowl XLII , entitled " White Light " , but Fox refused to air it .
= = Personal life = =
She has a tattoo of the word " faith " on her inner wrist , which she considers a " personal affirmation " . It is also a reminder , in her words , to " believe in myself and have ' faith ' " . She got the tattoo , which was documented on the reality show LA Ink , after breaking her collarbone in 2007 . The tattoo is also related to her Christian beliefs . When Candice made her return , she had new tattoos on her back , her new tattoos are of five stars , which starts at the lower part of her back then finished at the middle of her back .
Candice , along with Batista , Shelton Benjamin , and Josh Mathews , represented WWE at the 2008 Democratic National Convention in an effort to persuade fans to register to vote in the 2008 Presidential election .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Candywrapper ( Double chickenwing twisted to jumping inverted double underhook facebuster ) – 2007 – 2009
Spinning heel kick – 2007 ; used as a signature move from 2008 – 2009
Sugar Rush ( Forward Russian legsweep ) – 2005 – 2006
Signature moves
Bridging northern lights suplex
Candylicious ( Hanging figure @-@ four necklock )
Diving crossbody
Elbow drop , preceded by Go Daddy dance theatrics
Hurricanrana
Multiple pinning variations
Sunset flip
Crucifix
Multiple kick variations
Repeated roundhouse , sometimes while springboarding
Rolling neck snap
Springboard arm drag
Sitout rear mat slam
Tilt – a – whirl headscissors takedown
Wrestlers managed
Torrie Wilson
Victoria
Maria Kanellis
Managers
Torrie Wilson
Entrance themes
" Holla " by Desiree Jackson ( 2004 )
" What Love Is " by Jim Johnston ( 2005 – 2007 ) .
" What Love Is " in @-@ house remix by Scooter and Lavelle ( 2007 – 2009 ) .
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2007 )
PWI Woman of the Year ( 2007 )
PWI ranked her # 10 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2008 .
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
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= God of War ( comics ) =
God of War is a six @-@ issue American comic book limited series set in the God of War universe . The series was written by Marv Wolfman , illustrated by Andrea Sorrentino , and the cover art for each issue was produced by Andy Park , who was also an artist for the video game series . The first five issues of God of War were published by WildStorm . Due to the company 's closure in December 2010 , the final issue was published by their parent company , DC Comics . The series ' launch coincided with the release of the video game God of War III in March 2010 . The final issue was published in January 2011 , and a collected edition was published in March 2011 .
The limited series chronicles the adventures of Kratos , the protagonist of the video game series . The majority of the story is told in flashback and shows a past quest for the Ambrosia of Asclepius , and also relates the story of Kratos ' present search for the same object . The two stories are told simultaneously ; Kratos first attempts to save his dying daughter , Calliope , and years later , he is seeking to destroy the Ambrosia to prevent the resurrection of the former God of War , Ares .
The series received mixed reviews . Some critics praised Wolfman 's writing , while others said that although the setting was a good comic book incentive and a good prequel for the video game series , the story did not make sense . Sorrentino 's interior artwork was criticized for being " muddy " by critics , but some did praise it for being distinctive and did a good job at setting the tone and atmosphere .
= = Publication history = =
The comic book series was announced at the 2009 Comic @-@ Con International , and was scheduled to debut in October 2009 , but its launch was delayed to coincide with that of God of War III . Scott A. Steinberg , Vice President of Product Marketing at SCEA said , " we are thrilled to work with the world 's largest comic book publisher to bring one of our most beloved PlayStation franchises ... to comic book fans . " In an interview with IGN , the series writer Marv Wolfman stated that when he heard a rumor of the series , he " put [ in his ] name right away and kept pushing " to be chosen as the writer because God of War is one of his favorite video games . Wolfman said that he had already played the first two games , so there was no research to be done and " it 's because [ he ] loved the game that [ he ] wanted to do the comic . " He received copies of the scripts for all the games to ensure his work was as accurate as possible , and stated that he worked very closely with Sony Santa Monica — the developer of the video games — and tied the comic book 's narrative directly to the story they created for the games . Wolfman said that Santa Monica ensured the mythology was consistent while revealing new facts about Kratos ' past .
In an interview with Comic Book Resources , Wolfman stated that Santa Monica suggested the use of two time periods , with past events affecting the narrative in the present . He introduced new characters , including Kratos ' wife — who appeared in the games but was never named . He stated the final script was a combination of his ideas and Santa Monica 's character @-@ appropriate dialog . Series artist Andrea Sorrentino stated , " it was clear from the start that for this project Sony and DC [ Comics ] wanted something a bit different from a ' classical ' comic . So I just took my usual style and added to it something new , like new colors from the videogame palette . " She stated that the games have strong , epic images , and that she easily adapted her style to Wolfman 's writing as he " did really good work showing both dramatic and epic scenes . " Sorrentino used color to give importance to each scene , adding hot colors ( red , orange , or brown ) in action scenes and cold ones ( green or light blue ) in others so that readers could immediately have an emotional reaction .
The series was published on a bi @-@ monthly schedule between March 2010 and January 2011 . In March 2011 , the series was collected into a trade paperback .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
As with the video games , the comic book series is set in an alternate version of Ancient Greece , populated by the Olympian Gods and other beings of Greek mythology . The story is split between two chapters in the video game chronology ; a period before Ascension ( 2013 ) , and a later period between God of War ( 2005 ) and Ghost of Sparta ( 2010 ) . For the majority of the series , it narrates the events of the past via flashbacks with occasional focus on present events . In both , protagonist Kratos traverses Ancient Greece and the Aegean Sea on a quest for the Ambrosia of Asclepius .
= = = Characters = = =
As in the video game series , the comic book 's protagonist is Kratos . The story references two periods in Kratos ' life ; his boyhood training and life in the Spartan Army as the unwitting champion of Ares , and the narrative present , in which he has assumed the role of God of War after defeating Ares . The segments of the story set in the past feature several Olympian Gods , including Ares , the God of War ; Artemis , the Goddess of the Hunt ; Hades , the God of the Underworld ; Helios , the God of the Sun ; Hermes , the God of Speed , Thievery , and Wild Animals ; and Poseidon , the God of the Sea . In the present , Kratos encounters his ally and mentor Athena , the Goddess of Wisdom , and the Chaos Giant , Gyges . Minor characters from Kratos ' first adventure include Captain Nikos , the King of Sparta , and Kratos ' wife , Lysandra , and daughter , Calliope . The champions of the gods include : Pothia , champion of Artemis and the warrior @-@ queen of an Amazonian tribe ; Cereyon , fiery champion of Helios ; Danaus , champion of Hermes who can magically control beasts ; Herodius , champion of Poseidon from the village of Thera ; and Alrik , champion of Hades and prince of the Barbarians .
= = = Plot = = =
The story is set after Kratos ' defeat of the former God of War , Ares . Now the new God of War , Kratos is on a quest to destroy the legendary Ambrosia of Asclepius , an elixir with magical healing properties that he once found when he was a soldier in Sparta . During his quest , Kratos has flashbacks to this period , as he searches for the Ambrosia to save his newly @-@ born daughter , Calliope , who is suffering from the plague . Given until the next full moon , General Kratos travels with a host of Spartans to find the Ambrosia . During this period , he takes counsel from Captain Nikos , his superior in the Spartan army who instructs him about the Spartan code of honor .
Several of the Olympian Gods — Artemis , Hades , Helios , Hermes , and Poseidon — decide to enter into a wager with Ares . Each will choose a champion who is in search of the Ambrosia , with the successful god receiving an award ( e.g. , having statues erected in their honor across Greece ) . Kratos kills two of the champions — Herodius and Pothia — and repels attacks by monsters sent by the gods to thwart him . A desperate Hades kills Nikos , who sacrifices himself to save Kratos , passing on the rank of Captain . Danaus is killed by Alrik , who retains Danaus ' head to possess his magical ability . Kratos locates the " Tree of Life " , the source of the Ambrosia located on a small island , and confronts Cereyon . After being almost burned alive , Kratos drowns his foe and successfully retrieves the Ambrosia , but as he leaves , he and his Spartan troops are ambushed by Alrik 's horde of barbarians . When Hades observes the Spartans defeating the Barbarians , the god attempts to have the Spartans dragged to the Underworld . Alrik uses the head of Danaus to summon rocs to attack Kratos as he flies away on a similar bird with the stolen Ambrosia . Kratos pursues Alrik on a captured roc , knowing that although his men will be taken to the Underworld , they will be honored in Sparta for their sacrifices . Alrik and Kratos battle , with Alrik critically wounding Kratos . The Spartan , however , is sprayed by the Ambrosia and subsequently healed .
Kratos gains control of Danaus ' head and uses its power against Alrik , who is torn apart by rocs . Having also been covered with the Ambrosia , Alrik is revived only to be killed once again until the Ambrosia is spent . Kratos then escapes and returns to Sparta with the Ambrosia , saving his daughter , and giving the King of Sparta the rest of the elixir , who then officially awards Kratos the rank of Captain in the Spartan Army . Bitter at having lost the wager , Hades resurrects Alrik , who becomes King after his father dies and swears vengeance against Kratos .
In the present , Kratos overcomes several obstacles in his quest to find the Ambrosia , including defeating a giant spider , ignoring Athena 's pleas to stop his quest , and overcoming the reanimated corpses of Captain Nikos and his men — a final attempt by Hades to stop the Spartan . On returning to the island , Kratos discovers that the island is actually one of the Chaos Giants , the fifty @-@ headed and one hundred armed Gyges . An outraged Gyges explains that Kratos had thwarted the Giant 's plan to use the elixir to resurrect his brothers Briareus and Cottus , and then reclaim the world . In his fiery battle with Cereyon , Kratos inadvertently burned off Gyges ' one hundred arms , and then stole the Ambrosia . Without arms and now unable to reach the Ambrosia , Gyges was forced to wait for Kratos ' return . During the battle , Kratos reveals that he seeks to destroy the elixir to prevent the worshipers of the slain god Ares from resurrecting their master . Kratos then uses the Fire of Apollo to destroy both the Tree of Life and Gyges .
= = Reception = =
The God of War comic series received mixed reviews . Mike Murphy of Platform Nation stated that although the comic series serves as a good prequel to the video game series , " the story is bogged down by horrible art ... [ it 's ] muddy , confusing , and consistently pulls you out of the story as you try to figure out just what is going on from panel to panel . " Rating it 5 out of 10 , Murphy said that he " can ’ t give this one a pass , even to the hardcore God of War fans " who should " skip it . "
After reading God of War # 1 , Joe Juba of Game Informer said " If you have a choice between reading this comic and doing something else , you should do something else ... like play God of War III again . " He said that the story adds nothing of value and it is rough . Despite being written by Marv Wolfman , he said the story does not satisfy fans of the video game series : " I didn 't think the story made much sense , and it doesn 't contribute to the overall lore of the universe ; it just seems to be setting Kratos up for another fetch @-@ quest . " He also felt that the writing was exceptionally low in quality . Comic Vine said , " The idea here screams comic books , " however , the " results were a mixed offering . " The reviewer stated that the idea of Kratos finding the Ambrosia to save Calliope was a " perfect comic book incentive , " however , things started to disintegrate when the distinction between the present and the past became unclear . A four out of five star review from Binary Messiah praised the comic series , saying that it could be made into a full game : " That 's one freaking awesome story . That right there is a premise to a whole new God of War game . " They said that it " does a good job showing the hot headedness of Kratos and his selfishness . " Saying that the comics do the video game series justice , for fans of God of War , this should be in their comic collection .
GameSpot stated that the art appears moody , but also said it is " muddy ... with a heavy digital assist from Photoshop . " Although the effects were sometimes stunning , other times they were " distracting , or even chuckle @-@ inducing . " Despite the criticism over the art , GameSpot said that the art is " distinctive , and lends the story a very specific tone " , and that " [ it ] matches the world of God of War well enough , ... the same way Kratos ' anger overshadows any possible storytelling subtlety in the [ video game ] series . " Joe Juba gave some praise to the art , stating that it " is kind of neat " and " it 's stylish , if nothing else " . Binary Messiah was disappointed in the art . They said it is very murky and washed out with black . Although there is some realism in the art , it does not match the art of the games . They also noted a mistake with the flashback scenes , as in these scenes , it shows Kratos with his ash @-@ white skin and red tattoo , but he did not receive these until after he slayed his family . They did praise it for being gory like the games , and said " While the art may be iffy , it does have an excellent atmosphere of darkness and constant betrayal . "
= = = Issues = = =
Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) , Temofonte , Saida ( let ) , Abernathy , Ben ( ed ) . God of War # 1 ( March 2010 ) , WildStorm
Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) , Temofonte , Saida ( let ) , Abernathy , Ben ( ed ) . God of War # 2 ( May 2010 ) , WildStorm
Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) , Temofonte , Saida ( let ) , Abernathy , Ben ( ed ) . God of War # 3 ( July 2010 ) , WildStorm
Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) , Temofonte , Saida ( let ) , Abernathy , Ben ( ed ) . God of War # 4 ( September 2010 ) , WildStorm
Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) , Temofonte , Saida ( let ) , Abernathy , Ben ( ed ) . God of War # 5 ( November 2010 ) , WildStorm
Wolfman , Marv ( w ) , Sorrentino , Andrea ( a ) , Temofonte , Saida ( let ) , Abernathy , Ben ( ed ) . God of War # 6 ( January 2011 ) , DC Comics
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= Ohio State Route 372 =
State Route 372 ( SR 372 ) is a very short , two @-@ lane east – west state highway in the southern part of the U.S. state of Ohio . The western terminus of this spur route is at a T @-@ intersection with the concurrency of U.S. Route 23 ( US 23 ) and SR 104 about six and a half miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) north of Waverly . Its eastern terminus is just 0 @.@ 68 miles ( 1 @.@ 09 km ) to the east of that point at the boundary of Scioto Trail State Forest . Continuing east of that point is Stoney Creek Road , which traverses through the state forest in the direction of the Scioto River . From its inception in the middle of the 1930s , the primary function of SR 372 has been to provide access to the state forest from the state highway system .
= = Route description = =
The entirety of SR 372 is located within Franklin Township in rural southern Ross County . Beginning at a T @-@ intersection with the US 23 / SR 104 concurrency , SR 372 travels easterly into a series of curves in the shape of an " S " , taking the route to the north and then bending to the southeast . As it passes amidst heavily wooded terrain with some houses alongside the roadway , SR 372 travels past an intersection with North Ridge Road , then abruptly comes to an end as it crosses the western boundary of Scioto Trail State Forest . The roadway continues eastward from this point as Stoney Creek Road .
The Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) regularly does surveys to determine the amount of traffic that utilizes its highway system . Commonly , the volumes measured in these surveys are expressed in terms average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , or the amount of traffic volume on a given segment of a highway on any average day of the year . In 2010 , ODOT determined that an average of 340 passenger vehicles per day and 20 commercial vehicles per day used SR 372 . This state route is not a part of the National Highway System , a network of roadways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation .
= = History = =
The SR 372 designation was established in 1934 . Throughout its entire history , the highway has served to provide a connection to Scioto Trail State Forest from US 23 . When it was first designated , all of SR 372 was gravel – surfaced . The state route was paved by 1958 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Franklin Township , Ross County .
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= Gliese 581 g =
Gliese 581 g / ˈɡliːzə / , ( also known as Gl 581 g or GJ 581 g ) , unofficially known as Zarmina , is an unconfirmed ( and disputed ) exoplanet claimed to orbit the red dwarf Gliese 581 , about 20 light @-@ years from Earth in the constellation of Libra . It is the sixth planet purportedly discovered orbiting the star . The discovery was announced by the Lick @-@ Carnegie Exoplanet Survey in late September 2010 , after a decade of observation . However , the ESO / HARPS survey team was not able to confirm that the planet exists .
Gliese 581 g has attracted attention because it would be near the middle of the habitable zone of its parent star . That means it could sustain liquid water on its surface and could potentially host life similar to that on Earth ( the planet is predicted to have temperatures around − 37 to − 11 ° C ) . If it is a rocky planet , favorable atmospheric conditions could permit the presence of liquid water , a necessity for all known life , on its surface . With an estimated mass of 2 @.@ 2 times Earth 's , Gliese 581 g would be considered a Super @-@ Earth and would be the planet closest in mass to Earth known in a habitable zone . This would make it one of the most Earth @-@ like Goldilocks planets found outside the Solar System and one of the exoplanets with the greatest recognized potential for harboring life .
The supposed detection of Gliese 581 g after such a short period of searching and at such close proximity has led some astronomers to hypothesize that the proportion of stars with habitable planets may be greater than ten percent .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The planet was claimed to be detected by astronomers in the Lick @-@ Carnegie Exoplanet Survey , led by principal investigator Steven S. Vogt , professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the University of California , Santa Cruz and co @-@ investigator R. Paul Butler of the Carnegie Institution of Washington . The discovery was made using radial velocity measurements , combining 122 observations obtained over 11 years from the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) instrument of the Keck 1 telescope with 119 measurements obtained over 4 @.@ 3 years from the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) instrument of the European Southern Observatory 's 3 @.@ 6 m telescope at La Silla Observatory .
After subtracting the signals of the previously known Gliese 581 planets , b , c , d and e , the signals of two additional planets were apparent : a 445 @-@ day signal from a newly recognized outermost planet designated f , and the 37 @-@ day signal from Gliese 581 g . The probability that the detection of the latter was spurious was estimated at only 2 @.@ 7 in a million . The authors stated that while the 37 @-@ day signal is " clearly visible in the HIRES data set alone " , " the HARPS data set alone is not able to reliably sense this planet " and concluded , " It is really necessary to combine both data sets to sense all these planets reliably . " The Lick – Carnegie team explained the results of their research in a paper published in the Astrophysical Journal . Although not sanctioned by the IAU 's naming conventions , Vogt 's team informally refers to the planet as " Zarmina 's World " after his wife , and some cases simply as Zarmina .
= = = Nondetection in new HARPS data analysis = = =
Two weeks after the announcement of the discovery of Gliese 581 g , astronomer Francesco Pepe of the Geneva Observatory reported that in a new analysis of 179 measurements taken by the HARPS spectrograph over 6 @.@ 5 years , neither planet g nor planet f was detectable . Vogt responded to the latest concerns by saying , " I am not overly surprised by this as these are very weak signals , and adding 60 points onto 119 does not necessarily translate to big gains in sensitivity . " More recently , Vogt added , " I feel confident that we have accurately and honestly reported our uncertainties and done a thorough and responsible job extracting what information this data set has to offer . I feel confident that anyone independently analyzing this data set will come to the same conclusions . "
Differences in the two groups ' results may involve the planetary orbital characteristics assumed in calculations . According to MIT astronomer Sara Seager , Vogt postulated the planets around Gliese 581 had perfectly circular orbits whereas the Swiss group thought the orbits were more eccentric . This difference in approach may be the reason for the disagreement , according to Alan Boss . Butler remarked that with additional observations , " I would expect that on the time scale of a year or two this should be settled . " Other astronomers also supported a deliberate evaluation : Seager stated , " We will have consensus at some point ; I don 't think we need to vote right now . " and Ray Jayawardhana noted , " Given the extremely interesting implications of such a discovery , it 's important to have independent confirmation . " Gliese 581 g is listed as " unconfirmed " in the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia .
In December 2010 , a claimed methodological error was reported in the data analysis that led to the discovery of Gliese 581 f and g . The team around Steven Vogt inferred the number of exoplanets by using a reduced chi @-@ square , although the orbital models are nonlinear in the model parameters . Therefore , reduced chi @-@ square is not a trustworthy diagnostic . In fact , an investigation of the fit residuals showed that the data used by Vogt 's team actually prefers a model with four planets , not six , in agreement with the results of Francesco Pepe 's team .
= = = Further analyses of HIRES / HARPS data = = =
Another re ‐ analysis found no clear evidence for a fifth planetary signal in the combined HIRES / HARPS data set . The claim was made that the HARPS data provided only some evidence for 5 planet signals , while incorporation of both data sets actually degraded the evidence for more than four planets ( i.e. , none for 581 f or 581 g ) . Mikko Tuomi of the University of Hertfordshire performed a Bayesian re @-@ analysis of the HARPS and HIRES data with the result that they " do not imply the conclusion that there are two additional companions orbiting GJ 581 " .
" I have studied [ the paper ] in detail and do not agree with his conclusions , " Steven Vogt said in reply , concerned that Gregory has considered the HIRES data as more uncertain . " The question of Gliese 581g 's existence won 't be settled definitively until researchers gather more high @-@ precision radial velocity data " , Vogt said . However Vogt expects further analysis to strengthen the case for the planet .
By performing a number of statistical tests , Guillen Anglada @-@ Escude of the Carnegie Institute of Washington concluded that the existence of Gl 581 g was well supported by the available data , despite the presence of a statistical degeneracy that derives from an alias of the first eccentric harmonic of another planet in the system . In a forthcoming paper , Anglada @-@ Escude and Rebekah Dawson claim " With the data we have , the most likely explanation is that this planet is still there . "
= = = 2012 Reanalysis of HARPS Data = = =
In July 2012 , Steven S. Vogt Reanalyzed the 2011 data proposed by Forveille et al. noting that there were 5 objects ( GJ 581 b , e , c , g , d with no evidence for f ) . Planet g was orbiting around 0 @.@ 13 AU with an orbital period of 32 days placing it inside the habitable zone . Vogt concluded that the object had a minimum mass of 2 @.@ 2 M and has a false positive probability of less than 4 % .
= = = Further studies = = =
A study in 2014 by Paul Robertson , Suvrath Mahadevan , Michael End , and Arpita Roy concluded that Gliese 581 d is " an artifact of stellar activity which , when incompletely corrected , causes the false detection of planet g . " An additional study concluded that Gliese 581 g 's existence depends on Gliese 581 d 's eccentricity .
In 2015 , a team of researchers reanalysed the data and suggested planet Gliese 581 d really could exist , despite stellar variability , and that last year 's claim of the existence of Gliese 581 d and g was triggered by poor and inadequate analysis of the data . Now that Gliese 581 d is widely accepted it is likely that Gliese 581 g 's existence is dependent on the eccentricity of the further out exoplanet Gliese 581 d as suggested by Paul Robertson .
= = Tidal locking and habitability = =
Because of Gliese 581 g 's proximity to its parent star , it is predicted to be tidally locked to Gliese 581 . Just as Earth 's Moon always presents the same face to the Earth , the length of Gliese 581 g 's sidereal day would then precisely match the length of its year , meaning it would be permanently light on one half and permanently dark on the other half of its surface . Tidal locking also means the planet would have no axial tilt and therefore no seasonality in a conventional sense .
With one side of the planet always facing the star , temperatures could range from blazing hot in the bright side to freezing cold in the dark side if atmospheric heat transport is limited . The atmosphere 's inventory of volatile compounds such as water and carbon dioxide could then permanently freeze on the dark side . However , an atmosphere of the expected density would be likely to moderate these extremes .
= = = Atmospheric effects = = =
An atmosphere that is dense will circulate heat , potentially allowing a wide area on the surface to be habitable . For example , Venus has a solar rotation rate approximately 117 times slower than Earth 's , producing prolonged days and nights . Despite the uneven distribution of sunlight over time intervals shorter than several months , unilluminated areas of Venus are kept almost as hot as the day side by globally circulating winds . Simulations have shown that an atmosphere containing appropriate levels of CO2 and H2O need only be a tenth the pressure of Earth 's atmosphere ( 100 mbar ) to effectively distribute heat to the night side . Current technology cannot determine the atmospheric or surface composition of the planet due to the overpowering light of its parent star .
Whether or not a tide @-@ locked planet with the orbital characteristics of Gliese 581g is actually habitable depends on the composition of the atmosphere and the nature of the planetary surface . A comprehensive modeling study including atmospheric dynamics , realistic radiative transfer and the physics of formation of sea ice ( if the planet has an ocean ) indicates that the planet can become as hot as Venus if it is dry and allows carbon dioxide to accumulate in its atmosphere . The same study identified two habitable states for a water @-@ rich planet . If the planet has a very thin atmosphere , a thick ice crust forms over most of the surface , but the substellar point remains hot enough to yield a region of thin ice or even episodically open water . If the planet has an atmosphere with Earthlike pressures , containing approximately 20 % ( molar ) carbon dioxide , then the greenhouse effect is sufficiently strong to maintain a pool of open water under the substellar point with temperatures comparable to the Earth 's tropics . This state has been dubbed " Eyeball Earth " by the author .
Modeling of the effect of tidal locking on Gliese 581 g 's possible atmosphere , using a general circulation model employing an atmosphere with Earthlike surface pressure but a highly idealized representation of radiative processes , indicates that for a solid @-@ surface planet the locations of maximum warmth would be distributed in a sideways chevron @-@ shaped pattern centered near the substellar point .
= = = Temperatures = = =
It is estimated that the average global equilibrium temperature ( the temperature in the absence of atmospheric effects ) of Gliese 581 g would range from 209 to 228 K ( − 64 to − 45 ° C , or − 84 to − 49 ° F ) for Bond albedos ( reflectivities ) from 0 @.@ 5 to 0 @.@ 3 ( with the latter being more characteristic of the inner Solar System ) . Adding an Earth @-@ like greenhouse effect would yield an average surface temperature in the range of 236 to 261 K ( − 37 to − 12 ° C , or − 35 to 10 ° F ) . Gliese 581g would be in an orbit where a silicate weathering thermostat could operate , and this could lead to accumulation of sufficient carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to permit liquid water to exist at the surface , provided the planet 's composition and tectonic behavior could support sustained outgassing .
By comparison , Earth 's present global equilibrium temperature is 255 K ( − 18 ° C ) , which is raised to 288 K ( 15 ° C ) by greenhouse effects . However , when life evolved early in Earth 's history , the Sun 's energy output is thought to have been only about 75 % of its current value , which would have correspondingly lowered Earth 's equilibrium temperature under the same albedo conditions . Yet Earth maintained equable temperatures in that era , perhaps with a more intense greenhouse effect , or a lower albedo , than at present .
Current Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about − 87 ° C ( − 125 ° F ) during polar winter to highs of up to − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) in summer . The wide range is due to the rarefied atmosphere , which cannot store much solar heat , and the low thermal inertia of the soil . Early in its history , a denser atmosphere may have permitted the formation of an ocean on Mars .
Two previously discovered planets in the same system , Gliese 581 c and d ( inward and outward from planet g , respectively ) , were also regarded as potentially habitable following their discovery . Both were later evaluated as being outside the conservatively defined habitable zone , leading Vogt et al. to remark that " The GJ 581 system has a somewhat checkered history of habitable planet claims " . However , a subsequent downward revision of the period of planet d from 83 to 67 days has bolstered its habitability prospects , although a large greenhouse effect would be needed .
= = = Potential for life = = =
In an interview with Lisa @-@ Joy Zgorski of the National Science Foundation , Steven Vogt was asked what he thought about the chances of life existing on Gliese 581 g . Vogt was optimistic : " I 'm not a biologist , nor do I want to play one on TV . Personally , given the ubiquity and propensity of life to flourish wherever it can , I would say that ... the chances of life on this planet are 100 % . I have almost no doubt about it . " In the same article Dr. Seager is quoted as saying " Everyone is so primed to say here 's the next place we 're going to find life , but this isn 't a good planet for follow @-@ up . " According to Vogt , the long lifetime of red dwarfs improves the chances of life being present . " It 's pretty hard to stop life once you give it the right conditions " , he said . " Life on other planets doesn 't mean E.T. Even a simple single @-@ cell bacteria or the equivalent of shower mold would shake perceptions about the uniqueness of life on Earth . "
= = Implications = =
Scientists have monitored only a relatively small number of stars in the search for exoplanets . The discovery of a potentially habitable planet like Gliese 581 g so early in the search might mean that habitable planets are more widely distributed than had been previously believed . According to Vogt , the discovery " implies an interesting lower limit on the fraction of stars that have at least one potentially habitable planet as there are only ~ 116 known solar @-@ type or later stars out to the 6 @.@ 3 parsec distance of Gliese 581 " . This finding foreshadows what Vogt calls a new , second Age of Discovery in exoplanetology :
Confirmation by other teams through additional high @-@ precision RVs would be most welcome . But if GJ 581g is confirmed by further RV scrutiny , the mere fact that a habitable planet has been detected this soon , around such a nearby star , suggests that η ⊕ could well be on the order of a few tens of percent , and thus that either we have just been incredibly lucky in this early detection , or we are truly on the threshold of a second Age of Discovery .
If the fraction of stars with potentially habitable planets ( η ⊕ , " eta @-@ Earth " ) is on the order of a few tens of percent as Vogt proposes , and the Sun 's stellar neighborhood is a typical sample of the galaxy , then the discovery of Gliese 581 g in the habitable zone of its star points to the potential of billions of Earth @-@ like planets in our Milky Way galaxy alone .
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= Trustee Investments Act 1961 =
The Trustee Investments Act 1961 ( c 62 ) was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that covers where trustees can invest trust funds . Given the royal assent on 3 August 1961 , it removed the " Statutory Lists " system and replaced it with sets of specific investment areas . The Act was heavily criticised for the way it set these areas out , particularly the requirement that trusts trying to invest in multiple areas would need to be permanently divided . A 1997 Law Commission paper called its terms " overly cautious and restrictive " , suggesting that some trusts were underperforming as a result . The passing of the Trustee Act 2000 effectively nullified the 1961 Act 's terms in relation to trustee investment , and the 2000 Act is now the principal piece of legislation in this area .
= = Background = =
Prior to the 1961 Act , the areas trustees could invest in were based on the Trustee Act 1925 , which set up a " Statutory Lists " system . The list contained only those investments available at the Post Office , along with land . It did not take into account the deprecation of currency or inflation , meaning that if the trustees invested in stocks and shares they were at risk of losing money simply because of the falling value of the pound sterling . As a result , even though the income from a trust might remain nominally constant , the real value of that income could be much reduced over the lifetime of the trust . This was recognised by lawyers , who had been advising their clients to structure trusts in such a way as to allow their trustees to invest in wider areas than the Statutory Lists . In 1952 the report of the Nathan Committee advocated reform , and the government published a White Paper on " Government Policy on Charitable Trusts in England and Wales " in 1955 , which proposed a reform of the Statutory Lists system . This came about under the Variation of Trusts Act 1958 , which allowed trustees to apply to the courts to widen their investment powers , a process that was expensive and slow .
A statement in the House of Lords on 13 May 1959 promised further reform , and a detailed White Paper was published in December . In November 1960 a Bill based on that report was introduced in the House of Lords , where it was much scrutinised by solicitors and barristers ( particularly at the Committee stage ) owing to its complexity . The Bill received its royal assent on 3 August 1961 , and passed into law as the Trustee Investments Act 1961 .
= = Act = =
The Act replaced the old Statutory Lists system of investments with two sets of " narrow range " investments and a set of " wide range " investments , both covered in the first Schedule of the Act . The first set of " narrow range " investments included Defence Bonds , National Savings Certificates and similar " small " investments , which could be bought at a Post Office and did not require the trustee to seek advice before investing . The second set included debentures in certain British companies and gilt @-@ edged securities , with the trustee expected to seek written advice from a person he believed was qualified to give it before investing . " Wide range " investments included unit trusts and shares in certain British companies , and shares in building societies .
If trustees wished to invest in " wide range " investments , they were required to have the trust fund valued and divided into two parts – three quarters of the value in one part , and a quarter in the other . The quarter was to be invested in " wide range " investments , while the remainder was restricted to " narrow range " investments . The valuation had to be done by " a person reasonably believed by the trustee to be qualified to make it " . This division of funds was permanent , and the quarter and three quarters became distinct units . The permanence of the division was the Act 's most controversial section .
= = Aftermath = =
The Act was considered a bad one , since it required a " very conservative investment policy for trustees " . The powers given to investment trustees were restrictive and narrow , and the trustees were expected to go through expensive and complicated procedures to exercise them . The Act was criticised almost immediately for its complexity and outdatedness . A 1997 paper by the Law Commission called it " overly cautious and restrictive " , and suggested that some trusts were underperforming because of the difficulty of complying with the Act 's provisions . The Trustee Act 2000 repealed most of the 1961 Act and now serves as the principal piece of guidance on trustee investments .
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= The Dirty Picture =
The Dirty Picture is a 2011 Indian biographical drama film inspired by the life of Silk Smitha , a South Indian actress noted for her erotic roles . The filmmakers have clarified that the story is not officially or literally based on Smitha alone , but on many of her Southern contemporaries such as Disco Shanti . It also resembles the personal lives of other women in popular culture , including Hollywood actress and sex symbol Marilyn Monroe . The film was directed by Milan Luthria and co @-@ produced by Shobha Kapoor and Ekta Kapoor , after Ekta came up with the idea and asked screenwriter Rajat Aroraa to pen a story based on it .
Produced on a budget of ₹ 180 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 7 million ) , The Dirty Picture was released worldwide on 2 December 2011 ( the anniversary of Smitha 's birth ) , in Hindi , Tamil and Telugu versions . Vidya Balan , Naseeruddin Shah , Tusshar Kapoor and Emraan Hashmi played lead roles in the film . Upon release the film was both a critical and commercial success , with Balan receiving the highest accolades for her performance ; she was called " the hero of the film " . In addition , the film has received widespread praise for portraying women as powerful , contributing something unique to a typically male @-@ dominated society . The film 's music was composed by Vishal Shekhar with lyrics written by Rajat Aroraa .
The Dirty Picture grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 14 billion ( US $ 17 million ) worldwide and received several awards , most of which were won by Balan for her portrayal of Silk . The film won three National Film Awards including Best Actress , three Filmfare Awards and six Screen Awards including Best Picture and Best Director . Box Office India declared the film a Blockbuster after its fourth week .
= = Plot = =
Reshma ( Vidya Balan ) is running away from her house to Chennai , a day before her marriage . She is insulted by the casting director for being unattractive and useless after trying to get a role in a film . Determined to convince him she spontaneously grabs the role of a side dancer . However , she dances with whips and using erotic movements which annoys the film 's director , Abraham ( Emraan Hashmi ) . He edits out Reshma 's entire dance sequence from the film . The film fails at the box office much to the dismay of the producer Selva Ganesh ( Rajesh Sharma ) , who later offers Reshma a song in his upcoming film , and suggests that she now be referred to as " Silk " .
At the first shoot " Silk " dances with Suryakanth ( Naseeruddin Shah ) , her childhood idol . Silk seduces him by offering a long @-@ term sexual relationship . Meanwhile , Abraham proposes a new film to Selva Ganesh and is keen to cast Suryakanth . However , Suryakanth 's suggestion of adding spice and sex to make the film more commercially viable angers Abraham . Silk goes on to do many more erotic and sensual films with Suryakanth . She gains many male fans and within a short span of time , becomes immensely rich and popular as the Southern sex star .
Suryakanth 's younger brother Ramakanth ( Tusshar Kapoor ) is an admirer of Silk and tries to befriend her . Silk is happy that someone finally likes her for who she is and not just for her body . At an awards ceremony Silk is praised for her performance , but is also insulted by Suryakanth who tells her that she is nothing but everyone 's " dirty secret " . Silk announces that she will continue to make her " dirty pictures " , and that she has no qualms in doing so . She spends more time with Ramakanth and sensing their affair as a sensational news , noted journalist Naila ( Anju Mahendru ) criticises Silk for dating both brothers . Suryakanth drops Silk from his forthcoming films , forcing her to work with small @-@ time film makers . She loses interest in her work and begins to feel threatened by a younger aspiring actress , Shakeela . After a dance challenge she intentionally trips Shakeela , much to the embarrassment of Ramakanth who breaks up with her .
After being cheated twice in love and being rejected by her own mother , Silk turns to alcohol and chain smoking , and gains weight . Directors lose interest in casting her . Silk approaches Silva Ganesh with an offer to produce a film together . Ultimately , the audiences have lost interest to which her film bombs and she subsequently loses all her wealth and fame . On the other hand , Abraham directs a film which ultimately turns out to be a huge success , which convinces him that he has finally proven to Silk that his films do not need any sexual essence to be successful . Silk has accumulated so much debt that she approaches a small @-@ time film maker . She is shocked to find that he wants her to do a porn film , but he intoxicates her with a drink and starts filming . The place is soon raided by the police but Silk , manages to escape in time . Despite this Abraham begins to fall for Silk , even though he at first denies it . He manages to trace Silk 's mother and wants to surprise Silk the next morning . That night when he calls Silk , she asks him to bid goodbye to everyone on her behalf as she is going to sleep . Abraham rushes to her house , finding her lying in bed dead from a sleeping pill overdose along with a suicide note . In the end , Abraham 's narration ends that it is unknown whether Silk was right or wrong . It 's a mystery .
= = Cast = =
Vidya Balan as Reshma / Silk , the protaginist , a rebellious woman turned actress . She runs away from home at a young age in order to nurture her dream of becoming an actress . She is uninhibited in expressing her sexuality and has scandalous affairs with several men .
Naseeruddin Shah as Suryakanth , an ageing South Indian superstar . He is involved in various extramarital relationships and has a secret affair with a much younger Silk .
Tusshar Kapoor as Ramakanth , Suryakant 's brother and a writer for one of his forthcoming films . He is attracted to Silk , but unlike his brother is empathetic towards her .
Emraan Hashmi as Abraham , a film director and the narrator of the film . He dreams of making off @-@ beat films and is Silk 's biggest enemy . He is the main antagonist of the film .
Anju Mahendru as Naila , a journalist who writes scandalous articles about Silk , but secretively admires her courage .
Rajesh Sharma as Selva Ganesh / Keedadas , a producer of most of Silk 's films .
Imran Hasnee as film director Vijayan
Mangal Kenkre as Ratnamma , a confidante of Silk .
Arya Banerjee as Shakeela , a newcomer who compares her skills to Silk .
Mohit Sinha as Manorma magazine 's reporter at silk 's bathtub
Shivani Tanksale as Raadhika
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Ekta Kapoor launched the film with director Milan Luthria soon after their collaboration Once Upon a Time in Mumbaai became a hit . She said that The Dirty Picture would be India 's answer to the Academy Award nominated film Boogie Nights . Later in a press conference , Kapoor clarified that neither of Balaji 's forthcoming films , Ragini MMS nor The Dirty Picture , were " porn films " as they had been made out to be .
Kapoor has gone on record to add , " I would be surprised if I don 't get unbelievable critical acclaim for The Dirty Picture and a national award for my actress , Vidya Balan . The film has one of the most well @-@ written scripts I have come across and a lot of youngsters in my office have looked at it with great admiration . " She also pointed out that the purpose of the film was neither to justify nor criticise Smitha 's life , but for the audience to live her life . Additionally , all actors , including Balan and Shah attended workshops for almost two months before filming could begin , in order to familiarise themselves with the body language of their characters .
When screenwriter Rajat Aroraa initially started working , taking cues from producer Kapoor , the scope of the film was much smaller , primarily looking back to the soft @-@ pornography scene of the 1980s . But gradually as work progressed , the scope widened to include the controversial romances of Smitha through a fictionalised biopic . While researching for the film , director Luthria and screenwriter Aroraa found little material in film magazines of that period , as " women like Silk Smitha were often ignored by film magazines , except for gossip column mentions " . Thus they derived many of the details of her life from anecdotes and party gossips , and then fictionalised them . Apart from depicting the pomp of the Telugu / Tamil film industry , the screenplay also takes up issues such as money management by actors , " their string of broken relationships " , and the way they " led lonely lives and met with tragic ends " . For inspiration , instead of looking at South Indian films of the period , the team turned to the work of mainstream Bollywood directors like Manmohan Desai , Vijay Anand , Raj Kapoor , Feroz Khan and G.P. Sippy ; and in order to put the global soft @-@ porn industry in context , the team looked into Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) and The People vs. Larry Flynt ( 1996 ) . The final script became a " fictionalised , women @-@ oriented , generalised perspective on the 1980s film industry " .
= = = Casting = = =
After initial talks with actresses Kangana Ranaut and Bipasha Basu fell through , Vidya Balan was offered the lead role . When Balan was narrated the script and shown sketches of what she needed to wear for the portrayal , she felt uncomfortable . Luthria added , " We couldn 't have found anyone better than Vidya for this role . It 's a casting that very few would think is viable because it is going to be nothing like Vidya has done before . But I am confident she will push the envelope as far as she can " .
Regarding the criticism that Balan 's character might evoke , Luthria clarified , " I wanted Vidya to know that what she 's doing is not crass or crude but can be shown aesthetically in a sensual manner with a touch of class . What her character does , is not cheap . " As a reference point , he also asked Balan to study ' similar themed ' films such as Burlesque and Chicago . Balan also underwent salsa training to fine @-@ tune herself with Smitha 's languid body language .
Next , Naseeruddin Shah was cast as an ageing South Indian superstar with " hideous wigs , dark glasses and painted @-@ on mustaches " . He also performed a " fast dance number " in the film , a full 22 years after he last did it in the song " Tirchi Topiwale " from Tridev ( 1989 ) . Regarding his character , Ekta Kapoor stated , " This role requires him to play to the gallery , provoke claps , laughs , and whistles and I know he can pull it off because Naseer is the Shah of all actors " , while Luthria added , " Expect a man who unabashedly enjoys the flesh of women " .
Tusshar Kapoor and Emraan Hashmi were next cast in lead roles . While it was known that Tusshar Kapoor would play the role of a script @-@ writer and Smitha 's love interest , the nature of Hashmi 's role was unknown for a while . The casting received praise from trade pundits , with Taran Adarsh commenting , " Known for engaging in interesting and unconventional casting in all its previous releases , Balaji has again tackled the unheard of , by casting Emraan Hashmi and Vidya Balan – two of the most successful stars of today – opposite each other in The Dirty Picture . The perfect combination of mass and class promises to make this controversial film yet another winner from the Balaji stable . "
= = = Filming = = =
Filming was to begin on 21 May 2011 ; a week after the release of Kapoor 's Ragini MMS . But due to certain production delays , it began a week later . Balan , being a religious person , organised a puja on the sets before principal photography could begin .
The first leg of filming took place at Mumbai 's Film City where an elaborate set re @-@ creating Chennai ( then Madras ) of the 80s , was set up . The second schedule was shot in Ramoji Film City in Hyderabad . The song ' Ishq Sufiyana ' was shot at Bidar fort in Bidar , Karnataka . Filming was completed in September , before venturing into post @-@ production , ahead of the December release . Director Luthria wanted to depict a sense of discomfort between the film 's two lead characters , Balan and Hashmi , a " meeting of two completely different worlds " . So he didn 't allow them to interact and get comfortable with each other during film workshops ahead of the shoot . Since he considered them " the unlikeliest pair to come together " , he brought them together right into the shoot filming an important scene , where they had to insult each other . Though he was initially anxious , it all turned out well and he was surprised by the resulting chemistry .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first look of The Dirty Picture and a short teaser were launched online on 26 August 2011 . The enthusiastic response even prompted its producers to consider a sequel . The film 's trailer on YouTube got over 500 @,@ 000 hits in one day and a million hits in two days . Meanwhile , the theatrical trailer was launched on 30 August at a single screen cinema in Bandra . The space was especially decorated to recreate the retro era . Since the film is set in the 1980s , a time when multiplexes did not exist , the producers thought it would be fitting to show the première on a single screen . The lead stars of the film created publicity by organising a promotional campaign in the college festival of Mithibai College on 30 November .
As a part of the film promotion , actors Vidya Balan , Tusshar Kapoor and Emraan Hashmi made appearances on the popular TV show Bigg Boss ( Season 5 ) aired on Colors on 26 November 2011 . Balan also entered the house to spend some time with the housemates and present a red sari to Sunny Leone , as a present from her . Later , on 27 November 2011 , Balan and Hashmi made guest appearances on a special one @-@ hour episode of Sony Entertainment Television India 's popular daily soap Bade Achhe Lagte Hain . Balan shook leg to the song , " Ooh La La " with Saakshi Tanwar , the female lead actress of the soap .
= = Soundtrack = =
T @-@ Series acquired the music rights for The Dirty Picture . Vishal @-@ Shekhar composed four tracks for the film and Rajat Arora penned the lyrics for them . The first of the four tracks , entitled " Ooh La La " composed by Bappi Lahiri was released on the internet on 19 October 2011 .
Tracklist
= = = Reception = = =
Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama gave the music an overall rating of 4 out of five saying , " Music of The Dirty Picture takes the expected route and delivers what it promised " and chose Ooh La La and Ishq Sufiyana as picks from the album . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the album a rating of 2 and a half out of 5 , and said the opening track of The Dirty Picture is the album 's only star .
= = Release and reception = =
The film released worldwide on 2 December 2011 , coinciding with the 51st birth anniversary of South Indian film siren Silk Smitha . Nationally , the film released on 1766 screens and on 120 screens abroad . The satellite rights of the film were sold to Sony Entertainment Television for ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) and another ₹ 20 million ( US $ 300 @,@ 000 ) from music rights deal with T @-@ Series . Raveena Tandon 's husband , Anil Thadani acquired the distributor rights of the film for ₹ 191 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon release , the film received mostly positive reviews from critics . The Times of India gave the film 4 out of 5 stars , concluding that " The Dirty Picture is definitely not only your film for the week , but is a seminal work that will be studied in feminist discourses . " Komal Nahta of Koimoi.com gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and said , " The Dirty Picture is a wonderful film and will do extraordinary business . " Kaveree Bamzai of India Today gave the film 4 out of 5 stars , and extolled Balan 's performance , calling it " riveting " . Dainik Bhaskar gave the film 3 and half stars out of 5 , concluding , " Overall , a big thumbs up to The Dirty Picture , which is in its truest meaning , an entertainer . Highly recommended ! " Raja Sen from Rediff.com gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and said " The Dirty Picture forsakes much potential nuance in its urge to please crowds but is still far more engaging than most Bollywood produce . " Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the film 3 out of 5 stars , highlighting that " In terms of creativity , it 's a middling effort . But where bravado is concerned , The Dirty Picture kicks ass by virtue of three very strong reasons : Vidya Balan . Vidya Balan . Vidya Balan . " Kunal Guha of Yahoo ! India gave the movie 3 stars out of 5 , and said , " Clearly , Rajat Aroraa 's winning dialogues will make you sit up and say , " She [ Balan ] didn 't just say that ? ! "
= = Box office = =
The film opened strong , with 60 – 65 % collections on average at multiplexes and had the 5th biggest opening of 2011 . The opening was best in and around the Maharashtra area , with 80 % and 75 % openings respectively . The film was declared a Blockbuster by Box office India after its fourth week and ended with a lifetime gross of around ₹ 850 million ( US $ 13 million ) .
= = = India = = =
On the first day , the Hindi version grossed around ₹ 88 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) nett , while the Telugu version collected around ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) . The film grossed ₹ 107 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) nett on Saturday and ₹ 123 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 8 million ) nett on Sunday , taking the first weekend nett collection at ₹ 322 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 8 million ) from all versions ( Hindi , Tamil , Telugu ) . The Dirty Picture sustained well on Monday by collecting ₹ 50 million ( US $ 740 @,@ 000 ) nett , with total collection netting at ₹ 342 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) . Due to a public holiday on Tuesday owing to Muharram celebrations , collection jumped to ₹ 57 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 850 @,@ 000 ) nett , and hence taking the total 5 days collection to ₹ 400 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 9 million ) nett . By the end of the first week , the film netted a total of around ₹ 500 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 4 million ) , in the process became the biggest opening ever for a women @-@ oriented film in the history of Indian Cinema .
The Dirty Picture sustained well in the second week . The film grossed ₹ 25 million ( US $ 370 @,@ 000 ) nett on its second Friday while ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) nett on Saturday , with major collections coming from Maharashtra area . It collected ₹ 115 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) nett on its second weekend . 25 weeks after its release , The Dirty Picture continued to have a successful run in theaters ; the film celebrated its silver jubilee at Relief Cinema in Ahmedabad , Gujarat . The film grossed around ₹ 850 million ( US $ 13 million ) in India with its Hindi version grossing ₹ 797 @.@ 6 million ( US $ 12 million ) domestic nett . The Dirty Picture was highest grossing Bollywood film with an ' A ' ( Adults only ) certificate in India , before the record was broken by Grand Masti in 2013 .
= = = Overseas = = =
Internationally , the film released in the UAE , UK , Canada , United States , Mauritius , Malaysia , Singapore , Kenya , Tanzania , Indonesia , South Africa , Australia , New Zealand , Fiji and Hong Kong . Its nett opening altogether in these territories was approximately ₹ 35 million ( US $ 520 @,@ 000 ) . In UAE , on Thursday alone , the film grossed ₹ 4 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 64 @,@ 000 ) .
= = Television broadcast = =
The Indian television premiere of The Dirty Picture was set to be telecast on Sony Entertainment Television on 22 April 2012 at 12 noon and 8 pm IST . The Nagpur bench of the Bombay High Court allowed the TV channel to go ahead with the scheduled telecast after the Central Board of Film Certification had cleared the film with 56 cuts , 36 of which were done by the producers , while other cuts were suggested by the Certification Board . The film had to go through these cuts as the telecast of an adult @-@ rated film during prime time in India is a violation of the Cable TV Network Rules , 1994 and the Cable TV Networks ( Regulation ) Act , 1995 . Following this process , Sony Entertainment Television promoted the scheduled telecast . However , on the scheduled day , the film was not telecast , with the channel putting up a message stating , " For unavoidable reasons we regret to inform that The Dirty Picture will not be telecast today . Any inconvenience caused is deeply regretted . " The Information and Broadcast Ministry informed the TV channel that it can air the film only after prime time , that 's post 11 pm .
= = Accolades = =
The Dirty Picture received numerous awards and nominations from major award shows in India and abroad . The majority of these were won by Vidya Balan in the Best Actress category for her performance . The other achievements include those of costume design , dialogue , make @-@ up , playback singing and choreography .
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= Richard Barrons =
General Sir Richard Lawson Barrons KCB , CBE , ADC Gen ( born 17 May 1959 ) is a retired British Army officer . He was Commander Joint Forces Command from April 2013 until his retirement in April 2016 .
Barrons ' early career was spent in various staff and field posts in the UK , across Europe , and in the Far East . He also spent time working at the Ministry of Defence and in education . Sent to Germany in 1991 , Barrons then served his first tour of duty in the Balkans in 1993 . Returning to the UK , Barrons took up a staff position and went on to do a tour in Northern Ireland and then to become a Military Assistant , first to the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina and then to the Chief of the General Staff . Between 2000 and 2003 , Barrons served again in the Balkans , in Afghanistan during the early days of International Security Assistance Force , and then in a staff position in Basra , Iraq .
As a brigadier in 2003 , Barrons served his second tour in Northern Ireland , this time as a brigade commander . In 2005 , he was appointed to Assistant Chief of Staff , Commitments , a senior staff position . He was promoted to major general in 2008 and deployed to Iraq for the second time , this time to Baghdad , with responsibility for joint operations . He then served briefly with the NATO Allied Rapid Reaction Corps before being sent to Afghanistan for the second time , when he headed an ISAF reintegration unit to provide incentives for Taliban soldiers to surrender . He later became Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff ( Operations ) .
= = Military career = =
Barrons was commissioned as a second lieutenant ( on probation ) ( university cadetship ) into the Royal Regiment of Artillery on 2 September 1977 . He studied Philosophy , Politics and Economics at The Queen 's College , Oxford , and completed his university cadetship , becoming a full @-@ time army officer on 21 June 1980 . His commission was confirmed in 1981 , with seniority from 17 May 1977 and he was promoted to lieutenant with seniority from 17 May 1979 . Between 1980 and 1990 , he served in various positions across Europe and the Far East as well as in a staff position at the Ministry of Defence in London . He was promoted to captain on 19 November 1983 @.@ and took a master 's degree in Defence Administration in 1990 , after which he attended the British Army 's Staff College , Camberley , in 1991 .
Barrons ' first field officer promotion was to major in September 1991 . He was sent to Germany to take up a position as chief of staff , 11 Armoured Brigade , which then deployed to the Balkans in 1993 . Barrons then served briefly as Balkans desk officer at the Directorate of Military Operations and before becoming battery commander of B Battery , 1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery from 1994 – 1996 , which included a tour of duty in Northern Ireland . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 30 June 1997 . After promotion , he served again in Bosnia , as Military Assistant ( MA ) to the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina and then , back in the UK , as MA to the Chief of the General Staff .
He went on to command 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery , headquartered in Hohne Germany , with which he deployed to the Balkans again in 2001 . At the end of 2001 , Barrons was appointed chief of staff of the 3rd ( United Kingdom ) Division and immediately deployed to Afghanistan , where the division assisted in establishing the International Security Assistance Force . After serving in Afghanistan , Barrons returned to the UK to attend the Higher Command and Staff Course , before promotion to colonel in June 2002 . Barrons ' next deployment was to Iraq in 2003 as chief of staff , Multinational Division ( South East ) , stationed in Basra .
= = = High command = = =
Barrons was promoted to brigadier on 31 December 2003 , with seniority from 30 June 2003 . Upon promotion , he was posted to Northern Ireland , commanding 39 Infantry Brigade in Belfast , a position he held for two years . After Northern Ireland , he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff , Commitments in 2005 , with day @-@ today responsibility for British Army operations .
Barrons attained general officer status in 2008 , when he was promoted to the substantive rank of major general and appointed Deputy Commanding General , Multi @-@ National Corps – Iraq . He was posted to Baghdad , where he had responsibility for overseeing joint operations conducted by the multinational force and the Iraqi Army . Having served in Iraq , he returned to the UK to take up a staff post in April 2009 as chief of staff to the NATO Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , but the appointment was short @-@ lived as , in October 2009 , he deployed to Afghanistan at short notice to establish a force reintegration unit , part of an effort to persuade Taliban fighters to rejoin society by offering alternatives to fighting , such as jobs and training — a role for which he was hand @-@ picked by American General Stanley A. McChrystal , then commander of all troops in Afghanistan . Barrons defended the controversial scheme in interviews , saying that it was not " about buying insurgents off the battlefield " and that " the idea is that you get the whole community benefiting and turning against the insurgency " . In a later interview , Barrons also said " I am absolutely convinced it can be done , and that the time is right . This is an opportunity the Afghan people aren 't going to get again . Most of them realize that , and are keen to take it now " .
Barrons ' position , as of February 2011 , was as Assistant Chief of the General Staff . In May 2011 he became Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff ( Operations ) in the rank of lieutenant general . On 24 January 2013 it was announced that he was to be appointed Commander Joint Forces Command in April 2013 . As of 2015 , Barrons was paid a salary of between £ 175 @,@ 000 and £ 179 @,@ 999 by the department , making him one of the 328 most highly paid people in the British public sector at that time . In April 2016 , he handed over command of Joint Forces Command to General Sir Christopher Deverell .
= = Other work = =
Barrons co @-@ authored a book , The Business General : Transform your business using seven secrets of military success , published by Random House , with Deborah Tom in 2006 . He has also lectured as a guest speaker , including at the University of Oxford . As of 2010 , Barrons was chairman of Firepower – The Royal Artillery Museum .
In May 2013 , he was appointed Colonel Commandant of the Honourable Artillery Company .
= = Personal life = =
Barrons is married with two daughters .
= = Honours and decorations = =
Barrons was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in 1993 " in recognition of service during operations in the former Republic of Yugoslavia " , and was promoted to Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2000 New Year Honours . On 29 April 2003 , he was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) " in recognition of gallant and distinguished services in Afghanistan during the period 1 April 2002 to 30 September 2002 " . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) in the 2013 Birthday Honours .
In 2004 , Barrons was awarded his first Queen 's Commendation for Valuable Service for services in Iraq the previous year , his second coming in 2006 in recognition of his service in Northern Ireland in 2005 . He was also awarded the United States Legion of Merit ( Degree of Officer ) " in recognition of gallant and distinguished services during coalition operations in Iraq " .
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= Harry Kane =
Harry Edward Kane ( born 28 July 1993 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a forward for Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur and the England national team .
Kane made his senior debut for Tottenham on 25 August 2011 in a UEFA Europa League match against Hearts . Before establishing himself in Tottenham 's first team , he spent time on loan in League One playing for Leyton Orient , in the Championship playing for Millwall and Leicester City and in the Premier League for Norwich City . He became a regular starter and goalscorer for Tottenham in the 2014 – 15 season , winning the Premier League Player of the Month award twice , for January and February 2015 . With 31 goals across the campaign , 21 of which were in the league , he was also named the PFA Young Player of the Year . Kane finished top scorer of the 2015 – 16 Premier League season with 25 goals , and aided Tottenham in qualifying for the UEFA Champions League .
Kane represented England at youth levels , playing for the under @-@ 17 , -19 , -20 and -21 levels . He scored on his senior international debut on 27 March 2015 and was selected for UEFA Euro 2016 .
= = Early and personal life = =
Harry Kane was born to Kim and Pat Kane and has one older brother , Charlie . He grew up in Chingford and attended Chingford Foundation School . Kane recalls of his childhood :
In an interview given in February 2015 , Kane said that he was in a relationship with Katie Goodland , whom he has known since childhood . He told Esquire magazine " We went to school together , so she ’ s seen my whole career . Of course , she ’ s finding it a little crazy . I think she ’ s even been in the papers a couple of times taking the dogs out " . They have two labrador dogs Brady and Wilson , named after NFL quarterbacks Tom Brady and Russell Wilson . In July 2016 , Kane and Goodland announced that their first child would be due in early 2017 .
He is good friends with former Tottenham player David Bentley . Kane does not drink alcohol or go to nightclubs , preferring to use his free time to play golf . Ahead of UEFA Euro 2016 , Kane featured in advertisements for Mars Bars and Beats by Dr. Dre headphones , the latter alongside Antoine Griezmann , Mario Götze and Cesc Fàbregas .
= = Club career = =
= = = Tottenham Hotspur = = =
= = = = Beginnings = = = =
Kane was born in Chingford , London . He is of Irish descent through his father who is from Galway . After playing for local club Ridgeway Rovers , he joined the Arsenal youth academy when he was eight years old , and was released after one season ; manager Arsène Wenger stated in November 2015 that he was disappointed that Arsenal chose to release Kane . He returned back to his old club , only to be signed by Watford academy with whom he spent two seasons before joining Tottenham Hotspur . In the 2008 – 09 season , he played in the under @-@ 16s side that competed in the Copa Chivas tournament in Mexico , and the Bellinzona tournament in Switzerland , scoring three goals . In July 2009 , upon turning 16 , he signed a scholarship contract with Tottenham .
In the 2009 – 10 season , Kane played 22 times for Tottenham ’ s under @-@ 18s , scoring 18 goals . He signed his first professional contract with the club in July 2010 . Kane appeared on the first @-@ team bench twice during the 2009 – 10 season . Both matches were in home domestic cup victories : one the League Cup fixture against Everton on 27 October 2009 and the other in the FA Cup fourth @-@ round replay against Bolton Wanderers on 24 February 2010 .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
On 7 January 2011 , Kane moved to Leyton Orient on loan until the end of the 2010 – 11 season . Manager Russell Slade was " happy " at his arrival and said " I 'm sure he will have an impact with us over the coming months " . He made his senior debut for Orient on 15 January , coming on as a substitute for Scott McGleish in the 73rd minute of a 1 – 1 draw at Rochdale . A week later , Kane scored his first senior goal against Sheffield Wednesday ; making his first ever start , " unmarked " Kane scored from a Dean Cox freekick in the 57th minute as Orient eventually won 4 – 0 . Slade said that he was " delighted " that Kane scored a goal on his first league start . On 12 February , he scored twice in a 4 – 1 win over Bristol Rovers , after coming on as a substitute for McGleish in the 70th minute . He ended the season scoring five goals in 18 matches .
= = = = 2011 – 12 season = = = =
On 25 August 2011 , Kane made his first appearance for Tottenham , starting in the second leg of their UEFA Europa League qualification round against Hearts , with Tottenham making changes after winning the first leg 5 – 0 . His debut was a goalless match , although he won a penalty after being fouled by goalkeeper Jamie MacDonald , who then saved the penalty which Kane took himself . He went on to make six appearances in the Europa League that season , scoring his first Tottenham goal in the 4 – 0 win at Shamrock Rovers on 15 December 2011 .
On 29 December 2011 , Kane and Tottenham teammate Ryan Mason agreed to join Championship club Millwall on loan from 1 January 2012 until the end of the season . After making his debut against Bristol Rovers , manager Kenny Jackett said that though he had " very good debut " but " unlucky not to score " . He also said that Kane would " be a good addition " for the club in the second half of the season . This prediction became true as he scored seven goals in the final 14 matches of the season . Kane scored nine goals in 27 matches which resulted in him being named Millwall ’ s Young Player of the Season 2011 – 12 .
= = = = 2012 – 13 season = = = =
Kane spent pre @-@ season with Tottenham , scoring a hat @-@ trick in a 6 – 0 away win against Southend United on 10 August 2012 . On 18 August , he made his Premier League debut , against Newcastle United . Coming as a 86th minute substitute for Sandro , Tottenham lost the match 2 – 1 .
On 31 August 2012 , Kane joined Premier League team Norwich City on a season @-@ long loan , making his debut as a substitute against West Ham United . Kane suffered an injury , breaking a metatarsal bone , in the League Cup tie against Doncaster Rovers in only his second appearance . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old underwent his rehabilitation at Tottenham but returned to action for Norwich on 29 December 2012 . However , with Tottenham having been unable to add to their attacking options during the January transfer window , they opted to recall Kane on 1 February 2013 , four months before he was due to return .
Twenty days after he was recalled to Tottenham , Kane joined Leicester City for the remainder of the season to aid in the club 's push for automatic promotion from the Championship . He marked his home debut with a goal against Blackburn Rovers , in a 3 – 0 win on 26 February 2013 . He made 13 appearances for the East Midlands club , eight from the bench , and they reached the playoff semi @-@ finals before being eliminated by Watford .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
Kane scored his first Tottenham goal at White Hart Lane in a League Cup tie against Hull City , scoring the equaliser in extra time , the match finished 2 – 2 . Tottenham won 8 – 7 on penalties , with Kane taking and converting the fifth of the nine sets of spot @-@ kicks .
On 7 April 2014 , Kane was given his first Premier league start for Tottenham , in a 5 – 1 win against Sunderland , and scored his first Premier League goal in the 59th minute of the match . He also scored in the following match , helping Tottenham to recover from a 3 – 0 deficit against West Bromwich Albion before eventually drawing 3 – 3 . He scored for the third match in a row on 19 April , this time helping Tottenham to a 3 – 1 win at home over London rivals Fulham .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Kane made his first appearance of the 2014 – 15 season as a substitute against West Ham United on the opening day of the Premier League season , providing an assist for the match @-@ winning goal by Eric Dier .
He scored in both match against Cypriot opposition AEL Limassol in Tottenham 's UEFA Europa League play @-@ offs , scoring an 80th @-@ minute winner in the first leg , and opening the scoring in the 3 – 0 second leg victory after missing a penalty . He scored a late goal against Nottingham Forest in the League Cup to secure a 3 – 1 victory for Tottenham on 24 September 2014 . On 23 October 2014 , Kane scored his first professional hat @-@ trick for Tottenham in a 5 – 1 win over Asteras Tripoli in the group stage of the UEFA Europa League . Kane was forced to play in goal for the final three minutes of the match , after Hugo Lloris had been sent off with no substitutions remaining , and conceded a goal when he dropped a free @-@ kick from Jerónimo Barrales .
He came on as a second @-@ half substitute in Tottenham 's 2 – 1 win over Aston Villa on 2 November 2014 , and scored the winning goal in the 90th minute . He scored again in Tottenham 's 2 – 1 win over Hull City shortly afterwards , pouncing on the rebound from an Eriksen free kick to equalise . On 1 January 2015 , Kane scored twice and won a penalty as Tottenham defeated league leaders Chelsea 5 – 3 , and he scored a further two in a 3 – 0 away win against West Bromwich Albion on 31 January , including one from a penalty . Kane set up Christian Eriksen 's late equaliser against Sheffield United on 28 January 2015 , a goal which put Tottenham into the 2015 League Cup Final . His performances led to him being named as the Premier League Player of the Month for January 2015 .
On 2 February 2015 , he signed a new five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with the club . Five days later , he scored both of Tottenham 's goals as they came from behind to defeat Arsenal in the North London derby , his 21st and 22nd goals of the season across all competitions . After scoring against Arsenal , Liverpool and West Ham United , Kane was again named as the Premier League Player of the Month for February 2015 , becoming only the fourth player to win the award in consecutive months . Tottenham lost the League Cup Final 2 – 0 to rivals Chelsea on 1 March 2015 , which Kane described as the " worst feeling in the world " . Twenty days later , he scored his first Premier League hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 3 home win over his former loan club Leicester ; this brought him to 19 league goals in the season , making him the division 's top scorer .
On 5 April , Kane captained Tottenham for the first time in a 0 – 0 draw with Burnley at Turf Moor . Two weeks later , he scored his 30th goal of the season in a 3 – 1 win against Newcastle United at St James ' Park , making him the first Tottenham player to reach that milestone since Gary Lineker in 1991 – 92 . Later that month , he was included as one of two forwards in the PFA Team of the Year , alongside Chelsea 's Diego Costa . He was also voted the PFA Young Player of the Year . On 24 May 2015 , he headed in an Eric Dier cross for the only goal of an away win at Everton on the final day of the season to confirm fifth place for Tottenham , thus qualifying them to the group stage of the following season 's UEFA Europa League . It was his 21st goal of the league campaign , equalling a Premier League club record alongside Teddy Sheringham , Jürgen Klinsmann and Gareth Bale . At the end of the season , Kane remarked that he had done more in the single campaign than he had expected to do in his whole career .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
On Tottenham 's pre @-@ season tour of Australia , Kane attracted numerous fans while visiting the Westfield Sydney shopping centre , resulting in the club sending a minibus to escort him away . On 29 July 2015 , Tottenham were the guests in the 2015 MLS All @-@ Star Game at Dick 's Sporting Goods Park in Colorado . They lost 2 – 1 to the MLS All @-@ Stars , with Kane scoring their consolation goal in the 37th minute after beating a challenge from Omar Gonzalez , and he was later substituted to a standing ovation .
Kane 's squad number was changed from 18 to 10 , previously worn by Emmanuel Adebayor . In an interview to The Daily Telegraph , he said that he changed the number " to become a club legend " . With Adebayor and Roberto Soldado having been put up for sale , he began the season as the club 's only forward , and the third @-@ choice captain behind Lloris and Jan Vertonghen . After a 748 @-@ minute drought , he scored his first goal of the season on 26 September 2015 as Tottenham came from behind to defeat leaders Manchester City 4 – 1 . Eight days later , he scored an own goal from Jonjo Shelvey 's corner kick away to Swansea City , but Tottenham fought back to a 2 – 2 draw .
On 25 October 2015 , Kane scored a hat @-@ trick , including a penalty which he won himself , as Tottenham came from conceding a first @-@ minute goal to triumph 5 – 1 away to Bournemouth at Dean Court . Eight days later , he recorded his fifth goal of the season with the final goal in a 3 – 1 win at home to Aston Villa . On 8 November 2015 , he gave Tottenham a half @-@ time lead against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium , albeit in a 1 – 1 draw ; this goal past Petr Čech was from his first touch of Danny Rose 's long pass .
Eighteen days after that , he recorded his ninth goal in six matches , the only one of an away match at Qarabağ FK , qualifying Tottenham to the knockout stages of the season 's UEFA Europa League . On 19 December 2015 , Kane made his 100th appearance for the club in a 2 – 0 win away to Southampton , and scored his 10th goal in his last 10 matches . A week later , he added two more in a 3 – 0 win over former loan employers Norwich , putting him on 27 Premier League goals for the year 2015 , breaking Sheringham 's club record . On 10 January 2016 , he scored his 50th goal for Tottenham in a 2 – 2 draw against Leicester City in the third round of the FA Cup .
Kane was Premier League Player of the Month for the third time in March 2016 , after scoring five goals in four games , including one in the North London derby . After scoring his 22nd league goal of the season in a 1 – 1 draw against Liverpool at Anfield on 2 April , Kane became the club 's highest goalscorer in a single Premier League season , with six games of the season remaining .
Kane ended the season winning the Premier League Golden Boot , finishing one goal ahead of Sergio Agüero and Jamie Vardy with 25 goals . He was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the second consecutive season , as he helped Tottenham to a third @-@ place finish , and UEFA Champions League qualification .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth teams = = =
In January 2010 , Kane was called up to play for the England under @-@ 17 team for the Algarve Tournament in Portugal . Kane missed the 2010 UEFA European Under @-@ 17 Championship due to illness , with England going on to win the tournament in his absence . He later moved up to the under @-@ 19s and scored twice in a 6 – 1 victory over Albania on 8 October 2010 . Kane played a large role in the England under @-@ 19s progression to the semi @-@ finals of the 2012 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Championship in Estonia . Kane scored the winner against France in the final group stage match to ensure the team a safe passage through to the semi @-@ finals . In total Kane appeared 14 times for England U19s and contributed 6 goals during that period .
On 28 May 2013 , he was named in manager Peter Taylor 's 21 @-@ man squad for the 2013 FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup . He made his debut on 16 June , in a 3 – 0 win in a warm @-@ up match against Uruguay . He assisted Luke Williams ' goal in the opening group @-@ stage match on 23 June 2013 against Iraq . He then scored in the following match against Chile , collecting a pass after work by Ross Barkley and firing in from the edge of the penalty area .
On 13 August 2013 , Kane made his debut for the under @-@ 21s against Scotland . In that match , he came on as a substitute in the 58th minute , and England won 6 – 0 . On 10 October , he scored a hat @-@ trick for England under @-@ 21s against San Marino during 2015 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification . He continued to score prolifically , with his brace against France marking 13 goals in 12 matches for the under @-@ 21s .
Kane was named in the England under @-@ 21 squad for the 2015 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship in the Czech Republic , despite opposition from his club manager Mauricio Pochettino . He played every minute of England 's campaign at the tournament , which ended with them eliminated in last place in their group .
= = = Senior team = = =
Kane was also eligible for the Republic of Ireland through his father , who was born in Galway , but in August 2014 he ruled out switching allegiance , saying that he wanted to break into the England senior team .
After a good run of form with Tottenham and being the third top goal scorer in the Premier League just behind Diego Costa and Sergio Agüero with 16 goals on 19 March 2015 , Kane was named by manager Roy Hodgson in the England squad to face Lithuania in a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match and Italy in a friendly . He made his international debut at Wembley Stadium , replacing Wayne Rooney in the second half of the match against Lithuania , and scoring just 80 seconds later with a header from a Raheem Sterling cross . On 30 March 2015 , the day before the Italy match , Hodgson announced that Kane would start alongside Rooney , and he played the full 90 minutes of the 1 – 1 draw at Juventus Stadium .
In his next appearance on 5 September 2015 , substitute Kane scored the fifth of England 's six goals in a win over San Marino which qualified them for UEFA Euro 2016 . Kane scored his third England goal against Switzerland in another qualifier three days later , which they won 2 – 0 . On 12 October 2015 , as England finished their qualification campaign with a 10th win from 10 matches , Kane 's shot hit the post for an own goal by Lithuanian goalkeeper Giedrius Arlauskis in a 3 – 0 away victory .
On 22 May 2016 , Kane opened a 2 – 1 friendly win over Turkey at the City of Manchester Stadium , but later missed a penalty . He was the first England player to fail to score from the penalty spot during a game since Frank Lampard in 2010 , and the first to miss the target since Peter Crouch in 2006 . At the European Championship in France that June , Kane was assigned to take corner kicks , a tactic which was criticised by pundits , but defended by Hodgson who said that Kane was the best for the role .
= = Style of play = =
= = = Development = = =
Kane 's former youth coach Alex Inglethorpe has said of him :
When he first came into the under @-@ 18s as a 15 year old , he stood out in the sense he looked a bit gangly . He moved slightly awkwardly , he was a bit cumbersome . But look closer , he had a lot of ability , a great technique . I think he surprised people how good he was . Tactically he was very flexible . He often played in midfield . I remember seeing him once playing as a holding midfielder .
While a teenager , Kane initially struggled in Tottenham 's academy , as partially due to his date of birth in July , he was not as physically developed as other players , nor was he as quick . However , he gained the respect of coaches with his technique and desire for self @-@ improvement .
When profiling Kane in February 2013 , Talksport said that he was best as a second striker , despite also having ability as a centre forward or in a wide position . They wrote that he preferred to place his shots , although he could also score from distance . The report also noted that he had good pace , but was weak in the air and had not scored on his loan at Norwich . Initially a back @-@ up to £ 26 million Spanish import Roberto Soldado and frequently loaned out , Kane was eventually made Tottenham 's starting forward by manager Mauricio Pochettino .
= = = Analysis = = =
Former Tottenham manager David Pleat described Kane as an " old @-@ fashioned traditional centre @-@ forward " . Clive Allen , who coached him at Tottenham , stated that " one thing I 'd say about him , which unfortunately you don 't say about a lot of young footballers , is that he had a passion for the game . He loves football , he loves playing , he loves scoring goals " . His former Tottenham under @-@ 21 coach Les Ferdinand likened Kane 's movement to their former forward Teddy Sheringham , and the power and accuracy of his shots to Alan Shearer .
Kane 's style of play has been compared to that of former Tottenham forward Jürgen Klinsmann , a comparison Kane called flattering in February 2015 . In March 2015 , Football Association chairman Greg Dyke named Kane as the benchmark for clubs producing young English players . Shearer said that month that the three best strikers playing in the league were Kane , Diego Costa and Sergio Agüero . In November 2015 , a writer for the Daily Mail theorised that Kane could be the striker in a spine of Tottenham players in the England team , alongside Eric Dier and Dele Alli .
After Tottenham 's victory over Chelsea in January 2015 , blogger Chris Miller wrote " Nobody thought he was the guy who was going to give that performance against Chelsea " . In February 2015 , BBC Sport wrote that Kane was best as a lone striker , with his " hold @-@ up play and close control " making him apt in other positions as well . Also that month , Match of the Day pundit Danny Murphy said that the England team should be built around Kane , stating " I 'm struggling to see a weakness in the lad 's game " .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 15 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 27 June 2016 .
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 27 June 2016 . England score listed first , score column indicates score after each Kane goal .
= = Honours = =
Individual
Millwall Young Player of the Season : 2011 – 12
Premier League Player of the Month : January 2015 , February 2015 , March 2016
Goal of the Month ( England ) : January 2015
Premier League PFA Team of the Year : 2014 – 15 , 2015 – 16
PFA Young Player of the Year : 2014 – 15
Premier League Golden Boot : 2015 – 16
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= Sebastian Shaw ( actor ) =
Sebastian Lewis Shaw ( 29 May 1905 – 23 December 1994 ) was an English actor , director , novelist , playwright and poet . During his 65 @-@ year career , he appeared in dozens of stage performances and more than 40 film and television productions .
Shaw was born and brought up in Holt , Norfolk , and made his acting debut at age eight at a London theatre . He studied acting at Gresham 's School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art . Although he worked primarily on the London stage , he made his Broadway debut in 1929 , when he played one of the two murderers in Rope 's End . He appeared in his first film , Caste , in 1930 and quickly began to create a name for himself in films . He described himself as a " rotten actor " as a youth and said his success was primarily due to his good looks . He claimed to mature as a performer only after returning from service in the Royal Air Force during World War II .
Shaw was particularly known for his performances in productions of Shakespeare plays which were considered daring and ahead of their time . In 1966 , he joined the Royal Shakespeare Company , where he remained for a decade and delivered some of his most acclaimed performances . He also wrote several poems and a novel , The Christening , in 1975 . He is also known for his brief but important performance in Return of the Jedi , the original third installment in the Star Wars franchise , in which he portrayed an unmasked Darth Vader and Anakin Skywalker 's ghost in the original version of the film .
= = Early life and career = =
Shaw was one of three children born to Dr. Geoffrey Shaw , the music master at Gresham 's School , a Norfolk independent boarding school , where Shaw began his education . His uncle , Martin Shaw , was a composer of church music , and his family 's love of music heavily influenced Shaw 's career path . Shaw made his acting debut at age eight on the London stage as one of the juvenile band in The Cockyolly Bird at the Royal Court Theatre in Chelsea on New Year 's Day of 1914 . During his time at Gresham 's , he also played Petruchio in The Taming of the Shrew , his first of many performances from the works of William Shakespeare ; schoolmate W. H. Auden , who would go on to become a highly regarded poet , portrayed Katherina in the play opposite him . After Gresham 's , Shaw planned to become a painter and spent two years at the Slade School of Fine Art before switching his interests to acting ; regarding the change , his father informed him , " I wondered when you would come to your senses . " He earned a scholarship to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in Bloomsbury , London . Actor Charles Laughton enrolled in the Academy at the same time as Shaw , who later said his first impression of Laughton was " a poor fat boy " . Although Shaw and his fellow students initially felt pity for Laughton , they were quickly impressed with his talent .
Shaw appeared in regional theatres in Bristol , Liverpool and Hull . In 1925 , he performed in London as the Archangel in The Sign of the Sun , and played first Lewis Dodd and then the Major in separate productions of The Constant Nymph . He received instruction in verse speaking under famed theatre director William Bridges @-@ Adams in the Stratford Festival Company at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon , where he played some of his early Shakespeare roles , including Romeo in Romeo and Juliet , Ferdinand in The Tempest and Prince Hal in Henry IV in 1926 . He was criticised for the audacity he displayed in the latter role . When Prince Hal takes on his kingship and rejects the self @-@ indulgent character Falstaff , convention of the day called for Prince Hal to change from a jovial drinking partner to an arrogant snob , but Shaw saw the view as simple @-@ minded and contradictory toward Shakespeare 's script . Instead , he displayed inward regrets about leaving Falstaff and accepting the new responsibilities . The interpretation was criticised at the time but , years later , became the standard approach to the character .
Shaw made his Broadway debut in 1929 , when he played the murderer Wyndham Brandon in Patrick Hamilton 's stage thriller , Rope 's End . In 1929 , he married Margaret Delamere and lived with her in the Albany , an apartment complex off of Piccadilly in London . The two would eventually have a daughter together named Drusilla ( born 1932 ) . He returned to the works of William Shakespeare in 1931 , playing Claudio in Measure for Measure at London 's Fortune Playhouse . In 1932 he once again played Romeo at the Embassy Theatre . Other works around this period included productions of Ivor Novello 's Sunshine Sisters in 1933 , Double Door alongside actress Sybil Thorndike in 1934 , J.M. Barrie 's A Kiss for Cinderella in 1937 , and Robert Morley 's Goodness , How Sad in 1938 .
The first film Shaw appeared in was Caste in 1930 . He soon began to make a name for himself in films such as Brewster 's Millions in 1935 , Men Are Not Gods in 1936 and Farewell Again in 1937 . He was making about £ 300 a week during this stage of his career , a significant sum higher than the salary of the British Prime Minister of the time . He brought what the Daily Telegraph described as a " smooth villainy " to the role of Frank Sutton in The Squeaker in 1937 , while in 1939 he played the hero Cmdr. David Blacklock alongside Conrad Veidt and Valerie Hobson in The Spy in Black , Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger 's first collaboration . Shaw described himself as a film buff and called Academy Award @-@ winning actor Spencer Tracy his " great god of all screen actors " ; he was so impressed by Tracy 's technique that he claimed to become depressed while watching his films because Tracy made acting look simple , while Shaw claimed to find it so difficult to master himself .
= = World War II and post @-@ war career = =
When World War II broke out , Shaw took a break from acting and joined the Royal Air Force . He was commissioned as an Acting @-@ Pilot Officer on probation in the Administrative and Special Duties Branch on 25 April 1941 and over the next three months was promoted to Pilot Officer on probation , then Flying Officer and then Flight Lieutenant . According to his obituary in the Guardian , he saw little action in the service and was told the only chance he would have to fly would be as a rear gunner . Some of his fellow airmen hounded Shaw for autographs while others mocked his posh accent , to which he retaliated with an excellent and unflattering imitation of their less refined speech . He continued to hold a Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve commission after the war until he resigned the commission on 10 February 1954 ; he was permitted to retain his rank .
Immediately upon returning to London after the war , Shaw lost his Albany flat and his acting contract , and essentially had to restart his acting career . Although he made 20 films before the war and had already begun to develop a reputation as a strong leading man , in later years he would describe himself as " a rotten actor " in the 1930s who landed roles based mainly on his good looks . He used the phrase " a piece of cinema beefcake " to describe himself as an actor during that period . He felt that after his return home from military service , he learned to act properly and began to mature as a performer . Shaw 's Royal Air Force experience was put to good use when he played a pilot in Journey Together , the 1946 RAF training film in which actor Edward G. Robinson coached actor Richard Attenborough in the rudiments of flying .
In 1945 , Shaw returned to the Embassy Theatre to direct Fyodor Dostoevsky 's The Gambler . Significant theatre roles that decade included Hercules in The Thracian Horses at the Lyric Theatre , Hammersmith in 1946 , Mr. Hern @-@ Lawrence in Florida Scott @-@ Maxwell 's experimental I Said to Myself at the Mercury Theatre , Notting Hill Gate in 1947 , Sir James Kirkham in His Excellency at Prince 's Theatre in 1950 , and Filmer Jesson , MP , in Arthur Wing Pinero 's His House In Order at New Theatre in 1951 . In 1956 , he played the title role in the first British production of Hugo von Hofmannsthal 's Everyman . That same year , he wrote the lyrics to his father 's ballad @-@ opera , All at Sea , which played at the Royal College of Music . In 1957 , he played Lucifer in Brother Lucifer in Shrewsbury , Shropshire , and a sinister Venetian agent in Jonathan Griffin 's The Hidden King in Edinburgh .
As Shaw grew older , his reputation as a dramatic actor grew stronger , and he became known for a sharp intelligence and dignified style . Although his good looks diminished , reviewers felt that he used his florid and weatherbeaten face well in evoking grandeur and self @-@ assuredness in such roles as generals , priests and his familiar Shakespearean parts . In 1956 , his wife Margaret Delamere died ; she was survived by their daughter Drusilla . Shaw began a romantic relationship in the mid @-@ 1950s with Joan Ingpen , the well @-@ known classical music and opera talent agent who had previously represented him . The two were romantically involved , to the point that she took his surname , until Shaw 's death . During the 1980s , however , Shaw also had a brief relationship with Harriet Ravenscroft , the mother of the disc jockey John Peel , whom he met while performing at Ludlow Castle at Ludlow . He split his time between Ingpen and Ravenscroft on a four @-@ day rotating basis to which both women consented . Although Peel got along with Shaw and said he made his mother happy , he said he did not feel comfortable with the arrangement . He felt it disrupted his mother 's friendships and prospects for a more stable relationship .
In 1965 , British theatre director William Gaskill was named artistic director of the Royal Court Theatre , where he hoped to re @-@ establish a repertoire . He approached Shaw , who had made his acting début at the Royal Court Theatre as a youth , and Shaw agreed to return . There he delivered several performances over the next year , including General Conrad von Hotzendorf in John Osborne 's A Patriot for Me ; various roles in Ann Jellicoe 's Shelley ; Sir Francis Harker in N.F. Simpson 's The Cresta Run and Pte Atterclife in John Arden 's Serjeant Musgrave 's Dance .
= = Royal Shakespeare Company = =
In 1966 , Shaw joined the Royal Shakespeare Company , where he spent the next decade of his career and eventually became an associate artist . He mostly appeared in Shakespeare plays , including the title role in Cymbeline , Edmund of Langley in Richard II , the King in All 's Well That Ends Well , Ulysses in Troilus and Cressida , and Leonato in Much Ado About Nothing . The Times described his performance in the title role of Cymbeline as " awe @-@ inspiring " , and The Independent described his performance as Polonius in Hamlet as " unrivalled in his complacency and sense of circumstance " . The Telegraph described his performance of Gloucester in King Lear as " doleful " and his performance of Duncan in Macbeth as " decent " . Many of the company 's Shakespearean productions at the time were considered interpretive and modern , which drew criticism from some traditionalists , but Shaw defended the experimental nature of the shows and rejected the notion that plays should be restricted to preconceived interpretations .
During his time with the company , he also demonstrated what the Daily Telegraph called a " crusty charm " as Sir Oblong Fitz Oblong in Robert Bolt 's children 's play The Thwarting of Baron Bolligrew . He was also noted as possessing a gift for dry comedy during this period of his acting career , exemplified by his roles in Maxim Gorky 's plays Enemies and Summerfolk . He demonstrated a particular knack for Russian comedy in Jonathan Miller 's productions of the Anton Chekhov plays Three Sisters and Ivanov .
In 1978 , Shaw earned acclaim for his performance as a judge in the stage debut of Whose Life Is It Anyway ? at the Mermaid Theatre . The production won Laurence Olivier Awards for Best Play and Best Actor ( Tom Conti ) . Although 73 years old , Shaw did not let his age slow down his career . During the run of this production a mugger tried to steal his money , but Shaw chased him down , tackled him and recovered his property . Later that year , he was painted in the nude by his nephew , Brian Ocean . During his later years , Shaw suffered a physical disability that made him tremble , which had a negative impact on his television roles , particularly when handling cups or trays of drinks . One of his later television appearances was in The Old Curiosity Shop , a 1979 mini @-@ series based on the novel by Charles Dickens . Around this time , he also voiced the part of Squire Beltham in a radio production of The Adventures of Harry Richmond , which the Daily Telegraph said was " remembered with affection " . He lent his voice to several radio performances , both Shakespearean and modern , including protagonist John Tanner in the five @-@ hour Man and Superman by George Bernard Shaw .
= = Writing career = =
Shaw wrote Take a Life , his first play , in 1961 . He directed a production of the show at London 's Mermaid Theatre , where he also played the lead role of the Detective . That same year he played two lead roles in George Bernard Shaw plays at the Dublin Theatre Festival : Mrs. Warren 's Profession and Candida . Around this time , he also wrote an outline for a television comedy series about four girls sharing a flat , inspired by his real @-@ life daughter , who was in her early twenties and living in a flat with other girls her age . The series was submitted to the Granada Television company , which expressed interest in the show and said it was one of two under consideration for television . The company ultimately chose the other show , the long @-@ running British soap opera Coronation Street .
Shaw agreed to take certain roles only on the condition that he have complete freedom to rewrite his dialogue . When he appeared in It Happened Here , a 1966 World War II film , he wrote many of his own lines , which the filmmakers later said " gave his dialogue an individual slant which enhanced his performance " . He also helped in other aspects of the filmmaking , including casting ; he introduced the filmmakers to Fiona Leland , who would be cast as Shaw 's wife in It Happened Here . He wrote other plays , including The Ship 's Bell , The Cliff Walk , The Glass Maze and Cul de Sac . He also wrote Poems , a collection of his personal poetry , which saw a limited print of 300 editions by publisher Exeter University .
Shaw wrote The Christening , his only novel , in 1975 . It centres around Miles Madgwick , who believes that he is bisexual but is too timid to find out through physical intercourse , so he instead describes his most intimate thoughts in his diary . He then meets a married woman named Alice and her son , Rodney ; he comes to identify with Rodney 's childhood innocence , and in Alice sees a symbol both of his mother and a heterosexual lover . Alice starts to tire of her husband and grow fonder of Madgwick , who experiences mixed emotions in his continued interactions with her and Rodney . One night , Rodney stays overnight at Madgwick 's house and , when he takes the boy home in a taxicab , the driver observes their strange behaviour and accuses Madgwick of being a pederast . When Alice asks Madgwick to become the godfather to her new child , the driver threatens to expose Madgwick , creating a conflict between losing his first feelings of intimacy with others or facing humiliation and ridicule at the driver 's exposure .
A description in the book cover flap reads , " In this tender , sensitive and blackly comic novel , Sebastian Shaw , the distinguished Shakespearean actor , explores areas of sexual and emotional encounter that are rarely seen and , unfortunately , too rarely understood . " Shaw originally planned to call the novel The Godfather , but later said he was glad he did not due to the popularity of Mario Puzo 's book of that name . He was said to have been working on another novel shortly after The Christening was completed , but no others were ever published .
= = Return of the Jedi = =
In 1982 , Shaw was chosen for the small but crucial role of redeemed Anakin Skywalker in Return of the Jedi , the third and final film in the original Star Wars trilogy . Although David Prowse played the costumed scenes and James Earl Jones voiced Darth Vader , just as they had in the first two films , Shaw was cast in a single scene with Mark Hamill , during the moment aboard Death Star II when Luke Skywalker unmasks his dying father . Since the scene was unquestionably the emotional climax of the film , the casting crew sought an experienced actor for the role .
When Shaw arrived at the set for filming , he ran into his friend Ian McDiarmid , the actor playing Emperor Palpatine . When McDiarmid asked him what he was doing there , Shaw responded , " I don 't know , dear boy , I think it 's something to do with science @-@ fiction . " His presence during the filming was kept secret from all but the minimum cast and crew , and Shaw was contractually obliged not to discuss any film secrets with anyone , even his family . The unmasking scene , directed by Richard Marquand , was filmed in one day and required only a few takes , with no alteration from the original dialogue . When the film was re @-@ released on DVD in 2004 , a few changes were made : the unmasking scene with Hamill remained mostly the same , but Shaw 's eyebrows were digitally removed to tie in with the injuries Anakin Skywalker suffers at the end of Revenge of the Sith . Shaw 's eyes were also digitally coloured to look like those of Hayden Christensen , the actor who played Anakin in Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith .
Star Wars creator George Lucas personally directed Shaw for his appearance in the final scene of the film , in which he is a Force Ghost of Anakin . Shaw 's image in this scene was replaced with that of Christensen in the 2004 release . This last attempt to tie the prequel and original trilogies together proved to be possibly the most controversial change in the Star Wars re @-@ releases .
Although Shaw 's unmasking scene lasted only two minutes and seven seconds and included just 24 words of dialogue spoken by Shaw , he received more fan mail and autograph requests from Return of the Jedi than he had for any role in the rest of his career . He later reflected that he very much enjoyed his experience filming for Return of the Jedi and expressed particular surprise that an action figure was made of him from the film .
= = Later career and death = =
Shaw remained active in his later years ; along with fellow Royal Shakespeare Company actors Ian Richardson , John Nettles , Martin Best and Ann Firbank , he engaged in discussions and workshops with acting teachers and students in the early 1980s . Although appearances in films became far less common in his later career , he received much acclaim for his performance as the Cold War spy Sharp in Clare Peploe 's High Season at the New York Film Festival in 1987 ; The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune said Shaw played the role with " endearing , sweet gravity " . One of his last performances was in the Christmas season of 1988 and 1989 , when he played the wizard in a stage production of The Wizard of Oz at the Barbican Centre . The Times said audiences were " delighted to recognise his honeyed threats from behind the great carapace that disguised the Wizard of Oz " . Shaw became an honorary life @-@ member at the Garrick Club , which included such past members as writers Charles Dickens , J.M. Barrie , Kingsley Amis and A.A. Milne ; artists Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais ; and composer Edward Elgar .
Shaw died of natural causes on 23 December 1994 at age 89 in Brighton , Sussex , England . A memorial service was held 15 February 1995 at St Paul 's , Covent Garden , commonly known as the Actors ' Church due to its long association with the theatre community . Actors Ian Richardson and Ben Kingsley read works by William Shakespeare , stage actress Estelle Kohler read How Do I Love Thee ? by Victorian poetess Elizabeth Barrett Browning , actress Sheila Allen read Life by Welsh poet George Herbert and actor Kenneth Branagh read from the works of Canon Henry Scott Holland . One of Shaw 's own poems , Gemini , was also read . Baritone Stephen Varcoe sang Wie bist du meine Königin by Johannes Brahms , accompanied by Graham Johnson on the piano , and guitarist Martin Best performed and sang his composition of Ariel 's Songs from The Tempest . Shaw was survived by his partner Joan Ingpen , daughter Drusilla MacLeod , sisters Susan Bonner @-@ Morgan and Penelope Harness , and sister @-@ in @-@ law Olga Young .
= = TV and filmography = =
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= 1850 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1850 Atlantic hurricane season was the most recent season excluded from the scope of the official Atlantic hurricane database . Although meteorological records are sparse and generally incomplete , they indicate that three significant tropical cyclones affected land , each causing some degree of damage . The first system struck North Carolina on July 18 , causing significant damage before battering the Mid @-@ Atlantic states with high tides , strong winds , and heavy rainfall . Torrential rainfall caused river flooding from Baltimore to Philadelphia , particularly along the Schuylkill River , which took the lives of 20 people in various incidents . Strong winds damaged property and public facilities in and around New York City , and damaging floods extended into central and northern New England . Crops and railroad infrastructure suffered throughout the entire region .
On August 22 , a strong hurricane impacted Havana , Cuba , destroying fruit trees and disrupting shipping , before making landfall on the Florida Panhandle with an enormous storm surge . Coastal flooding was severe around Apalachicola , and as the storm moved inland , it generated destructive winds across the southeastern United States . Abundant precipitation fell from Georgia through Virginia , causing extensive flooding ; one river swelled over 20 feet ( 6 m ) above its normal height . The storm blew down crops and trees along its course , and toppled a large railroad bridge near Halifax , North Carolina . Offshore , a pilot boat collided with a larger ship in the rough seas and sank . Considered the worst storm in nearly 30 years in the tidewater region of Virginia , the cyclone briefly reentered the Atlantic off New Jersey before making landfall over New England . Strong winds and moderate to heavy rains plagued much of New England on August 24 and 25 .
On September 7 and 8 , a hurricane brushed the coastline from New York to Cape Cod with gusty winds and appreciable rainfall , and left many ships in distress . The system later struck Atlantic Canada , likely causing " great loss of property and lives " , though damage reports were limited . Fragmented records exist of other hurricanes , including two which remained over open seas in early September and the middle of October .
= = Season summary = =
Attempts to catalog Atlantic hurricanes in the first half of the 19th century began as early as 1855 , when Andrés Poey compiled information on just over 400 tropical cyclones from 1493 to 1855 . However , Poey listed only three of the five or more hurricanes that developed in 1850 . In his 1963 book , Early American Hurricanes , 1492 – 1870 , weather researcher David M. Ludlum discusses , in greater detail , three significant tropical cyclones that impacted the United States in 1850 . Unusually , all three heavily impacted the northeastern states ; Ludlum compares the season to 1954 , in which three major tropical systems impacted the Eastern Seaboard . More traditional hurricane targets , such as Florida , were spared the brunt of seasonal tropical cyclone activity in 1850 , while the atmosphere farther north was abnormally tropical . Newark , New Jersey , had its warmest — and one of its rainiest — summers on record at the time , owing to frequent nearby hurricanes and the influx of tropical air . Meteorological reports pertinent to the season were largely lost in a Smithsonian Institution fire in 1856 , limiting what is known about hurricane activity in 1850 . As the season falls outside the scope of the Atlantic hurricane database ( 1851 onward ) and its associated reanalysis project , records are regarded as incomplete . Extant accounts of the storms in 1850 are chiefly based on private weather records and press reports , and only approximate storm tracks are known .
= = Storms = =
= = = Mid @-@ July = = =
The first documented hurricane in 1850 originated in the Caribbean Sea , where it wrecked dozens of ships along the Windward Islands on July 11 and 12 . On July 18 , the storm struck North Carolina from the south as a hurricane of at least Category 1 intensity ( on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ) and proceeded northward . Although the exact point of landfall is unknown , the system is believed to have moved ashore south of Cape Hatteras . Ships just off the state 's coast battled three days of hurricane conditions from July 15 to July 18 . Onshore , " great damage " occurred from Wilmington to Elizabeth City .
Intense wave action churned the Chesapeake Bay , while storm @-@ heightened tides up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal flooded wharves and coastal communities . The Baltimore area endured persistent gale @-@ force winds accompanied by torrential rainfall . As streams and rivers swelled above their banks , cellars and streets became inundated by floodwaters . Many trees were blown down and numerous poorly built or unfinished buildings were destroyed . The storm cut telegraph communications between Baltimore and surrounding areas . In the countryside , low @-@ lying hay fields were flooded and most of the corn crop was decimated . At Bladensburg , Maryland , a train station and locomotive were washed into an adjacent flooded waterway . Arrivals of ships into port were delayed by the storm , which one captain held to be the worst he had ever observed , and some vessels incurred extensive damage .
The storm 's effects quickly spread northward . Winds at Philadelphia began to increase in the morning on July 18 , becoming severe by the evening hours . Air pressure fell to 993 millibars ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) early on July 19 as the hurricane 's center passed to the west , and the city received more than 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of rainfall . The storm wrought significant damage throughout the city , including to trees , signs , and structures . A number of houses were demolished , and many more — including a large brick building near Rittenhouse Square — suffered damage . Major freshwater flooding was observed in the area , especially along the Schuylkill River , which rapidly rose to its highest level since 1838 . A large quantity of lumber was swept away , and several docks were submerged . Their " worst apprehensions realized " , hundreds of residents worked hurriedly to mitigate damage from the flooding . Bridges over the river at Phoenixville were washed away , resulting in the deaths of four individuals . A lock of a dam upstream of Phoenixville gave way , destroying a boat and killing its occupants . Four men and a child reportedly drowned on the river 's banks near Conshohocken . Railways were covered with up to 3 feet of water in low @-@ lying spots . Numerous small craft capsized on the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers . Overall , 20 people died in various storm @-@ related tragedies along the Schuylkill .
The hurricane took a heavy toll on agriculture in the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Rampant flooding outside Philadelphia destroyed fruit orchards , and in nearby Burlington , New Jersey , strong winds and heavy rainfall inflicted significant damage to crops on the night of July 18 , leaving entire fields of corn blown down . The Delaware River burst its banks at Burlington , inundating nearby lowlands . Notable flooding also took place along the Lehigh River . Telegraph lines north of Philadelphia were crippled , limiting communications in the storm 's aftermath . Throughout the region , downed trees blocked railways .
Hurricane @-@ force gusts buffeted Newark , New Jersey , and rainfall exceeded a weather observer 's rain gauge capacity of 4 @.@ 75 in ( 121 mm ) . Strong winds imperiled New York City late on July 18 into the next morning ; there was widespread tree damage , with branches and leaves littering the ground , and many specimens uprooted or snapped . The storm ruined awnings and tore metal roofs off several buildings . Some ships in New York Harbor were ripped from their anchors and blown aground ; further east , multiple coaster vessels were wrecked along the coast of Long Island . The winds and storm tides destroyed bath houses and other facilities at Coney Island .
As the storm tracked northward through central New York State , it produced high southeasterly winds and heavy rainfall across most of New England . At Fort Trumbull along the coast of Connecticut , heavy rainfall starting early on July 19 accumulated to 3 @.@ 24 in ( 82 mm ) . At Hartford , flooding caused about $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1850 USD ) in losses . Southeasterly winds peaked at tropical storm @-@ force . Damage to property and crops was confined to western New England , leaving areas such as eastern Massachusetts unscathed . Less substantial rain was reported at Providence , amounting to 1 in ( 25 mm ) . The rain shield extended into far @-@ northern New England , producing 5 in ( 130 mm ) of precipitation at Montpelier , Vermont , and 3 @.@ 23 in ( 82 mm ) at Burlington . The resultant flooding was in some cases the greatest in recent memory .
= = = Late August = = =
A tropical system first observed near Barbados on August 16 proceeded to affect the Windward Islands before yielding hurricane conditions at Ponce , Puerto Rico , on August 20 . Two days later , the hurricane tracked over western Cuba , causing severe weather conditions around Havana . The storm destroyed large swaths of banana and plantain trees , and all vessels in Havana Harbor dragged anchors at the height of the hurricane .
The storm moved north over the eastern Gulf of Mexico , striking the Florida Panhandle between Pensacola and Panama City on August 23 . Extremely high tides bombarded the Apalachicola area , resulting in extensive coastal flooding . The hurricane destroyed wharves and left many ships damaged or foundered . Sea water intrusion inundated warehouses and streets in Apalachicola , and one street was made impassable by strewn debris and fallen trees . Farther east , a bridge over the Wakulla River was washed away by raging floodwaters . A long period of high winds was reported at the state 's capital city of Tallahassee . The storm produced some strong winds in interior Georgia on its way to the Carolinas . The destruction of homes , crops , and trees was reported from Griffin through Augusta . Adverse conditions extended westward to Montgomery , Alabama , where the night of August 23 was marked by high winds and heavy rainfall .
Southeasterly gales had a large impact on shipping interests off North Carolina . Several vessels were imperiled ; in one case a pilot boat capsized after colliding with another ship . In light of this incident , the hurricane is listed in the National Hurricane Center 's contemporary compilation of tropical cyclones that " may have " caused at least 25 fatalities . The storm grounded the schooner H. Wescott near Cape Fear .
Gales were reported from Savannah , Georgia , to Wilmington , North Carolina . Near Halifax , North Carolina , the winds toppled a railroad bridge about 450 ft ( 140 m ) long and 60 ft ( 20 m ) high . The storm also ravaged farmland in the area , destroying crops , fences , trees , and structures , and injuring several people . Much damage was reported in the Raleigh area , and many trees in New Bern suffered at least some limb breakage ; several large trees were fully uprooted . The local corn crop — already diminished from the July hurricane — was judged completely lost , though property damage was negligible . Offshore winds from the storm created a negative storm surge on the Neuse River , leaving docks dry for a time . Torrential rains over a large area from Georgia to Virginia triggered severe river flooding . The Dan River , which flows through North Carolina and Virginia , swelled 20 ft ( 6 m ) , amplified to 40 ft ( 12 m ) above normal in narrow channels . In the Carolinas , mills , dams , and roads were washed out , and losses in central North Carolina alone totaled an estimated $ 7 million .
Gale @-@ force winds lashed the tidewater region of Virginia in what was considered the worst storm on the lower Chesapeake Bay since the 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane . A ship called the Osceola lost its wheelhouse to the winds , while onshore , the storm razed crops and a few small structures such as barns and outhouses . Affecting many of the same areas as the July hurricane , the cyclone downed trees in and around Baltimore and caused street flooding in Washington , D.C. , where a railroad bridge was swept away . The storm began to influence the weather at Philadelphia on the night of August 24 . Strong winds out of the north and northeast at Philadelphia and Newark , New Jersey , suggest the center moved off the New Jersey coast and reemerged into the Atlantic . In addition to the gales , more than 3 in ( 75 mm ) of rain fell on Newark on August 25 .
Winds at New London , Connecticut , and Providence , Rhode Island , veered from southeast to south , then west , so the storm center likely tracked somewhere over Connecticut . The storm adversely affected shipping on the Long Island Sound , and heavy rain fell across much of New England . Fort Trumbull recorded 4 @.@ 43 in ( 113 mm ) of rain , while 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) fell at Providence ; the deluge triggered flash flooding , though few details are known about the extent of the damage .
= = = Early September = = =
The third and final widely documented hurricane to affect the U.S. East Coast in 1850 remained predominately offshore , but still impacted ships and coastal cities on September 7 and 8 . A vessel about 140 mi ( 230 km ) east of Atlantic City , New Jersey , intercepted the hurricane 's center and recorded a pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) on the night of September 7 . Numerous ships near the Delaware coast were stricken . Gusty winds snapped tree branches in New York City , while Newark received 2 @.@ 6 in ( 66 mm ) of rain as the hurricane brushed the region . The system probably continued toward the northeast , passing south of Nantucket , Massachusetts . There , gale @-@ force winds initially blew out of the southeast before shifting to north midday on September 8 . Similarly , Cape Cod experienced blustery conditions accompanied by heavy rainfall , though damage in eastern New England was generally inconsequential . Providence , Rhode Island , received 2 in ( 51 mm ) of rain .
The storm later affected the Canadian Maritimes , causing heavy disruption in Nova Scotia . Downed telegraph wires in the region delayed damage reports until repairs were completed . The cyclone " undoubtedly caused great loss of property and lives along the coast " , according to a report from the telegraph office at Halifax .
= = = Other storms = = =
A strong squall swept across Matagorda Bay in southeastern Texas on June 27 . High winds ripped a ship from its anchor and drove it aground , and at least one other vessel suffered structural damage . Although it is included in the Weather Prediction Center 's publication , Texas Hurricane History , little is known about the nature of the storm .
Shipping data indicates a hurricane formed near Cape Verde on September 2 and tracked northward into the northeastern Atlantic over the next week . Andrés Poey listed this system as two distinct cyclones , later confirmed by Chenoweth ( 2006 ) to be a single storm .
A final hurricane is believed to have existed over the central Atlantic in mid @-@ October , moving from near 24 @.@ 5 ° N , 47 ° W to 25 @.@ 5 ° N , 41 ° W over the course of four days .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
Barnes , Jay ( 2007 ) . Florida 's Hurricane History . Chapel Hill Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 3068 @-@ 2 .
Chenoweth , Michael ( May 2006 ) . " A Reassessment of Historical Atlantic Basin Tropical Cyclone Activity , 1700 – 1855 " ( PDF ) . Climate Change ( National Hurricane Center ) 76 ( 1 ) . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 .
Ludlum , David McWilliams ( 1963 ) . Early American hurricanes , 1492 – 1870 . American Meteorological Society .
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= Ed Jovanovski =
Edward Jovanovski ( born June 26 , 1976 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman . He was born in Windsor , Ontario , and is of Macedonian descent .
Jovanovski played major junior ice hockey for two seasons with the Windsor Spitfires of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) , earning First All @-@ Star , Second All @-@ Star and All @-@ Rookie Team honours . He was then selected first overall in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft by the Florida Panthers . During his rookie NHL season , he earned All @-@ Rookie Team honours and helped the Panthers advance to the Stanley Cup Finals , where they lost to the Colorado Avalanche . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons in Florida , Jovanovski was traded to the Vancouver Canucks in a seven @-@ player deal involving Pavel Bure . During his tenure with Vancouver , he was awarded the Babe Pratt Trophy as the team 's best defenceman three consecutive years . He also led the club 's defencemen in scoring four consecutive years . In July 2006 , Jovanovski became an unrestricted free agent and signed with the Phoenix Coyotes . He led the team 's defencemen in scoring during his first three years with the club . Known as a two @-@ way defenceman , he has recorded three 40 @-@ point and one 50 @-@ point season in the NHL .
Internationally , Jovanovski plays for the Canadian national team . A one @-@ time Winter Olympian , he won a gold medal at the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City . At the under @-@ 20 level , he won gold at the 1995 World Junior Championship . He went on to play in four Men 's World Championships , winning silver in 2005 and 2008 . He also represented Canada at the 2004 World Cup , playing in one game due to injury in the championship @-@ winning tournament .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Major junior ( 1993 – 95 ) = = =
After playing bantam and Junior B in his hometown of Windsor , Jovanovski joined the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) with the Windsor Spitfires . In his rookie season with the Spitfires , Jovanovski led all team defencemen in scoring , with 50 points in 62 games . In addition to being voted as the Emms Division 's top bodychecker by League coaches , he was named to the OHL 's All @-@ Rookie and Second All @-@ Star Teams . That off @-@ season , Jovanovski was selected first overall by the Florida Panthers in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft . He admitted to being surprised at the top selection , as he had not been ranked first at any point in his draft @-@ eligible season . Czech prospect Radek Bonk was ranked first overall by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau , but Panthers President Bill Torrey preferred to select a defenceman over a forward .
Following the Draft , the 1994 – 95 NHL season was suspended for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half months due to a labour dispute between NHL players and owners . Consequently , Jovanovski remained in junior for the beginning of the 1994 – 95 OHL season . When NHL was set to resume play in January 1995 , it was speculated that the Panthers might sign Jovanovski and call him up to the NHL . However , then @-@ Panthers General Manager Bryan Murray announced that Jovanovski would remain with Windsor , citing that he would likely not receive much playing time with the club . He averaged approximately 40 minutes per game with Windsor that season , scoring 23 goals and 65 points over 50 contests . He also added nine points in nine playoff games before Windsor was eliminated . Jovanovski was named to the OHL First All @-@ Star Team .
While still with the Spitfires , Jovanovski was charged with sexual assault , along with two of his teammates . The charges were eventually dropped after his lawyer threatened the alleged victim with a lawsuit .
= = = Florida Panthers ( 1995 – 1999 ) = = =
Following his second major junior season , Jovanovski signed a four @-@ year , $ 5 @.@ 7 million contract with the Panthers in June 1995 . Playing with the club during the subsequent pre @-@ season , he broke his right hand during a fight with Hartford Whalers forward Brendan Shanahan . The injury caused him to miss the first 11 games of the season . After recovering , he scored his first career NHL goal against the Whalers on December 2 , 1995 , a game @-@ winner in a 5 – 3 victory . He finished his rookie season with 10 goals and 21 points over 70 games . During the regular season , he was encouraged by Panthers management to play more conservatively than he was used to in the OHL , focusing on defensive positioning .
Ranking fourth in the Eastern Conference going into the 1996 playoffs , Jovanovski helped the Panthers advance to the Stanley Cup Finals . He scored his first career Stanley Cup playoff goal in Game 2 of the first round against Boston Bruins goaltender Craig Billington . Facing the Colorado Avalanche in the Finals , the Panthers were defeated in four @-@ straight games . Jovanovski contributed a goal and nine points in 22 post @-@ season games . It would be his only Stanley Cup Finals appearance . In the off @-@ season , he was named to the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team . He was also nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the League 's rookie of the year , alongside Chicago Blackhawks forward Éric Dazé and Ottawa Senators forward Daniel Alfredsson , who ultimately won the award .
On November 23 , 1996 , Jovanovski received a three @-@ game suspension from the NHL without pay . In a game against the Dallas Stars the previous night , he illegally left the penalty box ready to fight any opposing players during a break in play . Later in the season , he suffered a knee injury during a game against the Edmonton Oilers in January 1997 , sidelining him for several weeks . The following month , he was involved in an on @-@ ice altercation with San Jose Sharks forward Bernie Nicholls , resulting in a two @-@ game suspension and the maximum $ 1 @,@ 000 fine for Nicholls for intent to injure . The accumulated injuries and suspensions caused Jovanovski to miss 21 games in his second NHL season . He scored seven goals and 23 points over 61 contests .
In 1997 – 98 , Jovanovski appeared in 81 games , recording nine goals and 23 points . With his contract set to expire following the 1998 – 99 season , Jovanovski was beginning to be seen as a disappointment in Florida , failing to improve on his successful rookie year .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 1999 – 2006 ) = = =
On January 17 , 1999 , after three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons with the Panthers , Jovanovski was traded in a seven @-@ player deal to the Vancouver Canucks . He was sent with Dave Gagner , Mike Brown , Kevin Weekes and a first @-@ round draft pick in 2000 ( Nathan Smith ) in exchange for Pavel Bure , Bret Hedican , Brad Ference and a third @-@ round pick in 2000 ( Robert Fried ) . Joining the Canucks in the midst of a rebuilding period for the franchise , Jovanovski quickly established himself as a top defenceman in Vancouver 's lineup . His ability to join the rush as a defenceman complemented the Canucks ' up @-@ tempo style of play .
A month following his trade , Jovanovski suffered a broken foot while blocking a shot in a game against the New Jersey Devils on February 9 , 1999 . Later in the season , he was involved in an altercation with Montreal Canadiens forward Shayne Corson . After being high @-@ sticked in the face by Corson , the two players were sent off the ice , at which point Corson entered the Canucks ' dressing room to verbally confront Jovanovski . According to Corson , the feud stemmed from comments Jovanovski had said about his family . As a result of entering the Canucks ' dressing room , the Canadiens forward was later suspended five games by the NHL , in addition to one game for the high @-@ sticking infraction . In 31 games with the Canucks that season , Jovanovski recorded two goals and 11 points . Combined with his games played with the Panthers , he totalled 27 points in 72 games .
In his first full season with Vancouver , Jovanovski tallied five goals and 26 points ( first among team defencemen ) over 75 games . He also ranked second among team defencemen in average ice time per game , behind only Mattias Öhlund . The following season , in 2000 – 01 , he led all team defencemen with 12 goals and 47 points over 79 games . He was then named to his first of three consecutive NHL All @-@ Star Games in 2001 . At the end of the season , he also earned his first of three consecutive Babe Pratt Trophies , awarded annually to the Canucks ' fan @-@ voted best defenceman . Jovanovski 's offensive emergence helped the Canucks return to the playoffs after a six @-@ year absence . It also marked Jovanovski 's first playoff season since 1997 .
In 2001 – 02 , Jovanovski scored a career @-@ high 17 goals , ranking second amongst all NHL defencemen . His 48 points ranked sixth among NHL defencemen and was his highest total as a Canuck . The Canucks finished as the eighth seed in the Western Conference for the second consecutive season , and were eliminated by the Detroit Red Wings in the opening round of the 2002 playoffs . Jovanovski contributed a goal and five points in six post @-@ season games .
Midway through the following season , he was re @-@ signed by the Canucks to a three @-@ year contract extension on January 27 , 2003 . The day after signing , he injured his foot , sidelining him for 14 games . Despite his season being shortened by injury , he recorded a career @-@ high 40 assists to go with six goals in 2002 – 03 . His 46 points ranked tenth overall in the League amongst defencemen , and it marked the fourth consecutive year he led Canucks defencemen in scoring . Jovanovski added eight points in 14 post @-@ season games before the Canucks were eliminated in the second round by the Minnesota Wild . His seven goals led all League defencemen in playoff scoring .
Midway through the 2003 – 04 season , Jovanovski suffered a third @-@ degree shoulder separation during a game against the Nashville Predators on January 25 , 2004 . Colliding with opposing forward Martin Erat , he fell to ice and slid into the rink boards . He returned late in the season to help the Canucks secure the Northwest Division title . In 56 games , he scored seven goals and 23 points . Adding four assists in seven 2004 playoff games , the Canucks were defeated in the first round by the Calgary Flames .
Due to the NHL lockout , as well as rib and knee injuries sustained during the 2004 World Cup , Jovanovski was inactive during the 2004 – 05 season . When the NHL resumed play in 2005 – 06 , Jovanovski was on pace for a career year , but his season was interrupted by groin , foot and abdominal injuries . He finished with 33 points in 44 games for a career @-@ high 0 @.@ 75 points @-@ per @-@ game average . The Canucks suffered from Jovanovski missing the final 27 games of the season and did not qualify for the 2006 playoffs . Following the 2005 – 06 season , Jovanovski did not receive a contract offer from the Canucks , subsequently becoming an unrestricted free agent . The decision to let him go was influenced by the re @-@ signings of Daniel and Henrik Sedin , as well as the acquisition of goaltender Roberto Luongo , leaving no room on the team 's salary cap to retain Jovanovski .
= = = Phoenix Coyotes ( 2006 – 2011 ) = = =
On July 1 , 2006 , Jovanovski joined the Phoenix Coyotes , signing a five @-@ year , $ 32 @.@ 5 million contract . Having received a contract offer from the Panthers , he was speculated to return to Florida , where he spent his summers . He cited being coached by Wayne Gretzky as a strong factor for choosing Phoenix . Jovanovski was named to his fourth NHL All @-@ Star Game in the subsequent season , but continued to be plagued with injuries . He missed the last 22 games of the 2006 – 07 regular season with an abdominal injury , limiting him to 29 points ( first among Coyotes defencemen ) in 54 games . The Coyotes finished last in the Western Conference with 31 wins and 67 points .
In 2007 – 08 , Jovanovski recorded a career @-@ high 51 points ( 12 goals and 39 assists ) , which tied for tenth among League defencemen and led all Coyotes defencemen . It was also the second @-@ highest total for a defenceman in Coyotes history after Oleg Tverdovsky 's 55 @-@ point year in 1996 – 97 . Jovanovski 's career season included a one @-@ game suspension on December 1 , 2007 , for a hit to the head of Minnesota Wild forward Marián Gáborík . Jovanovski also appeared in his second consecutive All @-@ Star Game in 2008 . The team continued to struggle , however , as they ranked 12th in the West , eight points out of a 2008 playoff spot . The following season , Jovanovski 's offensive production dipped to 36 points in 82 games . Although it was his lowest total since his third season with the Panthers in 1997 – 98 ( not including seasons with major injuries ) , he still led all Coyotes defencemen in scoring for the third consecutive year . On a team basis , he missed the playoffs with Phoenix for the third @-@ straight year , as they finished 13th in the West .
Early in the 2009 – 10 season , Jovanovski missed ten games with a lower @-@ body injury in November and December 2009 . Shortly after returning to the Coyotes lineup , he was suspended for two games by the NHL for a hit to the head of Minnesota Wild forward Andrew Ebbett with his forearm on December 7 , 2009 . The following month , he received another two @-@ game suspension for elbowing New York Islanders rookie forward John Tavares in the head . Over 66 games during the season , he notched 10 goals and 34 points . He was overtaken as the team 's top @-@ scoring defenceman by Keith Yandle , who had scored 41 points . While the season was marked with an uncertain future for the Coyotes from a business perspective , as the franchise had filed for bankruptcy in May 2009 and was taken over by the NHL , the team performed well and recorded their best season in history . With 50 wins and 107 points ( a 28 @-@ point improval from the previous season ) , they finished with the third best record in the West and came within five points of a Pacific Division and Conference title , trailing only the San Jose Sharks . Facing the Detroit Red Wings in the opening round , the Coyotes were eliminated in seven games . Jovanovski had one goal and no assists in his first NHL playoffs since 2004 .
In the first month of the 2010 – 11 season , Jovanovski was chosen to serve in place of the suspended Shane Doan as team captain from October 21 to 25 , 2010 . Over a week later , he recorded his first career NHL hat @-@ trick in a 4 – 3 win against the Nashville Predators on November 3 . He scored all three goals against goaltender Pekka Rinne , becoming the first Coyotes defenceman to score a hat @-@ trick in team history . On December 26 , he became the 256th player in NHL history to play 1 @,@ 000 career games , reaching the feat against the Dallas Stars . Jovanovski struggled with injuries throughout the season , missing time on six different occasions . His most serious injury was an orbital bone fracture after his face collided with an opposing player 's helmet in a game against the Atlanta Thrashers on February 17 , 2011 . After missing 20 games with the injury , he returned in April for the last three games of the regular season and the playoffs . In Jovanovski 's limited time in the season , he recorded 14 points over 50 games . The Coyotes ranked sixth in the West , drawing the Red Wings in the first round for the second consecutive year . Jovanovski recorded one assist in the post @-@ season as the Coyotes were eliminated in four games .
= = = Return to Florida ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = =
Jovanovski signed a four @-@ year , $ 16 @.@ 5 million contract to return to the Florida Panthers on July 1 , 2011 . He played a large role in helping reshape the franchise 's rebuilding and drive to make the playoffs . Beginning in his second year after rejoining the Panthers , he served as team captain for the 2012 – 13 and 2013 – 14 seasons . On June 29 , 2014 , Jovanovski was placed on unconditional waivers for the purpose of a buyout . Jovanovski remained inactive in the NHL during the 2014 – 15 season . On December 28 , 2015 Jovanovski announced his retirement from the NHL .
= = International play = =
Jovanovski competed for Canada 's under @-@ 20 team at the 1995 World Junior Championships , held in Alberta . Scoring two goals in seven games , he helped Canada go undefeated to win gold . Following his NHL rookie season , he was named as a reserve to the Canadian men 's team for the 1996 World Cup . The youngest player on the roster , he played in one exhibition game against Russia , a 4 – 4 tie , but did not appear in any main tournament games as Canada lost in the final to the United States .
Two years later , Jovanovski competed at the 1998 World Championships in Switzerland ; he was the second @-@ youngest named to the Canadian squad . He scored two goals and an assist over six games as Canada failed to qualify past the crossover round . He made his second World Championships appearance at the 2000 tournament in Russia . He scored a goal and an assist over nine games . Canada lost the semifinal , however , 2 – 1 to the Czech Republic , then lost the bronze medal game 2 – 1 to Finland .
In December 2001 , Jovanovski was chosen to Canada 's Olympic team for the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City . Playing the United States in the gold medal game , Jovanovski earned an assist on the game @-@ winning goal , backhanding a saucer pass from the opposition 's blueline to Joe Sakic on a five @-@ on @-@ three power play advantage . Canada went on to win the gold medal , 5 – 2 . Jovanovski had three points , all assists , in total .
Prior to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Jovanovski played for Canada at the 2004 World Cup . He suffered a cracked rib and a second degree sprain on his medial collateral ligament ( MCL ) during the first game against the United States , sidelining him for the rest of the tournament . He was replaced by San Jose Sharks defenceman Scott Hannan in the lineup . Canada went on to win the championship over Finland in the final .
The following year , he competed at the 2005 World Championships in Austria . In the semi @-@ final , Jovanovski scored the game @-@ winning goal against Russia in a 4 – 3 win . Advancing to the gold medal game , Canada lost 3 – 0 to the Czech Republic , thus earning silver . He finished the tournament with a goal and two assists over nine games . Later that year , he was named to his second Canadian Olympic team for the 2006 Games in Turin , but was not able to play due to a lower abdominal injury .
Making his fourth World Championships appearance in 2008 , Jovanovski earned a second @-@ straight silver medal . He recorded one assist over nine games as Canada lost in the gold medal game by a 5 – 4 score in overtime to Russia .
= = Playing style = =
Jovanovski is known as a two @-@ way defenceman . Able to contribute offensively , he is an adept puck @-@ carrier and joins plays deep in the opposing team 's zone . He plays defence physically , bodychecking opponents primarily with his shoulder . In both aspects of his game , he is considered to play with a high level of risk , taking the chance of being out of position in favour of a good scoring chance or a hit .
= = Personal life = =
Jovanovski was born in Windsor , Ontario , to Kostadin and Lilja Jovanovski . His parents immigrated to Canada in 1973 from Macedonia . Coming from an athletic family , Kostadin was a semi @-@ professional soccer player in Yugoslavia . Jovanovski followed after his father and played organized soccer growing up . He did not start playing hockey until age 11 , when his older brother , Denny , joined a team .
During his junior career , Jovanovski and two other Windsor Spitfire teammates were charged with sexually assaulting a 24 @-@ year @-@ old woman in February 1995 . After a pre @-@ trial hearing in June , the Crown attorney dropped the charges in August due to a lack of convincing evidence .
Beginning his NHL career with the Florida Panthers , he owned a condominium in Boca Raton , Florida . He met his wife , Kristin , in Florida and retained a residence in Boca Raton , where he spent his summers . Jovanovski and Kristin had their first child , daughter Kylie Everett , on August 22 , 1998 . Three years later , Kyra was born , while her twin sister died in utero . Kristin was later pregnant with twins a second time and gave birth to son Cole and daughter Coco on May 25 , 2006 , in Florida .
In 2005 , Jovanovski was featured in a documentary aired on multicultural network Omni Television . Entitled The Late Bloomer : Ed Jovanovski , it explored his career , family tragedy and attachments to his Macedonian heritage .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = OHL = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
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= Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 film ) =
Beauty and the Beast is a 1991 American animated musical romantic fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . The 30th film in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series and the third in the Disney Renaissance period , it is based on the French fairy tale of the same name by Jeanne @-@ Marie Leprince de Beaumont , who was also credited in the English version as well as in the French version , and ideas from the 1946 French film directed by Jean Cocteau . Beauty and the Beast focuses on the relationship between the Beast ( Robby Benson ) , a prince who is magically transformed into a monster as punishment for his arrogance , and Belle ( Paige O 'Hara ) , a beautiful young woman whom he imprisons in his castle . To become a prince again , Beast must win her love in return otherwise he remains a monster forever . The film also features the voices of Richard White , Jerry Orbach , David Ogden Stiers , and Angela Lansbury .
Walt Disney first attempted unsuccessfully to adapt Beauty and the Beast into an animated feature film during the 1930s and 1950s . Following the success of The Little Mermaid ( 1989 ) , Disney decided to adapt the fairy tale , which Richard Purdum originally conceived as a non @-@ musical . Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg eventually discontinued the idea and ordered that the film be a musical similar to The Little Mermaid instead . Beauty and the Beast was directed by Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise , with a screenplay by Linda Woolverton story first credited to Roger Allers . Lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken wrote the film 's songs . Ashman , who additionally served as an executive producer on the film , died of AIDS @-@ related complications eight months before the film 's release , and the film was dedicated to his memory .
Beauty and the Beast premiered as an unfinished film at the New York Film Festival on September 29 , 1991 , followed by its theatrical release as a completed film at the El Capitan Theatre on November 22 . The film was a box office success , grossing $ 425 million worldwide . Beauty and the Beast received positive reviews ; it won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and became the first animated film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . It won the Academy Award for Best Original Score and Best Original Song for its title song . In 2002 , Beauty and the Beast was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress for being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
In April 1994 , Beauty and the Beast became Disney 's first animated film to be adapted into a Broadway musical . The success of the film spawned two direct @-@ to @-@ video follow @-@ ups : Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas ( 1997 ) and Beauty and the Beast : Belle 's Magical World ( 1998 ) . This was followed by a spin @-@ off television series , Sing Me a Story with Belle . An IMAX version was released in 2002 that included " Human Again " , a new five @-@ minute musical sequence . After the success of the 3 @-@ D re @-@ release of The Lion King , the film was reissued in 3 @-@ D in 2012 . In 2014 , it was announced that a live @-@ action remake was in the works , and is scheduled for release in March 2017 .
= = Plot = =
An enchantress , disguised as an old beggar , offers a rose to a young prince , in exchange for shelter in his castle from the cold , but the prince refuses . For his arrogance , the enchantress transforms him into a beast and places a spell on the castle . She gives him a magic mirror that enables him to view faraway events , along with the enchanted rose that she had offered . To break the spell , the prince must learn to love another and earn her love in return before the rose 's last petal falls on his 21st birthday . If he fails , he will remain a beast forever .
Ten years later , a young bookworm girl named Belle is bored of her village life and seeks excitement . Because of her nonconformist ideals , she is ridiculed by everyone except her father Maurice an odd inventor , the town bookseller , and an arrogant , vain ; muscular hunter named Gaston . Despite being popular with the townsfolk , Gaston is determined to marry Belle . She repeatedly rejects his advances .
Maurice and his horse Phillipe get lost in the forest while traveling to a fair to present his wood @-@ chopping machine . After being chased by a pack of wolves , he comes across the Beast 's castle . Inside , he meets Lumière the candlestick , Cogsworth the clock , Mrs. Potts the teapot , and her son Chip the teacup . However , the Beast quickly discovers and detains Maurice . After Phillipe leads Belle to the Beast 's castle , she offers to take her father 's place . Over her father 's objections , the Beast accepts Belle 's offer . While Gaston sulks over Belle 's rejection , Maurice returns to town but is unable to convince the others to save Belle from the Beast .
The Beast sulks in his room when Belle refuses to have dinner with him that night . Despite this , Lumière offers her a meal . While he and Cogsworth also give her a tour of the castle , she wanders into the forbidden West Wing . When the Beast inadvertently chases her into the forest by frightening her in frustration , Belle encounters the pack of wolves . After the Beast is injured while fending them off , Belle thanks him for saving her life . He begins to develop feelings for her while she nurses his wounds and he delights her by showing his extensive library . While the two begin to bond , Gaston pays Monsieur D 'Arque to send Maurice to the town 's insane asylum if Belle refuses Gaston 's proposal again .
Sharing a romantic evening together , Belle tells the Beast she misses her father . He lets her use his magic mirror to see him . She sees Maurice dying in the woods trying to reach the castle . The Beast lets her go out to save him and he gives her the mirror to remember him by . She finds Maurice and brings him home . As Gaston is about to bring Maurice to the insane asylum , Belle proves Maurice 's sanity by showing the Beast with the mirror . Realizing Belle loves the Beast , Gaston convinces the villagers that the Beast is a man @-@ eating monster and leads them to the castle to kill him .
Having stowed away into Belle 's baggage , Chip helps Maurice and Belle escape from confinement . Gaston fights the Beast while the servants fend off the villagers . The Beast initially is too depressed to fight back , though perks up after seeing Belle return to the castle . He battles and defeats Gaston in battle on the rooftops , though spares his life by ordering him to leave before he reunites with Belle . Refusing to lose , Gaston mortally wounds the Beast , but falls to his death after losing his footing . Belle professes her love for the Beast , who dies before the last rose petal falls . With the spell broken , the Beast is revived and transformed into his human form , and each of his servants also resumes their human form with the castle restored to its former glory . Belle is last seen dancing with him in the ballroom as everyone else watches in delight .
= = Voice cast = =
Paige O 'Hara as Belle – A bibliophilic and beautiful young girl who seeks adventure , and offers her own freedom to the Beast in return for her father 's . In their effort to enhance the character from the original story , the filmmakers felt that Belle should be " unaware " of her own beauty and made her " a little odd . " Wise recalls casting O 'Hara because of a " unique tone " she had , " a little bit of Judy Garland , " after whose appearance Belle was modeled . James Baxter and Mark Henn served as the supervising animators for Belle .
Robby Benson as The Beast – A young prince who is transformed into a beast by a beautiful enchantress as punishment for his arrogance . He has the head structure and horns of an American bison , the arms and body of a bear , the ears of a deer , the eyebrows of a gorilla , the jaws , teeth , and mane of a lion , the tusks of a wild boar and the legs and tail of a wolf . Chris Sanders , one of the film 's storyboard artists , drafted the designs for the Beast and came up with designs based on birds , insects , and fish before coming up with something close to the final design . Glen Keane , supervising animator for the Beast , refined the design by going to the zoo and studying the animals on which the Beast was based . Benson commented , " There 's a rage and torment in this character I 've never been asked to use before . " The filmmakers commented that " everybody was big fee @-@ fi @-@ fo @-@ fum and gravelly " while Benson 's voice had the " big voice and the warm , accessible side " and that " you could hear the prince beneath the fur . "
Richard White as Gaston – A vain hunter who vies for Belle 's hand in marriage and is determined not to let anyone else win her heart . Gaston 's supervising animator , Andreas Deja , was pressed by Jeffrey Katzenberg to make Gaston handsome in contrast to the traditional appearance of a Disney villain , an assignment he found difficult at first . In the beginning , Gaston is depicted as more of a narcissist than a villain , but later he leads all the villagers to kill the beast , enraged that Belle would love a Beast more than him .
Jerry Orbach as Lumière – The kind @-@ hearted but rebellious maître d 'hôtel of the Beast 's castle , who has been transformed into a candlestick . He has a habit of disobeying his master 's strict rules , sometimes causing tension between them , but the Beast often turns to him for advice . He is depicted as flirtatious , as he is frequently seen with the Featherduster and immediately takes a liking to Belle . A running gag throughout the movie is Lumière burning Cogsworth . Nik Ranieri served as the supervising animator for Lumière .
David Ogden Stiers as Cogsworth – The head of the household staff and Lumière 's best friend , who has been transformed into a clock . He is extremely loyal to the Beast so as to save himself and anyone else any trouble , often leading to friction between himself and Lumière . Will Finn served as the supervising animator for Cogsworth . Stiers also narrates the prologue .
Angela Lansbury as Mrs. Potts – The castle cook , turned into a teapot , who takes a motherly attitude toward Belle . The filmmakers went through several names for Mrs. Potts , such as " Mrs. Chamomile , " before Ashman suggested the use of simple and concise names for the household objects . David Pruiksma served as the supervising animator for Mrs. Potts .
Bradley Michael Pierce as Chip – Mrs. Potts ' son , who has been turned into a teacup . Originally intended to have only one line , the filmmakers were impressed with Pierce 's performance and expanded the character 's role significantly , eschewing a mute Music Box character . Pruiksma also served as the supervising animator for Chip .
Rex Everhart as Maurice – Belle 's inventor father . The citizens call him crazy , but his loyal daughter believes he will be famous one day . Ruben A. Aquino served as the supervising animator for Maurice .
Jesse Corti as LeFou – Gaston 's often abused yet loyal sidekick . Chris Wahl served as the supervising animator for Lefou .
Hal Smith as Philippe – Belle 's Belgian horse . Russ Edmonds served as the supervising animator for Philippe .
Jo Anne Worley as the Wardrobe – The castle 's authority over fashion , and a former opera singer , who has been turned into a wardrobe . The character of Wardrobe was introduced by visual development person Sue C. Nichols to the then entirely male cast of servants , and was originally a more integral character named " Madame Armoire . " Wardrobe is known as " Madame de la Grande Bouche " ( Madame Big Mouth ) in the stage adaptation of the film , and is the only major enchanted object character we do not see the human form of in the film . Tony Anselmo served as the supervising animator for the Wardrobe .
Mary Kay Bergman and Kath Soucie as the Bimbettes – A trio of village maidens who constantly fawn over Gaston , known as the " Silly Girls " in the stage adaptation .
Brian Cummings as the Stove – The castle 's chef who has been transformed into a stove .
Alvin Epstein as the Bookseller – The owner of a book shop in Belle 's home town .
Tony Jay as Monsieur D 'Arque – The sadistic warden of the Asylum de Loons . Gaston bribes him to help in his plan to blackmail Belle .
Alec Murphy as the Baker – The owner of a bakery in Belle 's home town .
Kimmy Robertson as the Featherduster – A maid and Lumière 's sweetheart , who has been turned into a feather duster . She is unnamed in the 1991 film ( listed as Featherduster in the credits ) ; Babette is the name given to this character later in the 1994 stage adaptation of the film , and Fifi in 1998 's Beauty and the Beast : Belle 's Magical World .
Frank Welker as the Footstool – The castle 's pet dog turned into a footstool .
= = Production = =
= = = Early versions = = =
After the success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in 1937 , Walt Disney sought out other stories to adapt into feature films , with Beauty and the Beast being among the stories he considered . Attempts to develop the Beauty and the Beast story into a film were made in the 1930s and 1950s , but were ultimately given up because it " proved to be a challenge " for the story team . Peter M. Nichols states Disney may later have been discouraged by Jean Cocteau having already done his version .
Decades later , during the production of Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1987 , the Disney studio resurrected Beauty and the Beast as a project for the satellite animation studio it had set up in London , England to work on Roger Rabbit . Richard Williams , who had directed the animated portions of Roger Rabbit , was approached to direct , but declined in favor of continuing work on his long @-@ gestating project The Thief and the Cobbler . In his place , Williams recommended his colleague , English animation director Richard Purdum , and work began under producer Don Hahn on a non @-@ musical version of Beauty and the Beast set in 19th century France . At the behest of Disney CEO Michael Eisner , Beauty and the Beast became the first Disney animated film to use a screenwriter . This was an unusual production move for an animated film , which is traditionally developed on storyboards rather than in scripted form . Linda Woolverton wrote the original draft of the story before storyboarding began , and worked with the story team to retool and develop the film .
= = = Script rewrite and musicalization = = =
Upon seeing the initial storyboard reels in 1989 , Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg ordered that the film be scrapped and started over from scratch . A few months after starting anew , Purdum resigned as director . The studio had approached Ron Clements and John Musker to direct the film but turned down the offer saying they were " tired " after just having finished directing Disney 's recent success The Little Mermaid . Disney then hired first @-@ time feature directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale . Wise and Trousdale had previously directed the animated sections of Cranium Command , a short film for a Disney EPCOT theme park attraction . In addition , Katzenberg asked songwriters Howard Ashman and Alan Menken , who had written the song score for The Little Mermaid to turn Beauty and the Beast into a Broadway @-@ style musical film in the same vein as Mermaid . Ashman , who at the time had learned he was dying of complications from AIDS , had been working with Disney on a pet project of his , Aladdin , and only reluctantly agreed to join the struggling production team . To accommodate Ashman 's failing health , pre @-@ production of Beauty and the Beast was moved from London to the Residence Inn in Fishkill , New York , close to Ashman 's New York City home . Here , Ashman and Menken joined Wise , Trousdale , Hahn , and Woolverton in retooling the film 's script . Since the original story had only two major characters , the filmmakers enhanced them , added new characters in the form of enchanted household items who " add warmth and comedy to a gloomy story " and guide the audience through the film , and added a " real villain " in the form of Gaston .
These ideas were somewhat similar to elements of the 1946 French film version of Beauty and the Beast , which introduced the character of Avenant , an oafish suitor somewhat similar to Gaston as well as inanimate objects coming to life in the Beast 's castle . The animated objects were , however , given distinct personalities in the Disney version . By early 1990 , Katzenberg had approved the revised script , and storyboarding began again . The production flew story artists back and forth between California and New York for storyboard approvals from Ashman , though the team was not told the reason why .
= = = Casting and recording = = =
Disney had originally considered casting Jodi Benson from The Little Mermaid as Belle . They eventually decided upon Broadway actress and singer Paige O 'Hara in favor of having a heroine who sounded " more like a woman than a girl " . According to co @-@ director Kirk Wise , O 'Hara was given the role because she " had a unique quality , a tone she would hit that made her special " , reminiscent to that of American actress and singer Judy Garland . O 'Hara , who , after reading about the film in The New York Times , competed for the role against 500 hopefuls , believes the fact that lyricist Howard Ashman admired her cast recording of the musical Show Boat proved integral in her being cast .
= = = Animation = = =
Production of Beauty and the Beast was to be completed on a compressed timeline of two years rather than the traditional four @-@ year Disney Feature Animation production schedule ; this was due to the loss of production time spent developing the earlier Purdum version of the film . Most of the production was done at the main Feature Animation studio , housed in the Air Way facility in Glendale , California . A smaller team at the Disney @-@ MGM Studios theme park in Lake Buena Vista , Florida assisted the California team on several scenes , particularly the " Be Our Guest " number .
Beauty and the Beast was the second film , after The Rescuers Down Under , produced using CAPS ( Computer Animation Production System ) , a digital scanning , ink , paint , and compositing system of software and hardware developed for Disney by Pixar . The software allowed for a wider range of colors , as well as soft shading and colored line effects for the characters , techniques lost when the Disney studio abandoned hand inking for xerography in the late 1950s . CAPS also allowed the production crew to simulate multiplane effects : placing characters and / or backgrounds on separate layers and moving them towards / away from the camera on the Z @-@ axis to give the illusion of depth , as well as altering the focus of each layer .
In addition , CAPS allowed easier combination of hand @-@ drawn art with computer @-@ generated imagery , which before had to be plotted to animation paper and then xeroxed and painted traditionally . This technique was put to significant use during the " Beauty and the Beast " waltz sequence , in which Belle and Beast dance through a computer @-@ generated ballroom as the camera dollies around them in simulated 3D space . The filmmakers had originally decided against the use of computers in favor of traditional animation , but later , when the technology had improved , decided it could be used for the one scene in the ballroom . The success of the ballroom sequence helped convince studio executives to further invest in computer animation .
= = = Music = = =
Ashman and Menken wrote the Beauty song score during the pre @-@ production process in Fishkill , the opening operetta @-@ styled " Belle " being their first composition for the film . Other songs included " Be Our Guest , " sung ( in its original version ) to Maurice by the objects when he becomes the first visitor to eat at the castle in a decade , " Gaston , " a solo for the swaggering villain , " Human Again , " a song describing Belle and Beast 's growing love from the objects ' perspective , the love ballad " Beauty and the Beast , " and the climactic " The Mob Song . " As story and song development came to a close , full production began in Burbank while voice and song recording began in New York City . The Beauty songs were mostly recorded live with the orchestra and the voice cast performing simultaneously rather than overdubbed separately , in order to give the songs a cast album @-@ like " energy " the filmmakers and songwriters desired .
During the course of production , many changes were made to the structure of the film , necessitating the replacement and re @-@ purposing of songs . After screening a mostly animated version of the " Be Our Guest " sequence , story artist Bruce Woodside suggested that the objects should be singing the song to Belle rather than her father . Wise and Trousdale agreed , and the sequence and song were retooled to replace Maurice with Belle . The film 's title song went through a noted bit of uncertainty during production . Originally conceived as a rock @-@ oriented song , it was changed to a slow , romantic ballad . Howard Ashman and Alan Menken asked Angela Lansbury to perform the song , but she didn 't think her voice was suited for the melody . When she voiced her doubts , Menken and Ashman asked her for at least one take , and told her to perform the song as she saw fit . Lansbury reportedly reduced everyone in the studio to tears with her rendition , nailing the song in the one take asked of her . This version went on to win the Oscar for Best Original Song . " Human Again " was dropped from the film before animation began , as its lyrics caused story problems about the timeline over which the story takes place . This required Ashman and Menken to write a new song in its place . " Something There , " in which Belle and Beast sing ( via voiceover ) of their growing fondness for each other , was composed late in production and inserted into the script in place of " Human Again . "
Menken would later revise " Human Again " for inclusion in the 1994 Broadway stage version of Beauty and the Beast , and another revised version of the song was added to the film itself in a new sequence created for the film 's Special Edition re @-@ release in 2002 . Ashman died of AIDS @-@ related complications on March 14 , 1991 , eight months prior to the release of the film . He never saw the finished film , though he did get to see it in its unfinished format . Ashman 's work on Aladdin was completed by another lyricist , Tim Rice . Before Ashman 's death , members of the film 's production team visited him after the film 's well @-@ received first screening , with Don Hahn commenting that " the film would be a great success . Who 'd have thought it ? " , to which Ashman replied with " I would . " A tribute to the lyricist was included at the end of the credits crawl : " To our friend , Howard , who gave a mermaid her voice , and a beast his soul . We will be forever grateful . Howard Ashman : 1950 – 1991 . " A pop version of the " Beauty and the Beast " theme , performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson over the end credits , was released as a commercial single from the film 's soundtrack , supported with a music video . The Dion / Bryson version of " Beauty and the Beast " became an international pop hit and performed considerably well on charts around the world . The song became Dion 's second single to land within the top @-@ 10 of the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number nine . The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , " Beauty and the Beast " peaked at number two . Outside of North America , the song peaked within the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom , while peaking within the top twenty in Australia , Netherlands and Ireland . The song sold over a million copies worldwide . This version of the song was also nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year at the Grammys , and it won the Grammy for Dion and Bryson for Best Pop Duo / Group Vocal Performance .
= = Release = =
In a first @-@ time accomplishment for The Walt Disney Company , an unfinished version of Beauty and the Beast was shown at the New York Film Festival on September 29 , 1991 . The film was deemed a " work in progress " because roughly only 70 % of the animation had been completed ; storyboards and pencil tests were used in replacement of the remaining 30 % . Additionally , certain segments of the film that had already been finished were reverted to previous stages of completion . At the end of the screening , Beauty and the Beast received a 10 @-@ minute long standing ovation from the film festival audience . The completed film would also be screened out of competition at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival . The finished film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on November 13 , 1991 , and went into wide release through Walt Disney Pictures on November 22 .
= = = Re @-@ issues = = =
The film was restored and remastered for its New Year 's Day , 2002 re @-@ release in IMAX theatres in a special edition edit including a new musical sequence . For this version of the film , much of the animation was cleaned up , a new sequence set to the deleted song " Human Again " was inserted into the film 's second act , and a new digital master from the original CAPS production files was used to make the high resolution IMAX film negative .
A sing along edition of the film , hosted by Jordin Sparks , was released in select theaters on September 29 and October 2 , 2010 . Prior to the showing of the film Sparks showed an exclusive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at the newly restored high definition animated classic and the making of her all @-@ new Beauty and the Beast music video . There was also commentary from producer Don Hahn , interviews with the cast and an inside look at how the animation was created .
A Disney Digital 3D version of the film , the second of a traditionally animated film , was originally scheduled to be released in US theatres on February 12 , 2010 , but the project was postponed . On August 25 , 2011 , Disney announced that the 3D version of the film would make its American debut at Hollywood 's El Capitan Theatre from September 2 – 15 , 2011 . Disney spent less than $ 10 million on the 3D conversion . After the successful 3D re @-@ release of The Lion King , Disney announced a wide 3D re @-@ release of Beauty and the Beast in North America beginning January 13 , 2012 .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released to VHS on October 30 , 1992 as part of the Walt Disney Classics series , and was later put on moratorium on April 30 , 1993 ; it was not included in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection line . This version contains a minor edit to the film : skulls that appear in Gaston 's pupils for two frames during his climactic fall to his death were removed for the original home video release . No such edit was made to later reissues of the film . The " work @-@ in @-@ progress " version screened at the New York Film Festival was also released on VHS and Laserdisc at this time ; however , said version was the only one available on the latter format until the fall of 1993 when the completed theatrical version was released . This measure was to diminish the threat of video pirates making copies derived from the laserdisc ( which are not copy @-@ protected ) and selling them in international markets , where the film was yet to be available for home release .
Beauty and the Beast : Special Edition , as the enhanced version of the film released in IMAX / large @-@ format is called , was released on 2 @-@ Disc " Platinum Edition " DVD and VHS on October 8 , 2002 . The DVD set features three versions of the film : the extended IMAX Special Edition with the " Human Again " sequence added , the original theatrical version , and the New York Film Festival " work @-@ in @-@ progress " version . This release went to " Disney Vault " moratorium status in January 2003 , along with its direct @-@ to @-@ video follow @-@ ups Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas and Belle 's Magical World .
The film was released from the vault on October 5 , 2010 as the second of Disney 's Diamond Editions , in the form of a 3 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD combination pack ; representing the first release of Beauty and the Beast on home video in high @-@ definition format . This edition consists of four versions of the film : the original theatrical version , an extended version , the New York Film Festival storyboard @-@ only version , and a fourth iteration displaying the storyboards via picture @-@ in @-@ picture alongside the original theatrical version . A two @-@ disc DVD edition was released on November 23 , 2010 . A 5 @-@ disc combo pack , featuring Blu @-@ ray 3D , Blu @-@ ray 2D , DVD and Digital copy , was released on October 4 , 2011 . The 3D combo pack is identical to the original Diamond Edition , except for the added 3D disc and digital copy . The Blu @-@ ray release went into the Disney Vault along with the two sequels on April 30 , 2012 .
A 25th anniversary Signature Edition will be available on Digital HD September 6 , 2016 and on Blu @-@ ray / DVD combo pack September 20 , 2016 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregation Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 93 % with an average of 8 @.@ 4 based on reviews from 103 critics . The website 's general consensus reads , " Enchanting , sweepingly romantic , and featuring plenty of wonderful musical numbers , Beauty and the Beast is one of Disney 's most elegant animated offerings . " CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade .
Awarding the film a perfect score of four stars , Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times compared Beauty and the Beast positively to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Pinocchio , writing , " Beauty and the Beast reaches back to an older and healthier Hollywood tradition in which the best writers , musicians and filmmakers are gathered for a project on the assumption that a family audience deserves great entertainment , too . " In 2001 Ebert again gave the IMAX re @-@ release a full 4 out of 4 stars . James Berardinelli of ReelViews rated the film similarly while hailing it as " the finest animated movie ever made " , writing , " Beauty and the Beast attains a nearly @-@ perfect mix of romance , music , invention , and animation . " The use of computer animation , particularly in the ballroom sequence , was singled out in several reviews as one of the film 's highlights . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the film a positive review , calling the film " A delightfully satisfying modern fable , a near @-@ masterpiece that draws on the sublime traditions of the past while remaining completely in sync with the sensibility of its time . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a positive review , saying " It is a surprise , in a time of sequels and retreads , that the new film is so fresh and altogether triumphant in its own right . " Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three out of four stars , saying " Beauty and the Beast is certainly adequate holiday entertainment for children and their more indulgent parents ..... But the film has little of the technical facility , vivid characterization and emotional impact of Disney past . "
Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel gave the film four out of five stars , saying " It 's not an especially scary movie , but right from the start , you can tell that this Beauty and the Beast has a beauty of a bite . " John Hartl of The Seattle Times gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " It 's exceptionally difficult to make an audience care for animated characters unless they 're mermaids or anthropomorphized animals or insects , yet the Disney animators , with a big assist from the vocal talents of a superb cast , have pulled it off . " Gene Siskel also of the Chicago Tribune gave the film four out of four stars , saying " Beauty and the Beast is one of the year`s most entertaining films for both adults and children . " Michael Sragow of The New Yorker gave the film a positive review , saying " It 's got storytelling vigor and clarity , bright , eclectic animation , and a frisky musical wit . " Eric Smoodin writes in his book Animating Culture that the studio was trying to make up for earlier gender stereotypes with this film . Smoodin also states that , in the way it has been viewed as bringing together traditional fairy tales and feminism as well as computer and traditional animation , the film 's " greatness could be proved in terms of technology narrative or even politics " .
Animation historian Michael Barrier wrote that Belle " becomes a sort of intellectual less by actually reading books , it seems , than by hanging out with them " , but says that the film comes closer than other " Disney @-@ studio " films to " accepting challenges of the kind that the finest Walt Disney features met " . David Whitley writes in The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation that Belle is different from earlier Disney heroines in that she is mostly free from the burdens of domestic housework , although her role is somewhat undefined in the same way that " contemporary culture now requires most adolescent girls to contribute little in the way of domestic work before they leave home and have to take on the fraught , multiple responsibilities of the working mother " . Whitley also notes other themes and modern influences , such as the film 's critical view of Gaston 's chauvinism and attitude towards nature , the cyborg @-@ like servants , and the father 's role as an inventor rather than a merchant . IGN named Beauty and the Beast as the greatest animated film of all time , directly ahead of WALL @-@ E , The Incredibles , Toy Story 2 , and The Iron Giant .
= = = Box office = = =
During its initial release in 1991 , the film was a significant success at the box office , with $ 145 @,@ 863 @,@ 363 in revenues in North America and $ 351 @,@ 863 @,@ 363 worldwide . It ranked as the third most @-@ successful film of 1991 in North America , surpassed only by the summer blockbusters Terminator 2 : Judgment Day and Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves . At the time Beauty and the Beast was the most successful animated Disney film release , and the first animated film to reach $ 100 million in North America . In its IMAX re @-@ release , it earned $ 25 @,@ 487 @,@ 190 in North America and $ 5 @,@ 546 @,@ 156 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 31 @,@ 033 @,@ 346 . It also earned $ 9 @,@ 818 @,@ 365 from its 3D re @-@ release overseas . During the opening weekend of its North American 3D re @-@ release in 2012 , Beauty and the Beast grossed $ 17 @.@ 8 million , coming in at the No. 2 spot behind Contraband , and achieved the highest opening weekend for an animated film in January . The film was expected to make $ 17 @.@ 5 million over the weekend , however , the results topped its forecast and the expectations of box office analysts . The re @-@ release ended its run on May 3 , 2012 and earned $ 47 @,@ 617 @,@ 067 , which brought the film 's total gross in North America to $ 218 @,@ 967 @,@ 620 . It made an estimated $ 206 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 424 @,@ 967 @,@ 620 .
= = = Accolades = = =
Alan Menken and Howard Ashman 's song " Beauty and the Beast " won the Academy Award for Best Original Song , while Menken 's score won the award for Best Original Score . Two other Menken and Ashman songs from the film , " Belle " and " Be Our Guest " , were also nominated for Best Original Song . Beauty and the Beast was the first picture to receive three Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song , a feat that would be repeated by The Lion King ( 1994 ) , Dreamgirls ( 2006 ) , and Enchanted ( 2007 ) . Academy rules have since been changed to limit each film to two nominations in this category , due to the consecutive unintentional failures of Dreamgirls and Enchanted to win the award . The film was also nominated for Best Sound and Best Picture . It was the first animated film ever to be nominated for Best Picture , and remained the only animated film nominated until 2010 , when the Best Picture field was widened to ten nominees , and it is the only animated film nominated for the award when it had five nominees . It lost the Best Picture award to The Silence of the Lambs . It became the first musical in twelve years to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Motion Picture of the Year following All That Jazz ( 1979 ) and the last one to be nominated until Moulin Rouge ! ( 2001 ) , ten years later . With six nominations , the film currently shares the record for the most nominations for an animated film with WALL @-@ E ( 2008 ) , although , with three nominations in the Best Original Song category , Beauty and the Beast 's nominations span only four categories , while WALL @-@ E 's nominations cover six individual categories . While The Little Mermaid was the first to be nominated , Beauty and the Beast became the first animated film to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . This feat was later repeated by The Lion King and Toy Story 2 .
In 2002 , Beauty and the Beast was added to the United States National Film Registry as being deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " In June 2008 , the American Film Institute revealed its " Ten Top Ten " lists of the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres based on polls of over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . Beauty and the Beast was acknowledged as the 7th best film in the animation genre . In previous lists , it ranked number 22 on the Institutes 's list of best musicals and number 34 on its list of the best romantic American films . On the list of the greatest songs from American films , Beauty and the Beast ranked number 62 .
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions – No. 34
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Belle – Nominated Hero
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" Beauty and the Beast " – No. 62
" Be Our Guest " – Nominated
AFI 's Greatest Movie Musicals – No. 22
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – No. 7 Animated film
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Broadway musical = = =
According to an article in The Houston Chronicle , " The catalyst for Disney 's braving the stage was an article by The New York Times theater critic Frank Rich that praised Beauty and the Beast as 1991 's best musical .... Theatre Under The Stars executive director Frank Young had been trying to get Disney interested in a stage version of Beauty about the same time Eisner and Katzenberg were mulling over Rich 's column . But Young couldn 't seem to get in touch with the right person in the Disney empire . Nothing happened till the Disney execs started to pursue the project from their end .... When they asked George Ives , the head of Actors Equity on the West Coast , which Los Angeles theater would be the best venue for launching a new musical , Ives said the best theater for that purpose would be TUTS . Not long after that , Disney 's Don Frantz and Bettina Buckley contacted Young , and the partnership was under way . " A stage condensation of the film , directed by Robert Jess Roth and choreographed by Matt West , both of whom moved on to the Broadway development , had already been presented at Disneyland at what was then called the Videopolis stage . Beauty and the Beast premiered in a joint production of Theatre Under The Stars and Disney Theatricals at the Music Hall , Houston , Texas , from November 28 , 1993 , through December 26 , 1993 .
On Monday , April 18 , 1994 , Beauty and the Beast premiered on Broadway at the Palace Theatre in New York City to mixed reviews . The show transferred to the Lunt @-@ Fontanne Theatre on November 11 , 1999 . The commercial ( though not critical ) success of the show led to productions in the West End , Toronto , and all over the world . The Broadway version , which ran for over a decade , received a Tony Award , and became the first of a whole line of Disney stage productions . The original Broadway cast included Terrence Mann as the Beast , Susan Egan as Belle , Burke Moses as Gaston , Gary Beach as Lumière , Heath Lamberts as Cogsworth , Tom Bosley as Maurice , Beth Fowler as Mrs. Potts , and Stacey Logan as Babette the feather duster . Many well @-@ known actors and singers also starred in the Broadway production during its thirteen @-@ year run including Kerry Butler , Debbie Gibson , Toni Braxton , Andrea McArdle , Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler , Christy Carlson Romano , Ashley Brown , and Anneliese van der Pol as Belle ; Chuck Wagner , James Barbour , and Jeff McCarthy as the Beast ; Meshach Taylor , Patrick Page , Bryan Batt , Jacob Young , and John Tartaglia as Lumière ; and Marc Kudisch , Christopher Sieber , and Donny Osmond as Gaston . The show ended its Broadway run on July 29 , 2007 after 46 previews and 5 @,@ 461 performances . As of 2016 , it is still Broadway 's ninth longest @-@ running show in history .
= = = Live @-@ action film = = =
In June 2014 , it was announced that a live @-@ action film adaptation of the original film was in the works with Academy Award @-@ winning filmmaker Bill Condon ( Chicago , Dreamgirls , Gods and Monsters ) directing and Evan Spiliotopoulos writing the script . Condon originally planned on not only drawing inspiration from the original film , but he also planned to include most , if not all , of the Menken / Rice songs from the Broadway musical , with the intention of making the film as a " straight @-@ forward , live @-@ action , large @-@ budget movie musical " . In September 2014 , it was announced that Stephen Chbosky ( The Perks of Being a Wallflower ) will re @-@ write the script . In January 2015 , Emma Watson announced on her Facebook page that she will portray Belle in the new live action remake film . In March 2015 , Dan Stevens , Luke Evans , Emma Thompson , Josh Gad , Audra McDonald , and Kevin Kline joined the film as the Beast , Gaston , Mrs. Potts , LeFou , Garderobe , and Maurice , respectively . The following month Ian McKellen , Ewan McGregor , Stanley Tucci , and Gugu Mbatha @-@ Raw joined the cast as Cogsworth , Lumière , Cadenza , and Plumette , respectively . Composer Alan Menken will return to score the film 's music , with new material written by Menken and Tim Rice . In June 2015 , Menken said the film will not include the songs that were written for the Broadway musical . Filming began on May 18 , 2015 in London and production officially wrapped in August 2015 . The film is scheduled to be released on March 17 , 2017 .
= = Merchandise = =
Beauty and the Beast merchandise covered a wide variety of products , among them storybook versions of the film 's story , a comic book based on the film published by Disney Comics , toys , children 's costumes , and other items . In addition , the character of Belle has been integrated into the " Disney Princess " line of Disney 's Consumer Products division , and appears on merchandise related to that franchise . In 1995 , a live @-@ action children 's series entitled Sing Me a Story with Belle began running in syndication , remaining on the air through 1999 . Two direct @-@ to @-@ video followups ( which take place during the timeline depicted in the original film ) were produced by Walt Disney Television Animation : Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas in 1997 and Beauty and the Beast : Belle 's Magical World in 1998 ; in contrast to the universal acclaim of the original , reception to the sequels was extremely negative . Disney on Ice produced an ice version of the movie that opened in 1992 in Lakeland , Florida . The show was such a huge commercial and critical success , touring around the world to sell @-@ out crowds , that a television special was made when it toured Spain in 1994 . The show ended its run in 2006 after 14 years .
= = = Video games = = =
There are several video games that are loosely based on the film : The first video game based on the film was titled Beauty and the Beast and is an action platformer developed by Probe Software and published by Hudson Soft for the NES . It was released in Europe in 1994 . Gaston is the final boss of the game because he wants to kill the Beast and marry Belle .
The second video game based on the film was titled Beauty & The Beast : Belle 's Quest and is an action platformer for the Sega Genesis . Developed by Software Creations , the game was released in North America in 1993 . It is one of two video games based on the film that Sunsoft published for the Genesis , the other being Beauty & The Beast : Roar of the Beast . Characters from the film like Gaston can help the player past tricky situations . As Belle , the player must reach the Beast 's castle and break the spell to live happily ever after . To succeed , she must explore the village , forest , castle , and snowy forest to solve puzzles and mini @-@ games while ducking or jumping over enemies . Belle 's health is represented by a stack of blue books , which diminishes when she touches bats , rats , and other hazards in the game . Extra lives , keys and other items are hidden throughout the levels . While there is no continue or game saving ability , players can use a code to start the game at any of the seven levels .
The third video game based on the film was titled ' Beauty & The Beast : Roar of the Beast and is a side @-@ scrolling video game for the Genesis . As the Beast , the player must successfully complete several levels , based on scenes from the film , in order to protect the castle from invading villagers and forest animals and rescue Belle from Gaston . The fourth video game based on the film was titled Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and is an action platformer for the SNES . It was developed by Probe Entertainment and published by Hudson Soft in North America in July 1994 and in Europe on February 23 , 1995 . The game was published by Virgin Interactive in Japan on July 8 , 1994 . The entire game is played through the perspective of the Beast . As the Beast , the player must get Belle to fall in love so that the curse cast upon him and his castle will be broken . The final boss of the game is Gaston . The Beast can walk , jump , swipe , stomp , super stomp , and roar , the last of which is used to both damage enemies and reveal hidden objects .
The fifth video game based on the film was titled Disney 's Beauty & The Beast : A Boardgame Adventure and is a Disney Boardgame adventure for the Game Boy Color . It was released on October 25 , 1999 .
The video game series Kingdom Hearts features a world based on the film , named " Beast 's Castle " , along with several of the film 's characters . In the first game , the world has been destroyed and Belle kidnapped by the Heartless , led by Maleficent , but the Beast travels to Maleficent 's stronghold and works with Sora to defeat Maleficent and rescue Belle and the other captured princesses . In Kingdom Hearts II , the world has since been restored following Ansem 's defeat , but Beast and Belle are having difficulties due to the enigmatic Xaldin of Organization XIII attempting to bring out the Beast 's darker side in order to turn him into a Heartless and a Nobody , but the Beast eventually comes to his senses and works with Sora once again to defeat Xaldin once and for all . In the game 's ending credits , the Beast turns back into the Prince . In Kingdom Hearts : 358 / 2 Days , the world is featured as a playable level but the story is not essential to the main plot . In Kingdom Hearts χ , the world is featured again and follows the plot of the movie more closely . The characters featured in the series are Beast , Belle , Lumiere , Gaston , Cogsworth , Mrs. Potts , Chip , Maurice and the Wardrobe . Gaston and Maurice do not appear until Kingdom Hearts χ , which takes place before the main series . After Gaston is defeated , the world 's primary antagonist becomes Xaldin , an original character created for the series , but who shares several traits with Forte , the main antagonist of Beauty and the Beast : The Enchanted Christmas .
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= Henry VIII of England =
Henry VIII ( 28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547 ) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death . He was the first English King of Ireland , and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France . Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty , succeeding his father , Henry VII .
Henry is known for his consequential role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church , besides his six marriages and many extramarital affairs , as well as his effort to obtain an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon , which led to conflict with the Pope . His disagreements with the Pope led Henry to separate the Church of England from papal authority , with himself as king and as the Supreme Head of the Church of England ; the disputes also led to the Dissolution of the Monasteries . His principal dispute was with papal authority rather than with doctrinal matters , and he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings despite his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church . Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 . He is also well known for a long personal rivalry with both Francis I of France and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , with whom he frequently warred .
Domestically , Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution , ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England . Besides asserting the sovereign 's supremacy over the Church of England , thus initiating the English Reformation , he greatly expanded royal power . Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent , and those accused were often executed without a formal trial , by means of bills of attainder . He achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers , some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour . People such as Thomas Wolsey , Thomas More , Thomas Cromwell , Richard Rich , and Thomas Cranmer figured prominently in Henry 's administration . He was an extravagant spender and used the proceeds from the Dissolution of the Monasteries and acts of the Reformation Parliament to convert money into royal revenue that was formerly paid to Rome . Despite the influx of money from these sources , Henry was continually on the verge of financial ruin due to his personal extravagance as well as his numerous costly continental wars .
His contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive , educated , and accomplished king , and he has been described as " one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne " . Besides ruling with considerable power , he was also an author and composer . His desire to provide England with a male heir stemmed partly from personal vanity and partly from his belief that a daughter would be unable to consolidate Tudor power and maintain the fragile peace that existed following the Wars of the Roses . This led to the two things for which Henry is most remembered : his six marriages and his break with the Pope ( who would not allow an annulment of Henry 's first marriage ) . As he aged , Henry became severely obese and his health suffered , contributing to his death in 1547 . He is frequently characterised in his later life as a lustful , egotistical , harsh , and insecure king . He was succeeded by his son Edward VI .
= = Early years = =
Born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich , London , Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York . Of the young Henry 's six siblings , only three – Arthur , Prince of Wales ; Margaret ; and Mary – survived infancy . He was baptised by Richard Fox , the Bishop of Exeter , at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace . In 1493 , at the age of two , Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports . He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three , and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after . The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York and a month or so later made Warden of the Scottish Marches . In May 1495 , he was appointed to the Order of the Garter . Henry was given a first @-@ rate education from leading tutors , becoming fluent in Latin and French , and learning at least some Italian . Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king . In November 1501 , Henry also played a considerable part in the ceremonies surrounding the marriage of his brother , Prince Arthur , to Catherine of Aragon , the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile . As Duke of York , Henry used the arms of his father as king , differenced by a label of three points ermine .
In 1502 , Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness , just 20 weeks after his marriage to Catherine . Arthur 's death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother , the 10 @-@ year @-@ old Henry . After a little debate , Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502 , and the new Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in February 1503 . Henry VII gave the boy few tasks . Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public . As a result , the young Henry would later ascend the throne " untrained in the exacting art of kingship . "
Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain , by offering his second son in marriage to Arthur 's widow Catherine . Both Isabella and Henry VII were keen on the idea , which had arisen very shortly after Arthur 's death . On 23 June 1503 , a treaty was signed for their marriage , and they were betrothed two days later . A papal dispensation was only needed for the " impediment of public honesty " if the marriage had not been consummated as Catherine and her duenna claimed , but Henry VII and the Spanish ambassador set out instead to obtain a dispensation for " affinity " , which took account of the possibility of consummation . The young Henry 's age , only eleven , prevented cohabitation . Isabella 's death in 1504 , and the ensuing problems of succession in Castile , complicated matters . Her father preferred her to stay in England , but Henry VII 's relations with Ferdinand had deteriorated . Catherine was therefore left in limbo for some time , culminating in Prince Henry 's rejection of the marriage as soon he was able , at the age of 14 . Ferdinand 's solution was to make his daughter ambassador , allowing her to stay in England indefinitely . Devout , she began to believe that it was God 's will that she marry the prince despite his opposition .
= = Early reign = =
Henry VII died on 21 April 1509 , and the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Henry succeeded him as king . Soon after his father 's burial on 10 May , Henry suddenly declared that he would indeed marry Catherine , leaving unresolved several issues concerning the papal dispensation and a missing part of the marriage portion . The new king maintained that it had been his father 's dying wish that he marry Catherine . Whether or not this was true , it was certainly convenient . Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I had been attempting to marry his granddaughter ( and Catherine 's niece ) Eleanor to Henry ; she had now been jilted . Henry 's wedding to Catherine was kept low @-@ key and was held at the friar 's church in Greenwich on 11 June 1509 . On 23 June 1509 , Henry led the now 23 @-@ year @-@ old Catherine from the Tower of London to Westminster Abbey for their coronation , which took place the following day . It was a grand affair : the king 's passage was lined with tapestries and laid with fine cloth . Following the ceremony , there was a grand banquet in Westminster Hall . As Catherine wrote to her father , " our time is spent in continuous festival " .
Two days after Henry 's coronation , he arrested his father 's two most unpopular ministers , Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley . They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510 . Historian Ian Crofton has maintained that such executions would become Henry 's primary tactic for dealing with those who stood in his way ; the two executions were certainly not the last . Henry also returned to the public some of the money supposedly extorted by the two ministers . By contrast , Henry 's view of the House of York – potential rival claimants for the throne – was more moderate than his father 's had been . Several who had been imprisoned by his father , including the Marquess of Dorset , were pardoned . Others ( most notably Edmund de la Pole ) went unreconciled ; de la Pole was eventually beheaded in 1513 , an execution prompted by his brother Richard siding against the king .
Soon after , Catherine conceived , but the child , a girl , was stillborn on 31 January 1510 . About four months later , Catherine again became pregnant . On New Year 's Day 1511 , the child – Henry – was born . After the grief of losing their first child , the couple were pleased to have a boy and there were festivities to celebrate , including a jousting tournament . However , the child died seven weeks later . Catherine had two stillborn sons in 1514 and 1515 , but gave birth in February 1516 to a girl , Mary . Relations between Henry and Catherine had been strained , but they eased slightly after Mary 's birth .
Although Henry 's marriage to Catherine has since been described as " unusually good " , it is known that Henry took mistresses . It was revealed in 1510 that Henry had been conducting an affair with one of the sisters of Edward Stafford , 3rd Duke of Buckingham , either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings , Countess of Huntingdon . The most significant mistress for about three years , starting in 1516 , was Elizabeth Blount . Blount is one of only two completely undisputed mistresses , few for a virile young king . Exactly how many Henry had is disputed : David Loades believes Henry had mistresses " only to a very limited extent " , whilst Alison Weir believes there were numerous other affairs . Catherine did not protest , and in 1518 fell pregnant again with another girl , who was also stillborn . Blount gave birth in June 1519 to Henry 's illegitimate son , Henry FitzRoy . The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to his eventual legitimisation . In 1533 , FitzRoy married Mary Howard , but died childless three years later . At the time of Richmond 's death in June 1536 , Parliament was enacting the Second Succession Act , which could have allowed him to become king .
= = France and the Habsburgs = =
In 1510 , France , with a fragile alliance with the Holy Roman Empire in the League of Cambrai , was winning a war against Venice . Henry renewed his father 's friendship with Louis XII of France , an issue that divided his council . Certainly war with the combined might of the two powers would have been exceedingly difficult . Shortly thereafter , however , Henry also signed a pact with Ferdinand . After the creation of the anti @-@ French Holy League by Pope Julius II in October 1511 , Henry , following Ferdinand 's lead , brought England into the League . An initial joint Anglo @-@ Spanish attack on Aquitaine was planned for the spring to recover it for England . It appeared to be the start of making Henry 's dreams of ruling France a reality . The attack , following a formal declaration of war in April 1512 , was not led by Henry personally and was a considerable failure ; Ferdinand used it simply to further his own ends , and it strained the Anglo @-@ Spanish alliance . Nevertheless , the French were pushed out of Italy soon after , and the alliance survived , with both parties keen to win further victories over the French . Henry then pulled off a diplomatic coup by convincing the Emperor to join the Holy League . Remarkably , Henry had also secured the promised title of " Most Christian King of France " , and possibly coronation by the Pope himself in Paris , if only Louis could be defeated .
On 30 June 1513 , Henry invaded France , and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs – a relatively minor result , but one which was seized on by the English for propaganda purposes . Soon after , the English took Thérouanne and handed it over to Maximillian ; Tournai , a more significant settlement , followed . Henry had led the army personally , complete with large entourage . His absence from the country , however , had prompted his brother @-@ in @-@ law , James IV of Scotland , to invade England at the behest of Louis . Nevertheless , the English army , overseen by Queen Catherine , decisively defeated the Scots at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513 . Among the dead was the Scottish king , thus ending Scotland 's brief involvement in the war . These campaigns had given Henry a taste of the military success he so desired . However , despite initial indications that he would pursue a 1514 campaign , Henry decided against such a move . He had been supporting Ferdinand and Maximilian financially during the campaign but had got back little ; England 's own coffers were now empty . With the replacement of Julius by Pope Leo X , who was inclined to negotiate for peace with France , Henry signed his own treaty with Louis : his sister Mary would become Louis ' wife , having previously been pledged to the younger Charles , and peace was secured for eight years , a remarkably long time .
Following the deaths of his grandfathers , Ferdinand and Maximilian , in 1516 and 1519 respectively , Charles of Austria ascended the thrones of both Spain and the Holy Roman Empire . Likewise , Francis I became king of France on Louis ' death in 1515 , leaving three relatively young rulers and an opportunity for a clean slate . Cardinal Thomas Wolsey 's careful diplomacy had resulted in the Treaty of London in 1518 , aimed at uniting the kingdoms of western Europe in the wake of a new Ottoman threat , and it seemed that peace might be secured . Henry met Francis I on 7 June 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold near Calais for a fortnight of lavish entertainment . Both hoped for friendly relations in place of the wars of the previous decade . The strong air of competition laid to rest any hopes of a renewal of the Treaty of London , however , and conflict was inevitable . Henry had more in common with Charles , whom he met once before and once after Francis . Charles brought the Empire into war with France in 1521 ; Henry offered to mediate , but little was achieved and by the end of the year Henry had aligned England with Charles . He still clung to his previous aim of restoring English lands in France , but also to securing an alliance with Burgundy and the continuing support of Charles . A small English attack in the north of France made up little ground . Charles defeated and captured Francis at Pavia , and could dictate peace ; but he believed he owed Henry nothing . Sensing this , Henry decided to take England out of the war before his ally , signing the Treaty of the More on 30 August 1525 .
= = Annulment from Catherine = =
During his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon , Henry conducted an affair with Mary Boleyn , Catherine 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting . There has been speculation that Mary 's two children , Henry and Catherine Carey , were fathered by Henry , but this has never been proved and the King never acknowledged them as he did Henry FitzRoy . In 1525 , as Henry grew more impatient with Catherine 's inability to produce the male heir he desired , he became enamoured of Mary 's sister , Anne , then a charismatic young woman of 25 in the Queen 's entourage . Anne , however , resisted his attempts to seduce her , and refused to become his mistress as her sister Mary Boleyn had . It was in this context that Henry considered his three options for finding a dynastic successor and hence resolving what came to be described at court as the King 's " great matter " . These options were legitimising Henry FitzRoy , which would take the intervention of the pope and would be open to challenge ; marrying off Mary as soon as possible and hoping for a grandson to inherit directly , but Mary was considered unlikely to conceive before Henry 's death ; or somehow rejecting Catherine and marrying someone else of child @-@ bearing age . Probably seeing the possibility of marrying Anne , the third was ultimately the most attractive possibility to the 34 @-@ year @-@ old Henry , and it soon became the King 's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to the now 40 @-@ year @-@ old Catherine . It was a decision that would see Henry reject papal authority and initiate the English Reformation .
Henry 's precise motivations and intentions over the coming years are not widely agreed on . Henry himself , at least in the early part of his reign , was a devout and well @-@ informed Catholic to the extent that his 1521 publication Assertio Septem Sacramentorum ( " Defence of the Seven Sacraments " ) earned him the title of Fidei Defensor ( Defender of the Faith ) from Pope Leo X. The work represented a staunch defence of papal supremacy , albeit one couched in somewhat contingent terms . It is not clear exactly when Henry changed his mind on the issue as he grew more intent on a second marriage . Certainly , by 1527 he had convinced himself that in marrying Catherine , his brother 's wife , he had acted contrary to Leviticus 20 : 21 , an impediment the Pope had never had ( he now believed ) the authority to dispense with . It was this argument Henry took to Pope Clement VII in 1527 in the hope of having his marriage to Catherine annulled , forgoing at least one less openly defiant line of attack . In going public , all hope of tempting Catherine to retire to a nunnery or otherwise stay quiet were lost . Henry sent his secretary , William Knight , to appeal directly to the Holy See by way of a deceptively worded draft papal bull . Knight was unsuccessful ; the Pope could not be misled so easily .
Other missions concentrated on arranging an ecclesiastical court to meet in England , with a representative from Clement VII . Though Clement agreed to the creation of such a court , he never had any intention of empowering his legate , Lorenzo Campeggio , to decide in Henry 's favour . This bias was perhaps the result of pressure from Charles V , Catherine 's nephew , though it is not clear how far this influenced either Campeggio or the Pope . After less than two months of hearing evidence , Clement called the case back to Rome in July 1529 , from which it was clear that it would never re @-@ emerge . With the chance for an annulment lost and England 's place in Europe forfeit , Wolsey bore the blame . He was charged with praemunire in October 1529 and his fall from grace was " sudden and total " . Briefly reconciled with Henry ( and officially pardoned ) in the first half of 1530 , he was charged once more in November 1530 , this time for treason , but died while awaiting trial . After a short period in which Henry took government upon his own shoulders , Sir Thomas More took on the role of Lord Chancellor and chief minister . Intelligent and able , but also a devout Catholic and opponent of the annulment , More initially cooperated with the king 's new policy , denouncing Wolsey in Parliament .
A year later , Catherine was banished from court , and her rooms were given to Anne . Anne was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her time , and was keenly absorbed and engaged with the ideas of the Protestant Reformers , though the extent to which she herself was a committed Protestant is much debated . When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died , Anne 's influence and the need to find a trustworthy supporter of the annulment had Thomas Cranmer appointed to the vacant position . This was approved by the Pope , unaware of the King 's nascent plans for the Church .
= = Marriage to Anne Boleyn = =
In the winter of 1532 , Henry met with Francis I at Calais and enlisted the support of the French king for his new marriage . Immediately upon returning to Dover in England , Henry , now 41 , and Anne , now 32 , went through a secret wedding service . She soon became pregnant , and there was a second wedding service in London on 25 January 1533 . On 23 May 1533 , Cranmer , sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the king 's marriage to Catherine of Aragon , declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void . Five days later , on 28 May 1533 , Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid . Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen , becoming instead " princess dowager " as the widow of Arthur . In her place , Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533 . The queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533 . The child was christened Elizabeth , in honour of Henry 's mother , Elizabeth of York .
Following the marriage , there was a period of consolidation taking the form of a series of statutes of the Reformation Parliament aimed at finding solutions to any remaining issues , whilst protecting the new reforms from challenge , convincing the public of their legitimacy , and exposing and dealing with opponents . Although the canon law was dealt with at length by Cranmer and others , these acts were advanced by Thomas Cromwell , Thomas Audley and the Duke of Norfolk and indeed by Henry himself . With this process complete , in May 1532 More resigned as Lord Chancellor , leaving Cromwell as Henry 's chief minister . With the Act of Succession 1533 , Catherine 's daughter , Mary , was declared illegitimate ; Henry 's marriage to Anne was declared legitimate ; and Anne 's issue was decided to be next in the line of succession . With the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 , Parliament also recognised the King 's status as head of the church in England and , with the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1532 , abolished the right of appeal to Rome . It was only then that Pope Clement took the step of excommunicating Henry and Thomas Cranmer , although the excommunication was not made official until some time later .
The king and queen were not pleased with married life . The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection , but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her . The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for the largely ceremonial role of a royal wife and it made her many enemies . For his part , Henry disliked Anne 's constant irritability and violent temper . After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534 , he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal . As early as Christmas 1534 , Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine . Henry is traditionally believed to have had an affair with Margaret ( " Madge " ) Shelton in 1535 , although historian Antonia Fraser argues that Henry in fact had an affair with her sister Mary Shelton .
Opposition to Henry 's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England . A number of dissenting monks , including the first Carthusian Martyrs , were executed and many more pilloried . The most prominent resisters included John Fisher , Bishop of Rochester , and Sir Thomas More , both of whom refused to take the oath to the King . Neither Henry nor Cromwell sought to have the men executed ; rather , they hoped that the two might change their minds and save themselves . Fisher openly rejected Henry as supreme head of the Church , but More was careful to avoid openly breaking the Treason Act , which ( unlike later acts ) did not forbid mere silence . Both men were subsequently convicted of high treason , however – More on the evidence of a single conversation with Richard Rich , the Solicitor General . Both were duly executed in the summer of 1535 .
These suppressions , as well as the Dissolution of the Lesser Monasteries Act of 1536 , in turn contributed to more general resistance to Henry 's reforms , most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace , a large uprising in northern England in October 1536 . Some 20 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 rebels were led by Robert Aske , together with parts of the northern nobility . Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues . Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home . Henry saw the rebels as traitors and did not feel obliged to keep his promises with them , so when further violence occurred after Henry 's offer of a pardon he was quick to break his promise of clemency . The leaders , including Aske , were arrested and executed for treason . In total , about 200 rebels were executed , and the disturbances ended .
= = Execution of Anne Boleyn = =
On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died . Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine 's death . The queen was pregnant again , and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son . Later that month , the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured and it seemed for a time that the king 's life was in danger . When news of this accident reached the queen , she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child that was about 15 weeks old , on the day of Catherine 's funeral , 29 January 1536 . For most observers , this personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage . Given the king 's desperate desire for a son , the sequence of Anne 's pregnancies has attracted much interest . Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth 's birth and before the birth of the male child she miscarried in 1536 . Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533 , a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534 , and the miscarriage of a male child , of almost four months gestation , in January 1536 .
Although the Boleyn family still held important positions on the Privy Council , Anne had many enemies , including the Duke of Suffolk . Even her own uncle , the Duke of Norfolk , had come to resent her attitude to her power . The Boleyns preferred France over the Emperor as a potential ally , and the King 's favour had swung towards the latter ( partly because of Cromwell ) , damaging the family 's influence . Also opposed to Anne were supporters of reconciliation with Princess Mary ( among them the former supporters of Catherine ) , who had reached maturity . A second annulment was now a real possibility , although it is commonly believed that it was Cromwell 's anti @-@ Boleyn influence that led opponents to look for a way of having her executed .
Anne 's downfall came shortly after she had recovered from her final miscarriage . Whether it was primarily the result of allegations of conspiracy , adultery , or witchcraft remains a matter of debate among historians . Early signs of a fall from grace included the King 's new mistress , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Jane Seymour , being moved into new quarters , and Anne 's brother , George Boleyn , being refused the Order of the Garter , which was instead given to Nicholas Carew . Between 30 April and 2 May , five men , including Anne 's brother , were arrested on charges of treasonable adultery and accused of having sexual relationships with the queen . Anne was also arrested , accused of treasonous adultery and incest . Although the evidence against them was unconvincing , the accused were found guilty and condemned to death . George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536 . At 8 am on 19 May 1536 , Anne , age 36 , was executed on Tower Green .
= = Marriage to Jane Seymour ; domestic and foreign affairs = =
The day after Anne 's execution in 1536 the 45 @-@ year @-@ old Henry became engaged to Seymour , who had been one of the Queen 's ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . They were married ten days later . On 12 October 1537 , Jane gave birth to a son , Prince Edward , the future Edward VI . The birth was difficult , and the queen died on 24 October 1537 from an infection and was buried in Windsor . The euphoria that had accompanied Edward 's birth became sorrow , but it was only over time that Henry came to long for his wife . At the time , Henry recovered quickly from the shock . Measures were immediately put in place to find another wife for Henry , which , at the insistence of Cromwell and the court , were focused on the European continent .
With Charles V distracted by the internal politics of his many kingdoms and external threats , and Henry and Francis on relatively good terms , domestic and not foreign policy issues had been Henry 's priority in the first half of the 1530s . In 1536 , for example , Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Act 1535 , which legally annexed Wales , uniting England and Wales into a single nation . This was followed by the Second Succession Act ( the Act of Succession 1536 ) , which declared Henry 's children by Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both Mary and Elizabeth illegitimate , thus excluding them from the throne . The king was also granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will , should he have no further issue . However , when Charles and Francis made peace in January 1539 , Henry became increasingly paranoid , perhaps as a result of receiving a constant list of threats to the kingdom ( real or imaginary , minor , or serious ) supplied by Cromwell in his role as spymaster . Enriched by the dissolution of the monasteries , Henry used some of his financial reserves to build a series of coastal defences and set some aside for use in the event of a Franco @-@ German invasion .
= = Marriage to Anne of Cleves = =
Having considered the matter , Cromwell , now Earl of Essex , suggested Anne , the 25 @-@ year @-@ old sister of the Duke of Cleves , who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England , for the duke fell between Lutheranism and Catholicism . Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the king . Despite speculation that Holbein painted her in an overly flattering light , it is more likely that the portrait was accurate ; Holbein remained in favour at court . After seeing Holbein 's portrait , and urged on by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers , the 49 @-@ year @-@ old king agreed to wed Anne . However , it was not long before Henry wished to annul the marriage so he could marry another . Anne did not argue , and confirmed that the marriage had never been consummated . Anne 's previous betrothal to the Duke of Lorraine 's son provided further grounds for the annulment . The marriage was subsequently dissolved , and Anne received the title of " The King 's Sister " , two houses and a generous allowance . It was soon clear that Henry had fallen for the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Catherine Howard , the Duke of Norfolk 's niece , the politics of which worried Cromwell , for Norfolk was a political opponent .
Shortly after , the religious reformers ( and protégés of Cromwell ) Robert Barnes , William Jerome and Thomas Garret were burned as heretics . Cromwell , meanwhile , fell out of favour although it is unclear exactly why , for there is little evidence of differences of domestic or foreign policy . Despite his role , he was never formally accused of being responsible for Henry 's failed marriage . Cromwell was now surrounded by enemies at court , with Norfolk also able to draw on his niece 's position . Cromwell was charged with treason , selling export licences , granting passports , and drawing up commissions without permission , and may also have been blamed for the failure of the foreign policy that accompanied the attempted marriage to Anne . He was subsequently attainted and beheaded .
= = Marriage to Catherine Howard = =
On 28 July 1540 ( the same day Cromwell was executed ) , Henry married the young Catherine Howard , a first cousin and lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of Anne Boleyn . He was absolutely delighted with his new queen , and awarded her the lands of Cromwell and a vast array of jewellery . Soon after the marriage , however , Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier Thomas Culpeper . She also employed Francis Dereham , who had previously been informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage , as her secretary . The court was informed of her affair with Dereham whilst Henry was away ; they dispatched Thomas Cranmer to investigate , who brought evidence of Queen Catherine 's previous affair with Dereham to the king 's notice . Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations , Dereham confessed . It took another meeting of the council , however , before Henry believed the accusations against Dereham and went into a rage , blaming the council before consoling himself in hunting . When questioned , the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham , which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid , but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship . Dereham , meanwhile , exposed Queen Catherine 's relationship with Culpeper . Culpeper and Dereham were both executed , and Catherine too was beheaded on 13 February 1542 .
= = Shrines destroyed and monasteries dissolved = =
In 1538 , the chief minister T. Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what is termed " idolatry " by the followers of the old religion , culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury . As a consequence , the king was excommunicated by the Pope Paul III on 17 December of the same year . In 1540 , Henry sanctioned the complete destruction of shrines to saints . In 1542 , England 's remaining monasteries were all dissolved , and their property transferred to the Crown . Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords ; only archbishops and bishops remained . Consequently , the Lords Spiritual – as members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known – were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal .
= = Second invasion of France and the " Rough Wooing " of Scotland = =
The 1539 alliance between Francis and Charles had soured , eventually degenerating into renewed war . With Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn dead , relations between Charles and Henry improved considerably , and Henry concluded a secret alliance with the Emperor and decided to enter the Italian War in favour of his new ally . An invasion of France was planned for 1543 . In preparation for it , Henry moved to eliminate the potential threat of Scotland under the youthful James V. Victory would continue the Reformation in Scotland , which was still Catholic , and Henry hoped to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by marriage of James ' daughter , the future Mary , Queen of Scots , to his son Edward . Henry made war on Scotland for several years in pursuit of this goal , a campaign dubbed by Victorian chroniclers as " the Rough Wooing " .
The Scots were defeated at Battle of Solway Moss on 24 November 1542 , and James died on 15 December . The Scottish Regent Arran agreed to the marriage in the Treaty of Greenwich on 1 July 1543 .
Despite the success with Scotland , Henry hesitated to invade France , annoying Charles . Henry finally went to France in June 1544 with a two @-@ pronged attack . One force under Norfolk ineffectively besieged Montreuil . The other , under Suffolk , laid siege to Boulogne . Henry later took personal command , and Boulogne fell on 18 September 1544 . However , Henry had refused Charles ' request to march against Paris . Charles ' own campaign fizzled , and he made peace with France that same day . Henry was left alone against France , unable to make peace . Francis attempted to invade England in the summer of 1545 , but reached only the Isle of Wight before being repulsed . Out of money , France and England signed the Treaty of Camp on 7 June 1546 . Henry secured Boulogne for eight years . The city was then to be returned to France for 2 million crowns ( £ 750 @,@ 000 ) . Henry needed the money ; the 1544 campaign had cost £ 650 @,@ 000 , and England was once again bankrupt .
Meanwhile , though Henry still clung to the Treaty of Greenwich , the Scots repudiated it in December 1543 . Henry launched another war on Scotland , sending an army to burn Edinburgh and lay waste to the country . The Scots would not submit , though . Defeat at Ancrum Moor prompted a second invasion force . This war was nominally ended by the Treaty of Camp , although unrest continued in Scotland , including French and English interventions , up to Henry 's death .
= = Marriage to Catherine Parr = =
Henry married his last wife , the wealthy widow Catherine Parr , in July 1543 . A reformer at heart , she argued with Henry over religion . Ultimately , Henry remained committed to an idiosyncratic mixture of Catholicism and Protestantism ; the reactionary mood which had gained ground following the fall of Cromwell had neither eliminated his Protestant streak nor been overcome by it . Parr helped reconcile Henry with his daughters Mary and Elizabeth . In 1543 , an Act of Parliament put the daughters back in the line of succession after Edward , Prince of Wales . The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will .
= = Physical decline = =
Late in life , Henry became obese , with a waist measurement of 54 inches ( 140 cm ) , and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical inventions . He was covered with painful , pus @-@ filled boils and possibly suffered from gout . His obesity and other medical problems can be traced from the jousting accident in 1536 , in which he suffered a leg wound . The accident re @-@ opened and aggravated a previous injury he had sustained years earlier , to the extent that his doctors found it difficult to treat . The wound festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated , thus preventing him from maintaining the level of physical activity he had previously enjoyed . The jousting accident is also believed to have caused Henry 's mood swings , which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament .
The theory that Henry suffered from syphilis has been dismissed by most historians . A more recent theory suggests that Henry 's medical symptoms are characteristic of untreated type 2 diabetes . Alternatively , his wives ' pattern of pregnancies and his mental deterioration have led some to suggest that the king may have been Kell positive and suffered from McLeod syndrome . According to another study , Henry VIII 's history and body morphology may have been the result of traumatic brain injury after his 1536 jousting accident , which in turn led to a neuroendocrine cause of his obesity . This analysis identifies growth hormone deficiency ( GHD ) as the source for his increased adiposity but also significant behavioural changes noted in his later years , including his multiple marriages .
= = Death and burial = =
Henry 's obesity hastened his death at the age of 55 , which occurred on 28 January 1547 in the Palace of Whitehall , on what would have been his father 's 90th birthday . He allegedly uttered his last words : " Monks ! Monks ! Monks ! " perhaps in reference to the monks he caused to be evicted during the Dissolution of the Monasteries .
On 14 February 1547 Henry 's coffin lay overnight at Syon Monastery , en route for burial in St George 's Chapel , Windsor . Twelve years before in 1535 a Franciscan friar named William Peyto ( or Peto , Petow ) ( died 1558 or 1559 ) , had preached before the King at Greenwich Palace " that God 's judgements were ready to fall upon his head and that dogs would lick his blood , as they had done to Ahab " , whose infamy rests upon 1 Kings 16 : 33 : " And Ahab did more to provoke the Lord God of Israel to anger than all the kings of Israel that were before him " . The prophecy was said to have been fulfilled during this night at Syon , when some " corrupted matter of a bloody colour " fell from the coffin to the floor .
Henry VIII was interred in St George 's Chapel in Windsor Castle , next to Jane Seymour . Over a hundred years later , King Charles I ( 1625 – 1649 ) was buried in the same vault .
= = Succession = =
After his death , Henry 's only legitimate son , Edward , inherited the Crown , becoming Edward VI ( 1547 – 1553 ) . Since Edward was then only nine years old , he could not exercise actual power . Rather , Henry 's will designated 16 executors to serve on a council of regency until Edward reached the age of 18 . The executors chose Edward Seymour , 1st Earl of Hertford , Jane Seymour 's elder brother , to be Lord Protector of the Realm . If Edward went childless , the throne was to pass to Mary , Henry VIII 's daughter by Catherine of Aragon , and her heirs . If Mary 's issue failed , the crown was to go to Elizabeth , Henry 's daughter by Anne Boleyn , and her heirs . Finally , if Elizabeth 's line became extinct , the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII 's deceased younger sister , Queen Mary of France , the Greys . The descendants of Henry 's sister Margaret – the Stuarts , rulers of Scotland – were thereby excluded from the succession . This final provision failed when James VI of Scotland became James I of England upon Elizabeth 's death .
= = Public image = =
Henry cultivated the image of a Renaissance man , and his court was a centre of scholarly and artistic innovation and glamorous excess , epitomised by the Field of the Cloth of Gold . He scouted the country for choirboys , taking some directly from Wolsey 's choir , and introduced Renaissance music into court . Musicians included Benedict de Opitiis , Richard Sampson , Ambrose Lupo , and Venetian organist Dionisio Memo .
Henry himself kept a considerable collection of instruments ; he was skilled on the lute , could play the organ , and was a talented player of the virginals . He could also sight read music and sing well . He was an accomplished musician , author , and poet ; his best known piece of music is " Pastime with Good Company " ( " The Kynges Ballade " ) . He is often reputed to have written " Greensleeves " but probably did not .
He was an avid gambler and dice player , and excelled at sports , especially jousting , hunting , and real tennis . He was known for his strong defence of conventional Christian piety . The King was involved in the original construction and improvement of several significant buildings , including Nonsuch Palace , King 's College Chapel , Cambridge and Westminster Abbey in London . Many of the existing buildings Henry improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey , such as Christ Church , Oxford ; Hampton Court Palace ; the Palace of Whitehall ; and Trinity College , Cambridge .
Henry was an intellectual . The first English king with a modern humanist education , he read and wrote English , French and Latin , and was thoroughly at home in his well @-@ stocked library . He personally annotated many books and wrote and published one of his own . To promote the public support for the reformation of the church , Henry had numerous pamphlets and lectures prepared . For example , Richard Sampson 's Oratio ( 1534 ) was an argument for absolute obedience to the monarchy and claimed that the English church had always been independent from Rome . At the popular level , theatre and minstrel troupes funded by the crown travelled around the land to promote the new religious practices : the pope and Catholic priests and monks were mocked as foreign devils , while the glorious king was hailed as a brave and heroic defender of the true faith . Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power .
A large well @-@ built athlete ( over 6 feet [ 1 @.@ 8 m ] tall and strong and broad in proportion ) , Henry excelled at jousting and hunting . More than pastimes , they were political devices that served multiple goals , from enhancing his athletic royal image to impressing foreign emissaries and rulers , to conveying Henry 's ability to suppress any rebellion . Thus he arranged a jousting tournament at Greenwich in 1517 , where he wore gilded armour , gilded horse trappings , and outfits of velvet , satin and cloth of gold dripping with pearls and jewels . It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors , one of whom wrote home that , " The wealth and civilisation of the world are here , and those who call the English barbarians appear to me to render themselves such " . Henry finally retired from jousting in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse left him unconscious for two hours , but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year . He then started adding weight and lost the trim , athletic figure that had made him so handsome ; Henry 's courtiers began dressing in heavily padded clothes to emulate – and flatter – their increasingly stout monarch . Towards the end of his reign his health rapidly declined .
= = Government = =
The power of Tudor monarchs , including Henry , was ' whole ' and ' entire ' , ruling , as they claimed , by the grace of God alone . The crown could also rely on the exclusive use of those functions that constituted the royal prerogative . These included acts of diplomacy ( including royal marriages ) , declarations of war , management of the coinage , the issue of royal pardons and the power to summon and dissolve parliament as and when required . Nevertheless , as evident during Henry 's break with Rome , the monarch worked within established limits , whether legal or financial , that forced him to work closely with both the nobility and parliament ( representing the gentry ) . In practice , Tudor monarchs used patronage to maintain a royal court that included formal institutions such as the Privy Council as well as more informal advisers and confidants . Both the rise and fall of court nobles could be swift : although the often @-@ quoted figure of 72 @,@ 000 executions during his reign is inflated , Henry did undoubtedly execute at will , burning or beheading two of his wives , twenty peers , four leading public servants , six close attendants and friends , one cardinal ( John Fisher ) and numerous abbots . Among those who were in favour at any given point in Henry 's reign , one could usually be identified as a chief minister , though one of the enduring debates in the historiography of the period has been the extent to which those chief ministers controlled Henry rather than vice versa . In particular , historian G. R. Elton has argued that one such minister , Thomas Cromwell , led a " Tudor revolution in government " quite independent of the king , whom Elton presented as an opportunistic , essentially lazy participant in the nitty @-@ gritty of politics . Where Henry did intervene personally in the running of the country , Elton argued , he mostly did so to its detriment . The prominence and influence of faction in Henry 's court is similarly discussed in the context of at least five episodes of Henry 's reign , including the downfall of Anne Boleyn .
From 1514 to 1529 , however , it was Thomas Wolsey ( 1473 – 1530 ) , a cardinal of the established Church , who oversaw domestic and foreign policy for the young king from his position as Lord Chancellor . Wolsey centralised the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts , particularly the Star Chamber . The Star Chamber 's overall structure remained unchanged , but Wolsey used it to provide for much @-@ needed reform of the criminal law . The power of the court itself did not outlive Wolsey , however , since no serious administrative reform was undertaken and its role was eventually devolved to the localities . Wolsey helped fill the gap left by Henry 's declining participation in government ( particularly in comparison to his father ) but did so mostly by imposing himself in the King 's place . His use of these courts to pursue personal grievances , and particularly to treat delinquents as if mere examples of a whole class worthy of punishment , angered the rich , who were annoyed as well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living . Following Wolsey 's downfall , Henry took full control of his government , although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin and destroy each other .
Thomas Cromwell ( c . 1485 – 1540 ) also came to define Henry 's government . Returning to England from the continent in 1514 or 1515 , he soon entered Wolsey 's service . He turned to law , also picking up a good knowledge of the Bible , and was admitted to Gray 's Inn in 1524 . He became Wolsey 's " man of all work " . Cromwell , driven in part by his religious beliefs , attempted to reform the body politic of the English government through discussion and consent , and through the vehicle of continuity and not outward change . He was seen by many people as the man they wanted to bring about their shared aims , including Thomas Audley . By 1531 , Cromwell and those associated with him were already responsible for the drafting of much legislation . Cromwell 's first office was that of the master of the King 's jewels in 1532 , from which he began to invigorate the government finances . By this point , Cromwell 's power as an efficient administrator in a Council full of politicians exceeded what Wolsey had achieved . Cromwell did much work through his many offices to remove the tasks of government from the Royal Household ( and ideologically from the personal body of the King ) and into a public state . He did so , however , in a haphazard fashion that left several remnants , not least because he needed to retain Henry 's support , his own power , and the possibility of actually achieving the plan he set out . Cromwell made the various income streams put in place by Henry VII more formal and assigned largely autonomous bodies for their administration . The role of the King 's Council was transferred to a reformed Privy Council , much smaller and more efficient than its predecessor . A difference emerged between the financial health of the king , and that of the country , although Cromwell 's fall undermined much of his bureaucracy , which required his hand to keep order among the many new bodies and prevent profligate spending which strained relations as well as finances . Cromwell 's reforms ground to a halt in 1539 , the initiative lost , and he failed to secure the passage of an enabling act , the Proclamation by the Crown Act 1539 . He too was executed , on 28 July 1540 .
= = = Finances = = =
Henry inherited a vast fortune and a prosperous economy from his father Henry VII who had been frugal and careful with money . This fortune was estimated to £ 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 ( £ 375 million by today 's standards ) . However , by comparison , the reign of Henry was a near @-@ disaster in financial terms . Although he further augmented his royal treasury through the seizure of church lands , Henry 's heavy spending and long periods of mismanagement damaged the economy .
Much of this wealth was spent by Henry on maintaining his court and household , including many of the building works he undertook on royal palaces . Henry hung 2 @,@ 000 tapestries in his palaces by comparison , James V of Scotland hung just 200 . He took pride in showing off his collection of weapons , which included exotic archery equipment , 2 @,@ 250 pieces of land ordnance and 6 @,@ 500 handguns . Tudor monarchs had to fund all the expenses of government out of their own income . This income came from the Crown lands that Henry owned as well as from customs duties like tonnage and poundage , granted by parliament to the king for life . During Henry 's reign the revenues of the Crown remained constant ( around £ 100 @,@ 000 ) , but were eroded by inflation and rising prices brought about by war . Indeed , it was war and Henry 's dynastic ambitions in Europe that meant that the surplus he had inherited from his father was exhausted by the mid @-@ 1520s . Whereas Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much , Henry VIII had to turn to Parliament during his reign for money , in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars . The Dissolution of the Monasteries provided a means to replenish the treasury and as a result the Crown took possession of monastic lands worth £ 120 @,@ 000 ( £ 36 million ) a year . The Crown had profited a small amount in 1526 when Wolsey had put England onto a gold , rather than silver , standard , and had debased the currency slightly . Cromwell debased the currency more significantly , starting in Ireland in 1540 . The English pound halved in value against the Flemish pound between 1540 and 1551 as a result . The nominal profit made was significant , helping to bring income and expenditure together , but it had a catastrophic effect on the overall economy of the country . In part , it helped to bring about a period of very high inflation from 1544 onwards .
= = = Reformation = = =
Henry is generally credited with initiating the English Reformation – the process of transforming England from a Catholic country to a Protestant one – though his progress at the elite and mass levels is disputed , and the precise narrative not widely agreed . Certainly , in 1527 , Henry , until then an observant and well @-@ informed Catholic , appealed to the Pope for an annulment of his marriage to Catherine . No annulment was immediately forthcoming , the result in part of Charles V 's control of the Papacy . The traditional narrative gives this refusal as the trigger for Henry 's rejection of papal supremacy ( which he had previously defended ) , though as historian A. F. Pollard has argued , even if Henry had not needed an annulment , Henry may have come to reject papal control over the governance of England purely for political reasons .
In any case , between 1532 and 1537 , Henry instituted a number of statutes that dealt with the relationship between king and pope and hence the structure of the nascent Church of England . These included the Statute in Restraint of Appeals ( passed 1533 ) , which extended the charge of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England , potentially exposing them to the death penalty if found guilty . Other acts included the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the Submission of the Clergy , which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church . The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign . The Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared that the King was " the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England " and the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason , punishable by death , to refuse the Oath of Supremacy acknowledging the King as such . Similarly , following the passage of the Act of Succession 1533 , all adults in the Kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act 's provisions ( declaring Henry 's marriage to Anne legitimate and his marriage to Catherine illegitimate ) by oath ; those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life , and any publisher or printer of any literature alleging that the marriage to Anne was invalid subject to the death penalty . Finally , the Peter 's Pence Act was passed , and it reiterated that England had " no superior under God , but only your Grace " and that Henry 's " imperial crown " had been diminished by " the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions " of the Pope . The King had much support from the Church under Cranmer .
Henry , to Thomas Cromwell 's annoyance , insisted on parliamentary time to discuss questions of faith , which he achieved through the Duke of Norfolk . This led to the passing of the Act of Six Articles , whereby six major questions were all answered by asserting the religious orthodoxy , thus restraining the reform movement in England . It was followed by the beginnings of a reformed liturgy and of the Book of Common Prayer , which would take until 1549 to complete . The victory won by religious conservatives did not convert into much change in personnel , however , and Cranmer remained in his position . Overall , the rest of Henry 's reign saw a subtle movement away from religious orthodoxy , helped in part by the deaths of prominent figures from before the break with Rome , especially the executions of Thomas More and John Fisher in 1535 for refusing to renounce papal authority . Henry established a new political theology of obedience to the crown that was continued for the next decade . It reflected Martin Luther 's new interpretation of the fourth commandment ( " Honour thy father and mother " ) , brought to England by William Tyndale . The founding of royal authority on the Ten Commandments was another important shift : reformers within the Church utilised the Commandments ' emphasis on faith and the word of God , while conservatives emphasised the need for dedication to God and doing good . The reformers ' efforts lay behind the publication of the Great Bible in 1539 in English . Protestant Reformers still faced persecution , particularly over objections to Henry 's annulment . Many fled abroad , including the influential Tyndale , who was eventually executed and his body burned at Henry 's behest .
When taxes once payable to Rome were transferred to the Crown , Cromwell saw the need to assess the taxable value of the Church 's extensive holdings as they stood in 1535 . The result was an extensive compendium , the Valor Ecclesiasticus . In September of the same year , Cromwell commissioned a more general visitation of religious institutions , to be undertaken by four appointee visitors . The visitation focussed almost exclusively on the country 's religious houses , with largely negative conclusions . In addition to reporting back to Cromwell , the visitors made the lives of the monks more difficult by enforcing strict behavioural standards . The result was to encourage self @-@ dissolution . In any case , the evidence gathered by Cromwell led swiftly to the beginning of the state @-@ enforced dissolution of the monasteries with all religious houses worth less than £ 200 vested by statute in the crown in January 1536 . After a short pause , surviving religious houses were transferred one by one to the Crown and onto new owners , and the dissolution confirmed by a further statute in 1539 . By January 1540 no such houses remained : some 800 had been dissolved . The process had been efficient , with minimal resistance , and brought the crown some £ 90 @,@ 000 a year . The extent to which the dissolution of all houses was planned from the start is debated by historians ; there is some evidence that major houses were originally intended only to be reformed . Cromwell 's actions transferred a fifth of England 's landed wealth to new hands . The programme was designed primarily to create a landed gentry beholden to the crown , which would use the lands much more efficiently . Although little opposition to the supremacy could be found in England 's religious houses , they had links to the international church and were an obstacle to further religious reform .
Response to the reforms was mixed . The religious houses had been the only support of the impoverished , and the reforms alienated much of the population outside London , helping to provoke the great northern rising of 1536 – 1537 , known as the Pilgrimage of Grace . Elsewhere the changes were accepted and welcomed , and those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy . They would re @-@ emerge in the reign of Henry 's daughter Mary ( 1553 – 1558 ) .
= = = Military = = =
Apart from permanent garrisons at Berwick , Calais , and Carlisle , England 's standing army numbered only a few hundred men . This was increased only slightly by Henry . Henry 's invasion force of 1513 , some 30 @,@ 000 men , was composed of billmen and longbowmen , at a time when the other European nations were moving to hand guns and pikemen . The difference in capability was at this stage not significant , however , and Henry 's forces had new armour and weaponry . They were also supported by battlefield artillery , a relatively new invention , and several large and expensive siege guns . The invasion force of 1544 was similarly well @-@ equipped and organised , although command on the battlefield was laid with the dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk , which in the case of the latter produced disastrous results at Montreuil .
Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the Royal Navy . Technologically , Henry invested in large cannon for his warships , an idea that had taken hold in other countries , to replace the smaller serpentines in use . He also flirted with designing ships personally – although his contribution to larger vessels , if any , is not known , it is believed that he influenced the design of rowbarges and similar galleys . Henry was also responsible for the creation of a permanent navy , with the supporting anchorages and dockyards . Tactically , Henry 's reign saw the Navy move away from boarding tactics to employ gunnery instead . The Navy was enlarged up to fifty ships ( the Mary Rose was one of them ) , and Henry was responsible for the establishment of the " council for marine causes " to specifically oversee all the maintenance and operation of the Navy , becoming the basis for the later Admiralty .
Henry 's break with Rome incurred the threat of a large @-@ scale French or Spanish invasion . To guard against this , in 1538 , he began to build a chain of expensive , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art defences , along Britain 's southern and eastern coasts from Kent to Cornwall , largely built of material gained from the demolition of the monasteries . These were known as Henry VIII 's Device Forts . He also strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses such as Dover Castle and , at Dover , Moat Bulwark and Archcliffe Fort , which he personally visited for a few months to supervise . Wolsey had many years before conducted the censuses required for an overhaul of the system of militia , but no reform came of it . Under Cromwell , in 1538 – 9 , the shire musters were overhauled , but Cromwell 's work served most to demonstrate quite how inadequate they were in organisation . The building works , including that at Berwick , along with the reform of the militias and musters , were eventually finished under Queen Mary .
= = = Ireland = = =
At the beginning of Henry 's reign , Ireland was effectively divided into three zones : the Pale , where English rule was unchallenged ; Leinster and Munster , the so @-@ called " obedient land " of Anglo @-@ Irish peers ; and the Gaelic Connaught and Ulster , with merely nominal English rule . Until 1513 , Henry continued the policy of his father , to allow Irish lords to rule in the king 's name and accept steep divisions between the communities . However , upon the death of the 8th Earl of Kildare , governor of Ireland , fractious Irish politics combined with a more ambitious Henry to cause trouble . When Thomas Butler , 7th Earl of Ormond died , Henry recognised one successor for Ormond 's English , Welsh and Scottish lands , whilst in Ireland another took control . Kildare 's successor , the 9th Earl , was replaced as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland by Thomas Howard , Earl of Surrey in 1520 . Surrey 's ambitious aims were costly , but ineffective ; English rule became trapped between winning the Irish lords over with diplomacy , as favoured by Henry and Wolsey , and a sweeping military occupation as proposed by Surrey . Surrey was recalled in 1521 , with Piers Butler – one of claimants to the Earldom of Ormond – appointed in his place . Butler proved unable to control opposition , including that of Kildare . Kildare was appointed chief governor in 1524 , resuming his dispute with Butler , which had before been in a lull . Meanwhile , the Earl of Desmond , an Anglo @-@ Irish peer , had turned his support to Richard de la Pole as pretender to the English throne ; when in 1528 Kildare failed to take suitable actions against him , Kildare was once again removed from his post .
The Desmond situation was resolved on his death in 1529 , which was followed by a period of uncertainty . This was effectively ended with the appointment of Henry FitzRoy , Duke of Richmond and the king 's son , as lord lieutenant . Richmond had never before visited Ireland , his appointment a break with past policy . For a time it looked as if peace might be restored with the return of Kildare to Ireland to manage the tribes , but the effect was limited and the Irish parliament soon rendered ineffective . Ireland began to receive the attention of Cromwell , who had supporters of Ormond and Desmond promoted . Kildare , on the other hand , was summoned to London ; after some hesitation , he departed for London in 1534 , where he would face charges of treason . His son , Thomas , Lord Offaly was more forthright , denouncing the king and leading a " Catholic crusade " against the king , who was by this time mired in marital problems . Offaly had the Archbishop of Dublin murdered , and besieged Dublin . Offaly led a mixture of Pale gentry and Irish tribes , although he failed to secure the support of Lord Darcy , a sympathiser , or Charles V. What was effectively a civil war was ended with the intervention of 2 @,@ 000 English troops – a large army by Irish standards – and the execution of Offaly ( his father was already dead ) and his uncles .
Although the Offaly revolt was followed by a determination to rule Ireland more closely , Henry was wary of drawn @-@ out conflict with the tribes , and a royal commission recommended that the only relationship with the tribes was to be promises of peace , their land protected from English expansion . The man to lead this effort was Sir Antony St Leger , as Lord Deputy of Ireland , who would remain into the post past Henry 's death . Until the break with Rome , it was widely believed that Ireland was a Papal possession granted as a mere fiefdom to the English king , so in 1541 Henry asserted England 's claim to the Kingdom of Ireland free from the Papal overlordship . This change did , however , also allow a policy of peaceful reconciliation and expansion : the Lords of Ireland would grant their lands to the King , before being returned as fiefdoms . The incentive to comply with Henry 's request was an accompanying barony , and thus a right to sit in the Irish House of Lords , which was to run in parallel with England 's . The Irish law of the tribes did not suit such an arrangement , because the chieftain did not have the required rights ; this made progress tortuous , and the plan was abandoned in 1543 , not to be replaced .
= = Historiography = =
The complexities and sheer scale of Henry 's legacy ensured that , in the words of Betteridge and Freeman , " throughout the centuries [ since his death ] , Henry has been praised and reviled , but he has never been ignored " . A particular focus of modern historiography has been the extent to which the events of Henry 's life ( including his marriages , foreign policy and religious changes ) were the result of his own initiative and , if they were , whether they were the result of opportunism or of a principled undertaking by Henry . The traditional interpretation of those events was provided by historian A.F. Pollard , who in 1902 presented his own , largely positive , view of the king , " laud [ ing him ] as the king and statesman who , whatever his personal failings , led England down the road to parliamentary democracy and empire " . Pollard 's interpretation , which was broadly comparable to 17th century publications of Lord Herbert of Cherbury and his contemporaries , remained the dominant interpretation of Henry 's life until the publication of the doctoral thesis of G. R. Elton in 1953 . That thesis , entitled " The Tudor Revolution in Government " , maintained Pollard 's positive interpretation of the Henrician period as a whole , but reinterpreted Henry himself as a follower rather than a leader . For Elton , it was Cromwell and not Henry who undertook the changes in government – Henry was shrewd , but lacked the vision to follow a complex plan through . Henry was little more , in other words , than an " ego @-@ centric monstrosity " whose reign " owed its successes and virtues to better and greater men about him ; most of its horrors and failures sprang more directly from [ the king ] " .
Although the central tenets of Elton 's thesis have now been all but abandoned , it has consistently provided the starting point for much later work , including that of J. J. Scarisbrick , his student . Scarisbrick largely kept Elton 's regard for Cromwell 's abilities , but returned agency to Henry , who Scarisbrick considered to have ultimately directed and shaped policy . For Scarisbrick , Henry was a formidable , captivating man who " wore regality with a splendid conviction " . The effect of endowing Henry with this ability , however , was largely negative in Scarisbrick 's eyes : to Scarisbrick the Henrician period was one of upheaval and destruction and those in charge worthy of blame more than praise . Even among more recent biographers , including David Loades , David Starkey and John Guy , there has ultimately been little consensus on the extent to which Henry was responsible for the changes he oversaw or the correct assessment of those he did bring about .
This lack of clarity about Henry 's control over events has contributed to the variation in the qualities ascribed to him : religious conservative or dangerous radical ; lover of beauty or brutal destroyer of priceless artefacts ; friend and patron or betrayer of those around him ; chivalry incarnate or ruthless chauvinist . One traditional approach , favoured by Starkey and others , is to divide Henry 's reign into two halves , the first Henry being dominated by positive qualities ( politically inclusive , pious , athletic but also intellectual ) who presided over a period of stability and calm , and the latter a " hulking tyrant " who presided over a period of dramatic , sometimes whimsical , change . Other writers have tried to merge Henry 's disparate personality into a single whole ; Lacey Baldwin Smith , for example , considered him an egotistical borderline neurotic given to great fits of temper and deep and dangerous suspicions , with a mechanical and conventional , but deeply held piety , and having at best a mediocre intellect .
= = Style and arms = =
Many changes were made to the royal style during his reign . Henry originally used the style " Henry the Eighth , by the Grace of God , King of England , France and Lord of Ireland " . In 1521 , pursuant to a grant from Pope Leo X rewarding Henry for his Defence of the Seven Sacraments , the royal style became " Henry the Eighth , by the Grace of God , King of England and France , Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland " . Following Henry 's excommunication , Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title " Defender of the Faith " , but an Act of Parliament declared that it remained valid ; and it continues in royal usage to the present day . Henry 's motto was " Coeur Loyal " ( " true heart " ) , and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word " loyal " . His emblem was the Tudor rose and the Beaufort portcullis . As king , Henry 's arms were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV : Quarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lys Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) .
In 1535 , Henry added the " supremacy phrase " to the royal style , which became " Henry the Eighth , by the Grace of God , King of England and France , Defender of the Faith , Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head " . In 1536 , the phrase " of the Church of England " changed to " of the Church of England and also of Ireland " . In 1541 , Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title " Lord of Ireland " to " King of Ireland " with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542 , after being advised that many Irish people regarded the Pope as the true head of their country , with the Lord acting as a mere representative . The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that Ireland had originally been given to King Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV in the 12th century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship . The meeting of Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry VIII as King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo @-@ Irish aristocrats . The style " Henry the Eighth , by the Grace of God , King of England , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head " remained in use until the end of Henry 's reign .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Marriages and issue = =
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= God with Us ( song ) =
" God With Us " is a song written and performed Christian rock band MercyMe . The song is lyrically a worship song , inspired by a question used by lead singer Bart Millard 's pastor .
Released as the lead single from MercyMe 's 2007 album All That Is Within Me , " God With Us " peaked at No. 1 on both the Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts , and was ranked at No. 3 and No. 4 on the 2008 year @-@ end charts , respectively . The song also ranked at No. 12 on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart , and No. 19 on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart .
= = Background = =
" God with Us " was the first song written for MercyMe 's album All That Is Within Me , as well as the song the band based the rest of the album around . The song 's lyrics were inspired by the question " Why does God look our way ? " , which the band 's lead singer Bart Millard 's pastor used to ask to his congregation . Millard could not get this idea out of his head , and wanted to create a song around this idea . " God with Us " was designed for the church , as well as to be used in worship .
" God with Us " was written and composed by MercyMe . It was produced by Brown Bannister , and the strings on the song were recorded by the London Session Orchestra .
= = Composition = =
" God With Us " is a worship song with a length of five minutes and fifty @-@ two seconds . It is set in common time and in the key of A major , with a moderate tempo of 92 beats per minute , and a vocal range spanning from A3 – E5 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reception to " God With Us " was generally positive . Mike Parker of Today 's Christian Music commented that " “ God With Us , ” a superlative , six @-@ minute marathon , may be the best cut on the album " , also opining that " With plenty of time to sink its teeth into the song , the band delivers more emotion than on any tune since “ I Can Only Imagine " . Kevin McNeese of New Release Tuesday called the song a " worship @-@ filled moment " , while Jay Heilman of Christian Music Review opined that the song is " a reminder of how compassionate and loving the Lord is of us " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" God With Us " debuted at No. 17 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart . It advanced to No. 13 in its second week , and to No. 8 in its third . In its fifth chart week , " God With Us " advanced to No. 4 , a spot it held for an additional two weeks . In its ninth chart week , the song advanced to No. 1 , a spot it held for three weeks before being supplanted by " East to West " by Casting Crowns . The song dropped to No. 2 in its twelfth chart week and held that spot for three weeks before advancing back into No. 1 and holding at that spot for five weeks . In its twentieth chart week , " God With Us " fell to No. 2 , removed from the top spot by Matthew West 's " You Are Everything " , and held that spot for three weeks . " God With Us " dropped out of the top five in its twenty @-@ ninth chart week , falling to No. 6 , and dropped out of the top ten in its thirty @-@ fifth chart week . In all , " God With Us " spent a total of thirty @-@ eight weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart , eight of them at No. 1 .
" God With Us " also peaked at No. 1 on the Hot Christian AC chart , and spent a total of thirty @-@ eight weeks on the chart . In Billboard 's 2008 year @-@ end charts , " God With Us " ranked at No. 3 on the Hot Christian Songs chart ; only " You Are Everything " by Matthew West and " Call My Name " by Third Day ranked higher . Billboard also ranked the song at No. 4 on the year @-@ end Hot Christian AC chart , with only " You Are Everything " by Matthew West , " Let It Fade " by Jeremy Camp , and " Call My Name " by Third Day ranking higher . The song ranked on Billboard 's 2000s decade @-@ end charts , at No. 12 on the Hot Christian AC chart and No. 19 on the Hot Christian Songs chart .
= = Live performances = =
MercyMe has performed " God with Us " live on concert tours . At the concert which took place on 4 November 2011 at the Van Andel Arena in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the band performed " God with Us " as part of their setlist . At a concert in Council Bluffs , Iowa , the band , dressed in suits designed around their then @-@ upcoming album The Generous Mr. Lovewell , performed " God with Us " as the final song of their setlist . At a concert in Huntsville , Alabama , MercyMe performed " God with Us " as part of their setlist .
= = Other uses = =
" God with Us " has been included in several compilation albums , such as WOW Hits 2009 and Wow # 1s : 30 # 1 Christian Hits ! . MercyMe included both the song and a live version of the song on their 2009 compilation album 10 .
= = Music video = =
A music video was released for " God With Us " . The video features MercyMe performing in a live setting .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Decade @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= = Personnel = =
( Instrumental and composition credits lifted from Allmusic , writing credits lifted from sheet music )
Bart Millard – lead vocals , writer , composer
Jim Bryson – keyboards , piano , writer , composer
Nathan Cochran – bass guitar , writer , composer
Barry Graul – guitar , writer , composer
Mike Scheuchzer – guitar , writer , composer
Robby Shaffer – drums , writer , composer
The London Session Orchestra - strings
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= Felix Mendelssohn =
Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy ( German : [ ˈjaːkɔp ˈluːtvɪç ˈfeːlɪks ˈmɛndl ̩ szoːn baʁˈtɔldi ] ; 3 February 1809 – 4 November 1847 ) , born and widely known as Felix Mendelssohn , was a German composer , pianist , organist and conductor of the early Romantic period .
A grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn , Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family . He was brought up without religion until the age of seven , when he was baptised as a Reformed Christian . Mendelssohn was recognised early as a musical prodigy , but his parents were cautious and did not seek to capitalise on his talent .
Mendelssohn enjoyed early success in Germany , where he also revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach , and in his travels throughout Europe . He was particularly well received in Britain as a composer , conductor and soloist , and his ten visits there – during which many of his major works were premiered – form an important part of his adult career . His essentially conservative musical tastes , however , set him apart from many of his more adventurous musical contemporaries such as Franz Liszt , Richard Wagner and Hector Berlioz . The Leipzig Conservatoire ( now the University of Music and Theatre Leipzig ) , which he founded , became a bastion of this anti @-@ radical outlook .
Mendelssohn wrote symphonies , concerti , oratorios , piano music and chamber music . His best @-@ known works include his Overture and incidental music for A Midsummer Night 's Dream , the Italian Symphony , the Scottish Symphony , the overture The Hebrides , his mature Violin Concerto , and his String Octet . His Songs Without Words are his most famous solo piano compositions . After a long period of relative denigration due to changing musical tastes and antisemitism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , his creative originality has now been recognised and re @-@ evaluated . He is now among the most popular composers of the Romantic era .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Felix Mendelssohn was born on 3 February 1809 , in Hamburg , at the time an independent city @-@ state , in the same house where , a year later , the dedicatee and first performer of his Violin Concerto , Ferdinand David , was to be born . Mendelssohn 's father was the banker Abraham Mendelssohn , the son of the German Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn . His mother was Lea Salomon , a member of the Itzig family and a sister of Jakob Salomon Bartholdy . Mendelssohn was the second of four children ; his older sister Fanny also displayed exceptional and precocious musical talent .
The family moved to Berlin in 1811 , leaving Hamburg in disguise fearing French revenge for the Mendelssohn bank 's role in breaking Napoleon 's Continental System blockade . Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn sought to give their children – Fanny , Felix , Paul and Rebecka – the best education possible . Fanny became a well @-@ known pianist and amateur composer ; originally Abraham had thought that she , rather than Felix , would be the more musical . However , at that time , it was not considered proper , by either Abraham or Felix , for a woman to have a career in music , so Fanny remained an active but non @-@ professional musician . Abraham was also disinclined to allow Felix to follow a musical career until it became clear that he seriously intended to dedicate himself to it .
Mendelssohn grew up in an intellectual environment . Frequent visitors to the salon organised by his parents at the family 's home in Berlin included artists , musicians and scientists , amongst them Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt , and the mathematician Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet ( whom Mendelssohn 's sister Rebecka would later marry ) . Sarah Rothenburg wrote of the household that " Europe came to their living room " .
= = = Surname = = =
Abraham Mendelssohn renounced the Jewish religion ; he and his wife deliberately decided not to have Felix circumcised , in contravention of the Jewish tradition . Felix and his siblings were first brought up without religious education , and were baptised by a Reformed Church minister in 1816 , at which time Felix was given the additional names Jakob Ludwig . Abraham and his wife Lea were themselves baptised in 1822 , formally adopting the surname Mendelssohn Bartholdy ( which they had used since 1812 ) for themselves and their children . The name Bartholdy was added at the suggestion of Lea 's brother , Jakob Salomon Bartholdy , who had inherited a property of this name in Luisenstadt and adopted it as his own surname . In an 1829 letter to Felix , Abraham explained that adopting the Bartholdy name was meant to demonstrate a decisive break with the traditions of his father Moses : " There can no more be a Christian Mendelssohn than there can be a Jewish Confucius " . On embarking on his musical career , Felix did not entirely drop the name Mendelssohn as Abraham requested , but in deference to his father signed his letters and had his visiting cards printed using the form ' Mendelssohn Bartholdy ' . In 1829 , his sister Fanny wrote to him of " Bartholdy [ ... ] this name that we all dislike " .
= = = Career = = =
= = = = Musical education = = = =
Like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart before him , Mendelssohn was regarded as a child prodigy . He began taking piano lessons from his mother when he was six , and at seven was tutored by Marie Bigot in Paris . After the family moved to Berlin , all four Mendelssohn children studied piano with Ludwig Berger , who was himself a former student of Muzio Clementi . From at least May 1819 Felix ( and his sister Fanny ) studied counterpoint and composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter in Berlin . This was an important influence on his future career . Zelter had almost certainly been recommended as a teacher by his aunt Sarah Levy , who had been a pupil of W. F. Bach and a patron of C. P. E. Bach . Sarah Levy was a talented keyboard player in her own right , often playing with Zelter 's orchestra at the Sing @-@ Akademie zu Berlin , of which she and the Mendelssohn family were leading patrons . Sarah had formed an important collection of Bach family manuscripts which she bequeathed to the Singakademie ; Zelter , whose tastes in music were conservative , was also an admirer of the Bach tradition . This undoubtedly played a significant part in forming Felix Mendelssohn 's musical tastes . His works show his study of Baroque and early classical music . His fugues and chorales especially reflect a tonal clarity and use of counterpoint reminiscent of Johann Sebastian Bach , by whose music he was deeply influenced .
= = = = Early maturity = = = =
Mendelssohn probably made his first public concert appearance at age 9 , when he participated in a chamber music concert accompanying a horn duo . He was also a prolific composer from an early age . As an adolescent , his works were often performed at home with a private orchestra for the associates of his wealthy parents amongst the intellectual elite of Berlin . Between the ages of 12 and 14 , Mendelssohn wrote 12 string symphonies for such concerts . These works were ignored for over a century , but are now recorded and occasionally played in concerts . He wrote his first published work , a piano quartet , by the time he was 13 . It was probably Abraham Mendelssohn who procured the publication of Mendelssohn 's early piano quartet by the house of Schlesinger . In 1824 , the 15 @-@ year @-@ old wrote his first symphony for full orchestra ( in C minor , Op. 11 ) .
At age 16 Mendelssohn wrote his String Octet in E @-@ flat major , the first work which showed the full power of his genius . This Octet and his Overture to Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream , which he wrote a year later in 1826 , are the best @-@ known of his early works . ( He later also wrote incidental music for the play , including the famous Wedding March , in 1842 ) . The Overture is perhaps the earliest example of a concert overture – that is , a piece not written deliberately to accompany a staged performance , but to evoke a literary theme in performance on a concert platform ; this was a genre which became a popular form in musical Romanticism .
In 1824 Mendelssohn studied under the composer and piano virtuoso Ignaz Moscheles , who however confessed in his diaries that he had little to teach him . Moscheles became a close colleague and lifelong friend . The year 1827 saw the premiere – and sole performance in his lifetime – of Mendelssohn 's opera , Die Hochzeit des Camacho . The failure of this production left him disinclined to venture into the genre again .
Besides music , Mendelssohn 's education included art , literature , languages , and philosophy . He had a particular interest in classical literature and translated Terence 's Andria for his tutor Heyse in 1825 ; Heyse was impressed and had it published in 1826 as a work of " his pupil , F * * * * " [ i.e. " Felix " ( asterisks as provided in original text ) ] . This translation also qualified Mendelssohn to study at the Humboldt University of Berlin , where from 1826 to 1829 he attended lectures on aesthetics by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , on history by Eduard Gans and on geography by Carl Ritter .
= = = = Meeting Goethe and conducting Bach = = = =
In 1821 Zelter introduced Mendelssohn to his friend and correspondent , the elderly Johann Wolfgang von Goethe , who was greatly impressed by the child , leading to perhaps the earliest confirmed comparison with Mozart in the following conversation between Goethe and Zelter :
" Musical prodigies ... are probably no longer so rare ; but what this little man can do in extemporizing and playing at sight borders the miraculous , and I could not have believed it possible at so early an age . " " And yet you heard Mozart in his seventh year at Frankfurt ? " said Zelter . " Yes " , answered Goethe , " ... but what your pupil already accomplishes , bears the same relation to the Mozart of that time that the cultivated talk of a grown @-@ up person bears to the prattle of a child . "
Mendelssohn was invited to meet Goethe on several later occasions , and set a number of Goethe 's poems to music . His other compositions inspired by Goethe include the overture Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage , ( Op. 27 , 1828 ) and the cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht ( The First Walpurgis Night , Op. 60 , 1832 ) .
In 1829 , with the backing of Zelter and the assistance of actor Eduard Devrient , Mendelssohn arranged and conducted a performance in Berlin of Bach 's St Matthew Passion . Four years previously his grandmother , Bella Salomon , had given him a copy of the manuscript of this ( by then all @-@ but @-@ forgotten ) masterpiece . The orchestra and choir for the performance were provided by the Berlin Singakademie . The success of this performance , one of the very few since Bach 's death and the first ever outside of Leipzig , was the central event in the revival of J. S. Bach 's music in Germany and , eventually , throughout Europe . It earned Mendelssohn widespread acclaim at the age of 20 . It also led to one of the few references which Mendelssohn made to his origins : " To think that it took an actor and a Jew 's son to revive the greatest Christian music for the world ! "
Over the next few years Mendelssohn traveled widely , including making his first visit to England in 1829 , and also visiting amongst other places Vienna , Florence , Milan , Rome and Naples , in all of which he met with local and visiting musicians and artists . These years proved the germination for some of his most famous works , including the Hebrides Overture and the Scottish and Italian symphonies .
= = = = Düsseldorf = = = =
On Zelter 's death in 1832 , Mendelssohn had hopes of succeeding him as conductor of the Sing @-@ Akademie zu Berlin . However , at a vote in January 1833 he was defeated for the post by the less distinguished Carl Friedrich Rungenhagen . This may have been because of Mendelssohn 's youth , and fear of possible innovations ; it was also suspected by some to be attributable to his Jewish ancestry . Following this rebuff , Mendelssohn divided most of his professional time over the next few years between Britain and Düsseldorf , where he was appointed musical director ( his first paid post as a musician ) in 1833 .
In the spring of that year Mendelssohn directed the Lower Rhenish Music Festival in Düsseldorf , beginning with a performance of Handel 's oratorio Israel in Egypt prepared from the original score which he had found in London . This precipitated a Handel revival in Germany , similar to the reawakened interest in J. S. Bach following his performance of the St Matthew Passion . Mendelssohn worked with dramatist Karl Immermann to improve local theatre standards , and made his first appearance as an opera conductor in Immermann 's production of Mozart 's Don Giovanni at the end of 1833 , where he took umbrage at the audience 's protests about the cost of tickets . His frustration at his everyday duties in Düsseldorf , and the city 's provincialism , led him to resign his position at the end of 1834 . He had offers from both Munich and Leipzig for important musical posts , and decided in 1835 to accept the latter .
= = = = Leipzig and Berlin = = = =
In 1835 Mendelssohn was named conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra . He chose this position although he had also been offered direction of the opera house in Munich and the editorship of the prestigious music journal , the Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung . Mendelssohn concentrated on developing the musical life of Leipzig , working with the orchestra , the opera house , the Choir of St. Thomas Church , and the city 's other choral and musical institutions . Mendelssohn 's concerts included , in addition to many of his own works , three series of " historical concerts " and a number of works by his contemporaries . He was deluged by offers of music from rising composers and would @-@ be composers ; amongst these was Richard Wagner , who submitted his early Symphony , which to Wagner 's disgust Mendelssohn lost or mislaid . Mendelssohn also revived interest in Franz Schubert . Robert Schumann discovered the manuscript of Schubert 's 9th Symphony and sent it to Mendelssohn , who promptly premiered it in Leipzig on 21 March 1839 , more than a decade after Schubert 's death .
A landmark event during Mendelssohn 's Leipzig years was the premiere of his oratorio St. Paul , given at the Lower Rhenish Festival in Düsseldorf in 1836 , shortly after the death of the composer 's father , which much affected him ; Felix wrote that he would " never cease to endeavour to gain his approval [ ... ] although I can no longer enjoy it " . St. Paul seemed to many of Mendelssohn 's contemporaries to be his finest work , and sealed his European reputation .
When Friedrich Wilhelm IV came to the Prussian throne in 1840 with ambitions to develop Berlin as a cultural centre ( including the establishment of a music school , and reform of music for the church ) , the obvious choice to head these reforms was Mendelssohn . He was however reluctant to undertake the task , especially in the light of his existing strong position in Leipzig . Mendelssohn did however spend some time in Berlin , writing some church music , and , at the King 's request , music for productions of Sophocles 's Antigone ( 1841 ) and Oedipus at Colonus ( 1845 ) , Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1843 ) and Racine 's Athalie ( 1845 ) . But the funds for the school never materialised , and various of the court 's promises to Mendelssohn regarding finances , title , and concert programming were broken . He was therefore not displeased to have the excuse to return to Leipzig .
In 1843 Mendelssohn founded a major music school – the Leipzig Conservatory , now the Hochschule für Musik und Theater " Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy " or ( in its own English self @-@ designation ) the Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy University of Music and Theatre – where he persuaded Ignaz Moscheles and Robert Schumann to join him . Other prominent musicians , including string players Ferdinand David and Joseph Joachim and music theorist Moritz Hauptmann , also became staff members . After Mendelssohn 's death in 1847 , his conservatorial tradition was carried on when Moscheles succeeded him as head of the Conservatory .
= = = = Mendelssohn in Britain = = = =
In 1829 Mendelssohn paid his first visit to Britain , where his former teacher Ignaz Moscheles , already settled in London , introduced him to influential musical circles . In the summer he visited Edinburgh , where he met among others the composer John Thomson , whom he later recommended to be Professor of Music at Edinburgh University . On his eighth visit in the summer of 1844 , he conducted five of the Philharmonic concerts in London , and wrote :
[ N ] ever before was anything like this season – we never went to bed before half @-@ past one , every hour of every day was filled with engagements three weeks beforehand , and I got through more music in two months than in all the rest of the year .
On subsequent visits he met Queen Victoria and her musical husband Prince Albert , who both greatly admired his music .
In the course of ten visits to Britain during his life , totalling about 20 months , Mendelssohn won a strong following , sufficient for him to make a deep impression on British musical life . He composed and performed , and he edited for British publishers the first critical editions of oratorios of Handel and of the organ music of J. S. Bach . Scotland inspired two of his most famous works : the overture The Hebrides ( also known as Fingal 's Cave ) ; and the Scottish Symphony ( Symphony No. 3 ) .
Mendelssohn also worked closely with his protégé , the British composer and pianist William Sterndale Bennett ( whom he had first heard in London in 1833 when Bennett was 17 ) , both in London and Leipzig , where Bennett appeared throughout the 1836 / 1837 season . Mendelssohn 's oratorio Elijah was commissioned by and premiered at the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival on 26 August 1846 , composed to a German text translated into English by William Bartholomew , who authored and translated many of Mendelssohn 's works during his time in England . On his last visit to Britain in 1847 , Mendelssohn was the soloist in Beethoven 's Piano Concerto No. 4 and conducted his own Scottish Symphony with the Philharmonic Orchestra before the Queen and Prince Albert .
= = = = Death = = = =
Mendelssohn suffered from poor health in the final years of his life , probably aggravated by nervous problems and overwork . A final tour of England left him exhausted and ill from a hectic schedule . The death of his sister Fanny on 14 May 1847 caused him great distress . Less than six months later , on 4 November , Mendelssohn himself died in Leipzig after a series of strokes . He was 38 . His grandfather Moses , his sister Fanny and both his parents had died from similar apoplexies . Felix 's funeral was held at the Paulinerkirche , Leipzig , and he was buried at the Dreifaltigkeitsfriedhof I in Berlin @-@ Kreuzberg . The pallbearers included Moscheles , Schumann and Niels Gade . Mendelssohn had once described death , in a letter to a stranger , as a place " where it is to be hoped there is still music , but no more sorrow or partings " .
= = = Personal life = = =
= = = = Personality = = = =
Although the image was cultivated , especially after his death in the detailed family memoirs by his nephew Sebastian Hensel , of a man always equable , happy and placid in temperament , this was misleading . The nickname " discontented Polish count " was given to Mendelssohn because of his aloofness , and he referred to the epithet in his letters . Mendelssohn was frequently given to alarming fits of temper which occasionally led to collapse . On one occasion in the 1830s , when his wishes had been crossed , " his excitement was increased so fearfully ... that when the family was assembled ... he began to talk incoherently , and in English , to the great terror of them all . The stern voice of his father at last checked the wild torrent of words ; they took him to bed , and a profound sleep of twelve hours restored him to his normal state " . Such fits may be related to his early death .
Mendelssohn was a fine and enthusiastic artist in pencil and watercolour , a skill which he used throughout his life for his own amusement and that of his friends . His enormous correspondence shows that he could also be a witty writer in German and English – sometimes accompanied by humorous sketches and cartoons in the text .
= = = = Religion = = = =
On 21 March 1816 , at the age of seven years , Mendelssohn was baptised with his brother and sisters in a home ceremony by Johann Jakob Stegemann , minister of the Evangelical congregation of Berlin 's Jerusalem Church and New Church . Although Mendelssohn was a conforming ( if not over @-@ zealous ) Christian as a member of the Reformed Church , he was both conscious and proud of his Jewish ancestry and notably of his connection with his grandfather Moses Mendelssohn . He was the prime mover in proposing to the publisher Heinrich Brockhaus a complete edition of Moses 's works , which continued with the support of his uncle Joseph Mendelssohn . Mendelssohn was notably reluctant , either in his letters or conversation , to comment on his innermost beliefs ; his friend Devrient wrote that " [ his ] deep convictions were never uttered in intercourse with the world ; only in rare and intimate moments did they ever appear , and then only in the slightest and most humorous allusions " . Thus for example in a letter to his sister Rebecka , Mendelssohn rebukes her complaint about an unpleasant relative : " What do you mean by saying you are not hostile to Jews ? I hope this was a joke [ ... ] It is really sweet of you that you do not despise your family , isn 't it ? " Some modern scholars have devoted considerable energy to demonstrate either that Mendelssohn was deeply sympathetic to his ancestors ' Jewish beliefs , or that he was hostile to this and sincere in his Christian beliefs .
= = = = Mendelssohn and his contemporaries = = = =
Throughout his life Mendelssohn was wary of the more radical musical developments undertaken by some of his contemporaries . He was generally on friendly , if sometimes somewhat cool , terms with the likes of Hector Berlioz , Franz Liszt , and Giacomo Meyerbeer , but in his letters expresses his frank disapproval of their works , for example writing of Liszt that his compositions were " inferior to his playing , and [ … ] only calculated for virtuosos " ; of Berlioz 's overture Les francs @-@ juges " the orchestration is such a frightful muddle [ ... ] that one ought to wash one 's hands after handling one of his scores " ; and of Meyerbeer 's opera Robert le diable " I consider it ignoble " , calling its villain Bertram " a poor devil " . When his friend the composer Ferdinand Hiller suggested in conversation to Mendelssohn that he looked rather like Meyerbeer – they were actually distant cousins , both descendants of Rabbi Moses Isserlis – Mendelssohn was so upset that he immediately went to get a haircut to differentiate himself .
In particular , Mendelssohn seems to have regarded Paris and its music with the greatest of suspicion and an almost puritanical distaste . Attempts made during his visit there to interest him in Saint @-@ Simonianism ended in embarrassing scenes .
It is significant that the only musician with whom he remained a close personal friend , Ignaz Moscheles , was of an older generation and equally conservative in outlook . Moscheles preserved this outlook at the Leipzig Conservatory until his own death in 1870 .
= = = = Marriage and children = = = =
Mendelssohn married Cécile Charlotte Sophie Jeanrenaud ( 10 October 1817 – 25 September 1853 ) , the daughter of a French Reformed Church clergyman , on 28 March 1837 . The couple had five children : Carl , Marie , Paul , Lili and Felix . The second youngest child , Felix August , contracted measles in 1844 and was left with his health impaired ; he died in 1851 . The eldest , Carl Mendelssohn Bartholdy ( 7 February 1838 – 23 February 1897 ) , became a distinguished historian , and professor of history at Heidelberg and Freiburg universities , dying in 1897 in a psychiatric institution in Freiburg . Paul Mendelssohn Bartholdy ( 1841 – 1880 ) was a noted chemist and pioneered the manufacture of aniline dye . Marie married Victor Benecke and lived in London . Lili married Adolph Wach , later Professor of Law at Leipzig University . The family papers inherited by Marie and Lili 's children form the basis of the extensive collection of Mendelssohn manuscripts , including the so @-@ called ' Green Books ' of his correspondence , now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford University .
Cécile Mendelssohn Bartholdy died less than six years after her husband , on 25 September 1853 .
= = = = Jenny Lind = = = =
In general Mendelssohn 's personal life seems to have been fairly conventional compared to those of his contemporaries Wagner , Berlioz , and Schumann – except for his relationship with Swedish soprano Jenny Lind , whom he met in October 1844 , and with whom , it was rumoured , he became emotionally involved . Papers confirming this were alleged to exist , although their contents had not been made public . In 2013 George Biddlecombe confirmed in the Journal of the Royal Musical Association that " The Committee of the Mendelssohn Scholarship Foundation possesses material indicating that Mendelssohn wrote passionate love letters to Jenny Lind entreating her to join him in an adulterous relationship and threatening suicide as a means of exerting pressure upon her , and that these letters were destroyed on being discovered after her death . "
Mendelssohn met and worked with Lind many times , and started an opera , Lorelei , for her , based on the legend of the Lorelei Rhine maidens ; the opera was unfinished at his death . He is said to have tailored the aria " Hear Ye Israel " in his oratorio Elijah to Lind 's voice , although she did not sing this part until after his death , at a concert in December 1848 . In 1847 Mendelssohn attended a London performance of Meyerbeer 's Robert le diable – an opera which musically he despised – in order to hear Lind 's British debut , in the role of Alice . The music critic Henry Chorley , who was with him , wrote " I see as I write the smile with which Mendelssohn , whose enjoyment of Mdlle . Lind 's talent was unlimited , turned round and looked at me , as if a load of anxiety had been taken off his mind . His attachment to Mlle. Lind 's genius as a singer was unbounded , as was his desire for her success " .
Upon Mendelssohn 's death Lind wrote , " [ He was ] the only person who brought fulfillment to my spirit , and almost as soon as I found him I lost him again " . In 1849 she established the Mendelssohn Scholarship Foundation , which makes an award to a British resident young composer every two years in Mendelssohn 's memory . The first winner of the scholarship was Arthur Sullivan , then aged 14 , in 1856 . In 1869 Lind erected a plaque in Mendelssohn 's memory at his birthplace in Hamburg .
= = Mendelssohn as musician = =
= = = Composer = = =
Richard Taruskin writes that , although Mendelssohn produced works of extraordinary mastery at a very early age ,
he never outgrew his precocious youthful style . [ ... ] He remained stylistically conservative [ ... ] feeling no need to attract attention with a display of ' revolutionary ' novelty . Throughout his short career he remained comfortably faithful to the musical status quo – that is , the " classical " forms , as they were already thought of by his time . His version of romanticism , already evident in his earliest works , consisted in musical " pictorialism " of a fairly conventional , objective nature ( though exquisitely wrought ) .
In this way he differed substantially from contemporaries such as Wagner and Berlioz , and even from Schumann and Chopin . The absence of real stylistic ' development ' during Mendelssohn 's career makes it appropriate to consider his works by genre , rather than in order of composition .
= = = = Early works = = = =
The young Mendelssohn was greatly influenced in his childhood by the music of Bach , Beethoven , and Mozart , traces of whom can be seen in the 12 early string symphonies , which were mainly written for performance in the Mendelssohn household and not published or publicly performed until long after his death . He wrote these from 1821 to 1823 , when he was between the ages of 12 and 14 .
Mendelssohn 's first published works were his three piano quartets , ( 1822 – 1825 ; Op. 1 in C minor , Op. 2 in F minor and Op. 3 in B minor ) ; but his capacities are especially revealed in a group of works of his early maturity :
the String Octet ( 1825 )
the Overture A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( 1826 ) , which in its finished form also owes much to the influence of Adolf Bernhard Marx , at the time a close friend of Mendelssohn .
the two early quartets : Op. 12 ( 1829 ) and Op. 13 ( 1827 ) , which both show a remarkable grasp of the techniques and ideas of Beethoven 's last quartets that Mendelssohn had been closely studying
These four works show an intuitive grasp of form , harmony , counterpoint , colour , and compositional technique , which justify claims frequently made that Mendelssohn 's precocity exceeded even that of Mozart in its intellectual grasp .
= = = = Symphonies = = = =
Mendelssohn 's mature symphonies are numbered approximately in the order that they were published , rather than the order in which they were composed . The order of actual composition is : 1 , 5 , 4 , 2 , 3 . The placement of No. 3 in this sequence is problematic because he worked on it for over a decade , starting sketches for it soon after beginning work on No. 5 , but completing it after both Nos. 5 and 4 .
The Symphony No. 1 in C minor for full @-@ scale orchestra was written in 1824 , when Mendelssohn was aged 15 . This work is experimental , showing the influences of Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber . Mendelssohn conducted this symphony on his first visit to London in 1829 , with the orchestra of the Royal Philharmonic Society . For the third movement he substituted an orchestration of the Scherzo from his Octet . In this form the piece was a success , and laid the foundations of his British reputation .
During 1829 and 1830 Mendelssohn wrote his Symphony No. 5 , known as the Reformation . It celebrated the 300th anniversary of the Lutheran Church . Mendelssohn remained dissatisfied with the work and did not allow publication of the score .
The Scottish Symphony ( Symphony No. 3 in A minor ) was written and revised intermittently between 1829 ( when Mendelssohn noted down the opening theme during a visit to Holyrood Palace ) and 1842 , when it was given its premiere in Leipzig , the last of his symphonies to be performed in public . This piece evokes Scotland 's atmosphere in the ethos of Romanticism , but does not employ any identified Scottish folk melodies .
Mendelssohn 's travels in Italy inspired him to write the Symphony No. 4 in A major , known as the Italian Symphony . He conducted the premiere in 1833 , but did not allow the score to be published during his lifetime , as he continually sought to rewrite it .
Mendelssohn wrote the symphony @-@ cantata Lobgesang ( Hymn of Praise ) in B @-@ flat major , posthumously named Symphony No. 2 , to mark the celebrations in Leipzig of the 400th anniversary of the invention of the printing press ; the first performance took place on 25 June 1840 .
= = = = Other orchestral music = = = =
Mendelssohn wrote the concert Hebrides Overture ( Fingal 's Cave ) in 1830 , inspired by visits to Scotland around the end of the 1820s . He visited Fingal 's Cave , on the Hebridean isle of Staffa , as part of his Grand Tour of Europe , and was so impressed that he scribbled the opening theme of the overture on the spot , including it in a letter he wrote home the same evening .
Throughout his career he wrote a number of other concert overtures . Those most frequently played today include an overture to Ruy Blas , commissioned for a charity performance of Victor Hugo 's drama , which Mendelssohn hated ; Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage ( Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt ) , inspired by a pair of poems by Goethe ; and The Fair Melusine .
The incidental music to A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( Op. 61 ) , including the well @-@ known Wedding March , was written in 1843 , seventeen years after the overture .
= = = = Opera = = = =
Mendelssohn wrote some Singspiels for family performance in his youth . His opera Die beiden Neffen ( The Two Nephews ) was rehearsed for him on his 15th birthday . 1829 saw Die Heimkehr aus der Fremde ( Son and Stranger or Return of the Roamer ) , a comedy of mistaken identity written in honor of his parents ' silver anniversary and unpublished during his lifetime . In 1825 he wrote a more sophisticated work , Die Hochzeit des Camacho ( Camacho 's Wedding ) , based on an episode in Don Quixote , for public consumption . It was produced in Berlin in 1827 , but coolly received . Mendelssohn left the theatre before the conclusion of the first performance , and subsequent performances were cancelled .
Although he never abandoned the idea of composing a full opera , and considered many subjects – including that of the Nibelung saga later adapted by Wagner – he never wrote more than a few pages of sketches for any project . In Mendelssohn 's last years the opera manager Benjamin Lumley tried to contract him to write an opera from Shakespeare 's The Tempest on a libretto by Eugène Scribe , and even announced it as forthcoming in 1847 , the year of Mendelssohn 's death . The libretto was eventually set by Fromental Halévy . At his death Mendelssohn left some sketches for an opera on the story of the Lorelei .
= = = = Concertos = = = =
The Violin Concerto in E minor , Op. 64 ( 1844 ) , written for Ferdinand David , has become one of the most popular of all of Mendelssohn 's compositions . David , who had worked closely with Mendelssohn during the piece 's preparation , gave the premiere of the concerto on his Guarneri violin .
Mendelssohn also wrote a lesser @-@ known , early concerto for violin and strings in D minor ( 1822 ) ; four piano concertos ( " no . 0 " in A minor , 1822 ; 1 in G minor , Op. 25 , 1831 ; 2 in D minor , Op. 40 , 1837 ; and 3 in E minor , Op. posth . , a fragment from 1844 ) ; two concertos for two pianos and orchestra , E major ( MWV O5 ) , which he wrote at 15 , and A @-@ flat major ( MWV O6 ) , at 17 ; and another double concerto , for violin and piano ( 1823 ) . In addition , there are several single @-@ movement works for soloist and orchestra . Those for piano are the Rondo Brillante , Op. 29 , of 1834 ; the Capriccio Brillante , Op. 22 , of 1832 ; and the Serenade and Allegro Giocoso Op. 43 , of 1838 . He also wrote two concertinos ( Konzertstücke ) , Opp . 113 and 114 , originally for clarinet , basset horn and piano ; Op. 113 was orchestrated by the composer .
= = = = Chamber music = = = =
Mendelssohn 's mature output contains numerous chamber works , many of which display an emotional intensity lacking in some of his larger works . In particular , his String Quartet No. 6 , the last of his string quartets and his last major work – written following the death of his sister Fanny – is both powerful and eloquent . Other mature works include two other string quintets ; sonatas for the clarinet , cello , viola and violin ; and two piano trios . For the Piano Trio No. 1 in D minor , Mendelssohn uncharacteristically took the advice of his fellow composer , Ferdinand Hiller , and rewrote the piano part in a more romantic , " Schumannesque " style , considerably heightening its effect .
= = = = Choral works = = = =
Mendelssohn 's two large biblical oratorios , St Paul in 1836 and Elijah in 1846 , are greatly influenced by Bach . His unfinished oratorio , Christus , consists of a recitative , a chorus " There Shall a Star Come out of Jacob , " and a male trio ; the chorus is sometimes performed .
Strikingly different is the more overtly romantic Die erste Walpurgisnacht ( The First Walpurgis Night ) , a setting for chorus and orchestra of a ballad by Goethe describing pagan rituals of the Druids in the Harz mountains in the early days of Christianity . This remarkable score has been seen by the scholar Heinz @-@ Klaus Metzger as a " Jewish protest against the domination of Christianity " .
Mendelssohn also wrote many smaller @-@ scale sacred works for unaccompanied choir and for choir with organ . Most are written in or translated into English , and remain highly popular . Amongst the most famous is Hear My Prayer , whose second half contains " O for the Wings of a Dove , " which became extremely popular as a separate item . The piece is written for full choir , organ , and a treble or soprano soloist who has many challenging and extended solo passages . As such , it is a particular favourite for choirboys in churches and cathedrals and has frequently been recorded as a treble solo . Mendelssohn 's biographer Todd comments " The very popularity of the anthem in England [ ... ] later exposed it to charges of superficiality from those contemptuous of Victorian mores " .
The hymn tune Mendelssohn – an adaptation by William Hayman Cummings of a melody from Mendelssohn 's cantata Festgesang ( Festive Hymn ) – is the standard tune for Charles Wesley 's popular hymn Hark ! The Herald Angels Sing . This extract from an originally secular 1840s composition , which Mendelssohn felt unsuited to sacred music , is ubiquitous at Christmas .
= = = = Songs = = = =
Mendelssohn wrote many songs , both for solo voice and for duet , with piano . Many of these are simple , or slightly modified , strophic settings . Some , including Auf Flügeln des Gesanges ( On Wings of Song ) , became popular . Nine of Mendelssohn 's songs , including Auf Flügeln des Gesanges and Neue Liebe ( New Love , set to a poem by Heinrich Heine ) were transcribed for piano solo , in a virtuoso style , by Franz Liszt .
A number of songs written by Mendelssohn 's sister Fanny originally appeared under her brother 's name ; this may have been partly due to the prejudice of the family , and partly to her own retiring nature .
= = = = Piano music = = = =
Mendelssohn 's Songs Without Words ( Lieder ohne Worte ) , eight cycles each containing six lyric pieces ( two published posthumously ) , remain his most famous solo piano compositions . They became standard parlour recital items even during the composer 's lifetime , and their overwhelming popularity has itself caused many critics to underrate their musical value . Other composers who were inspired to produce similar pieces of their own , included Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan ( his five sets of Chants , each ending with a barcarole ) , Anton Rubinstein , Ignaz Moscheles , and Edvard Grieg .
Other notable piano pieces by Mendelssohn include his Variations sérieuses , Op. 54 ( 1841 ) , the Rondo Capriccioso , the set of six Preludes and Fugues , Op. 35 ( written between 1832 and 1837 ) , and the Seven Characteristic Pieces , Op. 7 ( 1827 ) .
= = = = Organ music = = = =
Mendelssohn played the organ and composed for it from the age of 11 to his death . His primary organ works are the Three Preludes and Fugues , Op. 37 ( 1837 ) , and the Six Sonatas , Op. 65 ( 1845 ) , of which Eric Werner wrote " next to Bach 's works , Mendelssohn 's Organ Sonatas belong to the required repertory of all organists " .
= = = Performer = = =
Mendelssohn was renowned during his lifetime as a keyboard performer , both on the piano and on the organ . One of his obituarists noted :
First and chiefest we esteem his pianoforte @-@ playing , with its amazing elasticity of touch , rapidity , and power ; next his scientific and vigorous organ playing [ ... ] his triumphs on these instruments are fresh in public recollection .
In his concerts and recitals Mendelssohn performed both his own works and those of his predecessor German composers , notably works of Weber , Beethoven and ( on the organ ) J.S. Bach .
Both in private and public performances , Mendelssohn was also renowned for his improvisations . On one occasion in London , when asked by the soprano Maria Malibran after a recital to extemporise , he created a piece which included the melodies of all the songs she had sung . The music publisher Victor Novello who was present remarked ' He has done some things that seem to me impossible , even after I have heard them done . ' At another recital in 1837 , where Mendelssohn played the piano for a singer , Robert Schumann ignored the soprano and wrote ' Mendelssohn accompanied like a God ' .
= = = Conductor = = =
Mendelssohn was a noted conductor , both of his own works and of other composers . At his London debut in 1829 , he was noted for his innovatory use of a baton ( then a great novelty ) . But his novelty also extended to taking great care over tempo , dynamics and the orchestral players themselves – both rebuking them when they were recalcitrant and praising them when they satisfied him . It was his success at conducting at the Lower Rhine music festival of 1836 that led to him taking his first paid professional position as director at Düsseldorf . Amongst those who appreciated Mendelssohn 's conducting was Hector Berlioz , who in 1843 , invited to Leipzig , exchanged batons with Mendelssohn , writing " When the Great Spirit sends us to hunt in the land of souls , may our warriors hang our tomahawks side by side at the door of the council chamber " . At Leipzig , Mendelssohn led the Gewandhaus orchestra to great heights ; although concentrating on the great composers of the past ( already becoming canonised as the ' classics ' ) he also included new music by Schumann , Berlioz , Gade and many others ( including of course his own music ) . One critic who was not impressed however was Richard Wagner ; he accused Mendelssohn of using tempos in his performances of Beethoven symphonies that were far too fast .
= = = Editor = = =
Mendelssohn 's interest in baroque music was not limited to the Bach St Matthew Passion which he had revived in 1829 . He was concerned in preparing and editing such music , whether for performance or for publication , to be as close as possible to the original intentions of the composers , including wherever possible a close study of early editions and manuscripts . This could lead him into conflict with publishers ; for instance , his edition of Handel 's oratorio Israel in Egypt for the London Handel Society ( 1845 ) evoked an often contentious correspondence , with Mendelssohn refusing for example to add dynamics where not given by Handel , or to add parts for trombones . Mendelssohn also edited a number of Bach 's works for organ , and apparently discussed with Robert Schumann the possibility of producing a complete Bach edition .
= = = Teacher = = =
Although Mendelssohn attributed great importance to musical education , and made a substantial commitment to the Conservatoire he founded in Leipzig , he did not greatly enjoy teaching and undertook only a very few private pupils ; these he took only if he believed they had notable qualities or potential . Amongst such students were composer William Sterndale Bennett , the pianist Camille @-@ Marie Stamaty , the violinist and composer Julius Eichberg , and Walther von Goethe ( grandson of the poet ) . At the Leipzig Conservatoire Mendelssohn taught classes in composition and ensemble playing .
= = Reputation and legacy = =
= = = The first century = = =
In the immediate wake of Mendelssohn 's death , he was mourned both in Germany and England . However , the conservative strain in Mendelssohn , which set him apart from some of his more flamboyant contemporaries , bred a corollary condescension amongst some of them toward his music . Mendelssohn 's relations with Berlioz , Liszt and others had been uneasy and equivocal . Listeners who had raised questions about Mendelssohn 's talent included Heinrich Heine , who wrote in 1836 after hearing the oratorio St. Paul that his work was " characterized by a great , strict , very serious seriousness , a determined , almost importunate tendency to follow classical models , the finest , cleverest calculation , sharp intelligence and , finally , complete lack of naïveté . But is there in art any originality of genius without naïveté ? "
Such criticism of Mendelssohn for his very ability – which could be characterised negatively as facility – was taken to further lengths by Richard Wagner . Mendelssohn 's success , his popularity and his Jewish origins irked Wagner sufficiently to damn Mendelssohn with faint praise , three years after his death , in an anti @-@ Jewish pamphlet Das Judenthum in der Musik :
[ Mendelssohn ] has shown us that a Jew may have the amplest store of specific talents , may own the finest and most varied culture , the highest and tenderest sense of honour – yet without all these pre @-@ eminences helping him , were it but one single time , to call forth in us that deep , that heart @-@ searching effect which we await from art [ ... ] The washiness and the whimsicality of our present musical style has been [ ... ] pushed to its utmost pitch by Mendelssohn 's endeavour to speak out a vague , an almost nugatory Content as interestingly and spiritedly as possible .
This was the start of a movement to downgrade Mendelssohn 's status as a composer which lasted almost a century , the echoes of which still survive today in critiques of Mendelssohn 's supposed mediocrity .
The philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche expressed consistent admiration for Mendelssohn 's music , in contrast to his general scorn for " Teutonic " Romanticism :
At any rate , the whole music of romanticism [ e.g. Schumann and Wagner ] ... was second @-@ rate music from the very start , and real musicians took little notice of it . Things were different with Felix Mendelssohn , that halcyon master who , thanks to his easier , purer , happier soul , was quickly honored and just as quickly forgotten , as a lovely incident in German music .
Some readers , however , have interpreted Nietzsche 's characterization of Mendelssohn as a ' lovely incident ' as condescending .
In the 20th century the Nazi regime and its Reichsmusikkammer cited Mendelssohn 's Jewish origin in banning performance and publication of his works , even asking Nazi @-@ approved composers to rewrite incidental music for A Midsummer Night 's Dream ( Carl Orff obliged ) . Under the Nazis , " Mendelssohn was presented as a dangerous ' accident ' of music history , who played a decisive role in rendering German music in the 19th century ' degenerate ' . " The German Mendelssohn Scholarship for students at the Leipzig Conservatoire was discontinued in 1934 ( and not revived until 1963 ) . The monument dedicated to Mendelssohn erected in Leipzig in 1892 was removed by the Nazis in 1936 . A replacement was erected in 2008 . His grave however remained unmolested during the National Socialist years .
Mendelssohn 's reputation in England remained high throughout the 19th century . Prince Albert inscribed ( in German ) , a libretto for the oratorio Elijah in 1847 :
To the noble artist who , surrounded by the Baal @-@ worship of false art , has been able , like a second Elijah , through genius and study , to remain true to the service of true art .
In 1851 an adulatory novel by the teenaged Elizabeth Sara Sheppard was published , entitled Charles Auchester . The book features as its leading character Mendelssohn , as the " Chevalier Seraphael " , and remained in print for nearly 80 years . In 1854 Queen Victoria requested that the Crystal Palace include a statue of Mendelssohn when it was rebuilt . Mendelssohn 's Wedding March from A Midsummer Night 's Dream was played at the wedding of Queen Victoria 's daughter , Princess Victoria , The Princess Royal , to Crown Prince Frederick of Prussia in 1858 , and it remains popular at marriage ceremonies . Mendelssohn 's sacred choral music , particularly the smaller @-@ scale works , remains popular in the choral tradition of the Church of England . However many critics , including Bernard Shaw , began to condemn Mendelssohn 's music for its association with Victorian cultural insularity ; Shaw in particular complained of the composer 's " kid @-@ glove gentility , his conventional sentimentality , and his despicable oratorio @-@ mongering " . In the 1950s the scholar Wilfrid Mellers complained of Mendelssohn 's " spurious religiosity which reflected the element of unconscious humbug in our morality " .
A contrasting opinion came from the pianist and composer Ferruccio Busoni , who considered Mendelssohn " a master of undisputed greatness " and " an heir of Mozart " . Busoni and other pianists such as Anton Rubinstein and Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan all regularly included Mendelssohn 's piano works in their recitals .
= = = Modern opinions = = =
Charles Rosen in a chapter on Mendelssohn in his 1995 book The Romantic Generation both praises and criticizes the composer , calling him a " genius " with a " profound " comprehension of Beethoven and " the greatest child prodigy the history of Western music has ever known " . Although Rosen feels that in his later years , without losing his craft or genius , the composer " renounced ... his daring " , he calls Mendelssohn 's relatively late Violin Concerto in E minor " the most successful synthesis of the Classical concerto tradition and the Romantic virtuoso form " . Rosen calls the Fugue in E minor ( later included in Mendelssohn 's Op. 35 for piano ) a " masterpiece " ; but in the same paragraph calls Mendelssohn " the inventor of religious kitsch in music " .
Such opinions are evidence of how a more nuanced appreciation of Mendelssohn 's work has developed over the last 50 years , together with the publication of a number of modern biographies placing his achievements in context . Mercer @-@ Taylor comments on the irony that " this broad @-@ based reevaluation of Mendelssohn 's music is made possible , in part , by a general disintegration of the idea of a musical canon " , an idea which Mendelssohn " as a conductor , pianist and scholar " had done so much to establish .
A large portion of Mendelssohn 's 750 works still remained unpublished in the 1960s , but most of them have now been made available . A scholarly edition of Mendelssohn 's complete works and correspondence is in preparation but is expected to take many years to complete , and will be in excess of 150 volumes . This includes a modern and fully researched catalogue of his works , the Mendelssohn @-@ Werkverzeichnis ( MWV ) . All of Mendelssohn 's oeuvre – including the most popular works such as the E minor Violin Concerto and the Italian Symphony – has been explored more deeply , and prior concepts about the Victorian conventionality of the oratorio Elijah have been shed . The frequently intense and dramatic world of Mendelssohn 's chamber works has been more fully recognized . Virtually all of Mendelssohn 's published works are now available on CD , and his works are frequently heard in the concert hall and on broadcasts . An English Heritage blue plaque commemorating Mendelssohn was placed at 4 Hobart Place in Belgravia , London , in 2013 . As the critic H. L. Mencken concluded , if Mendelssohn indeed missed true greatness , he missed it " by a hair " .
= = = Recordings = = =
See articles on individual works for links to recordings
= = = Music scores = = =
Free scores by Felix Mendelssohn at the International Music Score Library Project
The Mutopia Project has compositions by Felix Mendelssohn
Free scores by Felix Mendelssohn in the Choral Public Domain Library ( ChoralWiki )
Mendelssohn Bartholdy
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= Willamette University College of Law =
Willamette University College of Law is a private law school located in Salem , Oregon , United States . Founded in 1842 , Willamette University is the oldest university in the Western United States . The College of Law , which was founded in 1883 and is the oldest law school in the Pacific Northwest , has approximately 30 law professors and enrolls about 300 students , with about 125 of those of students enrolled in their first year of law school . The campus is located across the street from the Oregon State Capitol and the Oregon Supreme Court Building .
Housed in the Truman Wesley Collins Legal Center , Willamette 's College of Law offers both full @-@ time and part @-@ time enrollment for the juris doctorate ( JD ) degree , joint @-@ degree programs , and a Master of Laws ( LL.M. ) program . The joint @-@ degree programs allow students to earn both a JD and a Master of Business Administration ( MBA ) concurrently in a four @-@ year program , or complete a bachelor and JD in six years . Willamette Law 's oldest legal journal is the Willamette Law Review , which started in 1960 and is housed in the Oregon Civic Justice Center . The center is a community outreach center housed in a renovated library that Willamette opened in 2008 . According to Willamette 's 2013 ABA @-@ required disclosures , 61 @.@ 7 % of the Class of 2013 obtained full @-@ time , long @-@ term , JD @-@ required employment nine months after graduation .
= = History = =
In July 1866 , Willamette University 's trustees formed a committee to explore the possibility of a legal department . At that time , legal education was traditionally taught as an apprenticeship in which those wishing to be lawyers would study under an existing attorney for several years before being allowed to pass the bar . Although the school did not begin a legal department in 1866 , Willamette did confer a Doctor of Laws degree on Matthew P. Deady , who later helped establish the University of Oregon School of Law , Oregon ’ s second law school .
The College of Law was founded in 1883 , and is the oldest law school in the Pacific Northwest . In April 1884 , the Board of Trustees officially approved the new legal department ; tuition for the two @-@ year course was $ 50 per year . William Marion Ramsey served as the school 's first dean . He was dean from 1883 until 1888 , and led a faculty of three . The three professors were George H. Burnett , who taught contracts , commercial law , and torts ; J. T. Gregg , who taught evidence and common law ; and William H. Holmes , who was the instructor for admiralty and criminal law .
The school 's first entering class had three students ; with Charles A. Packenham as the first graduate in 1886 . In addition to being the oldest law school in Oregon and the Pacific Northwest , Willamette College of Law was the 75th law school founded in the United States , and is the second oldest in the Western U.S. , behind Hastings College of Law in California . From its founding until 1923 , the law school was located in Waller Hall .
During the early years of the law school , enrollment fluctuated from as many as 17 graduates in 1898 to as few as zero graduates in 1903 and 1905 . Dean Ramsey resigned in 1888 and was replaced by George G. Bingham , who served until 1891 when replaced by his pupil Samuel T. Richardson . Women were allowed to enroll beginning in 1892 ; in 1898 , the first women , Olive S. England and Gabrielle Clark , graduated . The third female graduate , in 1899 , was Anna Carson , who was part of the Carson legal family of Salem that includes Wallace P. Carson ( 1923 graduate ) a state legislator and Wallace P. Carson , Jr . ( 1962 graduate ) a state legislator and longtime chief justice of the Oregon Supreme Court .
In 1902 , Dean Richardson left the school and was replaced by John W. Reynolds who served until 1907 . In 1908 , Charles L. McNary was appointed dean , serving until 1913 , when Willamette selected future Oregon Attorney General Isaac Homer Van Winkle . Van Winkle was an alumnus of both Willamette and the law school , serving as dean until 1927 .
From 1923 until 1938 , the school was located in Eaton Hall . Roy R. Hewitt was dean from 1927 to 1932 , followed by Roy Lockenour , who served until 1939 . Willamette University College of Law was first accredited by the American Bar Association in 1938 , and in 1946 it became a member of the Association of American Law Schools . In 1938 the school moved to Gatke Hall , a former United States Post Office . The law school was housed there until 1967 .
During this time deans of the law school included George M. McLeod ( 1940 – 1942 ) , Ray L. Smith ( 1942 – 1946 ) , and Seward P. Reese ( 1946 – 1968 ) . During World War II , enrollment declined to only five graduates between 1943 and 1945 , and classes were moved to the undergraduate library as the United States Navy used the Gatke Hall . In 1946 , enrollment rebounded with a total of 92 students , the largest student body of the law school up to that date .
After 1952 , Willamette ’ s law school received a large Lady Justice statue when the Marion County Courthouse was demolished to make way for a new one . In 1959 , the school started a law review , while enrollment increased to 185 by the mid @-@ 1960s . Because of the increased enrollment , the College of Law Foundation was created by the university 's trustees in 1959 to explore the construction of a new facility . Willamette switched to the awarding of the Juris Doctor from the bachelor of laws , phased in beginning in 1965 .
In 1967 , a new $ 1 @.@ 1 million facility , the Truman Wesley Collins Legal Center , opened in September . The College of Law moved across campus to the Collins Legal Center along with Lady Justice , a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) -tall , 300 @-@ pound ( 140 kg ) statue , which was formerly located on the roof of the Marion County Courthouse . In 1968 , Arthur B. Custy became dean and served until 1971 , during which time the admissions standards changed at Willamette to require a bachelor 's degree and taking the Law School Admission Test . Later deans of the school include Larry K. Harvey ( 1971 – 1977 ) and Leroy Tornquist ( 1979 – 1987 ) .
In 1984 the law school established the Center for Dispute Resolution , an alternative dispute resolution program . In 1992 , the Collins Legal Center went through an award @-@ winning renovation and expansion that ended with a dedication ceremony with a speech by U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O ’ Connor . In her dedication speech , O 'Connor advocated for civility among those in the legal profession and for avoiding personal attacks among lawyers . In December 2005 , the school 's moot courtroom was used for a real civil trial after the Marion County Courthouse was damaged the previous month .
Deans of the school in recent years include David R. Kenagy ( 1994 – 1996 interim ) , Robert M. Ackerman ( 1996 – 1999 ) , and Symeon Symeonides ( 1999 to 2011 ) . In 2008 , the school opened the Oregon Civic Justice Center to house programs including the Oregon Law Commission , the Center for Dispute Resolution , the Clinical Law Program , Center for Law and Government , and the Willamette Law Review . The dedication ceremony featured U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg and was part of the school 's celebration of their 125th anniversary . Willamette admitted part @-@ time students for the first time for Fall 2012 , and added a joint degree program with Oregon State University .
= = Academics = =
= = = Acceptance = = =
The College of Law offers full @-@ time enrollment exclusively for its JD program , with an admissions deadline of March 1 for the JD program . In 2013 , the school accepted 63 % of all applicants who applied to the school . Enrolled students from that entering class had Law School Admission Test ( LSAT ) scores in the range of 151 to 156 ( 25th – 75th percentile ) and a median score of 153 . In 2007 and 2010 , U.S. News & World Report ranked the school in their Third Tier , while in 2008 the school was ranked sixth by The Princeton Review in the " Most Welcoming of Older Students " category . As of 2015 , Willamette was ranked as the 118th best law school by U.S. News & World Report , an improvement from 121st in 2014 .
= = = Programs = = =
The JD program has both a traditional three @-@ year , full @-@ time curriculum or a part @-@ time day program that can take a maximum of six years . Students ' initial enrollment can only begin with the fall term each year . Through a partnership between the College of Law and Willamette 's Atkinson Graduate School of Management , a joint degree program is offered to students interested in earning both a JD and an MBA concurrently . The program allows students to earn both degrees in four years instead of five years if completed separately . The business portion of the program is accredited through the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business , while the law portion , along with the entire law school , is accredited by the American Bar Association .
Willamette also offers two three @-@ plus @-@ three programs to allow students to earn both an undergraduate degree and law degree in a total of six years . Through partnerships with Willamette 's College of Liberal Arts , Oregon State University , and University of Alaska Anchorage , students can earn a bachelor 's degree in three years and a law degree in three years , amounting to a decrease of one year from the standard seven years combined to earn both a bachelor and law degree . Both JD and joint @-@ degree students have the option of enrolling in the certificate programs , studying abroad , working at the Clinical Law Program , and taking classes from the Center for Dispute Resolution .
The Center for Dispute Resolution , founded in 1983 , was one of the first in the western United States to offer coursework in the areas of arbitration , negotiation and mediation . Focusing on Alternative Dispute Resolution ( ADR ) , its program is a national model , and the center is annually recognized as one of the top ten programs in the nation . In 2006 , the Dispute Resolution program was ranked 7th by U.S. News & World Report .
Willamette 's College of Law also offers a Clinical Law Program that gives law students hands @-@ on professional experience in law offices and courtrooms across the country . The program consists of two main components , the Externship Program and the Civil Practice Clinic . Both parts allow students to participate in real @-@ life legal work .
Students have the opportunity to participate in study abroad programs in Germany , Ecuador and China . The China program began in 1984 , followed by the Ecuador program in 1995 , and in 2002 Germany was added .
= = = LL.M. = = =
The LL.M. in Transnational Law educates law students on a variety of international law topics such as international business transactions , comparative law , as well as private international law . The program also covers dispute resolution and allows students to enroll in classes at the Atkinson Graduate School of Management . LL.M. students can attend either full @-@ time or part @-@ time , but must complete the ten @-@ credit @-@ hour program within two academic years .
= = = Certificate programs = = =
The law school offers five certificate programs for students in both the JD program and the joint degree program : Dispute Resolution , Law and Business , International and Comparative Law , Sustainability Law , and Law and Government . The business law , law and government , and international and comparative law certificate programs were introduced to the curriculum in 2002 . These programs allow students to specialize in those areas of study and earn a certificate demonstrating that specialization .
= = Law journals = =
The College of Law produces five publications , including three law reviews . In 1992 , the Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution began publication with a focus on dispute resolution and the law on the international level .
Willamette Law Review began in 1959 , with four editions each year . This general interest legal review also sponsors an annual symposium at the school . The first journal on sports law in the Pacific Northwest was the Willamette Sports Law Journal . The official Bluebook abbreviations used for citations are " Willamette J. Int 'l L. & Disp . Resol . " for the Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution and " Willamette L. Rev. " for the Willamette Law Review .
Willamette 's College of Law also produces Willamette Lawyer and Willamette Law Online . Willamette Lawyer is the school ’ s alumni magazine , published twice annually with one edition in the spring and the second in the fall . Produced primarily by students , Willamette Law Online is a subscription service that provides case summaries free to legal professionals in the Pacific Northwest .
= = Facilities = =
Willamette ’ s College of Law is primarily housed in the Truman Wesley Collins Legal Center ( Collins Legal Center ) . Students have 24 @-@ hour secure access to the 75 @,@ 000 + square foot building , which was renovated in 1992 . The building is located on Winter Street in Salem , just south of the Oregon State Capitol . In addition to classrooms , the building houses the law library , administrative offices , and faculty offices . The building also contains a fully functioning trial courtroom used for moot court .
= = = Oregon Civic Justice Center = = =
Opened in 2008 , the Oregon Civic Justice Center is one block north of the Collins Legal Center . Built within Salem 's 1912 Carnegie library building , the school remodeled the structure at a cost of $ 4 million . The building is home to the Willamette Law Review ; the Oregon Law Commission ; Willamette 's Center for Democracy , Religion and Law ; the Center for Dispute Resolution ; the law school 's clinical program ; and the Center for Law and Government . These programs were chosen due to their community outreach programs , as the school plans to create a community atmosphere between students , faculty , and the general community .
= = = Library = = =
The J. W. Long Law Library has 296 @,@ 000 volumes and microform equivalents , which include both state and federal primary law sources , as well as treatises , periodicals and other secondary legal sources . The three @-@ story structure is attached to the Collins Legal Center and contains study rooms , video rooms , conference rooms , computer labs , and is staffed by reference librarians . Additionally , it has special collections in tax law , public international law , labor law , and is a Selective Federal Government Documents Depository . Members of the public may access the library when the library is staffed by librarians , while students and faculty have 24 @-@ hour access to the library . Law students also have access to Willamette University 's Mark O. Hatfield Library , the Oregon Supreme Court Law Library , the Oregon State Library , and the Oregon State Archives .
= = Employment = =
According to Willamette 's official 2013 ABA @-@ required disclosures , 61 @.@ 7 % of the Class of 2013 obtained full @-@ time , long @-@ term , JD @-@ required employment nine months after graduation . Willamette 's Law School Transparency under @-@ employment score is 17 @.@ 1 % , indicating the percentage of the Class of 2013 unemployed , pursuing an additional degree , or working in a non @-@ professional , short @-@ term , or part @-@ time job nine months after graduation .
= = Costs = =
The total cost of attendance ( indicating the cost of tuition , fees , and living expenses ) at Willamette for the 2014 @-@ 2015 academic year is $ 56 @,@ 713 . The Law School Transparency estimated debt @-@ financed cost of attendance for three years is $ 210 @,@ 586 .
= = Distinguished faculty = =
Paul De Muniz - Former Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
Susan M. Leeson – Former Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
Hans A. Linde – Former Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
Charles L. McNary – Former United States Senator
Edwin J. Peterson – Former Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
= = Distinguished alumni = =
William A. Barton – trial attorney , author
Bruce Botelho – current mayor of Juneau , Alaska
Jay Bowerman – former Governor of Oregon
Wallace P. Carson , Jr . – former Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
Willis C. Hawley – former member of the United States House of Representatives
Fern Hobbs – former secretary to Governor Oswald West
Jay Inslee – current Governor of the State of Washington
Virginia Linder – current Associate Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
Conde McCullough – bridge engineer
Lesil McGuire – current member of the Alaska Senate
Bob Mionske – trial attorney , author , Olympian
John Mizuno - Vice Speaker of the Hawaii House of Representatives
Paul De Muniz – current Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
Lisa Murkowski – current United States Senator
Norma Paulus – former Oregon Secretary of State
Leonardo Rapadas – current attorney general of Guam
Stephen Yamashiro – Mayor of Hawaii County 1992 – 2000
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= Shiloh ( Naylor novel ) =
Shiloh is a Newbery Medal @-@ winning children 's novel by Phyllis Reynolds Naylor published in 1991 . The 65th book by Naylor , it is the first in a quartet about a young boy and the title character , an abused dog . Naylor decided to write Shiloh after an emotionally taxing experience in West Virginia where she encountered an abused dog .
Narrator and protagonist Marty Preston lives in the hills of Friendly , West Virginia . After finding an abused beagle owned by his brutal neighbor Judd Travers , Marty defies his society 's standards of not meddling with each other 's business . Marty resolves to steal and hide the dog , naming him Shiloh and fabricating a web of lies to keep his secret . After his theft is discovered , Marty discovers Judd shooting a deer out of season and blackmails him into selling Shiloh to him . Because he lacks the money to buy Shiloh , Marty resolutely works for Judd doing numerous chores .
Primarily a Bildungsroman and adventure novel , the novel depicts the emotional tribulations and maturing of an 11 @-@ year @-@ old boy . Some themes of the novel are ethics , consequentialism , religion and morality , and animal – human relationships . Marty learns that morality is confounding and must choose between two unpalatable choices : rescuing the abused Shiloh through stealing and lying and allowing Judd to keep abusing Shiloh .
Reviewers generally gave positive reviews of the book and were impressed by the novel 's suspense and vernacular language . In addition to the Newbery Medal , Shiloh has received several state awards voted upon by children , including the Sequoyah Children 's Book Award , the Mark Twain Readers Award , and the William Allen White Children 's Book Award . In 1996 , the book was adapted into a movie of the same name . The novel spawned three sequels , Shiloh Season , Saving Shiloh , and A Shiloh Christmas published in 1996 , 1997 , and 2015 , respectively . Shiloh is taught in many elementary school courses in the United States .
= = Background and publishing = =
Born in 1933 in Anderson , Indiana , Phyllis Reynolds Naylor was raised in Indiana and Illinois in the 1930s during the Great Depression . During her childhood she was hardly given any toys . Instead , with her parents reading to her every night , books formed a major part of her early years — " the happiest part " . Her parents read a variety of literature to her , including Bible stories , The Wind in the Willows , and Mark Twain 's novels , until she was 14 . After she became a parent , she read to her children in the mornings because of their evening activities . At 16 , Naylor wrote a short story for a church magazine , and in her early thirties she published her first book . She has published over 100 books . When she wrote and published Shiloh , her 65th novel , she was living in Bethesda , Maryland with her husband Rex , a speech pathologist whom she married in May 1960 . She has two adult sons and four grandchildren .
Naylor writes books for children , teens , and adults . Writing sporadically , Naylor typically takes several years to finish a book . With about 10 notebooks next to her workspace , she writes down story ideas and character traits when she thinks of them . She considered Shiloh to be a deviation from the norm because she finished the first draft in just eight weeks .
Edited by Jonathan Lanman , Shiloh was published by Atheneum Books on September 30 , 1991 . The novel has been translated into at least 10 languages : Chinese , Dutch , French , German , Hebrew , Italian , Japanese , Korean , Spanish , and Swedish .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is set in the small town of Friendly , West Virginia , where an eleven @-@ year @-@ old boy named Marty Preston finds a stray beagle wandering in the hills near his house . The dog follows him home , and Marty names him Shiloh , a tribute to a neighborhood schoolhouse . Shiloh 's real owner is Judd Travers , who owns several hunting dogs . Fearing for the dog 's safety because Judd drinks and treats his hunting dogs poorly , Marty does not want to return Shiloh . His father insists that Shiloh be returned to his rightful owner and they take the dog home to Judd .
Shiloh returns to Marty who hides him from his family . Concealing Shiloh in the woods in a wire pen he builds , Marty smuggles some of his dinner to the dog each evening . After his mother discovers Marty feeding the dog , he persuades her not to reveal the secret . That night , Shiloh is attacked by a German Shepherd Dog while in his makeshift cage and his family discovers Marty has been lying and hiding the dog . After taking the dog to the town doctor , the family must return Shiloh to his rightful owner by Sunday .
Before doing so , Marty travels up to Travers ' house to try to convince Travers to allow him to keep Shiloh . Judd does not see Marty approaching , and shoots a doe out of season , which would mean a stiff fine Judd cannot afford . Marty lets Judd know he knows , and attempts to blackmail him out of Shiloh . Judd and Marty eventually negotiate a deal in which Marty will earn Shiloh for 40 dollars , paid with 20 hours of working for Judd . At the end of the first week , Judd says that he will not keep his end of the deal because the evidence of the dead doe has with the passage of time disappeared . Second , the contract that Marty had him sign is worthless in the state of West Virginia without the signature of a witness . Despite Judd 's pointed disapproval of his work , Marty continues to work for him . They begin discussing dogs and Judd 's father who began physically abusing Judd when he was four years old . In the end , Judd warms to Marty , relents , and lets him keep Shiloh .
= = Autobiographical elements = =
In a 1992 interview about Shiloh , Naylor said : " Like a patchwork quilt , a novel is made up of things that have happened to me and things I have heard or read about , all mixed up with imaginings . " Naylor 's characters are frequently based on herself and her two sons . She penned the novel following an excursion with her husband , Rex , to visit their friends , Frank and Trudy Madden , in West Virginia . Naylor and Rex were strolling along a river when they discovered a dog in the grass following them . Dejected and frightened , the dog was " the saddest , most mistreated @-@ looking beagle I 'd ever seen " , Naylor later said . Because the dog frequently shuddered and slunk forward on her belly , Naylor suspected she had been abused . On a whim , Naylor whistled and the dog rushed forward , lapping Naylor 's face . Tailing them until they reached the Maddens ' house , the beagle remained under a tree , her paws cushioning her head during the drizzly afternoon . Naylor cried during her and her husband 's trip home that night .
Rex asked her if she would have a " nervous breakdown " or if she would " do something about it " . That " something " referred to writing a book , which she did . She believed that someone had abused the dog and was confronted by a series of questions :
What if I knew who was abusing it ? What if I knew who it belonged to ? What if the dog kept running to me ? Then , if you write for children , you think about what if I was 11 years old ?
The Maddens resided near Shiloh , West Virginia , where Naylor found the abused dog in 1989 , so she decided to name the book 's dog Shiloh . Because the Maddens ' post office address is in Friendly , West Virginia , Naylor chose the town as her book 's setting . Trudy and Frank Madden adopted the abused dog Naylor had seen . Trudy Madden said in a 1997 interview that Naylor 's description of Shiloh , West Virginia , was precise . By following the directions in Shiloh and its sequels , the town 's houses , mill , and schoolhouse could be located easily .
= = Style = =
Shiloh is told in the first person in main character Marty Preston 's voice . The prose has perceptible grammatical errors and a bucolic tone . Arlene Perly Rae of Toronto Star wrote that the novel is written in the " uncomplicated style " for which Naylor is distinguished . Jane Langton of The New York Times Book Review stated that the novel was written in a " comfortable , down @-@ home style " . Writing that the main story in Shiloh is Marty 's struggle in his mind with morality , Langston noted that it is " presented simply , in a way any third- or fourth @-@ grade reader can understand " . Scholar Kathie Cerra praised the novel for its " vivid sensory detail " , which enables readers to experience Marty 's " inner life of thought and feeling " . In Marty 's " teem [ ing ] with life " first @-@ person narrative , he shows how he feels when he tells lies to his parents and when he embraces the wriggling Shiloh .
Academic Leona W. Fisher wrote in Children 's Literature Association Quarterly that the novel employs a seldom used yet ingenious literary technique : the story is told with " the sustained internal monologue presented almost exclusively in the present tense " . The mores of his society and the actions of adults are strained through Marty 's mind concurrently with his emotional agony and ethical judgments . The dialogue of the other characters tempers but does not counteract the " exclusivity of his linguistic point of view " because Marty is the sole narrator . Shiloh has a " compacted time @-@ frame , bounded by the past @-@ tense opening and closing " . Fisher noted that because the novel 's events are confined to several weeks in the summer , there is no need for a " panoramic sweep " of the actions . The reader can concentrate solely on Marty 's ethical crisis . Conveying the mood of the novel is also mostly confined to Marty 's thoughts and current action . Naylor uses the past @-@ perfect verb " had " on several occasions to depict the tones of the scenes . This usage conveys turning @-@ points in the story , transferring the reader from the " immediate tension " of the present to a growing cognizance .
Scholars Alethea Helbig and Agnes Perkins wrote that the " Appalachian setting is well evoked , in both its beauty and its code of ethics that Marty must defy to save the dog " . Reviewer Ellen Mandel of Booklist wrote that the " West Virginia dialect richly seasons the true @-@ to @-@ life dialogue " . Kenneth E. Kowen of School Library Journal perceived an incongruity in Naylor 's depiction of Marty 's family . He noted that Marty 's father is a postman , one of the best paid jobs in suburban settings . In the novel , however , the family is poverty @-@ stricken .
Reviewer Cecilia Goodnow noted that Shiloh is a Bildungsroman and adventure novel . Marty undergoes a physical and emotional transformation in his quest to save Shiloh . After confronting an abusive adult , he mentally grows , concluding : " I saved Shiloh and opened my eyes some . Now that ain 't bad for eleven . " Salem Press 's Carol Ann Gearhart has characterized the novel as domestic realism .
= = Themes = =
= = = Abuse and love = = =
Physically abused as a child , Judd wants to keep Shiloh because he does not comprehend why people are so interested in rescuing the abused dog . No one cared to rescue Judd when he was harmed throughout his youth . Despite Judd 's growing into a harsh man , reviewer Hary Sheehan noted , he preserves a glimmer of empathy . Journalist Kate Cavanaugh wrote that Judds ' inability to love and cherish Shiloh is borne because of the love his family nurtured in him .
= = = Animal – human relationships = = =
Author Timothy Morris wrote that the plot and themes in Shiloh had many parallels to the 1940 novel Lassie Come @-@ Home by Eric Knight . In both novels , boys fall in love with dogs owned by others . The dogs repeatedly return to the children in " mirror imag [ e ] scenes " , while the ethical fathers try to convince them not to betray their morals and fall for the dogs .
Morris wrote that Shiloh 's faithfulness to Marty is portrayed in " affective human terms " . In the secluded , bucolic West Virginia , Shiloh becomes the masculine friend Marty did not have . The beagle adopts the persona of the brother Marty never had . Marty doggedly believes that Shiloh and other animals are creatures with feelings . Attune with Marty 's emotions , the beagle is considered by Marty to be a confidante . On the other hand , in pastoral West Virginia , some adults consider animals to bring only economic benefits to humans . Morris stated that children like Marty defy their rural culture and advance to an upper @-@ class mindset .
Scholar Claudia Mills wrote that Marty 's parents subscribe to the belief that because Shiloh is Judd 's property , they should not be concerned with how Judd treats Shiloh . They tell Marty : " You 've got to go by the law . The law says that a man that pays money for a dog owns that dog . " At odds with this philosophy , Marty strongly believes that love — not money — should determine ownership .
= = = Ethics = = =
In Shiloh , Naylor does not impart an explicit meaning of " honesty " to her juvenile readers , journalist Nancy Gilson observed . Instead , she conveys how " confusing and unanswerable " morality is using main character Marty 's ethical predicaments and plot twists . To harbor Shiloh from the antagonist Judd and his principled parents , Marty must steal food and tell falsehoods . His dishonest actions serve as a contrast to his conscientious persona and his benevolent rescuing of the dog . Every night , Marty prays , " Jesus ... which do you want me to do ? Be one hundred percent honest and carry that dog back to Judd so that one of your creatures can be kicked and starved all over again , or keep him here and fatten him up to glorify your creation ? "
According to Judith B. Rosenfeld of the Knoxville News @-@ Sentinel , Naylor makes the statement that children raised in healthy families make ethical choices and ultimately thrive . In a 1994 interview Naylor said :
One of the pluses of writing for children is that the child may very well be reading about the subject for the first time . In Shiloh , there 's a moral dilemma with no black or white answer ; the character compromises . It may be the child 's first time to realize that there are not sure answers . It 's sort of thrilling to have a child meet a problem like this for the first time . "
Naylor believes that there is much " gray area between right and wrong " . Instead of following the straightforward correct path , Marty is forced to select between two unpalatable choices . Reviewer Matt Berman of The Times @-@ Picayune believed that the book 's main moral is that " nothing is as simple as it seems " . Entertainment Weekly 's Michele Landsberg praised the novel , writing that Shiloh is a " strongly persuasive story of moral growth , told without a hint of moralizing and with acute insight into a preadolescent 's inner life " .
In the children 's literature journal The ALAN Review published by The Assembly on Literature for Adolescents , Edgar H. Thompson , Connie B. Blevins , and Allison Fitzgerald argued that protagonist Marty " consistently behaves " at levels 5 and 6 of Kohlberg 's stages of development . For instance , on his walk to Judd 's house , he wonders : " Easy as pie for Judd Travers to put a bullet hole in my head , say he didn 't see me . " Despite his fears , Marty continues walking to Judd 's house , persistent on protecting Shiloh despite potential bodily harm and even death to himself . The authors brooded over whether an 11 year old could attain such an elevated level despite most adults ' never being able to do so . Ultimately noting that the Newbery Committee and thousands of readers consider Marty to be realistic , they concluded that Marty is a positive role model for children to strive to be .
= = = Consequentialism = = =
In her essay " The Structure of the Moral Dilemma in Shiloh " for Children 's Literature , Claudia Mills wrote that Shiloh deals with " consequentialism pitted against deontological respect for moral duty " . Taught from his youth to be respectful to others and worship God , Marty is confounded by the injustice of Shiloh 's being abused . He seeks to justify his unethical actions by thinking that " [ a ] lie don 't seem a lie anymore when it 's meant to save a dog . " Consequentionalists base the worthiness of a person 's act on its result . Marty 's act of saving Shiloh is worse for Shiloh 's well @-@ being . After Shiloh is concealed in the woods , a German shepherd attacks the beagle , causing to become permanently lame . Marty laments : " Worst of all , I 'd brought Shiloh here to keep him from being hurt , and what that German shepherd done to him was probably worse than anything Judd Travers would have brought himself to do , short of shootin ' him , anyways . "
Mills noted that consequentialism does not merely expect that the consequences to one entity is determined . It requires a review of the consequences to all . When Marty observes Judd 's out @-@ of @-@ season shooting of a deer , he uses the incident to blackmail him to sell Shiloh to him . However , this places deer in the future in danger of Judd 's hunting . Marty sadly reflects : " By lettin ' him get away with this , I 'm putting other deer in danger . He kill this one out of season , he 'll figure maybe he can kill some more . To save Shiloh , I 'm making it harder for deer " . In essence , he selects the " domestic love over the grander principle " .
= = = Religion and morality = = =
Reviewers observed that religion plays an influential role in Marty 's moral decisions . After Marty takes a forbidden bite from his sister Dara Lynn 's chocolate Easter rabbit and refuses to own up , his mother is disappointed . She tells him : " Dara Lynn don 't know who ate the ear off her candy rabbit and I don 't know who did it , but Jesus knows . And right this minute Jesus is looking down with the saddest eyes on the person who ate that chocolate . " Marty 's very religious mother teaches him that people should not sin or they will be " separated forever from God 's love . "
Academic Claudia Mills wrote that Marty determines to save Shiloh in a scene that is reminiscent of Huckleberry Finn 's well @-@ known resolution to save Jim from slavery : " All right , then , I 'll go to hell . " Thinking about the falsehoods he has told to save Shiloh , he believes he is bound for hell . He reflects :
If what Grandma Preston told me once about heaven and hell is true , and liars go to hell , then I guess that 's where I 'm headed . But she also told me that only people are allowed in heaven , not animals . And if I was to go to heaven and look down to see Shiloh left below , head on his paws , I 'd run away from heaven sure .
Near the novel 's conclusion , Judd refuses to honor his agreement with Marty because there was no witness . When Marty asks his mother what a witness is , she responds : " Somebody who knows the Lord Jesus and don 't mind tellin ' about it . " Despite Judd 's refusal to honor the agreement , Marty persistently maintains his part of it . He decides : " I got no choice . All I can do is stick to my side of the deal and see what happens . All in the world I can do . " After ultimately ceding Shiloh to Marty , Judd asks : " What you going to do with that dog once he 's yours ? " Marty 's simple reply is : " Love him . " Scholar Claudia Mills noted that : " The resolution of the stand @-@ off comes when Marty , in essence , stands witness , in his mother 's religious sense of witness , for an ethic of love , crystallized in his love for Shiloh . "
= = Reception = =
The News & Observer 's Elizabeth Ward listed Shiloh as one of the best children 's books in 1991 . She called the book a " heartstopping , but tough @-@ as @-@ steel story of a boy and an abused dog in the hardscrabble hill country of West Virginia " . Author Timothy Morris deemed Shiloh to be the " most celebrated dog novel of the nineties " . Michele Landsberg of Entertainment Weekly called Shiloh a " compelling read " and rated the novel an A. Equating Shiloh to classics like Charlotte 's Web , author Laura Elliott praised the novel 's " voice , suspense , and layer of themes " .
After Shiloh received the Newbery Award , Jane Langton wrote in The New York Times Book Review : " Did Shiloh really deserve the prize ? Surely there must have been a book more important than this agreeable but slight story . " Langton opined that Shiloh was " a good book , not a great book " and that there must have been few worthy children 's books that year . The Sacramento Bee 's Judy Green disagreed , believing that Shiloh was " worthy of its award , which labels it the best fiction for children written last year " . Green lauded Naylor for her " excellent portrayal of Marty 's introspection and superb storytelling in the area 's vernacular " .
The Booklist 's Ellen Mandel extolled the novel for its " moving and powerful look " at the virtues and vices of human nature and the murky moral choices in conflicts of everyday life . In her favorable review of Shiloh , Betsy Hearne of The Bulletin of the Center for Children 's Books wrote that " readers will be absorbed by the suspenseful plot , which will leave them with some memorable characterizations as well as several intriguing ethical questions " . K.B. Cartwright of The Reading Teacher also praised the novel for providing a " gripping account of family conflict and honesty " . In a similarly positive review , Kirkus Reviews praised the book for being a " gripping account of a mountain boy 's love for a dog he 's hiding from its owner " . Calling it " unusually warm and moving " , Heather Vogel Frederick of The Christian Science Monitor praised the novel for being an " excellent choice as a family read @-@ aloud " .
Censors have objected to the profanity in Shiloh . Naylor received an angry letter from the parents of a 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy , who were angered by the language in the book . The character Judd had sworn , " dammit " . The author replied in an interview with The Virginian @-@ Pilot that some people in the world " speak crudely " and " you can 't put your child in a glass bubble and protect him always " . Several West Virginian book reviewers have complained about the dialect in the novel , believing that West Virginians do not speak with a dialect . In one review , a newspaper writer said that when she read the book to her children , she chose not to read with the dialect .
= = Honors = =
In 1992 , Shiloh received the John Newbery Medal . The annual award , bestowed by the children 's librarians division of the American Library Association , is given for " the most distinguished contribution to American literature for children " . Shiloh was a dark horse for the award . Ohio State University Professor Rudine Sims Bishop , a member of the 1992 Newbery committee , said in an interview that Shiloh was a " sleeper " that surfaced as a serious contender deep in their debate . After the January 27 , 1992 announcement of Shiloh 's winning the Newbery Medal , Naylor was flooded with numerous phone calls , requests for interviews , and mail . In an April 1992 interview , Naylor said : " Frankly , to go the bathroom , I have had to take the phone off the hook . " The book was also selected as an American Library Association Notable Children 's Book .
In January 1994 , over 60 @,@ 000 third – sixth graders in the state of Oklahoma selected from Shiloh 23 nominees as the winner of the Sequoyah Children 's Book Award . The Sequoyah Award was presented to Naylor in April 1994 during the yearly Oklahoma Library Association conference . On April 14 , 1994 , at the annual conference of the Missouri Association of School Librarians , Shiloh received that year 's Mark Twain Readers Award . The Mark Twain Award is decided annually through a vote by fourth – eighth graders in the state of Missouri . On October 29 , 1994 , Naylor received the William Allen White Children 's Book Award for Shiloh . The award is decided through the tallying of over 55 @,@ 000 children in the state of Kansas .
In 1997 , The Virginian @-@ Pilot chose Shiloh as the subject of a " community @-@ wide effort to get people of all ages reading and talking about books " . Beginning in October , the newspaper serialized Shiloh , publishing two chapters every week until the end of November . It also created a book guide about Shiloh and printed 1 @,@ 000 copies for parents and teachers . A chat room was created for children to direct questions and comments about Shiloh . In 1999 , Shiloh was selected as a recommended novel for children ages nine to twelve in the Read Across America initiative . In 2000 , the Shiloh trilogy placed at number seven on the National Education Association 's Children 's Top 100 book list . Naylor was delighted that children had given her work such a high ranking . Shiloh is taught in many American elementary school courses .
= = Sequels = =
Shiloh has three sequels , Shiloh Season , Saving Shiloh , and A Shiloh Christmas published in 1996 , 1997 , and 2015 respectively . In Shiloh Season , Naylor renews the strife by restoring Judd 's hostility and aggravating it with a bout of drinking issues . Marty fears Judd will take back Shiloh and be faithless to the deal they made . Whereas in Shiloh Marty confronts the confusing and ambiguous concept of morality , in Shiloh Season he must face the notion of wickedness .
In the third book , Saving Shiloh , Marty 's parents persuade Marty that people who have wronged are worthy of forgiveness . In the midst of several robberies and a murder , the community hastily faults Judd . Willing to grant Judd a second chance , Marty attempts to help him . Meanwhile , Marty and his family must face the intricacies of life such as death , hostility , and sibling rivalry .
Published on September 22 , 2015 , the fourth book , A Shiloh Christmas , was published by Atheneum , which printed 200 @,@ 000 copies . A ferocious drought strikes Marty 's community , and a new pastor joins blaming remorseless sinners for instigating it . Looking for a scapegoat , community members lie the responsibility squarely on people like Judd , an alcoholic and animal abuser who has reformed . A fire ravages multiple houses , including Judd 's , prompting Marty and his family to help the homeowners reconstruct their homes . One day , Marty and a friend stumble upon Rachel , the pastor 's daughter , confined to the pastor 's toolshed . The incident forces Marty 's parents to determine whether the disciplinary action has crossed the line from being disciplinary to being abusive . The book ends with characters who have vehemently differing views having a therapeutic Christmas meal together .
Naylor penned the sequels in response to " the surprising degree of hatred which children show toward Judd Travers " . Noting that Judd 's life had been molded by the abuse he suffered as a child , she hoped that the novels would enable children to see Judd as a person like Marty who must make difficult moral choices .
The first three books in the quartet each were made into a movie : Shiloh in 1996 , Shiloh Season in 1999 , and Saving Shiloh in 2006 .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
In 1996 Warner Bros. Pictures released Shiloh , which was directed by Dale Rosenbloom . The first of Naylor 's more than 100 juvenile and adult works to be adapted into a movie , it starred Blake Heron as Marty and Scott Wilson as Judd Travers . Budgeted at less than $ 2 million , Shiloh was filmed in 30 days in October 1996 at Topanga , California .
Rosenbloom 's film differed from Naylor 's novel in several key aspects . In the novel , Marty 's family is poor and economic opportunities are limited . The family 's four @-@ room homestead is ancient and has not seen remodeling in decades . In the film , the family is wealthy and there are numerous economic opportunities . The family 's two @-@ story house is a " stunning showplace of hardwoods , elegant color schemes , and tasteful appointments " . Marty makes money very quickly by doing various chores . By transforming Marty 's family from being poor to being well off , Rosenbloom makes the conflict between Marty and Judd an emotional , instead of an economic one . In the novel , Marty and his family hunt animals , while in the film , his father does not hunt . Author Timothy Morris states that " [ t ] he force of the film 's ideology is to blur all distinctions between humans and animals " . Judd is transformed from a native in the novel into an interloper in the film who holds the contrarian view that humans and animals are different , that " [ a ] nimals were put here for us . They ain ' got no other purpose or feelin 's . "
Instead of being about Marty 's love for Shiloh , most of the novel occurs in Marty 's thoughts such as when he ponders about telling falsehoods to his parents . Because the book was considered " very internal " by the major film studios , director Dale Rosenbloom labored over making the film more external . Rosenbloom added new characters and scenes to the story and faxed each change to the novel 's author . Naylor was neither fearful of Rosenbloom 's changes nor unhesitant at suggesting changes . After the film was released , Naylor said that Rosenbloom " did a very good job " , and Rosenbloom said , " We did do right by the book and her ... She lives by her code and if you honor it , she appreciates it . " By June 1997 , Naylor had seen the film six times . In an interview that month , she noted that she was always struck by the hush of the theater and by how the film entrances everyone , even the children .
Despite an underwhelming performance in the movie theaters , the film received high video sales . Ranking Shiloh as one of his top 10 selections , Roger Ebert praised the film for being a " remarkably mature and complex story about a boy who loves a dog and cannot bear to see it mistreated " , depicting " the real world with all of its terrors and responsibilities " . Shiloh was honored with " best film " at the Chicago International Film Festival .
= = = Audiobook = = =
The audiobook version of Shiloh was released by Bantam Books in 1992 . Performed by Peter MacNicol , the three @-@ hour @-@ long audiobook is unabridged . Author John Wynne praised MacNicol 's delivery , writing that he " does character voices well — both male and female — and creates a folksy atmosphere appropriate to the material " .
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= Massachusetts Institute of Technology =
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) is a private research university in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Founded in 1861 in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States , MIT adopted a European polytechnic university model and stressed laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering . Researchers worked on computers , radar , and inertial guidance during World War II and the Cold War . Post @-@ war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian . The current 168 @-@ acre ( 68 @.@ 0 ha ) campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) along the northern bank of the Charles River basin .
MIT , with five schools and one college which contain a total of 34 departments , is often cited as among the world 's top universities . The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the physical sciences and engineering , and more recently in biology , economics , linguistics , and management as well . The " Engineers " sponsor 31 sports , most teams of which compete in the NCAA Division III 's New England Women 's and Men 's Athletic Conference ; the Division I rowing programs compete as part of the EARC and EAWRC .
As of 2015 , 85 Nobel laureates , 52 National Medal of Science recipients , 65 Marshall Scholars , 45 Rhodes Scholars , 38 MacArthur Fellows , 34 astronauts , 19 Turing award winners , and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT . The school has a strong entrepreneurial culture , and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh @-@ largest economy in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation and vision = = =
In 1859 , a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay , Boston for a " Conservatory of Art and Science " , but the proposal failed . A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , proposed by William Barton Rogers , was signed by the governor of Massachusetts on April 10 , 1861 .
Rogers , a professor from the University of Virginia , wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances . He did not wish to found a professional school , but a combination with elements of both professional and liberal education , proposing that :
The true and only practicable object of a polytechnic school is , as I conceive , the teaching , not of the minute details and manipulations of the arts , which can be done only in the workshop , but the inculcation of those scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them , and along with this , a full and methodical review of all their leading processes and operations in connection with physical laws .
The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model , emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research , as well as instruction oriented around seminars and laboratories .
= = = Early developments = = =
Two days after the charter was issued , the first battle of the Civil War broke out . After a long delay through the war years , MIT 's first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865 . The new institute was founded as part of the Morrill Land @-@ Grant Colleges Act to fund institutions " to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes " , and was a land @-@ grant school . In 1863 under the same act , the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College , which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst . In 1866 , the proceeds from land sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay .
MIT was informally called " Boston Tech " . The institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date . Despite chronic financial problems , the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker . Programs in electrical , chemical , marine , and sanitary engineering were introduced , new buildings were built , and the size of the student body increased to more than one thousand .
The curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis , with less focus on theoretical science . The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership . During these " Boston Tech " years , MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president ( and former MIT faculty ) Charles W. Eliot 's repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard College 's Lawrence Scientific School . There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard . In its cramped Back Bay location , MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities , driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding . Eventually the MIT Corporation approved a formal agreement to merge with Harvard , over the vehement objections of MIT faculty , students , and alumni . However , a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme .
In 1916 , the MIT administration and the MIT charter crossed the Charles River on the ceremonial barge Bucentaur built for the occasion , to signify MIT 's move to a spacious new campus largely consisting of filled land on a mile @-@ long tract along the Cambridge side of the Charles River . The neoclassical " New Technology " campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious " Mr. Smith " , starting in 1912 . In January 1920 , the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester , New York , who had invented methods of film production and processing , and founded Eastman Kodak . Between 1912 and 1920 , Eastman donated $ 20 million ( $ 236 @.@ 2 million in 2015 dollars ) in cash and Kodak stock to MIT .
= = = Curricular reforms = = =
In the 1930s , President Karl Taylor Compton and Vice @-@ President ( effectively Provost ) Vannevar Bush emphasized the importance of pure sciences like physics and chemistry and reduced the vocational practice required in shops and drafting studios . The Compton reforms " renewed confidence in the ability of the Institute to develop leadership in science as well as in engineering . " Unlike Ivy League schools , MIT catered more to middle @-@ class families , and depended more on tuition than on endowments or grants for its funding . The school was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 .
Still , as late as 1949 , the Lewis Committee lamented in its report on the state of education at MIT that " the Institute is widely conceived as basically a vocational school " , a " partly unjustified " perception the committee sought to change . The report comprehensively reviewed the undergraduate curriculum , recommended offering a broader education , and warned against letting engineering and government @-@ sponsored research detract from the sciences and humanities . The School of Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences and the MIT Sloan School of Management were formed in 1950 to compete with the powerful Schools of Science and Engineering . Previously marginalized faculties in the areas of economics , management , political science , and linguistics emerged into cohesive and assertive departments by attracting respected professors and launching competitive graduate programs . The School of Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences continued to develop under the successive terms of the more humanistically oriented presidents Howard W. Johnson and Jerome Wiesner between 1966 and 1980 .
= = = Defense research = = =
MIT 's involvement in military research surged during World War II . In 1941 , Vannevar Bush was appointed head of the federal Office of Scientific Research and Development and directed funding to only a select group of universities , including MIT . Engineers and scientists from across the country gathered at MIT 's Radiation Laboratory , established in 1940 to assist the British military in developing microwave radar . The work done there significantly affected both the war and subsequent research in the area . Other defense projects included gyroscope @-@ based and other complex control systems for gunsight , bombsight , and inertial navigation under Charles Stark Draper 's Instrumentation Laboratory ; the development of a digital computer for flight simulations under Project Whirlwind ; and high @-@ speed and high @-@ altitude photography under Harold Edgerton . By the end of the war , MIT became the nation 's largest wartime R & D contractor ( attracting some criticism of Bush ) , employing nearly 4000 in the Radiation Laboratory alone and receiving in excess of $ 100 million ( $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2015 dollars ) before 1946 . Work on defense projects continued even after then . Post @-@ war government @-@ sponsored research at MIT included SAGE and guidance systems for ballistic missiles and Project Apollo .
These activities affected MIT profoundly . A 1949 report noted the lack of " any great slackening in the pace of life at the Institute " to match the return to peacetime , remembering the " academic tranquility of the prewar years " , though acknowledging the significant contributions of military research to the increased emphasis on graduate education and rapid growth of personnel and facilities . The faculty doubled and the graduate student body quintupled during the terms of Karl Taylor Compton , president of MIT between 1930 and 1948 ; James Rhyne Killian , president from 1948 to 1957 ; and Julius Adams Stratton , chancellor from 1952 to 1957 , whose institution @-@ building strategies shaped the expanding university . By the 1950s , MIT no longer simply benefited the industries with which it had worked for three decades , and it had developed closer working relationships with new patrons , philanthropic foundations and the federal government .
In late 1960s and early 1970s , student and faculty activists protested against the Vietnam War and MIT 's defense research . The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded on March 4 , 1969 during a meeting of faculty members and students seeking to shift the emphasis on military research toward environmental and social problems . MIT ultimately divested itself from the Instrumentation Laboratory and moved all classified research off @-@ campus to the Lincoln Laboratory facility in 1973 in response to the protests . The student body , faculty , and administration remained comparatively unpolarized during what was a tumultuous time for many other universities . Johnson was seen to be highly successful in leading his institution to " greater strength and unity " after these times of turmoil .
= = = Recent history = = =
MIT has kept pace with and helped to advance the digital age . In addition to developing the predecessors to modern computing and networking technologies , students , staff , and faculty members at Project MAC , the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory , and the Tech Model Railroad Club wrote some of the earliest interactive computer video games like Spacewar ! and created much of modern hacker slang and culture . Several major computer @-@ related organizations have originated at MIT since the 1980s : Richard Stallman 's GNU Project and the subsequent Free Software Foundation were founded in the mid @-@ 1980s at the AI Lab ; the MIT Media Lab was founded in 1985 by Nicholas Negroponte and Jerome Wiesner to promote research into novel uses of computer technology ; the World Wide Web Consortium standards organization was founded at the Laboratory for Computer Science in 1994 by Tim Berners @-@ Lee ; the OpenCourseWare project has made course materials for over 2 @,@ 000 MIT classes available online free of charge since 2002 ; and the One Laptop per Child initiative to expand computer education and connectivity to children worldwide was launched in 2005 .
MIT was named a sea @-@ grant college in 1976 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a space @-@ grant college in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs . Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century , MIT launched several successful development campaigns to significantly expand the campus : new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus ; the Tang Center for Management Education ; several buildings in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into biology , brain and cognitive sciences , genomics , biotechnology , and cancer research ; and a number of new " backlot " buildings on Vassar Street including the Stata Center . Construction on campus in the 2000s included expansions of the Media Lab , the Sloan School 's eastern campus , and graduate residences in the northwest . In 2006 , President Hockfield launched the MIT Energy Research Council to investigate the interdisciplinary challenges posed by increasing global energy consumption .
In 2001 , inspired by the open source and open access movements , MIT launched OpenCourseWare to make the lecture notes , problem sets , syllabuses , exams , and lectures from the great majority of its courses available online for no charge , though without any formal accreditation for coursework completed . While the cost of supporting and hosting the project is high , OCW expanded in 2005 to include other universities as a part of the OpenCourseWare Consortium , which currently includes more than 250 academic institutions with content available in at least six languages . In 2011 , MIT announced it would offer formal certification ( but not credits or degrees ) to online participants completing coursework in its " MITx " program , for a modest fee . The " edX " online platform supporting MITx was initially developed in partnership with Harvard and its analogous " Harvardx " initiative . The courseware platform is open source , and other universities have already joined and added their own course content .
Three days after the Boston Marathon bombing of April 2013 , MIT Police patrol officer Sean Collier was fatally shot by the suspects Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev , setting off a violent manhunt that shut down the campus and much of the Boston metropolitan area for a day . One week later , Collier 's memorial service was attended by more than 10 @,@ 000 people , in a ceremony hosted by the MIT community with thousands of police officers from the New England region and Canada . On November 25 , 2013 , MIT announced the creation of the Collier Medal , to be awarded annually to " an individual or group that embodies the character and qualities that Officer Collier exhibited as a member of the MIT community and in all aspects of his life " . The announcement further stated that " Future recipients of the award will include those whose contributions exceed the boundaries of their profession , those who have contributed to building bridges across the community , and those who consistently and selflessly perform acts of kindness " .
= = Campus = =
MIT 's 168 @-@ acre ( 68 @.@ 0 ha ) campus in the city of Cambridge spans approximately a mile along the north side of the Charles River basin . The campus is divided roughly in half by Massachusetts Avenue , with most dormitories and student life facilities to the west and most academic buildings to the east . The bridge closest to MIT is the Harvard Bridge , which is known for being marked off in a non @-@ standard unit of length – the smoot .
The Kendall MBTA Red Line station is located on the northeastern edge of the campus , in Kendall Square . The Cambridge neighborhoods surrounding MIT are a mixture of high tech companies occupying both modern office and rehabilitated industrial buildings , as well as socio @-@ economically diverse residential neighborhoods . In early 2016 , MIT presented its updated Kendall Square Initiative to the City of Cambridge , with plans for mixed @-@ use educational , retail , residential , startup incubator , and office space in a dense high @-@ rise transit @-@ oriented development plan . The MIT Museum will eventually be moved immediately adjacent to a Kendall Square subway entrance , joining the List Visual Arts Center on the eastern end of the campus .
Each building at MIT has a number ( possibly preceded by a W , N , E , or NW ) designation and most have a name as well . Typically , academic and office buildings are referred to primarily by number while residence halls are referred to by name . The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative ( north , west , and east ) to the original center cluster of Maclaurin buildings . Many of the buildings are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of underground tunnels , providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for roof and tunnel hacking .
MIT 's on @-@ campus nuclear reactor is one of the most powerful university @-@ based nuclear reactors in the United States . The prominence of the reactor 's containment building in a densely populated area has been controversial , but MIT maintains that it is well @-@ secured . In 1999 Bill Gates donated US $ 20 million to MIT for the construction of a computer laboratory named the " William H. Gates Building " , and designed by architect Frank O. Gehry . While Microsoft had previously given financial support to the institution , this was the first personal donation received from Gates .
Other notable campus facilities include a pressurized wind tunnel and a towing tank for testing ship and ocean structure designs . MIT 's campus @-@ wide wireless network was completed in the fall of 2005 and consists of nearly 3 @,@ 000 access points covering 9 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 870 @,@ 000 m2 ) of campus .
In 2001 , the Environmental Protection Agency sued MIT for violating the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act with regard to its hazardous waste storage and disposal procedures . MIT settled the suit by paying a $ 155 @,@ 000 fine and launching three environmental projects . In connection with capital campaigns to expand the campus , the Institute has also extensively renovated existing buildings to improve their energy efficiency . MIT has also taken steps to reduce its environmental impact by running alternative fuel campus shuttles , subsidizing public transportation passes , and building a low @-@ emission cogeneration plant that serves most of the campus electricity , heating , and cooling requirements .
The MIT Police with state and local authorities , in the 2009 @-@ 2011 period , have investigated reports of 12 forcible sex offenses , 6 robberies , 3 aggravated assaults , 164 burglaries , 1 case of arson , and 4 cases of motor vehicle theft on campus ; affecting a community of around 22 @,@ 000 students and employees .
= = = Architecture = = =
MIT 's School of Architecture , now the School of Architecture and Planning , was the first in the United States , and it has a history of commissioning progressive buildings . The first buildings constructed on the Cambridge campus , completed in 1916 , are sometimes called the " Maclaurin buildings " after Institute president Richard Maclaurin who oversaw their construction . Designed by William Welles Bosworth , these imposing buildings were built of reinforced concrete , a first for a non @-@ industrial – much less university – building in the US . Bosworth 's design was influenced by the City Beautiful Movement of the early 1900s , and features the Pantheon @-@ esque Great Dome housing the Barker Engineering Library . The Great Dome overlooks Killian Court , where graduation ceremonies are held each year . The friezes of the limestone @-@ clad buildings around Killian Court are engraved with the names of important scientists and philosophers . The spacious Building 7 atrium at 77 Massachusetts Avenue is regarded as the entrance to the Infinite Corridor and the rest of the campus .
Alvar Aalto 's Baker House ( 1947 ) , Eero Saarinen 's MIT Chapel and Kresge Auditorium ( 1955 ) , and I.M. Pei 's Green , Dreyfus , Landau , and Wiesner buildings represent high forms of post @-@ war modernist architecture . More recent buildings like Frank Gehry 's Stata Center ( 2004 ) , Steven Holl 's Simmons Hall ( 2002 ) , Charles Correa 's Building 46 ( 2005 ) , and Fumihiko Maki 's Media Lab Extension ( 2009 ) stand out among the Boston area 's classical architecture and serve as examples of contemporary campus " starchitecture " . These buildings have not always been well received ; in 2010 , The Princeton Review included MIT in a list of twenty schools whose campuses are " tiny , unsightly , or both " .
= = = Housing = = =
Undergraduates are guaranteed four @-@ year housing in one of MIT 's 12 undergraduate dormitories . Those living on campus can receive support and mentoring from live @-@ in graduate student tutors , resident advisors , and faculty housemasters . Because housing assignments are made based on the preferences of the students themselves , diverse social atmospheres can be sustained in different living groups ; for example , according to the Yale Daily News staff 's The Insider 's Guide to the Colleges , 2010 , " The split between East Campus and West Campus is a significant characteristic of MIT . East Campus has gained a reputation as a thriving counterculture . " MIT also has 5 dormitories for single graduate students and 2 apartment buildings on campus for married student families .
MIT has an active Greek and co @-@ op housing system , including thirty @-@ six fraternities , sororities , and independent living groups ( FSILGs ) . As of 2015 , 98 % of all undergraduates lived in MIT @-@ affiliated housing ; 54 % of the men participated in fraternities and 20 % of the women were involved in sororities . Most FSILGs are located across the river in Back Bay near where MIT was founded , and there is also a cluster of fraternities on MIT 's West Campus that face the Charles River Basin . After the 1997 alcohol @-@ related death of Scott Krueger , a new pledge at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity , MIT required all freshmen to live in the dormitory system starting in 2002 . Because FSILGs had previously housed as many as 300 freshmen off @-@ campus , the new policy could not be implemented until Simmons Hall opened in that year .
= = Organization and administration = =
MIT is chartered as a non @-@ profit organization and is owned and governed by a privately appointed board of trustees known as the MIT Corporation . The current board consists of 43 members elected to five @-@ year terms , 25 life members who vote until their 75th birthday , 3 elected officers ( President , Treasurer , and Secretary ) , and 4 ex officio members ( the president of the alumni association , the Governor of Massachusetts , the Massachusetts Secretary of Education , and the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ) . The board is chaired by Robert Millard , a co @-@ founder of L @-@ 3 Communications Holdings . The Corporation approves the budget , new programs , degrees and faculty appointments , and elects the President to serve as the chief executive officer of the university and preside over the Institute 's faculty . MIT 's endowment and other financial assets are managed through a subsidiary called MIT Investment Management Company ( MITIMCo ) . Valued at $ 9 @.@ 7 billion in 2011 , MIT 's endowment is the sixth @-@ largest among American colleges and universities .
MIT has five schools ( Science , Engineering , Architecture and Planning , Management , and Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences ) and one college ( Whitaker College of Health Sciences and Technology ) , but no schools of law or medicine . While faculty committees assert substantial control over many areas of MIT 's curriculum , research , student life , and administrative affairs , the chair of each of MIT 's 32 academic departments reports to the dean of that department 's school , who in turn reports to the Provost under the President . The current president is L. Rafael Reif , who formerly served as provost under President Susan Hockfield , the first woman to hold the post .
= = Academics = =
MIT is a large , highly residential , research university with a majority of enrollments in graduate and professional programs . The university has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1929 . MIT operates on a 4 – 1 – 4 academic calendar with the fall semester beginning after Labor Day and ending in mid @-@ December , a 4 @-@ week " Independent Activities Period " in the month of January , and the spring semester beginning in early February and ending in late May .
MIT students refer to both their majors and classes using numbers or acronyms alone . Departments and their corresponding majors are numbered in the approximate order of their foundation ; for example , Civil and Environmental Engineering is Course 1 , while Linguistics and Philosophy is Course 24 . Students majoring in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science ( EECS ) , the most popular department , collectively identify themselves as " Course 6 " . MIT students use a combination of the department 's course number and the number assigned to the class to identify their subjects ; the introductory calculus @-@ based classical mechanics course is simply " 8 @.@ 01 " at MIT .
= = = Undergraduate program = = =
The four @-@ year , full @-@ time undergraduate program maintains a balance between professional majors and those in the arts and sciences , and has been dubbed " most selective " by U.S. News , admitting few transfer students and 8 @.@ 0 % of its applicants in the 2015 admissions cycle . MIT offers 44 undergraduate degrees across its five schools . In the 2010 – 2011 academic year , 1 @,@ 161 bachelor of science degrees ( abbreviated " SB " ) were granted , the only type of undergraduate degree MIT now awards . In the 2011 fall term , among students who had designated a major , the School of Engineering was the most popular division , enrolling 63 % of students in its 19 degree programs , followed by the School of Science ( 29 % ) , School of Humanities , Arts , & Social Sciences ( 3 @.@ 7 % ) , Sloan School of Management ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) , and School of Architecture and Planning ( 2 % ) . The largest undergraduate degree programs were in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science ( Course 6 – 2 ) , Computer Science and Engineering ( Course 6 – 3 ) , Mechanical Engineering ( Course 2 ) , Physics ( Course 8 ) , and Mathematics ( Course 18 ) .
All undergraduates are required to complete a core curriculum called the General Institute Requirements ( GIRs ) . The Science Requirement , generally completed during freshman year as prerequisites for classes in science and engineering majors , comprises two semesters of physics , two semesters of calculus , one semester of chemistry , and one semester of biology . There is a Laboratory Requirement , usually satisfied by an appropriate class in a course major . The Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences ( HASS ) Requirement consists of eight semesters of classes in the humanities , arts , and social sciences , including at least one semester from each division as well as the courses required for a designated concentration in a HASS division . Under the Communication Requirement , two of the HASS classes , plus two of the classes taken in the designated major must be " communication @-@ intensive " , including " substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation " . Finally , all students are required to complete a swimming test ; non @-@ varsity athletes must also take four quarters of physical education classes .
Most classes rely on a combination of lectures , recitations led by associate professors or graduate students , weekly problem sets ( " p @-@ sets " ) , and periodic quizzes or tests . While the pace and difficulty of MIT coursework has been compared to " drinking from a fire hose " , the freshmen retention rate at MIT is similar other research universities . The " pass / no @-@ record " grading system relieves some pressure for first @-@ year undergraduates . For each class taken in the fall term , freshmen transcripts will either report only that the class was passed , or otherwise not have any record of it . In the spring term , passing grades ( A , B , C ) appear on the transcript while non @-@ passing grades are again not recorded . ( Grading had previously been " pass / no record " all freshman year , but was amended for the Class of 2006 to prevent students from gaming the system by completing required major classes in their freshman year . ) Also , freshmen may choose to join alternative learning communities , such as Experimental Study Group , Concourse , or Terrascope .
In 1969 , Margaret MacVicar founded the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program ( UROP ) to enable undergraduates to collaborate directly with faculty members and researchers . Students join or initiate research projects ( " UROPs " ) for academic credit , pay , or on a volunteer basis through postings on the UROP website or by contacting faculty members directly . A substantial majority of undergraduates participate . Students often become published , file patent applications , and / or launch start @-@ up companies based upon their experience in UROPs .
In 1970 , the then @-@ Dean of Institute Relations , Benson R. Snyder , published The Hidden Curriculum , arguing that education at MIT was often slighted in favor of following a set of unwritten expectations , and that graduating with good grades was more often the product of figuring out the system rather than a solid education . The successful student , according to Snyder , was the one who was able to discern which of the formal requirements were to be ignored in favor of which unstated norms . For example , organized student groups had compiled " course bibles " — collections of problem @-@ set and examination questions and answers for later students to use as references . This sort of gamesmanship , Snyder argued , hindered development of a creative intellect and contributed to student discontent and unrest .
= = = Graduate program = = =
MIT 's graduate program has high coexistence with the undergraduate program , and many courses are taken by qualified students at both levels . MIT offers a comprehensive doctoral program with degrees in the humanities , social sciences , and STEM fields as well as professional degrees . The Institute offers graduate programs leading to academic degrees such as the Master of Science ( MS ) , various Engineer 's Degrees , Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) , and Doctor of Science ( ScD ) and interdisciplinary graduate programs such as the MD @-@ PhD ( with Harvard Medical School ) .
Admission to graduate programs is decentralized ; applicants apply directly to the department or degree program . More than 90 % of doctoral students are supported by fellowships , research assistantships ( RAs ) , or teaching assistantships ( TAs ) .
MIT awarded 1 @,@ 547 master 's degrees and 609 doctoral degrees in the academic year 2010 – 11 . In the 2011 fall term , the School of Engineering was the most popular academic division , enrolling 45 @.@ 0 % of graduate students , followed by the Sloan School of Management ( 19 % ) , School of Science ( 16 @.@ 9 % ) , School of Architecture and Planning ( 9 @.@ 2 % ) , Whitaker College of Health Sciences ( 5 @.@ 1 % ) , and School of Humanities , Arts , and Social Sciences ( 4 @.@ 7 % ) . The largest graduate degree programs were the Sloan MBA , Electrical Engineering and Computer Science , and Mechanical Engineering .
= = = University rankings = = =
MIT places among the top ten in many overall rankings of universities ( see right ) and rankings based on students ' revealed preferences . For several years , U.S. News & World Report , the QS World University Rankings , and the Academic Ranking of World Universities have ranked MIT 's School of Engineering first , as did the 1995 National Research Council report . In the same lists , MIT 's strongest showings apart from in engineering are in computer science , the natural sciences , business , economics , linguistics , mathematics , and , to a lesser extent , political science and philosophy .
In 2014 , Money magazine ranked MIT as third in the US " Best Colleges for Your Money " , based on its assessment of " the most bang for your tuition buck " , factoring in quality of education , affordability , and career outcomes . As of 2014 , Forbes magazine rated MIT as the second " Most Entrepreneurial University " , based on the percentage of alumni and students self @-@ identifying as founders or business owners on LinkedIn . In 2015 , Brookings Fellow Jonathan Rothwell issued a report " Beyond College Rankings " , placing MIT as third in the US , with an estimated 45 % value @-@ added to mid @-@ career salary .
= = = Collaborations = = =
The university historically pioneered research and training collaborations between academia , industry and government . In 1946 , President Compton , Harvard Business School professor Georges Doriot , and Massachusetts Investor Trust chairman Merrill Grisswold founded American Research and Development Corporation , the first American venture @-@ capital firm . In 1948 , Compton established the MIT Industrial Liaison Program . Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s , American politicians and business leaders accused MIT and other universities of contributing to a declining economy by transferring taxpayer @-@ funded research and technology to international – especially Japanese — firms that were competing with struggling American businesses . On the other hand , MIT 's extensive collaboration with the federal government on research projects has led to several MIT leaders serving as presidential scientific advisers since 1940 . MIT established a Washington Office in 1991 to continue effective lobbying for research funding and national science policy .
The U.S. Justice Department began an investigation in 1989 , and in 1991 filed an antitrust suit against MIT , the eight Ivy League colleges , and eleven other institutions for allegedly engaging in price @-@ fixing during their annual " Overlap Meetings " , which were held to prevent bidding wars over promising prospective students from consuming funds for need @-@ based scholarships . While the Ivy League institutions settled , MIT contested the charges , arguing that the practice was not anti @-@ competitive because it ensured the availability of aid for the greatest number of students . MIT ultimately prevailed when the Justice Department dropped the case in 1994 .
MIT 's proximity to Harvard University ( " the other school up the river " ) has led to a substantial number of research collaborations such as the Harvard @-@ MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and the Broad Institute . In addition , students at the two schools can cross @-@ register for credits toward their own school 's degrees without any additional fees . A cross @-@ registration program between MIT and Wellesley College has also existed since 1969 , and in 2002 the Cambridge – MIT Institute launched an undergraduate exchange program between MIT and the University of Cambridge . MIT has more modest cross @-@ registration programs with Boston University , Brandeis University , Tufts University , Massachusetts College of Art , and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston .
MIT maintains substantial research and faculty ties with independent research organizations in the Boston area , such as the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory , the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research , and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . Ongoing international research and educational collaborations include the Singapore @-@ MIT Alliance , MIT @-@ Politecnico di Milano , MIT @-@ Zaragoza International Logistics Program , and projects in other countries through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives ( MISTI ) program .
The mass @-@ market magazine Technology Review is published by MIT through a subsidiary company , as is a special edition that also serves as an alumni magazine . The MIT Press is a major university press , publishing over 200 books and 30 journals annually , emphasizing science and technology as well as arts , architecture , new media , current events , and social issues .
= = = Libraries , collections and museums = = =
The MIT library system consists of five subject libraries : Barker ( Engineering ) , Dewey ( Economics ) , Hayden ( Humanities and Science ) , Lewis ( Music ) , and Rotch ( Arts and Architecture ) . There are also various specialized libraries and archives . The libraries contain more than 2 @.@ 9 million printed volumes , 2 @.@ 4 million microforms , 49 @,@ 000 print or electronic journal subscriptions , and 670 reference databases . The past decade has seen a trend of increased focus on digital over print resources in the libraries . Notable collections include the Lewis Music Library with an emphasis on 20th and 21st @-@ century music and electronic music , the List Visual Arts Center 's rotating exhibitions of contemporary art , and the Compton Gallery 's cross @-@ disciplinary exhibitions . MIT allocates a percentage of the budget for all new construction and renovation to commission and support its extensive public art and outdoor sculpture collection .
The MIT Museum was founded in 1971 and collects , preserves , and exhibits artifacts significant to the culture and history of MIT . The Museum now engages in significant educational outreach programs for the general public , including the annual Cambridge Science Festival , the first celebration of this kind in the United States . Since 2005 , its official mission has been , " to engage the wider community with MIT 's science , technology and other areas of scholarship in ways that will best serve the nation and the world in the 21st century " .
= = = Research = = =
MIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and remains a research university with a very high level of research activity ; research expenditures totaled $ 718 @.@ 2 million in 2009 . The federal government was the largest source of sponsored research , with the Department of Health and Human Services granting $ 255 @.@ 9 million , Department of Defense $ 97 @.@ 5 million , Department of Energy $ 65 @.@ 8 million , National Science Foundation $ 61 @.@ 4 million , and NASA $ 27 @.@ 4 million . MIT employs approximately 1300 researchers in addition to faculty . In 2011 , MIT faculty and researchers disclosed 632 inventions , were issued 153 patents , earned $ 85 @.@ 4 million in cash income , and received $ 69 @.@ 6 million in royalties . Through programs like the Deshpande Center , MIT faculty leverage their research and discoveries into multi @-@ million @-@ dollar commercial ventures .
In electronics , magnetic core memory , radar , single electron transistors , and inertial guidance controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers . Harold Eugene Edgerton was a pioneer in high speed photography and sonar . Claude E. Shannon developed much of modern information theory and discovered the application of Boolean logic to digital circuit design theory . In the domain of computer science , MIT faculty and researchers made fundamental contributions to cybernetics , artificial intelligence , computer languages , machine learning , robotics , and cryptography . At least nine Turing Award laureates and seven recipients of the Draper Prize in engineering have been or are currently associated with MIT .
Current and previous physics faculty have won eight Nobel Prizes , four Dirac Medals , and three Wolf Prizes predominantly for their contributions to subatomic and quantum theory . Members of the chemistry department have been awarded three Nobel Prizes and one Wolf Prize for the discovery of novel syntheses and methods . MIT biologists have been awarded six Nobel Prizes for their contributions to genetics , immunology , oncology , and molecular biology . Professor Eric Lander was one of the principal leaders of the Human Genome Project . Positronium atoms , synthetic penicillin , synthetic self @-@ replicating molecules , and the genetic bases for Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis ( also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig 's disease ) and Huntington 's disease were first discovered at MIT . Jerome Lettvin transformed the study of cognitive science with his paper " What the frog 's eye tells the frog 's brain " .
In the domain of humanities , arts , and social sciences , MIT economists have been awarded five Nobel Prizes and nine John Bates Clark Medals . Linguists Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle authored seminal texts on generative grammar and phonology . The MIT Media Lab , founded in 1985 within the School of Architecture and Planning and known for its unconventional research , has been home to influential researchers such as constructivist educator and Logo creator Seymour Papert .
Spanning many of the above fields , MacArthur Fellowships ( the so @-@ called " Genius Grants " ) have been awarded to 38 people associated with MIT . Four Pulitzer Prize – winning writers currently work at or have retired from MIT . Four current or former faculty are members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters .
Allegations of research misconduct or improprieties have received substantial press coverage . Professor David Baltimore , a Nobel Laureate , became embroiled in a misconduct investigation starting in 1986 that led to Congressional hearings in 1991 . Professor Ted Postol has accused the MIT administration since 2000 of attempting to whitewash potential research misconduct at the Lincoln Lab facility involving a ballistic missile defense test , though a final investigation into the matter has not been completed . Associate Professor Luk Van Parijs was dismissed in 2005 following allegations of scientific misconduct and found guilty of the same by the United States Office of Research Integrity in 2009 . Researchers developed a system to convert MRI scans into 3D printed physical models .
= = Traditions and student activities = =
The faculty and student body place a high value on meritocracy and on technical proficiency . MIT has never awarded an honorary degree , nor does it award athletic scholarships , ad eundem degrees , or Latin honors upon graduation . However , MIT has twice awarded honorary professorships : to Winston Churchill in 1949 and Salman Rushdie in 1993 .
Many upperclass students and alumni wear a large , heavy , distinctive class ring known as the " Brass Rat " . Originally created in 1929 , the ring 's official name is the " Standard Technology Ring . " The undergraduate ring design ( a separate graduate student version exists as well ) varies slightly from year to year to reflect the unique character of the MIT experience for that class , but always features a three @-@ piece design , with the MIT seal and the class year each appearing on a separate face , flanking a large rectangular bezel bearing an image of a beaver . The initialism IHTFP , representing the informal school motto " I Hate This Fucking Place " and jocularly euphemized as " I Have Truly Found Paradise , " " Institute Has The Finest Professors , " " It 's Hard to Fondle Penguins , " and other variations , has occasionally been featured on the ring given its historical prominence in student culture .
= = = Activities = = =
MIT has over 500 recognized student activity groups , including a campus radio station , The Tech student newspaper , an annual entrepreneurship competition , and weekly screenings of popular films by the Lecture Series Committee . Less traditional activities include the " world 's largest open @-@ shelf collection of science fiction " in English , a model railroad club , and a vibrant folk dance scene . Students , faculty , and staff are involved in over 50 educational outreach and public service programs through the MIT Museum , Edgerton Center , and MIT Public Service Center .
The Independent Activities Period is a four @-@ week @-@ long " term " offering hundreds of optional classes , lectures , demonstrations , and other activities throughout the month of January between the Fall and Spring semesters . Some of the most popular recurring IAP activities are the 6 @.@ 270 , 6 @.@ 370 , and MasLab competitions , the annual " mystery hunt " , and Charm School . More than 250 students pursue externships annually at companies in the US and abroad .
Many MIT students also engage in " hacking " , which encompasses both the physical exploration of areas that are generally off @-@ limits ( such as rooftops and steam tunnels ) , as well as elaborate practical jokes . Recent high @-@ profile hacks have included the abduction of Caltech 's cannon , reconstructing a Wright Flyer atop the Great Dome , and adorning the John Harvard statue with the Master Chief 's Mjölnir Helmet .
= = = Athletics = = =
MIT sponsors 31 varsity sports and has one of the three broadest NCAA Division III athletic programs . MIT participates in the NCAA 's Division III , the New England Women 's and Men 's Athletic Conference , the New England Football Conference , the Pilgrim League for men 's lacrosse , NCAA 's Division I Eastern Association of Women 's Rowing Colleges ( EAWRC ) for women 's crew , and the Collegiate Water Polo Association ( CWPA ) for Men 's Water Polo . Men 's crew competes outside the NCAA in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges ( EARC ) . In April 2009 , budget cuts lead to MIT eliminating eight of its 41 sports , including the mixed men 's and women 's teams in alpine skiing and pistol ; separate teams for men and women in ice hockey and gymnastics ; and men 's programs in golf and wrestling .
= = People = =
= = = Students = = =
MIT enrolled 4 @,@ 384 undergraduates and 6 @,@ 510 graduate students in 2011 – 2012 . Women constituted 45 percent of undergraduate students . Undergraduate and graduate students were drawn from all 50 states as well as 115 foreign countries .
MIT received 17 @,@ 909 applications for admission to the undergraduate Class of 2015 ; 1 @,@ 742 were admitted ( 9 @.@ 7 percent ) and 1128 enrolled ( 64 @.@ 8 percent ) . 19 @,@ 446 applications were received for graduate and advanced degree program across all departments ; 2 @,@ 991 were admitted ( 15 @.@ 4 percent ) and 1 @,@ 880 enrolled ( 62 @.@ 8 percent ) .
The interquartile range on the SAT was 2090 – 2340 and 97 percent of students ranked in the top tenth of their high school graduating class . 97 percent of the Class of 2012 returned as sophomores ; 82 percent of the Class of 2007 graduated within 4 years , and 93 percent ( 91 percent of the men and 95 percent of the women ) graduated within 6 years .
Undergraduate tuition and fees total $ 40 @,@ 732 and annual expenses are estimated at $ 52 @,@ 507 as of 2012 . 62 percent of students received need @-@ based financial aid in the form of scholarships and grants from federal , state , institutional , and external sources averaging $ 38 @,@ 964 per student . Students were awarded a total of $ 102 million in scholarships and grants , primarily from institutional support ( $ 84 million ) . The annual increase in expenses has led to a student tradition ( dating back to the 1960s ) of tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " tuition riots " .
MIT has been nominally co @-@ educational since admitting Ellen Swallow Richards in 1870 . Richards also became the first female member of MIT 's faculty , specializing in sanitary chemistry . Female students remained a minority prior to the completion of the first wing of a women 's dormitory , McCormick Hall , in 1963 . Between 1993 and 2009 , the proportion of women rose from 34 percent to 45 percent of undergraduates and from 20 percent to 31 percent of graduate students . Women currently outnumber men in Biology , Brain & Cognitive Sciences , Architecture , Urban Planning , and Biological Engineering .
A number of student deaths in the late 1990s and early 2000s resulted in considerable media attention to MIT 's culture and student life . After the alcohol @-@ related death of Scott Krueger in September 1997 as a new member at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity , MIT began requiring all freshmen to live in the dormitory system . The 2000 suicide of MIT undergraduate Elizabeth Shin drew attention to suicides at MIT and created a controversy over whether MIT had an unusually high suicide rate . In late 2001 a task force 's recommended improvements in student mental health services were implemented , including expanding staff and operating hours at the mental health center . These and later cases were significant as well because they sought to prove the negligence and liability of university administrators in loco parentis .
= = = Faculty and staff = = =
As of 2013 , MIT had 1 @,@ 030 faculty members , of whom 225 were women . Faculty are responsible for lecturing classes , advising both graduate and undergraduate students , and sitting on academic committees , as well as conducting original research . Between 1964 and 2009 , a total of seventeen faculty and staff members affiliated with MIT were awarded Nobel Prizes ( thirteen in the last 25 years ) . MIT faculty members past or present have won a total of twenty @-@ seven Nobel Prizes , the majority in Economics or Physics . As of October 2013 , among current faculty and teaching staff there are 67 Guggenheim Fellows , 6 Fulbright Scholars , and 22 MacArthur Fellows . Faculty members who have made extraordinary contributions to their research field as well as the MIT community are granted appointments as Institute Professors for the remainder of their tenures .
A 1998 MIT study concluded that a systemic bias against female faculty existed in its School of Science , although the study 's methods were controversial . Since the study , though , women have headed departments within the Schools of Science and of Engineering , and MIT has appointed several female vice presidents , although allegations of sexism continue to be made . Susan Hockfield , a molecular neurobiologist , was MIT 's president from 2004 to 2012 and was the first woman to hold the post .
Tenure outcomes have vaulted MIT into the national spotlight on several occasions . The 1984 dismissal of David F. Noble , a historian of technology , became a cause célèbre about the extent to which academics are granted freedom of speech after he published several books and papers critical of MIT 's and other research universities ' reliance upon financial support from corporations and the military . Former materials science professor Gretchen Kalonji sued MIT in 1994 alleging that she was denied tenure because of sexual discrimination . Several years later , the lawsuit was settled with undisclosed payments , and establishment of a project to encourage women and minorities to seek faculty positions . In 1997 , the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination issued a probable cause finding supporting UMass Boston Professor James Jennings ' allegations of racial discrimination after a senior faculty search committee in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning did not offer him reciprocal tenure . In 2006 – 2007 , MIT 's denial of tenure to African @-@ American stem cell scientist professor James Sherley reignited accusations of racism in the tenure process , eventually leading to a protracted public dispute with the administration , a brief hunger strike , and the resignation of Professor Frank L. Douglas in protest . April Simpson of The Boston Globe reported on February 6 , 2007 : " Less than half of MIT 's junior faculty members are granted tenure . After Sherley was initially denied tenure , his case was examined three times before the university established that neither racial discrimination nor conflict of interest affected the decision . Twenty @-@ one of Sherley 's colleagues issued a statement yesterday saying that the professor was treated fairly in tenure review . "
MIT faculty members have often been recruited to lead other colleges and universities . Founding faculty member Charles W. Eliot was recruited in 1869 to become president of Harvard University , a post he would hold for 40 years , during which he wielded considerable influence on both American higher education and secondary education . MIT alumnus and faculty member George Ellery Hale played a central role in the development of the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) , and other faculty members have been key founders of Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in nearby Needham , Massachusetts .
As of 2014 , former provost Robert A. Brown is president of Boston University ; former provost Mark Wrighton is chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis ; former associate provost Alice Gast is president of Lehigh University ; and former professor Suh Nam @-@ pyo is president of KAIST . Former dean of the School of Science Robert J. Birgeneau was the chancellor of the University of California , Berkeley ( 2004 – 2013 ) ; former professor John Maeda was president of Rhode Island School of Design ( RISD , 2008 – 2013 ) ; former professor David Baltimore was president of Caltech ( 1997 – 2006 ) ; and MIT alumnus and former assistant professor Hans Mark served as chancellor of the University of Texas system ( 1984 – 1992 ) .
In addition , faculty members have been recruited to lead governmental agencies ; for example , former professor Marcia McNutt is president of the National Academy of Sciences , urban studies professor Xavier de Souza Briggs is currently the associate director of the White House Office of Management and Budget , and biology professor Eric Lander is a co @-@ chair of the President 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology . In 2013 , faculty member Ernest Moniz was nominated by President Obama and later confirmed as United States Secretary of Energy . Former professor Hans Mark served as Secretary of the Air Force from 1979 to 1981 . Alumna and Institute Professor Sheila Widnall served as Secretary of the Air Force between 1993 and 1997 , making her the first female Secretary of the Air Force and first woman to lead an entire branch of the US military in the Department of Defense .
Based on feedback from employees , MIT was ranked # 7 as a place to work , among US colleges and universities as of 2013 . Surveys cited a " smart " , " creative " , " friendly " environment , noting that the work @-@ life balance tilts towards a " strong work ethic " , but complaining about " low pay " .
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Many of MIT 's over 120 @,@ 000 alumni have had considerable success in scientific research , public service , education , and business . As of 2014 , 27 MIT alumni have won the Nobel Prize , 47 have been selected as Rhodes Scholars , and 61 have been selected as Marshall Scholars .
Alumni in American politics and public service include former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke , former MA @-@ 1 Representative John Olver , former CA @-@ 13 Representative Pete Stark , former National Economic Council chairman Lawrence H. Summers , and former Council of Economic Advisors chairwoman Christina Romer . MIT alumni in international politics include Foreign Affairs Minister of Iran Ali Akbar Salehi , Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu , President of Colombia Virgilio Barco Vargas , President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi , Governor of the Reserve Bank of India Raghuram Rajan , former British Foreign Minister David Miliband , former Greek Prime Minister Lucas Papademos , former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan , and former Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Ahmed Chalabi .
MIT alumni founded or co @-@ founded many notable companies , such as Intel , McDonnell Douglas , Texas Instruments , 3Com , Qualcomm , Bose , Raytheon , Koch Industries , Rockwell International , Genentech , Dropbox , and Campbell Soup . According to the British newspaper , The Guardian , " a survey of living MIT alumni found that they have formed 25 @,@ 800 companies , employing more than three million people including about a quarter of the workforce of Silicon Valley . Those firms collectively generate global revenues of about $ 1 @.@ 9 trillion ( £ 1 @.@ 2 trillion ) a year . If MIT were a country , it would have the 11th highest GDP of any nation in the world . "
Prominent institutions of higher education have been led by MIT alumni , including the University of California system , Harvard University , New York Institute of Technology , Johns Hopkins University , Carnegie Mellon University , Tufts University , Rochester Institute of Technology , Rhode Island School of Design ( RISD ) , Northeastern University , Lahore University of Management Sciences , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute , Tecnológico de Monterrey , Purdue University , Virginia Polytechnic Institute , KAIST , and Quaid @-@ e @-@ Azam University . Berklee College of Music , the largest independent college of contemporary music in the world , was founded and led by MIT alumnus Lawrence Berk for more than three decades .
More than one third of the United States ' manned spaceflights have included MIT @-@ educated astronauts ( among them Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin ) , more than any university excluding the United States service academies . Alumnus and former faculty member Qian Xuesen was instrumental in the PRC rocket program .
Noted alumni in non @-@ scientific fields include author Hugh Lofting , sculptor Daniel Chester French , guitarist Tom Scholz of the band Boston , the British BBC and ITN correspondent and political advisor David Walter , The New York Times columnist and Nobel Prize Winning economist Paul Krugman , The Bell Curve author Charles Murray , United States Supreme Court building architect Cass Gilbert , Pritzker Prize @-@ winning architects I.M. Pei and Gordon Bunshaft .
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= Michael J. Daly =
Michael Joseph Daly ( September 15 , 1924 – July 25 , 2008 ) was a United States Army infantry officer who received the United States military 's highest decoration for valor — the Medal of Honor — for his actions in World War II . He received the medal for single @-@ handedly eliminating 15 German soldiers including a German patrol , and destroying three machine @-@ gun nests .
He resigned from the United States Military Academy after one year to fight in the world war and was sent to Europe , participating in the D @-@ Day landings at Omaha Beach . After the D @-@ Day invasion , he fought on to Germany where he was wounded . He received a battlefield commission to second lieutenant , returned to combat , and participated in the action that earned him the Medal of Honor .
After being presented the Medal of Honor in a ceremony at the White House by President Harry S. Truman , he went back to his hometown , started a family , and became a businessman . He died of cancer at his home in 2008 , at the age of 83 .
= = Early life = =
Daly was born September 15 , 1924 in New York City , but resided his entire life in Fairfield , Connecticut , except for one year he and his wife lived in County Wicklow , Ireland . His father , Colonel Paul Daly , was a World War I and World War II veteran who was a recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross and was also nominated for the Medal of Honor twice , but did not receive it . His great @-@ grandfather Thomas F. Gilroy was an Irish immigrant who was the mayor of New York City in the 1890s . Michael Daly had three brothers , Gilroy , Daniel and Dermot and three sisters , Madeleine Potter , Bevin Patterson and Alison Gerard .
= = Military service = =
World War II
Daly graduated from Georgetown Preparatory School in 1941 and joined the Army from Fairfield 's Southport neighborhood in 1942 . He attended the United States Military Academy in West Point , New York , where he was a classmate of George Patton III . While he was at the academy he was , by his own admission , a mediocre student . After having severe disciplinary problems and continuously being placed on special confinement and walking off punishment tours he resigned his appointment after only one year to fight in World War II . Sent to Europe as an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old infantry private , he trained in England and took part in the D @-@ Day landings at Omaha Beach with the 1st Infantry Division . His father also volunteered to serve in the war and was sent first to Guadalcanal , then as a regimental commander to France .
He participated in the drive through France and was wounded in Aachen , Germany and was sent to England to recover . After he recovered , he rejoined the front lines reassigned to the 3rd Infantry Division and was given a battlefield commission to second lieutenant . By April 18 , 1945 , he was a first lieutenant in command of Company A , 15th Infantry Regiment , 3rd Infantry Division , 7th Army . On that day , he led his company in their advance through Nuremberg , Germany , and single @-@ handedly engaged German forces several times . As his unit passed a city square , a German machine gun opened fire , causing several casualties . Daly rushed the position and killed the three gunners . Advancing ahead of his men , he came across a German patrol preparing to use rocket launchers to ambush American tanks . He again attacked alone and , despite being outnumbered and outgunned , killed all six patrol members . When a machine gun opened fire at close range , he picked up a dead man 's rifle and killed the two @-@ man German crew . On April 19 , he was shot through the head ; a bullet entered at his ear and exited from the opposite cheek . He was sent to England and eventually the United States to recuperate . At about the same time , his father , who had been wounded in France , was also being evacuated to the United States .
Medal of Honor
He was subsequently promoted to captain and , on August 23 , 1945 , awarded the Medal of Honor . Although still recovering from his wounds , for which he would continue to receive treatment until mid @-@ 1946 , he attended a ceremony at the White House where President Harry S. Truman formally presented him with the medal . In addition to the Medal of Honor , Daly received three Silver Stars , a Bronze Star with " V " device , and two Purple Hearts . Commenting on his Medal of Honor citation in a speech at Fairfield High School sometime later , Daly said , " We all lose our courage at times . It is something we pray for in the morning , that God will give us the strength and courage to do what is right . "
= = Later life = =
Daly returned to Fairfield after he was discharged from the Army and began a business career . He worked very briefly as a salesman for an oil company before starting his own manufacturer 's representative business , Michael Daly & Associates , in the Southport neighborhood . He was also involved in the operations of St. Vincent 's Medical Center in Bridgeport , serving on the hospital 's board of directors for more than thirty years , as well as being a trustee and helping to obtain financial support for the hospital . A Democrat , he also supported the political careers of his brother , Judge T. F. Gilroy Daly , and friend , city politician John J. Sullivan , but dismissed suggestions to run for office himself .
Daly married Margaret Noble Wallace ( great @-@ granddaughter of Lew Wallace ) in the 1950s and together they had two children , Deirdre and Michael . His brother , T. F. Gilroy Daly , who died in 1996 , was a federal judge in Connecticut who had gained prominence as a lawyer for helping win the exoneration of Peter Reilly , who had been convicted of killing his mother in a highly publicized case of the 1970s .
Death and burial
Daly died of pancreatic cancer at his Fairfield home on July 25 , 2008 . His funeral was held on July 29 , 2008 at St. Pius X Church in Fairfield and he was buried at Oak Lawn Cemetery with full military honors . The 10th Mountain Division of Fort Drum and the United States Military Academy of West Point performed the ceremony . The ceremony included a three round volley and West Point 's bugle sounding " Taps " as preludes to a military helicopter flying over the cemetery .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Daly 's exact list of authorized military awards as recorded by the US Army are unknown due to the National Personnel Records Center fire of 1973 , His service records are one of the approximately 16 @-@ 18 million individuals whose military service records were destroyed in the blaze . As a consequence , what follows below is an incomplete list of his military awards either confirmed or thought to have been awarded to Daly :
= = Medal of Honor = =
Captain Daly 's official Medal of Honor citation reads :
Early in the morning of 18 April 1945 , he led his company through the shell @-@ battered , sniper @-@ infested wreckage of Nuremberg , Germany . When blistering machinegun fire caught his unit in an exposed position , he ordered his men to take cover , dashed forward alone , and , as bullets whined about him , shot the 3 @-@ man guncrew with his carbine . Continuing the advance at the head of his company , he located an enemy patrol armed with rocket launchers which threatened friendly armor . He again went forward alone , secured a vantage point and opened fire on the Germans . Immediately he became the target for concentrated machine pistol and rocket fire , which blasted the rubble about him . Calmly , he continued to shoot at the patrol until he had killed all 6 enemy infantrymen . Continuing boldly far in front of his company , he entered a park , where as his men advanced , a German machinegun opened up on them without warning . With his carbine , he killed the gunner ; and then , from a completely exposed position , he directed machinegun fire on the remainder of the crew until all were dead . In a final duel , he wiped out a third machinegun emplacement with rifle fire at a range of 10 yards . By fearlessly engaging in 4 single @-@ handed fire fights with a desperate , powerfully armed enemy , Lt. DALY , voluntarily taking all major risks himself and protecting his men at every opportunity , killed 15 Germans , silenced 3 enemy machineguns and wiped out an entire enemy patrol . His heroism during the lone bitter struggle with fanatical enemy forces was an inspiration to the valiant Americans who took Nuremberg .
= = Other honors and namings = =
St. Vincent 's Medical Center , Bridgeport , Connecticut plans to name its new emergency wing in his honor .
Connecticut State Representative Carl Dickman proposed legislation to name a section of Interstate Route 95 from Bridgeport to Westport north bound and south bound for Captain Daly . When proposing this bill Representative Dickman said :
This naming of the highway would honor a well @-@ respected Fairfield resident for his extraordinary service to the people of the United States . I encourage the legislature to adopt this proposal .
The legislation , House Bill No. 5711 reads as follows :
AN ACT RENAMING A SEGMENT OF INTERSTATE ROUTE 95 FROM BRIDGEPORT TO WESTPORT .
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened :
That the segment of Interstate Route 95 from Bridgeport to Westport north bound and south bound be renamed the " Captain Michael J. Daly Highway " .
In 2007 , Daly along with nine other Connecticut veterans were inducted into the Connecticut Veterans Hall of Fame and at the time he was one of only two living inductees who had received the Medal of Honor .
Mr. Daly is a U.S. Army veteran of World War II who received the Congressional Medal of Honor for extreme heroism while leading his infantry company through the shell @-@ battered , sniper @-@ infested wreckage of Nuremberg , Germany , in April 1945 . Following his distinctive military service , he became very involved in veterans ’ and community affairs , serving on the Board of Directors of St. Vincent ’ s Hospital and founding the hospital ’ s Daly Foundation . He has also provided decades of volunteer service to handicapped children , the Town of Fairfield and served as a member of the Connecticut Judicial Review Council .
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= Mac Marcoux =
Mac Marcoux ( born 20 June 1997 ) is a Canadian Paralympic Alpine skier who won three titles at the IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup at the age of 15 . With guide Robin Femy , he won three medals in alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Paralympics , including gold in the men 's visually impaired giant slalom . He also has numerous awards including being inducted into the Sault Ste . Marie Walk of Fame . He has an older brother and a younger sister . He also enjoys riding BMX and mountain bikes .
= = Personal life = =
Mac Marcoux was born on 20 June 1997 in Haviland Bay , Ontario . He resides there with his parents and two siblings , an older brother and a younger sister . He started skiing at the age of four . He also rode BMX bikes and raced go @-@ karts . In 2006 , he started losing his sight due to Stargardt disease , a degenerative condition , and became legally blind in 2007 . He said : " We 've always been a racing family from the beginning . It 's how I 've grown up . Going fast was just a part of it . The faster you go the more fun it is " .
After Marcoux had lost his vision , his brother Billy Joe ( B.J. ) Marcoux decided to put his college education on hold in order to assist him with skiing . Alpine Canada introduced them to a new kind of skiing called Para @-@ Alpine . They were inspired by the McKeever brothers to do visually impaired para @-@ alpine . Other than the Paralympics , his brother B.J. has been his sighted guide using radio communication ever since then ; something they had never used before .
= = Para @-@ Alpine career = =
Marcoux is classified as a B3 ( visually impaired ) athlete . At the age of 15 , he competed at the 2013 IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup in Mount Hutt , New Zealand , with B.J. as his guide , winning three medals . Later that year he won a silver medal in the Giant Slalom at the 2013 IPC Alpine Skiing World Championships in La Molina , Spain , and became the national Slalom and Giant Slalom champion at Sun Peaks , British Columbia .
= = = 2014 Winter Paralympics = = =
The following year he competed in the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi as the youngest member of the Canadian Paralympic Team at the age of 16 . With Robin Femy as his guide . He won bronze in both the Downhill and the Super @-@ G , as well as a gold in the Giant Slalom by over two seconds . " It is the best moment of my life " , he said after winning gold . " I can 't even explain how amazing this is . "
Mac and his brother B.J. were inducted into the Sault Ste . Marie Walk of Fame on 19 September 2014 .
= = Other interests = =
He raced BMX bikes and go @-@ karts with his brother B.J. before he was blind . After he lost his sight , he fished and also rode mountain bikes at Whistler with a guide using the same kind of radio communication system .
= = Awards = =
Marcoux and his brother BJ was presented the H.P. Broughton Trophy and was named into the Sault Ste . Marie Walk of Fame . In October 2014 , the brothers were also inducted into the Sault Ste . Marie Sports Hall of Fame by mayor Debbie Amaroso .
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= Edina Müller =
Edina Müller ( born 28 June 1983 ) is a German 2 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player and KL1 canoeist . She played for ASV Bonn in the German wheelchair basketball league , and for the national team . As part of the German women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she won bronze at the 2006 World Cup in Amsterdam , won three time European champions ( in 2007 , 2009 , 2011 ) , a silver medal at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , and a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . The team was voted 2008 Team of the Year in disabled sports , and Horst Köhler presented it with Germany 's highest sports award , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) . President Joachim Gauck awarded the team a second Silver Leaf after it won the gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics . Müller was also a two @-@ time U.S. champion ( 2006 @-@ 2008 ) with her college team Illinois Fighting Illini at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign , and helped ASV Bonn win the European Cup ( Willi Brinkmann Cup ) in Valladolid , Spain in 2009 . From 2011 to 2014 she played for Hamburger SV .
Müller retired from wheelchair basketball after the 2014 Women 's World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Toronto , at which she won silver , and took up canoeing . On 24 May 2105 she won silver in the women 's KL1 200 m race at the 2015 ICF Canoe Sprint World Cup in Duisburg . On 19 May 2016 , she won gold in the event at the 2015 ICF Canoe Sprint World Cup in Duisburg .
= = Biography = =
Edina Müller was born on 28 June 1983 , and raised in the Rhineland town of Brühl . In 2000 , at the age of 16 , she was playing volleyball , and felt pain in her back . A doctor straightened her back , but within two hours she lost feeling in her legs . She was rushed to hospital where a blood clot was discovered . Diagnosed with paraplegia , she spent the next four months in hospital . She had to repeat Year 10 at Max Ernst Gymnasium , but graduated in 2003 . Although confined to a wheelchair , she longed to return to playing sport , and initially tried sitting volleyball . She then took up wheelchair tennis , winning the Hungarian Open in 2005 , but ultimately switched to wheelchair basketball , playing for ASV Bonn . In 2005 she was invited to attend a German national team training camp by its coach , Holger Glinicki . The following year she made the national team and won bronze at the World Championships in Amsterdam .
Müller 's mentor and professor at the University of Cologne , Professor Dr Horst Strohkendl , advised her to pursue her sporting career in the United States . She attended a one @-@ week basketball camp in Illinois in 2006 , where she was noticed by Michael Frogley , the coach of the Canadian men 's national wheelchair basketball team and the Illinois Fighting Illini college team at the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign . In both years they won the National Championship with the team . During the semester break , she travelled with the German women 's national team for tournaments and preparation camps . In 2007 , the German women became European champions before a home crowd at Wetzlar .
Müller graduated from the University of Illinois in 2008 with a Bachelor of Science degree in kinesiology , and moved back to Germany , where she helped ASV Bonn win the European Cup ( Willi Brinkmann Cup ) in Valladolid , Spain in 2009 . In 2011 she started playing for Hamburger SV . Her American degree was accepted in Germany , and she qualified as a rehabilitation therapist at BG Trauma Hospital in Hamburg @-@ Boberg . She worked with paraplegic patients , helping them become wheelchair mobile , by strengthening the chest and upper arm muscles . " It makes a difference , " she says " that the therapist also cannot walk . "
In September 2008 , Müller participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , but Germany was beaten in the gold medal game by the team the United States , which contained a number of former teammates and opponents from the University of Illinois . The German team took home Paralympic silver medals instead . After the Paralympics , the team 's performance was considered impressive enough for it to be named the national " Team of the Year " , and it received the Silver Laurel Leaf , Germany 's highest sporting honour , from German President Horst Koehler . Brühl honoured her with an entry in its Golden Book .
Müller helped the national team defend their European Championship title with the national team in Stoke Mandeville , England in 2009 . They hoped for a rematch against the United States at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London , but instead faced the team that had beaten the Americans , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , which included former Illinois teammates Shelley Chaplin and Bridie Kean . They defeated the Australians in front of a crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 to win the gold medal , They were awarded another Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were again named Team of the Year for 2012 .
Müller retired from wheelchair basketball after the 2014 Women 's World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Toronto , at which she won silver . She then took up canoeing , training at the Hamburg Canoe Club . " From basketball " , she said " I learned to always have the sight set for a big goal . If something doesn ’ t turn out how it should , it ’ s not the end of the world . But it always helps to have a goal set in front of you . " According to her coach , Jens Kröger , " It ’ s easy to motivate her . She ’ s fighting to reach a training target . She never gives up . ” Her hard work paid off . Not only did she earn national team selection , but on 24 May 2105 she won silver in the women 's KL1 200 m race at the 2015 ICF Canoe Sprint World Cup in Duisburg in a personal best time of 59 @.@ 981 seconds , her first time below the one @-@ minute mark . On 19 May 2016 at the 2016 ICF Canoe Sprint World Cup in Duisburg , she went one better , winning gold despite capsizing her canoe that morning during warm up .
= = Achievements = =
2006 : Bronze World Championship ( Amsterdam , Netherlands )
2007 : Gold National Championship ( Warm Springs , United States )
2007 : Gold European Championship ( Wetzlar , Germany )
2008 : Gold National Championship ( Champaign , United States )
2008 : Silver Paralympics ( Beijing , China )
2009 : Gold European Championship ( Stoke Mandeville , Great Britain )
2010 : Silver World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )
2011 : Gold European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Silver at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Cup ( Duisburg , Germany )
2016 : Gold at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Cup ( Duisburg , Germany )
= = Awards = =
2008 : Team of the Year
2008 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2009 : Entry in the Golden Book of the city of Brühl
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2013 : Hamburg Sportswoman of the Year
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= Barmouth Bridge =
Barmouth Bridge ( Welsh : Pont Abermaw ) , also known as Barmouth Viaduct , is a single @-@ track largely wooden railway viaduct that carries the Cambrian Coast Railway across the River Mawddach estuary on the coast of Cardigan Bay , Wales . It sits between Morfa Mawddach and Barmouth in Gwynedd and caters for rail , foot and cycle traffic .
The bridge opened in 1867 , and originally included a drawbridge section at its north end for tall ships to pass , though this was later replaced by the current swing bridge section . In 1980 , woodworm threatened the safety of the bridge , which needed major repairs to avoid closure . Tolls were collected for foot and cycle traffic until 2013 . The bridge is a Grade II * listed structure , and has one of the longest timber viaducts still in regular use in Britain .
= = Location and structure = =
The bridge crosses the estuary of the River Mawddach from Morfa Mawddach near Arthog northwards to the edge of Barmouth . The line is operated by Arriva Trains Wales , with connecting services south to Aberystwyth and east to Welshpool and Shrewsbury . The section containing the bridge is on the Cambrian Coast railway between Machynlleth and Pwllheli . The bridge is a Grade II * listed structure about 699 metres ( 764 yd ) long and contains 113 wooded trestles supported by a series of cast iron piers . It is one of the longest timber viaducts still standing in Britain .
A footbridge is incorporated on the eastern side and pedestrians , cyclists and motorcycles can cross the estuary by the side of the track . Since 1996 , this has formed part of the National Cycle Route that links North and South Wales . The footbridge is owned by Network Rail but an agreement is in place with Gwynedd County Council , who pay for 10 % of the annual maintenance in exchange for a licence to use the bridge .
Most of the bridge is built on a gravel bed covered by shifting sand . The north end by the swing bridge section is next to the rock of Figle Fawr at the base of Cadair Idris , and the river channel here can flow up to 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) . The first two spans here are built directly onto the rock .
There is no nearby crossing for road traffic . The nearest spanning the Afon Mawddach is a toll bridge at Penmaenpool about 5 miles ( 8 km ) further upstream and permits vehicles up to 2 @.@ 5 tonnes . Heavier vehicles must use the first public road bridge , which is at Dolgellau about 10 miles ( 16 km ) from Barmouth .
= = History = =
The bridge was first proposed as part of the Cambrian Line between Aberystwyth and Pwllheli by the Aberystwyth and Welsh Coast Railway around 1861 - 2 . It was designed by Benjamin Piercy and Henry Conybeare in 1864 , and opened on 10 October 1867 . Conybeare decided to construct the viaduct from timber as it would be cheaper to import by sea than iron . As built , it included a wooden lifting drawbridge section at the northern end to permit the passage of tall ships . It was never in regular use since the opening of the railway killed off competition from boat traffic . In 1899 , the drawbridge arrangement was changed to the current swing bridge arrangement . It is still theoretically in operation , though it has not been opened since 1987 as part of a test operation .
In 1946 , the bridge was nearly destroyed after a live naval mine washed ashore close to the bridge during stormy weather . The mine briefly swept one of the pillars , but did not detonate .
Passenger train services over the bridge declined significantly after the Ruabon to Barmouth line via Llangollen and Dolgellau was closed in 1965 , causing all traffic to take the longer and slower route from Shrewsbury via Machynlleth and Dovey Junction . The old trackbed from Morfa Mawddach railway station to Dolgellau now forms the Mawddach Trail , a walk and cycle trail .
By 1980 the bridge 's structure had come under attack from marine woodworm , which threatened its closure . British Rail discovered that woodworm had eaten into 69 of the supporting pillars and estimated it would cost £ 2 @.@ 5 million to repair . Locomotive @-@ hauled trains were banned , which immediately resulted in the loss of traffic from Tywyn , including explosives traffic to and from the factory at Penrhyndeudraeth . That traffic was re @-@ routed via Maentwrog Road railway station and the Conwy Valley Line . However , Gwynedd County Council were opposed to closing the bridge completely as 40 % of all railway traffic in the area was tourist related . The government applied for a £ 2 @.@ 5 million grant from the EEC to repair the bridge , with a further £ 4.6m being spent on improving the signalling . The bridge was closed entirely to traffic for six months during the temporary repair works eventually undertaken , and 30 of the piles were replaced .
On 13 April 1986 , a British Rail Class 37 37427 was named " Bont Y Bermo " to celebrate the ( short @-@ lived ) re @-@ introduction of locomotive @-@ hauled trains following repairs in 1985 – 1986 . Following major repairs the weight restriction was relaxed in 2005 , and locomotive @-@ hauled trains have again been allowed to cross .
In March 2013 , the Barmouth Viaduct Access Group ( B @-@ VAG ) , was established to investigate an alternative route from the town centre to the bridge , as the current walkway is steep , narrow , and unsuitable for buggies or wheelchairs . In June , the toll was removed after the collectors left and were not replaced . The council have not yet decided how to pay for the bridge 's maintenance costs , which were £ 39 @,@ 405 for the year . This has proved to be problematic as the revenue collected from tolls has not been sufficient to cover the council 's share of costs , and there is not a sufficient budget to employ any full @-@ time staff to collect payments .
Gwynedd County Council has proposed closing the bridge to pedestrians and cyclists for cost reasons , as it needs to find £ 9 million worth of savings by April 2016 . The potential closure of the bridge is one of over 100 cost saving options totalling £ 13 million to be put to a public consultation in Autumn 2015 ; the council currently pays Network Rail £ 30 @,@ 800 per year towards maintenance costs . A petition calling on the council to " cease considerations of closing this much loved walking and cycling route " attracted 20 @,@ 000 signatures within a week . In February 2016 , it was reported that the bridge would not close .
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= Evan Lysacek =
Evan Frank Lysacek ( / ˈɛvən ˈlaɪsətʃɛk / ; born June 4 , 1985 ) is an American figure skater . He is the 2010 Olympic champion , the 2009 World champion , a two @-@ time ( 2005 , 2007 ) Four Continents champion , the 2009 Grand Prix Final champion , and a two @-@ time ( 2007 , 2008 ) U.S. national champion . Lysacek was the 2010 United States Olympic Committee 's SportsMan of the Year , and the winner of the James E. Sullivan Award as the top U.S. amateur athlete of 2010 . On January 22 , 2016 , he was inducted into the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Evan Lysacek was born in Chicago , Illinois , and raised in Naperville , Illinois . His mother , Tanya ( née Santoro ) , is a substitute teacher in Naperville , and his father , Don , is a building contractor . He has an older sister , Laura , and a younger sister , Christina , who played on a nationally ranked volleyball team . His cousin Cole Chason is a former punter for the Clemson Tigers . Lysacek went to Spring Brook Elementary and then to Gregory Middle School . Lysacek graduated from Neuqua Valley High School in 2003 . During high school , Lysacek was a member of the honor roll , where he earned a number of academic achievement awards , including the Presidential Award for Academic Excellence in 1999 .
Lysacek is of Italian and Czech descent ; his great @-@ grandfather František Lysáček , emigrated from Czechoslovakia to Chicago in 1925 . He is a Greek Orthodox Christian , having stated that one of his most prized possessions is his Orthodox cross . He wears Graf figure skating boots .
Lysacek moved to Los Angeles , California in 2003 , following his graduation from high school . He has homes in El Segundo , California , Chicago , and Las Vegas .
Lysacek studied acting , having taken method acting classes at the Professional Arts School in Beverly Hills . He appeared in the independent short film Skate Great ! , playing a Russian Olympic gold medalist . Lysacek uses power yoga as conditioning training .
In September 2014 , Lysacek moved to New York to pursue a career in commercial real estate . In 2015 , he started working for Vera Wang , his former costume designer .
= = Career = =
Lysacek began skating at the age of eight . His grandmother had always wanted to be in the Ice Capades , so she bought him skates for Christmas . He originally wanted to play hockey , so his mother enrolled him and his sister Laura in figure @-@ skating lessons to learn how to skate . Lysacek was soon competing as a figure skater .
= = = Early career = = =
In 1996 , Lysacek won the U.S. national title at the Juvenile level – the lowest qualifying level in the U.S. Figure Skating competition structure . In 1997 , he moved up to Intermediate and won the pewter medal ( fourth place ) at the Junior Olympics , after winning both his regional and his sectional qualifying competitions . After failing to qualify for Nationals on the novice level in 1998 , Lysacek won the U.S. Novice title at the 1999 U.S. Championships at the age of thirteen .
= = = Junior career = = =
= = = = 1999 – 2000 season = = = =
In the 1999 – 2000 season , Lysacek made his international junior debut and competed on the 1999 – 2000 ISU Junior Grand Prix circuit . He placed seventh at his first event and then won his second event . He was the third alternate to the 1999 – 2000 ISU Junior Grand Prix Final .
At the 2000 U.S. Championships , Lysacek won the Junior title at the age of fourteen . He placed fifth in the short program and first in the free skate , placing first overall . He was the first male skater since Terry Kubicka to win back @-@ to @-@ back Novice and Junior Men 's titles in the United States . The win on the junior level was unusual in that Lysacek moved from third to first overall while sitting backstage , because he won through a tiebreak in the 6 @.@ 0 ordinal system . Lysacek was tied with Parker Pennington in second place ordinals and had one more first place ordinal , giving him the win in the free skate in the Total Ordinals of Majority tiebreaker , which pushed him ahead in overall factored placements , allowing him to win the title overall . Following the U.S. Championships , he was assigned to the 2000 Gardena Spring Trophy in Urtijëi where he won the silver medal on the junior level .
= = = = 2000 – 2001 season = = = =
Lysacek had a strong showing in the 2000 – 2001 season . He competed in his second season on the Junior Grand Prix circuit and won two silver medals . He was the 7th qualifier for the 2000 – 2001 Junior Grand Prix Final and placed 8th at the Final .
He made his senior national debut at the 2001 U.S. Championships , placing 12th at the age of fifteen . Lysacek was named second alternate to the US team to the 2001 World Junior Championships and was placed on the team after Ryan Bradley withdrew due to injury . Lysacek performed two clean programs and came in second behind fellow American Johnny Weir , giving the United States a gold and a silver on the World Junior podium for the first time since 1987 .
= = = = 2001 – 2002 season = = = =
Over the next season , Lysacek dealt with several injuries , including broken ribs , which resulted in lost training time . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the United States Figure Skating Association cancelled the 2001 – 2002 ISU Junior Grand Prix event to be held in Arizona and did not allow its junior skaters to compete on the Junior Grand Prix circuit for the rest of that season . At the 2002 U.S. Championships , Lysacek repeated his 12th @-@ place finish from the previous year and was not selected for the team to the 2002 World Junior Championships . He was sent to the 2002 Triglav Trophy in April , where he won the gold medal on the junior level .
= = = = 2002 – 2003 season = = = =
After that , Lysacek changed his diet and his training habits . In the 2002 – 2003 season , he competed on the 2002 – 2003 ISU Junior Grand Prix circuit and won two silver medals . He was the 4th qualifier for the 2002 – 2003 Junior Grand Prix Final , where he placed 5th . For the 2003 U.S. Championships , his goal had been to place in the top ten . He achieved this with a 7th @-@ place finish .
Lysacek was named third alternate for the 2003 Four Continents Championships and was placed on the team after other skaters withdrew . He placed 10th at this event in his senior international debut . He was also named to the 2003 Junior Worlds team ; following the withdrawal of Parker Pennington , the higher @-@ ranked man on the two @-@ man team , Lysacek was the only United States men 's skater at the competition . He landed his first clean triple axel jump of his career in the qualifying round of this competition and his second clean one in the free skate .
= = = = 2003 – 2004 season = = = =
After graduating from high school in 2003 , Lysacek made a coaching change and began to work with Ken Congemi and Frank Carroll in El Segundo , California . With Congemi and Carroll , Lysacek won both of his Junior Grand Prix events . He was the second qualifier to the 2003 – 2004 Junior Grand Prix Final and won the event . He placed 5th at the 2004 U.S. Championships . At the 2004 Four Continents he won the bronze medal , his first senior @-@ level international medal . He then went on to compete at the 2004 World Junior Championships , where he won a third silver medal .
= = = Senior career = = =
= = = = 2004 – 2005 season = = = =
In the 2004 – 2005 season , having aged out of the junior level at age 19 , Evan Lysacek made his senior international debut . Skating through a hip injury , Lysacek placed fifth at the 2004 Skate America , the first Grand Prix event of his career . He repeated that placement a few weeks later at the 2004 Cup of Russia . At the 2005 U.S. Championships , Lysacek won the bronze medal after receiving the only 6 @.@ 0 of his career for his short program . He went on to win his first senior international title at the 2005 Four Continents . He competed next at the 2005 World Championships in Moscow . There , he won a surprising bronze medal at his first senior World Championships , a competition for which his goal had been only to qualify for the free skate .
= = = = 2005 – 2006 season = = = =
In the 2005 – 2006 season , Lysacek again competed on the Grand Prix . He placed second at the 2005 Skate America , but it was clear that his Grease free skate was not working . Lysacek and coach Frank Carroll made the decision to find a new long program . Lysacek 's new Carmen program was a success at the 2005 NHK Trophy , where Lysacek placed second . Lysacek was the only American man to qualify for the 2005 – 2006 Grand Prix Final , but he withdrew before the event because of bursitis and tendinitis in his right hip .
At the 2006 U.S. Championships , the de facto Olympic qualifier , Lysacek was third after the short program , but pulled up to win the free skate , finishing second overall . He was named to the 2006 Winter Olympic team along with Johnny Weir and Matthew Savoie . At the Olympics , following a 10th @-@ place finish in the short program , Lysacek became sick with the stomach flu . Unable to practice , he stayed in bed at the Olympic village , receiving fluids from IVs . After considering withdrawing , he decided to skate the next day and went on to skate a career @-@ best free skate . He finished his free skate with eight triple jumps and was ranked third of the night . He finished fourth overall , seven points below the bronze . He commentated on his free @-@ skating program on Olympic Ice the next day with Scott Hamilton and Mary Carillo .
Lysacek ended his season by winning the bronze medal at the 2006 World Championships in Calgary , Alberta . He was once again troubled by illness , having been administered three different antibiotics to fight a bacterial infection , which at one point , caused him to cough up blood . He rose from seventh place in the short to finish third on the strength of his free @-@ skating program . After the World Championships , Lysacek toured with Champions on Ice as a full member of the cast .
= = = = 2006 – 2007 season = = = =
In the 2006 – 2007 season , Lysacek placed second at the 2006 Skate America . Two weeks later , Lysacek won the gold medal at the 2006 Cup of China by a 20 @-@ point margin . He was the fourth qualifier for the 2006 – 2007 Grand Prix Final in his second consecutive year in qualifying for the event . However , he withdrew from the competition before he was to skate his short program due to an injury to his hip .
Lysacek resumed training a few weeks later . At the 2007 U.S. Championships , he performed his first clean short program of the season , then went on to land his first clean quadruple jump in competition , a quadruple toe loop @-@ triple toe loop jump , in the long program , to win his first national title . A week later , Lysacek competed in the 2007 Four Continents . He was fourth after the short program , but made yet another comeback in the free skate , landing a clean quadruple combination , to earn a new personal best and to win his second Four Continents title .
At the 2007 World Championships , Lysacek made his first attempt at landing a quadruple jump in the short program . He attempted a quad @-@ triple , but stepped out of the quad and put his hand down , and followed it with a double . He placed fifth in the short program and earned himself his first new short program personal best in two years . In the long program , he completed a quadruple toe @-@ loop as the first part of a quad @-@ triple combination , but lost control of the landing , adding a three turn after it , and was unable to complete the following triple as intended . He performed a double loop instead of a planned triple loop and placed fifth once again in the long program , placing fifth over all .
Lysacek toured over the summer of 2007 with Champions on Ice for the second consecutive year .
= = = = 2007 – 2008 season = = = =
Lysacek began the 2007 – 2008 season at the 2007 Skate America . He underrotated and fell on an attempted quadruple toe loop @-@ triple toe loop in the short program , receiving only one point for that element . He was in second place going into the free skate . He won the free skate , landing a clean quadruple jump , but was unable to pull up to first overall , due to Daisuke Takahashi 's twelve point lead after the short program . He went on to the 2007 Cup of China , where he won the short program with a score of 81 @.@ 55 , improving his personal best by almost thirteen points . He placed second in the free skate after falling on his quadruple jump , and finished second overall to Johnny Weir .
At the 2007 – 2008 Grand Prix Final , Lysacek was credited with a quadruple jump in both his programs and won the bronze medal overall , after placing third in both segments of the competition . He earned a new overall personal best of 229 @.@ 78 points .
At the 2008 U.S. Championships , Lysacek was second after the short program and won the free skate . Although he tied with Johnny Weir on the overall score , Lysacek won the title on the tiebreaker , thereby earning his second national title .
His next event was the 2008 Four Continents , where he placed second in the short program and third in the free skate , and finished third overall . Lysacek was also named to the team for the 2008 World Championships . A week before the event , he was forced to withdraw due to an injury sustained while attempting a triple axel ; the blade broke off of his boot and he injured the left side of his body , from his forearm to his shoulder , and required a cast . Lysacek toured over the summer of 2008 with the Stars on Ice tour .
= = = = 2008 – 2009 season = = = =
Lysacek began the 2008 – 2009 season at the 2008 Skate America , where he won the bronze medal . The following week , he competed at the 2008 Skate Canada International , where he won a second bronze medal . Lysacek was the second alternate for the 2008 – 2009 Grand Prix Final .
At the 2009 U.S. Championships , Lysacek placed second in the short program , 2 @.@ 81 points behind leader Jeremy Abbott and 7 @.@ 42 points ahead of third @-@ place finisher Parker Pennington . In the free skate , Lysacek fell on his quadruple combination attempt and placed fourth in that segment of the competition . He won the bronze medal overall , placing 0 @.@ 60 points behind silver medalist Brandon Mroz and 7 @.@ 70 points ahead of pewter medalist Ryan Bradley . Due to his placement at the U.S. Championships , Lysacek was named to the teams to the 2009 Four Continents Championships and the 2009 World Championships .
At the 2009 Four Continents , Lysacek placed second in the short program , 7 @.@ 25 points behind leader Patrick Chan . He placed second in the free skating segment as well , placing 4 @.@ 79 behind Chan . He won the silver medal overall by a margin of 15 @.@ 39 points ahead of bronze medalist Takahiko Kozuka .
At the 2009 World Championships , Lysacek placed second in the short program . He then won the free skating segment to win the competition overall , becoming the first American man since Todd Eldredge in 1996 to win the World title . His placement , combined with that of Brandon Mroz , qualified the United States for three entries in the men 's event at the 2010 Winter Olympics . At the World Championships , Lysacek competed with a stress fracture in his left foot , which prevented him from trying a quadruple jump at the competition . During the off @-@ season , Lysacek took two months off from skating to give the injury time to heal . He was called the frontrunner for the 2010 Olympic gold by some journalists .
During the later part of the season and during the off @-@ season , Lysacek toured with Stars on Ice .
= = = = 2009 – 2010 season = = = =
Lysacek began the 2009 – 2010 season at the 2009 Cup of China , where he placed third in the short program and second in the free skating to win the silver medal overall . Afterwards he went on to the 2009 Skate America , where he won both segments of the competition and won the gold medal overall in his sixth time competing at Skate America . Lysacek was the second qualifier for the 2009 – 2010 Grand Prix Final .
At the Grand Prix Final , Lysacek placed second in the short program and won the free skating to win the title overall . He became the second consecutive American to win the title , following Jeremy Abbott 's win the year before . At the 2010 U.S. Championships , he placed second in the short program and third in the free skating to win the silver medal overall . He was named to the Olympic team .
At the 2010 Winter Olympics , Lysacek placed second in the short program , with a score of 90 @.@ 30 . He won the free skate with a score of 167 @.@ 37 and won the gold medal overall with a total score of 257 @.@ 67 , a margin of 1 @.@ 31 over silver medalist Evgeni Plushenko . He became the first American to win the Olympic title in men 's singles since Brian Boitano in 1988 , and the first reigning world champion to win since Scott Hamilton in 1984 .
He had originally been named to the team for the 2010 World Championships . He withdrew from the World team following his win at the Olympics .
= = = = 2010 – present = = = =
Lysacek did not skate competitively in 2010 – 2011 but did not announce a retirement .
In June 2011 , he received two Grand Prix assignments for the 2011 – 2012 season – 2011 Skate America and 2011 Trophée Eric Bompard . He resumed training with Frank Carroll at Lake Arrowhead , California , and his publicist said he would make a decision whether to compete later in the summer . In September , he announced that his goal was to participate in the 2014 Winter Olympics . In October , U.S. Figure Skating announced that he would not compete at the 2011 Skate America due to a financial disagreement , and Lysacek confirmed that he would not take part in the Grand Prix series , explaining on his Twitter that " a suitable agreement could not be reached between U.S. Figure Skating and myself by the event entry deadline " . In November , Lysacek confirmed he would not enter the 2012 U.S. Championships in January 2012 but negotiations with U.S. Figure Skating continued .
On August 10 , 2012 , U.S. Figure Skating announced that an agreement had been reached and Lysacek would return to competition at the 2012 Skate America . He withdrew after aggravating a groin injury . On November 20 , 2012 , Lysacek underwent surgery to repair a torn muscle in his lower abdomen , i.e. a sports hernia , with an expected period of six weeks off the ice . In January 2013 , he withdrew from the 2013 U.S. Championships , saying he was healthy but needed an additional three weeks to return to competition form . Carroll said it would be a long recovery .
On June 3 , 2013 , it was announced that Lysacek would compete at one ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating event , the 2013 Skate America . However , on September 30 , 2013 , it was announced that he had withdrawn . On December 10 , 2013 , Lysacek announced on The Today Show that he would not attempt to qualify for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , due to the labrum injury which he sustained in September .
On August 30 , 2014 , during a TV interview , Lysacek mentioned his competitive skating career was coming to an end .
On December 15 , 2015 , U.S. Figure Skating announced Lysacek would be a member of the U.S. Figure Skating Hall of Fame Class of 2016 . The induction ceremony was held on January 22 , 2016 at the 2016 U.S. Figure Skating Championships .
= = Coaches and choreographers = =
Evan Lysacek was originally coached by Candice Brown in Naperville . After that , he worked with Deborah Stoery in Naperville , Illinois and Addison , Illinois for three years . For the next two years , he had an arrangement where he would train under both Addison @-@ based Maria Jeżak @-@ Athey and Moscow @-@ based Viktor Kudriavtsev . Kudriavtsev would come to Chicago for part of the year to coach , and Lysacek spent his summers at Kudriavtsev 's summer training camps in Moscow , Russia and Flims , Switzerland . When that arrangement proved untenable , Kudriavtsev recommended Lysacek to Carroll , who agreed to coach Lysacek on the condition that Lysacek would work more with Congemi than with himself , due to Carroll 's commitments to Timothy Goebel . Lysacek moved to El Segundo , California to work with Frank Carroll and Ken Congemi in June 2003 . Lysacek worked with both Congemi and Carroll through the 2006 @-@ 2007 season , after which he began working solely with Carroll . He has also trained with ballerina Galina Barinova .
Lysacek trained with Carroll at the Toyota Sports Center in El Segundo , California . After Carroll moved to Palm Springs , they decided to meet midway at the Ice Castle International Training Center in Lake Arrowhead and Ontario , California , and Karen Kwan @-@ Oppegard coached him at the East West Ice Palace in Artesia , California . In June 2013 , Carroll moved back to the Toyota Sports Center .
Lysacek has worked with many choreographers over the years , including Oleg Epstein and Kurt Browning . Both his programs for the 2007 – 2008 season were choreographed by Lori Nichol . He worked with Tatiana Tarasova on his programs for the 2008 – 2009 season . He returned to Nichol for the 2009 – 2010 season .
= = Endorsements and public life = =
Lysacek supports a number of charities . He participated in Target – A Time for Heroes , a celebrity charity event benefiting the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . He also supports the Dana @-@ Farber Cancer Institute ( Jimmy Fund ) . He began supporting Figure Skating in Harlem in 2006 and is a board member of the charity . Lysacek has attended their benefit gala in New York City regularly .
Following his win at the 2009 World Figure Skating Championships , Lysacek acquired many sponsors , including Coca @-@ Cola , AT & T , and Ralph Lauren . He also served as a spokesperson for Total Gym . In 2011 , he switched agents from International Management Group to Creative Artists Agency . Lysacek left Creative Artists Agency in April 2012 and was represented by Shep Goldberg until his death in November 2014 .
In April 2012 , the U.S. Department of State 's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs named Lysacek a Sports Envoy .
= = = Costumes = = =
In the past , Lysacek has worn costumes designed by Christian Dior , Gianfranco Ferre , Alexander McQueen , and Vera Wang , American fashion designer and former figure skater . Wang created the mock tuxedo Lysacek wore when he won the 2009 World Championships . Lysacek and Wang also collaborated to design his costumes for the 2010 Winter Olympics , as well as those worn for the rest of the 2009 – 2010 season .
= = = Dancing with the Stars = = =
Lysacek was a celebrity contestant on Dancing with the Stars for the tenth season , which premiered on Monday , March 22 , 2010 . He and his professional dance partner Anna Trebunskaya made it to the finals and finished in second place to Nicole Scherzinger and Derek Hough .
= = Programs = =
= = = Post @-@ 2014 = = =
= = = Pre @-@ 2014 = = =
= = Competitive highlights = =
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= Grayrigg derailment =
The Grayrigg derailment was a fatal railway accident that occurred at approximately 20 : 15 GMT on 23 February 2007 , just to the south of Grayrigg , Cumbria , in the North West England region of the United Kingdom . The initial conclusion of the accident investigation is that the derailment was caused by a faulty set of points ( number 2B ) on the Down Main running line , controlled from Lambrigg ground frame . The scheduled inspection on 18 February 2007 had not taken place and the faults had gone undetected .
Although the accident killed far fewer people than some other accidents on the West Coast Main Line , it had a major negative impact on Network Rail 's safety record .
= = Incident = =
The 17 : 30 Virgin West Coast Pendolino West Coast Main Line InterCity service from London Euston to Glasgow Central derailed at 20 : 15 by a faulty set of points almost immediately after crossing the Docker Viaduct ( the rear half of the train would still have been crossing the bridge whilst the front derailed at the points ) . The train was reported to have been travelling at 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) when it was derailed . The train , consisting of unit 390 033 City of Glasgow , which was constructed at Washwood Heath , Birmingham in 2002 , had nine carriages and carried 105 passengers and four staff members .
Passengers said that the carriages of the train began rocking and swaying violently before the train left the rails and careered down an embankment , with the first carriages jack @-@ knifing and most of the train coming to rest in a field . The train was reported as being evacuated around midnight . Emergency crews scanned the train with thermal imagery equipment to make sure there was no one still inside . Up to 500 rescuers attended the scene , along with at least 12 ambulances , at least five fire engines , three Royal Air Force Sea King search and rescue helicopters , the International Rescue Corps , three civilian mountain rescue teams plus RAF Leeming Mountain Rescue Team , and one Merseyside Police helicopter . The rescue operation was hindered by rain , darkness , and access problems caused by the narrow country lanes and muddy fields . Emergency vehicles experienced difficult conditions , needing to be towed by farm vehicles or tractors after becoming bogged down in mud . The train 's derailment caused severe damage to the Overhead Line Equipment and tripped the entire circuit between Brock ( near Preston ) and Tebay resulting in a number of other electric @-@ powered services coming to a halt and all signalling equipment immediately turning to danger ( red ) in accordance with the system 's fail safe design .
Live BBC television coverage at 08 : 15 the following morning showed that although the whole train had been derailed , the rear carriages were standing nearly vertically on the sleepers and ballast . Standard class , the front five carriages , were the worst affected , and the rear four first class carriages were in better condition . The leading carriage , a driving motor coach , had headed down the embankment , and turned end @-@ for @-@ end as it fell . It was lying on its side at the foot of the embankment . The second carriage had jack @-@ knifed against the first , breaking the coupling , and so had not followed it down the bank . This second carriage came to rest some distance further along the track , at a steep angle with one end in the air . The middle part of the train toppled sideways down the embankment . All the partially friction stir welded carriages remained structurally intact , with damage mainly confined to the crumple zones at their ends . None of the windows broke , and lighting remained in all the carriages . Most injuries occurred in the front two carriages . The driver , who had stayed at the controls ( but had little option to move once the accident had started and had no prior indication of derailment ) , was trapped for about an hour while specialist cutting equipment was used to free him from his cab . The other three members of the crew were in the rear first class section of the train .
Survivors were initially received at Grayrigg Primary School , which had been opened as a Survivor Reception Centre . Hospitals in the area , including some over the Scottish border in Dumfries and Galloway , were put on standby , but not all received patients . According to BBC News , five passengers were admitted to Royal Preston Hospital in a critical condition . Police later released a statement revealing that one passenger , 84 @-@ year @-@ old Margaret Masson from Glasgow , had died in hospital . Her funeral took place on 31 March 2007 at Craigton crematorium in Glasgow .
= = Aftermath = =
A family liaison centre was set up in Glasgow Central Station for worried relatives .
Within three hours of the derailment the site of the accident had been sealed off with a five @-@ mile cordon . The line was expected to be closed for two weeks , with Virgin Trains saying that the line would not reopen to passenger services until 12 March 2007 . The recovery operation was slowed by problems in getting heavy lifting gear to the site which required temporary roads to be constructed .
Sir Richard Branson , Virgin Group chairman , visited the site of the derailment at 11 : 00 the following morning to comment on the incident . During his news conference at the site he said that he regarded the driver , named as Iain Black from Dumbarton , as a hero , as he had attempted to stop the train and remained in his seat to ensure the safety of passengers . Black left hospital in late March and stated that " I 've got to be in the cab to help the train and it never crossed my mind to leave . "
Branson also later thanked local residents for their help at the accident site , describing how he " was very impressed to hear how those kind people rallied round , opening their hearts and opening their doors to strangers in distress " . Local farmers assisted the emergency services by transporting equipment using quad bikes and four @-@ wheel drive vehicles . Sergeant Jo Fawcett of the Cumbria Constabulary also offered thanks , saying that " There are so many people who have given up their own time to contribute in some way to dealing with the aftermath of the derailment that it would be unfair to name them for fear of missing someone out . "
Branson also paid tribute to the Pendolino train , comparing it to a " tank " . He also added " If the train had been old stock then the number of injuries and the mortalities would have been horrendous " . Several sources also gave their praise due to the fact that the carriages generally stayed intact during the accident .
As a result of the suspicion that faulty points were the cause of the Grayrigg Derailment , Network Rail checked over 700 sets of similar points across the country as a " precautionary measure " saying later that " nothing of concern " had been found .
The operation to remove the train from the site began on the evening of 1 March 2007 with the first carriages moved from the embankment . This allowed passengers ' property to be retrieved and gave investigators access to the train interior , which previously had not been possible because it would have been unsafe . The last of the carriages were removed on 4 March 2007 and the A685 road was reopened .
The points which caused the derailment , and points 2A on the opposite line , were removed from the track following the derailment and the line is now welded continuously for 2 @.@ 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) including the line over the Docker viaduct .
The derailment also brought down the overhead line equipment which had to be replaced . Modern double @-@ line catenary from a single stand was used for this , which reduces the risk of carriages bending if a derailment occurs , for example becoming wedged between the overhead line stanchions as seen in the Southall crash .
In 2013 the British Transport Police ( BTP ) posthumously awarded a Chief Constables Commendation to a member of its staff , Jon Ratcliffe , who was at the time of the disaster Media and Marketing Manager for BTP 's North Western Area . He received the commendation for his good handling of media enquires in the aftermath of the crash . Jon Ratcliffe died in 2008 following a sudden illness .
= = Cause = =
Lambrigg ground frame , 660 yards ( 600 m ) south @-@ west of the accident site , controls two crossovers , each one comprising two sets of points allowing trains to cross from one running line to the other in emergencies or during track maintenance work . These points are used only occasionally , operated locally after a release is obtained from Carlisle power signal box . They are normally locked in the main line " running " position . Early statements by Chief Superintendent Martyn Ripley of British Transport Police suggested that investigations would focus on these points .
Investigations were launched by the Rail Accident Investigation Branch and Her Majesty 's Railway Inspectorate . RMT rail union leader Bob Crow said on BBC News that a points failure was responsible for the incident . Experts compared the cause to that of the Potters Bar rail crash in 2002 .
On 26 February , an interim report published by the Rail Accident Investigation Branch outlined the current progress of the investigation . The report contained a single conclusion , that the immediate cause of the accident was the condition of the stretcher bar arrangement at points 2B at Lambrigg crossover , which resulted in the loss of gauge separation of the point switch blades . The stretcher bars ( components that hold the moving blades of the points the correct distance apart ) had been found to be disconnected or missing . Of the three bars , one was not in position , another had nuts and bolts missing , and two were fractured . The points in question were facing the direction of travel of the train .
Following the RAIB report , Network Rail released a statement in which its Chief Executive , John Armitt , described how the organisation was " devastated to conclude that the condition of the set of points at Grayrigg caused this terrible accident " . He apologised " to all the people affected by the failure of the infrastructure " .
The RAIB report noted that the Network Rail New Measurement Train ran over the site on 21 February . This train uses lasers and other instruments to make measurements of the track geometry and other features such as overhead line height and stagger , and the track gauge , twist and cant . It is not used to inspect points , but it does make a video record of the track which can be reviewed later . Commenting on the possibility that the train 's video might have been used to detect the points damage and thereby prevent the accident , a Network Rail spokesman said :
The [ inspection ] train runs at speeds of up to 125 mph , or 95 mph on this stretch . There would be no point somebody watching it at that speed as they wouldn 't be able to pick up any faults . It has to be run in super @-@ slow motion to spot faults . The train runs for up to 18 hours a day , seven days a week . It would probably take someone most of the month to watch one day 's worth of data . It 's not what it 's there for . It 's a backwards reference tool .
Network Rail admitted it failed to carry out a scheduled visual track inspection in the area on the Sunday before the derailment .
Bob Crow of the RMT union said :
This is shutting the stable door after the horse has well and truly bolted . We argued this train should not replace visual inspections . Inspectors who walk the track are the eyes and ears of the railway . They don 't just check the safety of the track , they look at the area surrounding it , check for signs of potential trouble such as gaps in the fence where vandals could get in .
Labour Party Member of Parliament John McDonnell added : " The fact that Network Rail apparently had footage of a missing stretcher bar days before the fatal crash is very worrying . "
As part of the investigation by the British Transport Police , three Network Rail employees were arrested and bailed , one in July 2007 and two in November 2007 All three were due to answer bail in March 2008 but this was extended until the end of June pending further inquiries . On 9 February 2009 , the British Transport Police confirmed that none of the three Network Rail employees arrested in connection with the derailment will be charged following advice from the Crown Prosecution Service .
= = Subsequent service disruption = =
Immediately after the accident , all services were suspended and the First ScotRail Sleeper train , the Caledonian Sleeper , was curtailed and passengers transferred to overnight coaches .
The line closure that followed the initial service suspension saw most Virgin services terminate at Preston or Lancaster from the south , with buses to Carlisle and all stations along the route . The only exception was an early @-@ morning and late @-@ evening through service from Carlisle to London and return . This was diesel @-@ hauled via Blackburn and Settle . There were also several non @-@ stop trains from Preston to London Euston . Local services all terminated short but many were able to make their journeys as their destinations were off branches . The Caledonian Sleeper was diverted via the East Coast Main Line , along with freight services , although some were diesel @-@ hauled via Blackburn and Settle .
Trains began running on the line again on 12 March subject to a speed restriction of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) at the crash site . The first train was the 05 : 10 Manchester to Glasgow .
= = Prior incidents = =
The Grayrigg derailment was not the first British railway accident to feature a train or locomotive named City of Glasgow on the West Coast Mainline . In the Harrow and Wealdstone railway accident on 8 October 1952 , the locomotive of the sleeper train from Perth to London Euston , whose crew was responsible for the incident , was Class 8P No. 46242 City of Glasgow .
In the area near the accident , south of Tebay in Cumbria , on 15 February 2004 another fatal incident had occurred , the Tebay rail accident , when four rail workers were killed by a runaway track maintenance trailer . Also close by was a collision on the Lambrigg Crossing on 18 May 1947 .
= = Prosecution = =
On 13 January 2012 , the Office of Rail Regulation announced that Network Rail were to be prosecuted under Section 3 ( 1 ) of the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 for " the company 's failure to provide and implement suitable and sufficient standards , procedures , guidance , training , tools and resources for the inspection and maintenance of fixed stretcher bar points " . At the first hearing at Lancaster Magistrates ' Court on 28 February 2012 , Network Rail indicated an intention to plead guilty to the charges . On 4 April 2012 , Network Rail were fined a total of £ 4 @,@ 118 @,@ 037 including costs following the court case .
Critical commentary appeared in the media concerning the knighthood awarded to John Armitt in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to engineering and construction . Armitt had been Chief Executive of Network Rail at the time of the Grayrigg derailment , and the family of a victim of the accident criticised the award , which coincidentally was conferred on the same day that Network Rail were prosecuted for the accident .
After a two @-@ week hearing one of the issues Coroner Ian Smith announced that he would be issuing a rule 43 report . The intention of the report is to raise concerns with authorities to prevent similar incidents occurring again .
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= Princess Charlotte of Wales =
Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales ( 7 January 1796 – 6 November 1817 ) was the only child of George , Prince of Wales ( later to become King George IV ) and Caroline of Brunswick . Had she outlived both her grandfather King George III and her father , she would have become Queen of the United Kingdom , but she died following childbirth at the age of 21 .
Charlotte 's parents disliked each other from before their arranged marriage and soon separated . The Prince of Wales left most of Charlotte 's care to governesses and servants , but only allowed her limited contact with the Princess of Wales , who eventually left the country . As Charlotte grew to adulthood , her father pressured her to marry William , Hereditary Prince of Orange ( later King of the Netherlands ) , but after initially accepting him , Charlotte soon broke off the intended match . This resulted in an extended contest of wills between her and her father , and finally the Prince of Wales permitted her to marry Prince Leopold of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld ( later King of the Belgians ) . After a year and a half of happy marriage , Charlotte died after giving birth to a stillborn son .
Charlotte 's death set off tremendous mourning among the British , who had seen her as a sign of hope and a contrast both to her unpopular father and to her grandfather , whom they deemed mad . As she had been King George III 's only legitimate grandchild , there was considerable pressure on the King 's unmarried sons to find wives . King George III 's fourth son , Edward , Duke of Kent , fathered the eventual heir , Victoria , who was born 18 months after Charlotte 's death .
= = Background = =
In 1794 , George , Prince of Wales , sought a suitable bride . He did not do so out of any particular desire to secure the succession , but because the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger , promised him an increased income if he married . George , despite receiving large incomes as Prince of Wales and as Duke of Cornwall , lived well beyond his means , and by 1794 , his income was insufficient to cover even the interest on his debt .
George had attempted marriage once , to his mistress , Maria Fitzherbert . The attempted marriage was legally invalid as no attempt had been made to obtain the consent of King George III , the Prince 's father , which was required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772 . Nevertheless , the Prince kept Fitzherbert as his mistress , that is , when other mistresses , such as Lady Jersey , were not in greater favour .
George considered two German princesses as possible brides , both of whom were his first cousins . Louise of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz was the daughter of George 's mother 's brother , while Caroline of Brunswick was his father 's sister 's daughter . George 's mother , Queen Charlotte , had heard disquieting rumours about Princess Caroline 's behavior , and so favoured Princess Louise , whom she considered prettier , and who was her niece by blood , rather than by marriage . Princess Caroline had , it was said , behaved improperly with an Irish officer in her father 's army , and earlier negotiations for her hand had broken off for unknown reasons . George , under the influence of Lady Jersey ( who considered Caroline a less formidable rival than Louise ) , selected the Brunswick princess although he had never met her , and despatched the diplomat , James Harris , 1st Earl of Malmesbury , to escort her from Brunswick to Britain .
Harris found the Princess dressed in a dishevelled manner , and it was obvious that she had not washed in several days . He found her conversation coarse and overly familiar . Harris spent almost four months with her , doing his best to improve her behaviour and habits , before they reached England , a time lengthened by poor winter weather and delays occasioned by the war against France . The diplomat brought Caroline to St. James 's Palace ; on first sight of his bride , the Prince stated , " Harris , I am not well , pray get me a glass of brandy . " After the Prince had left , Caroline said , " I think he is very fat and nothing like as handsome as his portrait . " When the couple dined together that evening , the embittered Princess made coarse allusions to the Prince 's relationship with Lady Jersey ; according to Harris this served to cement George 's dislike of her . Before the wedding on 8 April 1795 , George sent his brother William , Duke of Clarence ( later William IV ) , to tell Fitzherbert that she was the only woman he would ever love , then went to the ceremony , drunk .
George later stated that the couple had sex only three times , and that the Princess had commented on how large his penis was , leading him to conclude that she must have had a basis for comparison and so was most likely not a virgin . Caroline on the other hand later hinted that the Prince was impotent . The royal couple separated within weeks , though they remained under the same roof . One day short of nine months after the wedding , Caroline gave birth to a daughter .
= = Childhood = =
Charlotte was born at the Prince 's residence , Carlton House , London , on 7 January 1796 . While George was mildly unhappy that she was not a boy , the King , who preferred girl babies , was delighted at the birth of his first legitimate grandchild , and hoped that the birth would serve to reconcile George and Caroline . This did not come to pass ; three days after Charlotte 's birth , George made a will directing that his wife have no role in the upbringing of their child , and leaving all his worldly goods to Fitzherbert . Many members of the royal family were unpopular ; however , the nation celebrated Charlotte 's birth . On 11 February 1796 , the little princess was christened Charlotte Augusta , after her grandmothers , Queen Charlotte and Augusta , Duchess of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg , in the Great Drawing Room at Carlton House by John Moore , Archbishop of Canterbury . Her godparents were the King , Queen and Duchess of Brunswick ( for whom the Princess Royal stood proxy ) .
Despite Caroline 's demands for better treatment now that she had given birth to the second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne , George restricted her contact with the child , forbidding her to see their daughter except in the presence of a nurse and governess . Caroline was allowed the usual daily visit which upper class parents paid to their young offspring at this time ; she was not allowed any say in the decisions made about Charlotte 's care . Sympathetic household staff disobeyed the Prince and allowed Caroline to be alone with her daughter . George was unaware of this , having little contact with Charlotte himself . Caroline was even bold enough to ride through the streets of London in a carriage with her daughter , to the applause of the crowds .
Charlotte herself was a healthy child , and according to her biographer , Thea Holme , " The impression one gets from all the early recorded stories of Charlotte is of a happy recklessness , and a warm heart . " As Charlotte grew , her parents continued to battle , and to use the young girl as a pawn in their conflict , with both parents appealing to the King and Queen to take their side . In August 1797 , Caroline left Carlton House , establishing herself in a rented home near Blackheath and leaving her daughter behind — English law at the time considered the father 's rights to minor children paramount . However , the Prince took no action to further restrict Caroline 's access to her daughter . In December 1798 , the Prince invited his estranged wife to spend the winter at Carlton House , which she refused to do . It was the last serious effort at reconciliation , and its failure meant there was little likelihood that George would have a legitimate son who would come between Charlotte and the British throne . Caroline visited her daughter at Carlton House , and sometimes Charlotte was driven out to Blackheath to visit her mother , but was never allowed to stay in her mother 's house . During the summers , the Prince leased Shrewsbury Lodge at Blackheath for his daughter , which made visitation easier , and according to Alison Plowden , who wrote of George 's relationship with his wife and daughter , Caroline probably saw as much of her daughter as she wanted to .
When Charlotte was eight , her father , whose affections had returned to Fitzherbert , decided that he wanted Carlton House to himself . He took over his wife 's apartments ( Caroline received space in Kensington Palace instead ) , and moved their daughter into Montague House , adjacent to Carlton House . As James Chambers , another Charlotte biographer , put it , the young Princess " lived in a household of her own , in the company of no one who was not paid to be there " . The move took place without the presence of Charlotte 's governess , Lady Elgin ( widow of Charles Bruce , 5th Earl of Elgin ) , with whom she was very close . Lady Elgin had been forced to retire , ostensibly on account of age , but most likely because George was angry that Lady Elgin had taken Charlotte to see the King without George 's permission . George also dismissed the sub @-@ governess , Miss Hayman , for being too friendly with Caroline — and the Princess of Wales promptly hired her . Lady Elgin 's replacement , Lady de Clifford ( widow of Edward Southwell , 20th Baron de Clifford ) , was fond of Charlotte , and too good natured to discipline the child , who had grown into an exuberant tomboy . Lady de Clifford brought one of her grandsons , the Honourable George Keppel , three years younger than Charlotte , as a playmate for her . Forty years later , Keppel , by then Earl of Albemarle , would remember Charlotte in his memoirs , the source of many of the anecdotes of Charlotte as a small girl . In addition to tomboy tales of horses and fisticuffs , he remembered them seeing a crowd gathered outside the Keppel house at Earl 's Court , who were hoping to see the young Princess . The two children went outside and joined the crowd , unrecognised .
In 1805 , the King began making plans for Charlotte 's education , and engaged a large staff of instructors for his only legitimate grandchild , with the Bishop of Exeter to instruct her in the faith that King George believed one day Charlotte , as queen , would defend . The King hoped that these teachers would " render her an honour and comfort to her relations , and a blessing to the dominions over which she may hereafter preside " . According to Holme , this instruction made little impression on Charlotte , who chose to learn only what she wanted to learn . Her piano teacher was composer Jane Mary Guest , and Charlotte became an accomplished pianist .
Princess Caroline 's unconventional behaviour led , in 1807 , to accusations that she had had sexual relations with other men since the separation . Caroline was caring for a young child , William Austin , who was alleged to be her child by another man . The Prince of Wales hoped that what was termed " the Delicate Investigation " would turn up evidence of adultery that would permit him to get a divorce , and forbade Charlotte to see her mother . The investigators did not interview Caroline or her purported lovers , but concentrated on Caroline 's servants . When the servants were asked if Caroline had appeared pregnant , some said yes , some no , some were uncertain , and others indicated the Princess was so overweight that it was impossible to tell . The servants could confirm no individual as a lover , though Caroline 's footman , Joseph Roberts , stated that the Princess " was very fond of fucking " . Charlotte was aware of the investigation . The ten @-@ year @-@ old was deeply hurt when mother and daughter caught sight of each other in the park , and Caroline , obedient to the Prince 's command to have no contact with Charlotte , pretended not to see her . To George 's bitter disappointment , the investigating committee found no evidence Caroline had had a second child , though it noted that the Princess 's behaviour was very much open to misconstruction . The King , who was fond of Caroline , had refused to see her during the investigation , but began to receive her again afterwards . After the conclusion of the Delicate Investigation , the Prince reluctantly allowed Charlotte to see her mother again , with the condition that William Austin not be a playmate .
= = Adolescence = =
As Charlotte entered her teenage years , members of the Court considered her behaviour undignified . Lady de Clifford complained about Charlotte 's allowing her ankle @-@ length underdrawers to show . Lady Charlotte Bury , a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting to Caroline and a diarist whose writings have survived , described the Princess as a " fine piece of flesh and blood " who had a candid manner and rarely chose to " put on dignity " . Her father was proud of her horsemanship . She was fond of music by Mozart and Haydn , and she identified with the character of Marianne in Sense and Sensibility . In 1808 , Charlotte Jones was appointed as Charlotte 's own official miniature portrait painter .
In late 1810 , King George III began his final descent into madness . Charlotte and the King were very fond of each other , and the young Princess was greatly saddened by his illness . On 6 February 1811 , Charlotte 's father was sworn in as Prince Regent before the Privy Council , as Charlotte rode back and forth in the gardens outside Carlton House , trying to catch glimpses of the ceremony through the ground @-@ floor windows . Charlotte was an enthusiastic Whig , as her father had been . However , now that he was exercising the powers of the monarchy , he did not recall the Whigs to office as many had expected him to do . Charlotte was outraged by what she saw as her father 's treason , and , at the opera , demonstrated her support by blowing kisses in the direction of the Whig leader , Earl Grey .
George had been raised under strict conditions , which he had rebelled against . Despite this , he attempted to put his daughter , who had the appearance of a grown woman at age 15 , under even stricter conditions . He gave her a clothing allowance insufficient for an adult princess , and insisted that if she attended the opera , she was to sit in the rear of the box and leave before the end . With the Prince Regent busy with affairs of state , Charlotte was required to spend most of her time at Windsor with her maiden aunts . Bored , she soon became infatuated with her first cousin , George FitzClarence , illegitimate son of the Duke of Clarence . FitzClarence was , shortly thereafter , called to Brighton to join his regiment , and Charlotte 's gaze fell on Lieutenant Charles Hesse of the Light Dragoons , reputedly the illegitimate son of Charlotte 's uncle , Frederick , Duke of York . Hesse and Charlotte had a number of clandestine meetings . Lady de Clifford feared the Prince Regent 's rage should they be found out , but Princess Caroline was delighted by her daughter 's passion . She did everything that she could to encourage the relationship , even allowing them time alone in a room in her apartments . These meetings ended when Hesse left to join the British forces in Spain . Most of the Royal Family , except the Prince Regent , were aware of these meetings , but did nothing to interfere , disapproving of the way George was treating his daughter .
In 1813 , with the tide of the Napoleonic Wars having turned firmly in Britain 's favour , George began to seriously consider the question of Charlotte 's marriage . The Prince Regent and his advisors decided on William , Hereditary Prince of Orange , son and heir @-@ apparent of Prince William VI of Orange . Such a marriage would increase British influence in Northwest Europe . William made a poor impression on Charlotte when she first saw him , at George 's birthday party on 12 August , when he became intoxicated , as did the Prince Regent himself and many of the guests . Although no one in authority had spoken to Charlotte about the proposed marriage , she was quite familiar with the plan through palace whispers . Dr. Henry Halford was detailed to sound Charlotte out about the match ; he found her reluctant , feeling that a future Queen of Britain should not marry a foreigner . Believing that his daughter intended to marry William , Duke of Gloucester , the Prince Regent saw his daughter and verbally abused both her and Gloucester . According to Charlotte , " He spoke as if he had the most improper ideas of my inclinations . I see that he is compleatly [ sic ] poisoned against me , and that he will never come round . " She wrote to Earl Grey for advice ; he suggested she play for time . The matter soon leaked to the papers , which wondered whether Charlotte would marry " the Orange or the Cheese " ( a reference to Gloucester cheese ) , " Slender Billy " [ of Orange ] or " Silly Billy " . The Prince Regent attempted a gentler approach , but failed to convince Charlotte who wrote that " I could not quit this country , as Queen of England still less " and that if they wed , the Prince of Orange would have to " visit his frogs solo " . However , on 12 December , the Prince Regent arranged a meeting between Charlotte and the Prince of Orange at a dinner party , and asked Charlotte for her decision . She stated that she liked what she had seen so far , which George took as an acceptance , and quickly called in the Prince of Orange to inform him .
Negotiations over the marriage contract took several months , with Charlotte insisting that she not be required to leave Britain . The diplomats had no desire to see the two thrones united , and so the agreement stated that Britain would go to the couple 's oldest son , while the second son would inherit the Netherlands ; if there was only one son , the Netherlands would pass to the German branch of the House of Orange . On 10 June 1814 , Charlotte signed the marriage contract . Charlotte had become besotted with a Prussian prince whose identity is uncertain ; according to Charles Greville , it was Prince Augustus , although historian Arthur Aspinall disagreed , thinking that her love interest was the younger Prince Frederick . At a party at the Pulteney Hotel in London , Charlotte met a Lieutenant @-@ General in the Russian cavalry , Prince Leopold of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . The Princess invited Leopold to call on her , an invitation he took up , remaining for three quarters of an hour , and writing a letter to the Prince Regent apologising for any indiscretion . This letter impressed George very much , although he did not consider the impoverished Leopold as a possible suitor for his daughter 's hand .
The Princess of Wales opposed the match between her daughter and the Prince of Orange , and had great public support : when Charlotte went out in public , crowds would urge her not to abandon her mother by marrying the Prince of Orange . Charlotte informed the Prince of Orange that if they wed , her mother would have to be welcome in their home — a condition sure to be unacceptable to the Prince Regent . When the Prince of Orange would not agree , Charlotte broke off the engagement . Her father 's response was to order that Charlotte remain at her residence at Warwick House ( adjacent to Carlton House ) until she could be conveyed to Cranbourne Lodge at Windsor , where she would be allowed to see no one except the Queen . When told of this , Charlotte raced out into the street . A man , seeing her distress from a window , helped the inexperienced Princess find a hackney cab , in which she was conveyed to her mother 's house . Caroline was visiting friends and hastened back to her house , while Charlotte summoned Whig politicians to advise her . A number of family members also gathered , including her uncle , Frederick , Duke of York — with a warrant in his pocket to secure her return by force if need be . After lengthy arguments , the Whigs advised her to return to her father 's house , which she did the next day .
= = Isolation and courtship = =
The story of Charlotte 's flight and return was soon the talk of the town ; Henry Brougham , a former MP and future Whig Lord Chancellor , reported " All are against the Prince " , and the Opposition press made much of the tale of the runaway Princess . Despite an emotional reconciliation with his daughter , the Prince Regent soon had her conveyed to Cranbourne Lodge , where her attendants were under orders never to let her out of their sight . She was able to smuggle a note out to her favourite uncle , Augustus , Duke of Sussex . The Duke responded by questioning the Tory Prime Minister , Lord Liverpool , in the House of Lords . He asked whether Charlotte was free to come and go , whether she was allowed to go to the seaside as doctors had recommended for her in the past , and now that she was eighteen , whether the government planned to give her a separate establishment . Liverpool evaded the questions , and the Duke was summoned to Carlton House and castigated by the Prince Regent , who never spoke with his brother again .
Despite her isolation , Charlotte found life at Cranbourne Lodge surprisingly agreeable , and slowly became reconciled to her situation . At the end of July 1814 , the Prince Regent visited Charlotte in her isolation and informed her that her mother was about to leave England for an extended stay on the Continent . This upset Charlotte , but she did not feel that anything she might say could change her mother 's mind , and was further aggrieved by her mother 's casualness in the leavetaking , " for God knows how long , or what events may occur before we meet again " . Charlotte would never see her mother again . In late August , Charlotte was permitted to go to the seaside . She had asked to go to fashionable Brighton , but the Prince Regent refused , sending her instead to Weymouth . As the Princess 's coach stopped along the way , large , friendly crowds gathered to see her ; according to Holme , " her affectionate welcome shows that already people thought of her as their future Queen " . On arrival in Weymouth , there were illuminations with a centrepiece " Hail Princess Charlotte , Europe 's Hope and Britain 's Glory " . Charlotte spent time exploring nearby attractions , shopping for smuggled French silks , and from late September taking a course of heated seawater baths . She was still infatuated with her Prussian , and hoped in vain that he would declare his interest in her to the Prince Regent . If he did not do so , she wrote to a friend , she would " take the next best thing , which was a good tempered man with good sence [ sic ] ... that man is the P of S @-@ C " [ Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg , i.e. Leopold ] . In mid @-@ December , shortly before leaving Weymouth , she " had a very sudden and great shock " when she received news that her Prussian had formed another attachment . In a long talk after Christmas dinner , father and daughter made up their differences .
In the early months of 1815 , Charlotte fixed on Leopold ( or as she termed him , " the Leo " ) as a spouse . Her father refused to give up hope that Charlotte would agree to marry the Prince of Orange . However , Charlotte wrote , " No arguments , no threats , shall ever bend me to marry this detested Dutchman . " Faced with the united opposition of the Royal Family , George finally gave in and dropped the idea of marriage to the Prince of Orange , who became engaged to Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia that summer . Charlotte contacted Leopold through intermediaries , and found him receptive , but with Napoleon renewing the conflict on the Continent , Leopold was with his regiment fighting . In July , shortly before returning to Weymouth , Charlotte formally requested her father 's permission to marry Leopold . The Prince Regent replied that with the unsettled political situation on the Continent , he could not consider such a request . To Charlotte 's frustration , Leopold did not come to Britain after the restoration of peace , even though he was stationed in Paris , which she deemed to be only a short journey from Weymouth or London .
In January 1816 , the Prince Regent invited his daughter to the Royal Pavilion in Brighton , and she pleaded with him to allow the marriage . On her return to Windsor , she wrote her father , " I no longer hesitate in declaring my partiality in favour of the Prince of Coburg — assuring you that no one will be more steady or consistent in this their present & last engagement than myself . " George gave in and summoned Leopold , who was in Berlin en route to Russia , to Britain . Leopold arrived in Britain in late February 1816 , and went to Brighton to be interviewed by the Prince Regent . After Charlotte was invited as well , and had dinner with Leopold and her father , she wrote :
I find him charming , and go to bed happier than I have ever done yet in my life ... I am certainly a very fortunate creature , & have to bless God . A Princess never , I believe , set out in life ( or married ) with such prospects of happiness , real domestic ones like other people .
The Prince Regent was impressed by Leopold , and told his daughter that Leopold " had every qualification to make a woman happy " . Charlotte was sent back to Cranbourne on 2 March , leaving Leopold with the Prince Regent . On 14 March , an announcement was made in the House of Commons to great acclaim , with both parties relieved to have the drama of the Princess 's romances at an end . Parliament voted Leopold £ 50 @,@ 000 per year , purchased Claremont House for the couple , and allowed them a generous single payment to set up house . Fearful of a repetition of the Orange fiasco , George limited Charlotte 's contact with Leopold ; when Charlotte returned to Brighton , he allowed them to meet only at dinner , and never let them be alone together .
The marriage ceremony was set for 2 May 1816 . On the wedding day , huge crowds filled London ; the wedding participants had great difficulties in travelling . At nine o 'clock in the evening in the Crimson Drawing Room at Carlton House , with Leopold dressing for the first time as a British General ( the Prince Regent wore the uniform of a Field Marshal ) , the couple were married . Charlotte 's wedding dress cost over ₤ 10 @,@ 000 . The only mishap was during the ceremony , when Charlotte was heard to giggle when the impoverished Leopold promised to endow her with all his worldly goods .
= = Marriage and death = =
The couple honeymooned at Oatlands Palace , the Duke of York 's residence in Surrey . Neither was well and the house was filled with the Yorks ' dogs and the odour of animals . Nevertheless , the Princess wrote that Leopold was " the perfection of a lover " . Two days after the marriage , they were visited by the Prince Regent at Oatlands ; he spent two hours describing the details of military uniforms to Leopold , which according to Charlotte " is a great mark of the most perfect good humour " . Prince Leopold and his wife returned to London for the social season , and when they attended the theatre , they were invariably treated to wild applause from the audience and the singing of " God Save the King " from the company . When she was taken ill at the Opera , there was great public concern about her condition . It was announced that she had suffered a miscarriage . On 24 August 1816 , they took up residence for the first time at Claremont .
Leopold 's physician @-@ in @-@ ordinary , Christian Stockmar ( later , as Baron Stockmar , advisor to both Queen Victoria and Prince Albert ) , wrote that in the first six months of the marriage , he had never seen Charlotte wear anything that was not simple and in good taste . He also noted that she was much more calm and in control of herself than she used to be , and attributed this to Leopold 's influence . Leopold wrote later , " Except when I went out to shoot , we were together always , and we could be together , we did not tire . " When Charlotte became too excited , Leopold would say only , " Doucement , chėrie " ( " Gently , my love " ) . Charlotte both accepted the correction and began calling her husband " Doucement " .
The Coburgs , as they came to be called , spent the Christmas holidays at the Brighton Pavilion with various other royals . On 7 January , the Prince Regent gave a huge ball there to celebrate Charlotte 's 21st birthday , but the Coburgs did not attend , having returned to Claremont and preferring to remain there quietly . At the end of April 1817 , Leopold informed the Prince Regent that Charlotte was again pregnant , and that there was every prospect of the Princess carrying the baby to term .
Charlotte 's pregnancy was the subject of the most intense public interest . Betting shops quickly set up book on what sex the child would be . Economists calculated that the birth of a princess would raise the stock market by 2 @.@ 5 % ; the birth of a prince would raise it 6 % . Charlotte spent her time quietly , spending much time sitting for a portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence . She ate heavily and got little exercise ; when her medical team began prenatal care in August 1817 , they put her on a strict diet , hoping to reduce the size of the child at birth . The diet , and occasional bleeding , seemed to weaken Charlotte . Stockmar was amazed at a treatment he saw as outdated , and declined to join the medical team , believing that , as a foreigner , he would be blamed if anything went wrong .
Much of Charlotte 's day to day care was undertaken by Sir Richard Croft . Croft was not a physician , but an accoucheur , or male midwife , much in fashion among the well @-@ to @-@ do . Charlotte was believed to be due to deliver on 19 October , but as October ended , she had shown no signs of giving birth , and drove out as usual with Leopold on Sunday 2 November . On the evening of 3 November , her contractions began . Sir Richard encouraged her to exercise , but would not let her eat : late that evening , he sent for the officials who were to witness and attest to the royal birth . As the fourth of November became the fifth , it became clear that Charlotte might be unable to expel the child , and Croft and Charlotte 's personal physician , Matthew Baillie , decided to send for obstetrician John Sims . However , Croft did not allow Sims to see the patient , and forceps were not used . According to Plowden in her book , they might have saved her and the child , though there was a very high mortality rate when instruments were used in the era before antiseptics .
At nine o 'clock in the evening of 5 November , Charlotte finally gave birth to a large stillborn boy . Efforts to resuscitate him were in vain , and the noble observers confirmed that it was a handsome boy , resembling the Royal Family . They were assured that the mother was doing well , and took their leave . An exhausted Charlotte heard the news calmly , stating it was the will of God . She took some nourishment after her lengthy fast and seemed to be recovering . Leopold , who had remained with his wife throughout , apparently took an opiate and collapsed into bed .
Soon after midnight , Charlotte began vomiting violently and complaining of pains in her stomach . Sir Richard was called , and was alarmed to find his patient cold to the touch , breathing with difficulty , and bleeding . He placed hot compresses on her , the accepted treatment at the time for postpartum bleeding , but the blood did not stop . He called in Stockmar and urged him to bring Leopold . Stockmar found Leopold difficult to rouse , and went to see the Princess , who grabbed his hand and told him , " They have made me tipsy . " Stockmar left the room , planning to try again to rouse the Prince , but was called back by Charlotte 's voice , " Stocky ! Stocky ! " He entered the room to find her dead .
= = Aftermath = =
Henry Brougham wrote of the public reaction to Charlotte 's death , " It really was as though every household throughout Great Britain had lost a favourite child . " The whole kingdom went into deep mourning ; linen @-@ drapers ran out of black cloth . Even the poor and homeless tied armbands of black on their clothes . The shops closed for two weeks , as did the Royal Exchange , the Law Courts , and the docks . Even gambling dens shut down on the day of her funeral , as a mark of respect . Wrote The Times , " It certainly does not belong to us to repine at the visitations of Providence ... there is nothing impious in grieving for that as a calamity . " Mourning was so complete that the makers of ribbons and other fancy goods ( which could not be worn during the period of mourning ) petitioned the government to shorten the period , fearing they would otherwise go bankrupt . A dissenting note was struck by poet Percy Bysshe Shelley , who in his An Address to the People on the Death of the Princess Charlotte , indicated that the execution of three men the day after the Princess 's death for plotting to overthrow the government was a greater tragedy .
The Prince Regent was prostrated with grief , and was unable to attend his child 's funeral . Princess Caroline heard the news from a passing courier , and fainted in shock . On recovering , she stated , " England , that great country , has lost everything in losing my ever beloved daughter . " Even the Prince of Orange burst into tears at hearing the news , and his wife ordered the ladies of her court into mourning . The greatest effect fell on Prince Leopold . Stockmar wrote years later , " November saw the ruin of this happy home , and the destruction at one blow of every hope and happiness of Prince Leopold . He has never recovered the feeling of happiness which had blessed his short married life . " According to Holme , " without Charlotte he was incomplete . It was as if he had lost his heart . "
Prince Leopold wrote to Sir Thomas Lawrence :
Two generations gone . Gone in a moment ! I have felt for myself , but I have also felt for the Prince Regent . My Charlotte is gone from the country — it has lost her . She was a good , she was an admirable woman . None could know my Charlotte as I did know her ! It was my study , my duty , to know her character , but it was my delight !
Leopold did not remarry until 1832 , when , as King of the Belgians , he married Louise @-@ Marie of Orleans , daughter of Louis Philippe I , King of the French . They had four children .
The Princess was buried , her son at her feet , in St. George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , on 19 November 1817 . A monument was erected , by public subscription , at her tomb . It was not long before the public began to pin blame for the tragedy . The Queen and the Prince Regent were blamed for not being present at the birth , though Charlotte had specifically requested that they stay away . Although the postmortem was inconclusive , many blamed Croft for his care of the Princess . The Prince Regent refused to blame Croft ; nevertheless , three months after Charlotte 's death and while attending another young woman , Croft snatched up a gun and fatally shot himself . The " triple obstetric tragedy " — death of child , mother , and practitioner — led to significant changes in obstetric practice , with obstetricians who favoured intervention in protracted labour , including in particular more liberal use of forceps , gaining ground over those who did not .
Charlotte 's death left the King without any legitimate grandchildren ; his youngest surviving child was over forty . The newspapers urged the King 's unmarried sons towards matrimony . One such leading article reached the King 's fourth son , Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , at his home in Brussels , where he was living with his mistress , Julie de St Laurent . Edward quickly dismissed his mistress and proposed to Leopold 's sister Victoria , Dowager Princess of Leiningen . Their daughter , Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent , would eventually ( in 1837 ) become Queen of the United Kingdom . Leopold , by then King of the Belgians , served as long @-@ distance advisor to his niece , and was able to secure her marriage to his nephew , Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Vernon Jones =
Vernon Jones ( born October 31 , 1960 ) is an African @-@ American Democratic politician from US state of Georgia . Jones served as chief executive officer of Dekalb County , Georgia , from 2001 until 2009 , and in the Georgia House of Representatives from 1993 to 2001 . As Dekalb County CEO , Jones presided over the Board of Commissioners , oversaw a 7 @,@ 000 employee county workforce , and managed a $ 2 @.@ 6 billion county operating budget . He unsuccessfully ran for the US Senate in 2008 .
= = Early life and business career = =
Born in Laurel Hill , North Carolina , Jones grew up on a farm in rural North Carolina . His father was a veteran of World War II who worked in a mill ; his mother and siblings worked on the family farm . Jones was the fifth of six children , with four brothers and a sister . He attended North Carolina Central University in Durham , NC and became a member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity there , before graduating with a B.A. in business administration in 1983 . Jones is a graduate of Harvard 's John F. Kennedy School of Government 's Executive Program .
Jones began his career in the telecommunications industry , first working with MCI Communications ( now MCI Inc . ) and later BellSouth Corporation . At BellSouth , he was part of a team that established wireless communications in Montevideo , Uruguay . Jones served on the DeKalb Board of Health , the Atlanta Regional Commission , the DeKalb Library Board , the DeKalb Pension Board , and the Board of Visitors for Emory University and North Carolina Central University .
= = Political career = =
= = = Political positions = = =
During his 2008 Senate campaign , Jones described himself as a " conservative Democrat " who favors " tough immigration laws and fiscal responsibility " as well as " supporter of gun rights and a staunch environmental advocate " . During his 2008 campaign , he stated that he opposed same @-@ sex marriage . OnTheIssues.org rated Jones as a " Moderate Libertarian Conservative " . Jones stated that he voted for George W. Bush in 2004 , and supported Barack Obama in 2008 . Jones donated $ 2 @,@ 464 in two separate donations to the Georgia Republican Party in 2001 . In a 2014 press release , Jones characterized himself as an " advocate for limited government , security and protections for all citizens , balanced budgeting , ethical and efficient elections , [ and ] job creation " .
= = = Georgia House of Representatives = = =
Jones was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives in 1992 , representing District SH 071 , succeeding Sidney Pope Jones , Jr .. Jones served from 1993 to 2001 , during which time he was a member of the Appropriations Committee , the Insurance Committee , and the Health & Ecology Committee , as well as the Banking Committee , and a special Judiciary Committee . Jones also chaired the Chairman of the Health Professions Subcommittee . Among the proposals Jones sponsored or co @-@ sponsored in the Georgia House was a bill to remove the Confederate battle flag emblem from Georgia State flag , and a bill that would have banned minors from purchasing music with explicit lyrics . Jones did not stand for reelection in 2000 , instead running for DeKalb County CEO , and was succeeded in the Georgia House by Ron Sailor
= = = DeKalb County CEO = = =
He was elected as chief executive officer of Dekalb County , Georgia in 2000 , winning 64 % of the vote , and was re @-@ elected in 2004 with 54 % of the vote . Jones is the first African American to serve as CEO of the county , and the youngest ever elected in the county . In April 2001 , shortly after Jones became CEO , he voted , along with five other DeKalb County Commissioners , to offer life and health insurance benefits to the domestic partners of gay and unmarried County employees . DeKalb was the first county in Georgia to offer such benefits . During his administration , Dekalb County established the first local Homeland Security Office in 2001 . Under Jones , DeKalb County approved creation of a new senior center , increased funding for roads , libraries , and park improvements while maintaining a balanced budget , and increasing the County 's credit rating to AAA . As CEO , Jones promoted and achieved passage of a $ 125 million bond referendum that allowed for the acquisition of 2 @,@ 735 acre expansion of the DeKalb County 's green space , increasing the county 's parks and green space by 70 % . He requested and received Congressional designation of Arabia Mountain as a National Heritage Area . Jones was also primarily responsible for creation of Dekalb County ’ s first economic development department , which generated $ 4 billion in new investments .
However , Jones term as DeKalb County CEO was also known for controversies and accusations of improprieties . Shortly after taking office Jones went back on campaign pledge to keep the homestead exemption sales tax in place . Jones was criticized for vetoing pay raises for police officers . In January 2005 , the Georgia State Ethics Commission sanctioned Jones for campaign contribution limit violations in 2004 reelection campaign . Under a Consent Order , Jones returned all excess contributions and personally paid a $ 7 @,@ 500 @.@ 00 civil penalty . Jones apologized and stated that changes in campaign finance laws between the initial election and the run @-@ off election the reason for his acceptance nineteen improper campaign contributions . He was also accused of illegally using campaign funds to promote the 2005 bond referendum , but the State Ethics Commission " found no reasonable grounds " for the complaint .
Jones was also accused excessive spending , questionable real estate transactions , and was sued for racial discrimination ( see Controversies section below ) .
= = = 2008 United States Senate campaign = = =
Jones ran for the US Senate in 2008 , but was defeated 60 % to 40 % in the 2008 run @-@ off for Georgia 's Democratic US Senate primary .
On March 23 , 2007 Jones announced he was running for the United States Senate against incumbent Republican Saxby Chambliss . Jones was criticized by his chief rival Jim Martin over his more conservative politics and past support for George W. Bush . Jones ' campaign was also marred by two new controversies . Jones sent out a flier in which he appeared in a digitally altered picture next to Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama with the words " Yes We Can . " However , Obama himself stated he not only never posed with Jones , he did not endorse Jones or any other candidate for the Democratic nomination for Senate . In response , Jones blamed his " liberal opponents backed by the liberal media " for trying to ruin his campaign . Jones also received criticism for the appearance of the tagline " Vote Vernon Jones for GA Senate " on tickets , produced using county funds , for the Dekalb County Blues and Jazz Festival . The company who printed the tickets , supporters of Jones ' campaign , took responsibility for the incident ; saying that they were unaware campaign finance laws made such an action illegal .
In the July 15 , 2008 Democratic primary election , Jones won a plurality of votes in the Democratic primary . However , Georgia law requires a majority ; if no majority is reached by a candidate , the two top vote @-@ getters must face one another in a runoff . On August 5 , 2008 Jones lost the run @-@ off election to Jim Martin by a margin of 20 points . Jones unexpectedly lost to Martin in his home base of Dekalb County . Jones had lost support within the black community before the runoff election , and only captured two @-@ thirds of the black vote in the head to head match up against Martin . The black turnout in the run @-@ off was also substantially lower than the initial primary election , further hurting Vernon Jones ' chances in the runoff .
= = = Unsuccessful races = = =
In 2010 , Jones launched an unsuccessful campaign for the U.S. Congress , representing GA Fourth Congressional District . In 2014 , Jones ran unsuccessfully for Sheriff of DeKalb County , GA . He was defeated by incumbent Sheriff Jeff Mann , 76 % to 24 % .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Official spending and real estate = = =
Two grand juries found Jones $ 250 @,@ 000 per year taxpayer funded security detail excessive , and recommended it be decreased , but found no violations of the law . Jones was accused of a questionable real estate transaction involving a house and a 55 @-@ acre tract of land near Arabia Mountain that he purchased for $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2003 in anticipation of a then active quarry becoming part of county green space project that he initiated . In summer of 2007 , Jones sold the site and made a $ 220 @,@ 000 profit . On January 20 , 2013 , a special purpose grand jury , enpaneled to investigate corruption in DeKalb County , found widespread " incompetence , patronage , fraud and cronyism " dating to the beginning of the administration of Vernon Jones . The report , which was not released until August 21 , 2013 , recommended further investigations of possible illegal acts by Jones , along with a number of other current and former senior DeKalb County officials .
= = = Accusations of racial discrimination = = =
On August 24 , 2004 , four senior current and former employees of the Parks Department , Becky Kelley ( former Parks Department Director ) , Michael Bryant ( a Deputy Director of Revenue Management and Support ) , John Drake ( an Assistant Director ) , and Herbert Lowe ( former Deputy Director of Strategic Management and Development ) , filed suit against DeKalb County , Vernon Jones ( as CEO of the county ) and three of Jones ' subordinates ( Marilyn Boyd Drew , Richard Stogner , and Morris Williams ) alleging either racial discrimination , or in the case of Lowe , retaliation for refusing to assist in racial discrimination . Kelly , Bryant , and Drake were white ; Lowe was African @-@ American .
Attorneys for the DeKalb County defendants moved for summary judgment on the grounds of qualified immunity as state officials . On November 10 , 2006 , District Court Judge William Duffey rejected their summary judgment petition , holding that the law does not allow " a public official defendant to engage in calculated racial discrimination costumed in a racially neutral garb of administrative actions so it can masquerade as a qualified immunity defense " . On November 21 , 2006 , Duffey ruled that the case could go forward to a jury trial . Jones and his fellow defendants then appealed the denial of their summary judgement motion . On July 31 , 2009 , the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the District Court judge 's rejection of the Defendants ' motion for summary judgment on the grounds of qualified immunity . Judge Gerald Bard Tjoflat , writing for the court , stated in the ruling that " DeKalb County , Georgia [ had ] embarked on a wholesale plan to replace its white county managers with African Americans " and that Vernon Jones had " devised the plan and monitored its execution " .
In March 2010 , the case was finally heard by a jury . During the trial plaintiffs ' attorneys called witnesses from across county government in an attempt to demonstrate a countywide policy of discrimination . Jones denied any discrimination against white employees . He testified that " I wanted the best and the brightest . That meant blacks , whites , Asians , Latinos , Republicans , Democrats , Independents , gay , straight , anybody who wanted to work for DeKalb County . I wanted everybody to have a seat at the table " . Other testimony revealed that during the first five years of Jones ' term in office , the number of white senior county managers had dropped from 61 to 57 , and the number of African @-@ American senior county managers had risen from 33 to 61 .
After seven days of testimony , on April 2 , 2010 the jury awarded damages to two of the four plaintiffs , Michael Bryant ( who had died before the trial ) and John Drake . The jurors found that Jones , his former executive assistant , Richard Stogner , and a former parks director , Marilyn Boyd Drew were liable only for $ 185 @,@ 000 in damages , much less than the $ 2 million requested by plaintiffs . While DeKalb County was found liable for racial discrimination , the jury rejected those claims against Jones , but held that he had " created and maintained a hostile work environment " . Jones was ordered to personally pay $ 27 @,@ 750 of the damages , but DeKalb County 's $ 50 @,@ 000 liability insurance policy on its employees covered the part of the award personally assessed against Jones .
While , Jones and his attorneys initially hailed the verdict as a victory for the county because of the relatively low damages award , after the judge awarded the plaintiffs an additional $ 1 @.@ 9 million in legal fees , DeKalb County ultimately agreed to pay the plaintiffs a total of $ 1 @.@ 3 million for legal fees and damages in April 19 , 2011 post @-@ trial settlement .
= = = Involvement with Earl Paulk = = =
Jones was accused ( in a lawsuit brought by Mona Brewer against Earl Paulk of Chapel Hill Harvester Church ) of using money from a $ 125 million green space bond sale to purchase a Decatur , GA church building from Paulk for $ 2 @.@ 4 million , a sum claimed to be unjustifiably in excess of the land 's actual value . The County made no use of the property , and was the building was later leased to a start @-@ up cable network for a token sum of a dollar per year . During the ensuing court case , the plaintiff alleged that , as part of a questionable relationship , Paulk arranged for a sexual encounter between Jones and one of Paulk 's former mistresses . When deposed , Jones refused to answer questions relating to that incident , as well as a number of other questions involving his dealings with Paulk . That case was ultimately withdrawn by the plaintiff 's attorney , Louis Levenson , who felt that the judge in the case was biased against his client . The case was subsequently refiled and drew a different judge .
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= BR Standard Class 7 =
The BR Standard Class 7 , otherwise known as the Britannia Class , is a class of 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 2 Pacific steam locomotive designed by Robert Riddles for use by British Railways for mixed traffic duties . Fifty @-@ five were constructed between 1951 and 1954 . The design was a result of the 1948 locomotive exchanges undertaken in advance of further locomotive classes being constructed . Three batches were constructed at Crewe Works , before the publication of the 1955 Modernisation Plan .
The Britannia Class was based on several previous LMS locomotive designs , and also significantly influenced by the Bulleid SR Pacifics , notably in the boiler and rear truck design , incorporating the best practices in locomotive technology as regards labour @-@ saving and lowering maintenance costs ; various weight @-@ saving measures also increased the route availability of a Pacific @-@ type locomotive on the British Railways network . The Britannias received a positive reception from their crews , with those regularly operating the locomotives giving them favourable reports as regards performance . However , trials in some areas of the British Railway network returned negative feedback , primarily due to indifferent operation of the locomotive , with its effects on adhering to timetables .
The Britannias took their names from great Britons , former Star Class locomotives , and Scottish firths . The class remained in service until the last was withdrawn in 1968 . Two survived into preservation , the first @-@ of @-@ class , number 70000 Britannia , and 70013 Oliver Cromwell . Number 70000 has hauled mainline excursions and 70013 , after a period of display following limited steaming , returned to mainline steam in 2008 for the first time since leaving British Railways ownership . 70000 was returned to the main line in 2011 .
= = Background = =
Locomotive exchanges were commissioned by the fledgling British Railways ( BR ) during 1948 , to test the best and worst aspects of locomotive design within the Big Four railway companies that had existed before nationalisation . The research gained from operating the best designs of the GWR , LMS , LNER and Southern railways on different areas of the British Railways network paved the way for several new classes of standardised locomotives to be constructed . These new locomotive designs were intended to replace some of the ageing designs inherited by British Railways .
The new classes were designed by Robert Riddles , who had previously designed the WD Austerity 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 and WD Austerity 2 @-@ 10 @-@ 0 locomotives for wartime use . The first design requested by the Railway Executive was for a new express passenger " Pacific " locomotive , designed specifically to reduce maintenance and using the latest available innovations in steam technology from home and abroad . Various labour @-@ saving devices were utilised to produce a simple , standard and effective design , able to produce equivalent power to some of the " Pacifics " that were still available as legacies of the Big Four .
= = Design features = =
The basic design of the " Britannias " owed much to LMS building practices , especially when considering Riddles ' previous career with the said railway . However , in keeping with the necessity to follow best practice in creating standardised steam locomotives , they utilised a variation of both boiler and trailing wheel of the Merchant Navy Class , while weight was kept within the margins laid down by the Light Pacifics , all of which were designed by Oliver Bulleid . The firebox was also similar in having a rocking grate , which allowed the fire to be rebuilt without stopping the locomotive , removing both ash and clinker on the move ; but unlike the SR Pacifics , the inner firebox was constructed of copper instead of steel , and lacked thermic syphons . A self @-@ cleaning smokebox was used , which enabled ash to flow into the atmosphere , reducing the workload of the engine cleaner at the end of a working day . A single chimney was placed on top of the smokebox , which was unusual for a " Pacific " type of locomotive . This was because the blastpipe was designed by S.O. Ell at Swindon Works , who claimed that " better results could be obtained from a well @-@ designed single chimney than some of the previous double chimney arrangements " . The " Britannias " had 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) driving wheels , a compromise that took into account the intended mixed @-@ traffic role they were designed for . This meant that they were large enough for sustained fast running with heavy passenger trains , yet small enough to allow them to undertake more mundane tasks such as freight haulage .
The design also featured raised running plates above the wheels , which allowed easy access to the inside of the frames for purposes of lubrication . The lack of wheel splashers on this running plate also reduced the risk of the bearings overheating , by allowing more air to flow around the axles when at speed . Wheel splashers were used on older locomotive designs to box @-@ in the top portion of the driving wheels for aesthetic reasons , and to prevent water and dirt from being thrown at the cab windows . The " Britannnias ' " footplate was designed around the requirements of the operating crews , with a mock @-@ up being constructed at Crewe to test ergonomics and usability . For ease of maintenance , availability of spare parts and increased reliability , two sets of Walschaerts valve gear were used , along with the largest cylinders capable of staying within the British loading gauge . The " inside " cylinders located between the frames of a three- or four @-@ cylindered locomotive are difficult to access for maintenance ; the two @-@ cylinder design of the Class 7 – with all the valve gear on the outside – avoided these maintenance problems . Boiler ' plumbing ' was also generally exposed to maintain ease of access . In common with other BR standard designs there was no exhaust injector , as this device was temperamental unless rigorously maintained .
Following experience of occasional cracks appearing near the spring brackets had one or more further batches of Class 7 Standard Pacifics been built to complete the intended 91 engines the chassis would have been rearranged to be similar to that used on the solitary BR Standard Class 8 Duke of Gloucester and that drawn up by Derby Drawing Office for the 2nd batch of Class 6 Standard Pacifics . This would have resulted in the locomotive riding on cast steel " sub @-@ frames " carrying the spring brackets . Unlike the smaller BR Standards the exhaust steam manifold within the smokebox saddle ( along with the BR Standard Class 6 engines ) was an intricate steel casting .
= = Construction history = =
Designed at British Railways ' Derby Works , the new class was constructed at British Railways ' Crewe Works between 1951 and 1954 . The initial order was for 25 locomotives , but such was the demand for the Britannias on the Eastern Region that more were rushed through construction before the teething problems had been ironed out on the prototypes . In total , 55 members of the class were constructed over three batches at Crewe Works , where each was given improvements to improve reliability and efficiency , and to overcome flaws with the original design .
First batch : 70000 – 70024 , constructed between January and October , 1951
Second batch : 70025 – 70044 , constructed between September 1952 and October 1953
Third batch : 70045 – 70054 , constructed in 1954 .
= = = Variations and modifications = = =
Problems with the class were experienced immediately , with the first 25 locomotives being withdrawn in October 1951 after several complaints were received from crews regarding the driving wheels shifting on their axles . They were subsequently modified , and released back into revenue @-@ earning service . Initially the return cranks on the main driving wheels were of LNER block type , as seen on Arthur Peppercorn 's A1s and A2s , but this was changed to the simpler LMS four @-@ stud fitting . This was the result of a problem of overheating bearings within the cranks , and difficulty in removing the LNER @-@ type casings . 70035 – 70039 were built with roller bearings on the leading and trailing coupled axles only and plain bearings on the remaining axles , whilst 70040 – 70049 were built with plain bearings throughout . However throughout their service the roller bearings used in remaining cases showed no advantage in reliability or cost .
An unusual fault with the first engines of the class was fore @-@ and @-@ aft vibration , strong enough to prompt passengers to complain and to cause fire @-@ irons stowed in a longitudinal compartment on top of the tender to work their way forward into the cab . The passengers ' complaints were dealt with by reducing the tension in the drawbar spring .
Locomotive tenders were also changed as new , improved designs became available . Some examples of the second batch ( 70025 – 70029 ) were equipped with the BR1A tender , which had a higher water capacity of 5 @,@ 000 gallons . Members of the third batch ( 70045 – 70054 ) were equipped with another tender design , the BR1D , which had 9 tons of coal and 4 @,@ 750 gallons of water , due to the fact that they were intended for use on longer runs in the north of the railway network . This tender design also featured a steam @-@ powered coal pusher , which eliminated the need for crew members to mount the tender to pull forward coal when the locomotive was at a stop .
Nos.70043 and 70044 were delivered with Westinghouse airbrakes fitted alongside the smokebox and with no smoke deflectors . The two locomotives , which looked radically different from the rest of the class , were allocated to Manchester ( Longsight ) and ran a series of brake trials on the London Midland main line during the mid @-@ 1950s . Subsequently both had the equipment removed and deflectors fitted .
No. 70045 was fitted with LMS @-@ style oval buffers in the course of repairs after collision damage ( see photograph ) .
On 21 January 1960 , the Settle rail crash , which cost the lives of five passengers , was caused when the piston rod , cross @-@ head and connecting rod of No. 70052 came loose and damaged the opposite line as a freight train was approaching . The locomotive of the freight train was derailed towards 70052 's train and tore out the sides of three passenger coaches . Part of the slide assembly was redesigned , and was fitted as the locomotives were routinely " shopped " .
Western Region based examples had hand / foot holds cut into the smoke deflectors rather than steps , to improve forward visibility after one of the class was involved in a major derailment .
= = = Naming = = =
From 1948 until the mid @-@ 1950s , the responsibility for recommending names for locomotives on British Railways rested with a Locomotive Naming Committee of three senior railway officers , E.S. Cox , George Dow with Derek Barrie as chairman .
The Committee set itself several rules and over the years developed many practices . The names had to be euphonious ( they had to have a pleasant sound ) . Also , their meaning had to be readily apparent to anyone interested , whether railwayman or member of the public . There had to be good publicity value in the names as well as providing good morale for the staff , and the collection of names for a class had to provide some form of class identity . Another rule was not to use names of people who were still alive at the time , and some on the Committee had a strong dislike of names or associations with the military ( largely because they were fed @-@ up with the recently ended war ) . There was a preference for names of heroes and other well @-@ known people . However , slavishly following a single theme to an absurd extent was discouraged .
The name that was to be bestowed on the first class member caused great debate on the Committee and the wider executive of British Railways . However noted enthusiast Bishop Eric Treacy suggested the name " Britannia " . This set the general theme of the naming process , which featured great Britons , although several deviations from the theme were allowed . These exceptions were allocated to those that operated on the Western Region , which were given names of former Star Class locomotives , and those of the Scottish Region , which were granted the names of the various Scottish firths . The locomotive naming ceremonies were carried out at various railway stations around the British Railways network . No. 70047 was never named .
= = Operational details = =
The class was well liked by crews in most regions of British Railways , with especially glowing reports from those operating them from Stratford depot on the Eastern Region , where its lower weight and high power transformed motive power over the restricted East Anglian lines . However , negative feedback was received from various operating departments , most notably on the Western Region . The criticism was primarily out of partisan preference for GWR @-@ designed locomotive stock among Western Region staff ; in particular , the class was ' left @-@ hand drive ' in contrast to ' right @-@ hand drive ' GWR locomotive and signalling practice , a factor in the Milton rail crash of 1955 .
For this reason , the Western Region locomotive depots at Old Oak Common and Plymouth Laira declared that the class was surplus to requirements . However Cardiff Canton depot displayed its liking for the class ( despite being part of the former GWR empire ) and managed to obtain good results on South Wales passenger traffic .
The Midland Region also had favourable reports , but a marked consistency in losing time on the longer runs between Holyhead and Euston was recorded , although all complaints were down to the individual techniques of the operating crews . This was compounded by the irregular allocation of the class to depots all over the network , meaning that few crews ever had a great deal of experience in driving them . The Southern Region also had an allocation of seven in May 1953 , when all Merchant Navy Class locomotives were temporarily withdrawn for inspection after 35020 " Bibby Line " sheared a crank axle on the central driving wheel .
Repairs to the class were undertaken at Crewe , Swindon and Doncaster Works until the financial constraints of the British Railways Modernisation Plan in terms of expenditure on steam began to preclude the regular overhaul of locomotives . During the mid @-@ 1960s overhauls were carried out exclusively at Crewe Works . The first locomotive to be withdrawn from service was number 70007 " Coeur @-@ de @-@ Lion " in 1965 , and the entire class was gradually transferred to Carlisle Kingmoor and Glasgow Polmadie depots as steam was displaced by the dieselisation of British Railways . A succession of bulk withdrawals began in 1967 , and the last , of number 70013 " Oliver Cromwell " , took place in 1968 , at the very end of steam operation in Britain . Subsequently that locomotive was selected to represent the class in the National Collection . Only 70000 " Britannia " , which was privately preserved , saw main line service during the preservation era – until 2008 , when 70013 " Oliver Cromwell " ' s restoration was completed , and she worked part of the " 15 Guinea Special " – a special train run to commemorate the final BR steam working in 1968 . 70013 is now to be found operating main line railtours over the Network Rail system .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 20 November 1955 , locomotive No. 70026 Polar Star was hauling an excursion train that was derailed at Milton , Oxfordshire due to excessive speed through a crossover . Eleven people were killed and 157 were injured .
On 21 January 1960 , locomotive No. 70052 Firth of Tay was hauling an express passenger train that was derailed at Settle , Yorkshire due to a defect on the locomotive . Five people were killed and nine were injured .
= = Livery and numbering = =
The first member of the class was given a livery of plain black without lining ; this was changed to the new standard British Railways Brunswick green that was applied to express passenger locomotives after nationalisation , despite the locomotive being classed as mixed traffic . This was lined in orange and black , and the class was given the power classification 7MT . The " Britannias " were numbered under the new British Railways standard numbering system in the 70xxx series . The locomotives were numbered between 70000 and 70054 , and featured brass nameplates with an initial black background , followed by red , located on the smoke deflectors . Towards the end of steam plain green livery was substituted , with the touching @-@ up of existing paintwork being preferred to full aesthetic overhaul .
= = Preservation = =
Two Britannias have survived , the original , number 70000 Britannia , and 70013 Oliver Cromwell . Number 70000 was originally selected to represent the class in the embryonic form of the future National Railway Museum , but she was ultimately rejected due to the poor mechanical condition the locomotive was in . As a result , 70013 was eventually selected to represent the class for the benefit of future generations .
However , 70000 had been purchased privately from British Railways by the Britannia Locomotive Group , therefore ensuring that the doyen of the class was to survive into the preservation era . Subsequently utilised on mainline railtours , the locomotive was out of use in the late 1990s , requiring work to bring it back to steam ; it was eventually sold to Pete Waterman and stored at Crewe . After a spell in storage on the Bressingham Steam Museum in Diss , Norfolk , 70013 was moved to the Great Central Railway ( preserved ) , following an ownership dispute between Bressingham and the National Railway Museum . The locomotive returned to steam in May 2008 on the Great Central Railway after the readers of Steam Railway magazine contributed towards its overhaul . In July 2008 it appeared in WCRC 's Open Weekend at Steamtown , Carnforth . August saw the locomotive return to the main line . Its first turn was the 1T57 ' Fifteen Guinea Special ' re @-@ run from Manchester to Carlisle , 40 years after it performed the same duty in 1968 . As a result , both preserved members of the class have operated on the mainline in preservation .
After its sale to the Royal Scot Locomotive and General Trust , 70000 was overhauled at Crewe and returned to the main line in 2011 ( its 60th anniversary ) , initially in unlined black without name plates as originally outshopped in 1951 ( the plates were first fitted for the Festival of Britain later that year ) .
For location details of the preserved locomotives , see : List of BR ' Britannia ' Class locomotives
= = Gallery = =
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= Live . Love . ASAP =
Live . Love . ASAP ( stylized as Live.Love.A $ AP ) is the debut mixtape by American rapper ASAP Rocky , who released it as a free digital download on October 31 , 2011 . It features production by Clams Casino , ASAP Ty Beats , DJ Burn One , and SpaceGhostPurrp , among others . The mixtape also features guest rappers Schoolboy Q and Fat Tony , as well as members of ASAP Mob , ASAP Rocky 's hip hop collective .
The mixtape 's music incorporates stylistic and production elements of hip hop scenes distinct from ASAP Rocky 's hometown New York scene , particularly Southern hip hop . Its production features woozy soundscapes , low and mid @-@ tempo beats , and chopped and screwed choruses . His lyrics deal with themes about moral decay , including promiscuity and drug use , expressed through his boastful , tempered flow .
The mixtape was promoted with two singles , " Peso " and " Purple Swag " , which garnered ASAP Rocky mainstream attention and led to his first record deal . Live . Love . ASAP received widespread acclaim from critics , who praised the production aesthetic and his charismatic style . It was included in several year @-@ end top album lists by critics and publications .
= = Background = =
In May 2011 , ASAP Rocky quit selling drugs and decided to focus on a career in rapping . He released a music video for his song " Purple Swag " in July , garnering Internet buzz and attention from record labels , despite negative feedback from his native hip hop scene in New York . He was courted by several labels , including the RCA @-@ distributed Polo Grounds Music . However , he held off from any deal with a label , instead wanting to explore other pursuits . He and Polo Grounds president Bryan Leach , also a Harlem native , subsequently spent time talking about music and lifestyles .
In August 2011 , ASAP Rocky followed with " Peso " , which first appeared on Internet blogs and eventually received radio airplay on New York City 's Hot 97 . The song also earned him respect in the New York scene , of which he later said , " It bring a tear to my eye to see native New York people give me my props because New York is stubborn and arrogant " . After a bidding war among labels , he signed a record deal with Polo Grounds and RCA on October 14 . It was worth $ 3 million , with $ 1 @.@ 7 million for his solo work and $ 1 @.@ 3 million to fund his company ASAP Worldwide . He said that he sought a " bigger platform " for him and his collective with the deal . His first studio album planned to be under the deal , but it allowed him to continue releasing mixtapes through RED Distribution .
= = Recording = =
ASAP Rocky recorded Live.Love.ASAP at Ishlab Music Studio in Dumbo , a neighborhood in Brooklyn , New York . It was engineered by the studio 's primary technicians Daniel Lynas and Frans Mernick . Several producers on the mixtape were associated with ASAP Mob , a collective that was formed by ASAP Rocky in 2007 and featured rappers , record producers , and music video directors . ASAP Ty Beats , SpaceGhostPurrp , and Clams Casino , who had produced several of ASAP Rocky 's previous songs , were his principal collaborators in developing the songs ' woozy soundscapes . Casino previously produced for Lil B and Main Attrakionz , who appears on the mixtape . ASAP Rocky met him after he remixed Casino 's song " Numb " , which was later recorded as " Demons " for the mixtape , and they both tried to contact one another as respective fans . Their first recording for the mixtape was " Wassup " . In August , he rented a pied @-@ à @-@ terre in Midtown Manhattan and housed members of ASAP Mob during Hurricane Irene 's landfall in New York City .
= = Music = =
Musically , Live . Love . ASAP incorporates characteristics from hip hop scenes outside of ASAP Rocky 's hometown scene in Harlem , New York , including Midwest and Southern hip hop , particularly the hip hop production of Houston 's scene . He grew up listening to Southern hip hop artists such as Geto Boys , UGK , Swishahouse , Mike Jones , Paul Wall , and Slim Thug . He also grew up listening to artists of disparate music genres , including Hope Sandoval , Cee Lo Green , and MGMT , influences that music journalist Paul Lester attributes to the mixtape 's " languid but futuristic sonics " . The beats on Live . Love . ASAP are generally low or mid @-@ tempo and hazy @-@ sounding . The songs also have chopped and screwed choruses . Clams Casino 's moody , atmospheric production is characterized by fragmented , downbeat vocal samples , basic drum tracks , and ambient , hypnotic synths . Songs produced by DJ Burn One , Beautiful Lou , and Soufein3000 incorporate more Southern hip hop elements .
Allmusic editor Andre Barnes views the mixtape 's music as distinct from East Coast hip hop , calling it " sonically out of place , recasting the feel of East Coast hip @-@ hop into a quintessential , albeit progressive southern aesthetic with its country funk and cosmic , syrupy backdrops . " Jon Caramanica calls Live . Love . ASAP " placeless and universal , an album that sounds as if it has ingested the last 20 years of hip @-@ hop ’ s travels and would be comfortable anywhere . " Caramanica notes characteristics of various hip hop scenes other than that of New York 's scene , including " chewy , slowed @-@ down homages to Houston " and " nods to New Orleans and Atlanta and the Bay Area and everywhere else hip @-@ hop is made . " Alvin Aqua Blanco of HipHopDX writes that the music 's grooves " generally stay on the DJ Screw side of the BPMs " . Consequence of Sound editor Mike Madden notes its musical dynamic as " Southern flavors crossbreed [ ing ] with plenty of cloudy ambient @-@ rap moments " and views that the cadences of the beats consequently " dictate " ASAP Rocky 's rapping style .
The epic @-@ sounding , Clams Casino @-@ produced opening track , " Palace " , has Rocky acknowledging Southern hip hop 's influence on his sound : " Influenced by Houston / you can hear it in my music " . " Wassup " has an ethereal , Houston @-@ inspired soundscape . However , Chase McMullen of Beats Per Minute observes from the mixtape 's sound the " threatening vibe " of Raekwon 's 1995 album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... and a grime influence , commenting that " while southern influences currently dominate much of current hip hop , Rocky places as much importance on the Wu as he does Three 6 . " Paul Lester of The Guardian compares " Peso " to the stylings of The Jet Age of Tomorrow . " Trilla " has a funk and boom bap influence in its production .
= = Lyrics = =
The mixtape 's subject matter of moral decay incorporates controversial thematic elements of mainstream hip hop , including misogyny , glorified male promiscuity , and excessive drug use . Songs such as " Leaf " , " Get Lit " , and " Roll One Up " are odes to cannabis smoking . Music writers note the mixtape 's perspective as that of a self @-@ assured youth concerned with simple pleasures and " keeping it trill ( true and real ) " . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club comments that ASAP Rocky mostly " riffs on his four great loves : syrup , weed , women , and fashion " . Calling it a " guilty pleasure " for hip hop purists , Allmusic 's Andre Barnes characterizes the mixtape 's subject matter as " the antithesis of conscious rap " and his lyricism as " sedate charisma and mannerisms leaning toward UGK @-@ inspired bravado " , adding that it displaces " the intricate lyrical concepts that evoke intense listening and the undeniable slang definitive of traditional East Coast rap music " .
" Purple Swag " , a woozy @-@ sounding homage to Houston 's hip hop scene , references the purple drank popularized by the scene 's community and used recreationally by ASAP Rocky and his collective . His lyrics on " Peso " depict a charismatic , attractive persona , with him referring to himself as a " pretty motherfucker " . The song also features lyrics about his eccentric and flamboyant fashion sense : " Raf Simons , Rick Owens / usually what I ’ m dressed in " . He also name @-@ drops fashion designer Jeremy Scott throughout the mixtape .
ASAP Rocky 's flow throughout the mixtape is tempered , and his delivery ranges from nonchalant rhymes to forceful double time . Jon Caramanica writes that the subject matter , including " straight @-@ talking boasts " and " heavy intake of drugs and women " , is revealed by his " bursts of short phrases , rhymed in their entirety . " On " Palace " , ASAP Rocky demonstrates alliterative lyricism and singsong cadence and flow . His flow patterns have been compared by writers to those of Cleveland @-@ based hip hop group Bone Thugs @-@ N @-@ Harmony . August Brown of the Los Angeles Times writes that " his reserved , steely delivery owes equal debts to Houston 's syrup daze and Dipset 's uptown intensity " . He addresses his rapping style on " Purple Swag " : " I 'm Texas trill , Texas trill , but in NY we spit it slow " . On " Leaf " , he addresses hip @-@ hoppers ' criticism of his style : " They say I sound like André / mixed with Kanye / a little bit of Max / a little bit of Wiz / a little bit of that / a little bit of this / get off my dick " .
= = Release and promotion = =
An anticipated release among Internet tastemakers , Live . Love . ASAP was released as a free digital download on October 31 , 2011 . Two days after its release , he proclaimed it to be " better than a lot of people 's albums " . The mixtape did not chart after its release .
The mixtape 's lead single " Peso " was officially released on November 16 . It charted for nine weeks and peaked at number 81 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs in February 2012 . The second single " Purple Swag " was released on December 5 . Previously released as a YouTube video , the mixtape version features guest verses by SpaceGhostPurrp and ASAP Nast . A music video for " Wassup " was directed by ASAP Rocky with magazine editor and journalist Andy Capper . His videos depicted a glamorous and dissolute lifestyle led by him and his crew , with images of excess and fashion , including gold fronts , liquor containers , and designer clothing .
In the months leading up to the mixtape 's release , ASAP Rocky performed several low @-@ key venues in New York , including the Alife Rivington Club , a party for Fool 's Gold Records , a Diplomats concert , and Santos Party House . He also played CMJ 's music festival in October . In 2012 , he toured on Drake 's Club Paradise Tour and performed at several music festivals , including South by Southwest , Summer Jam , Pitchfork Music Festival , and Rock the Bells . The touring experience allowed ASAP Rocky to work on his live performance and stage presence . Reportedly , as a part of his record deal in October , there were plans for Live . Love . ASAP to be re @-@ released for retail by Polo Grounds , RCA , and ASAP Worldwide in 2012 . He had said that it would have been a " deluxe version " .
= = Critical reception = =
Live . Love . ASAP received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the mixtape received an average score of 83 , based on 12 reviews . Jim Carroll of The Irish Times dubbed it " a dashing statement of intent . " Allmusic 's Andre Barnes wrote of its appeal to hip hop purists and listeners , " For the saints , Live Love ASAP is nothing short of a guilty pleasure ... But for the aesthetically inclined , Live Love ASAP is a marvel of contemporary rap music , despite its abounding moral decay . " Pitchfork Media 's Jeff Weiss dubbed the mixtape a " triumph of immaculate taste " and wrote that throughout , " Rocky embodies the sweat @-@ free cool of someone who has stolen the test and memorized the answers ahead of time . " Colin McGowan of Cokemachineglow cited his ability to " command a variety of sounds " as the reason it sounds " unified without drifting into monochrome territory " . McGowan viewed that , although his " Wayne @-@ ian pattern " is not as " fluid " nor " dotted with exuberant metaphors " , his sensibilities make up for technical shortcomings :
BBC Music 's Ele Beattie advised listeners , " If you 've come looking for tight flows and witty wordplay , Rocky ain 't your man . But attitude and production will win you over . " Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club felt that " he 's a magnetic rapper , and his delivery is reliably sharp , but he rarely uses it to say anything " , and instead commended him for " curating exceptional beats and knowing when to get out of their way . " He added that , " by enlisting some of the Internet 's most forward @-@ thinking young producers ... [ Rocky ] ' s crafted the year 's most stylish mix @-@ tape , a melting pot of nearly every major underground rap trend of the last 16 months , all pitched to the intoxicating slow crawl of Houston screw music . " Although he noted a " lack of so @-@ called substance " , David Amidon of PopMatters viewed that the mixtape 's release helped materialize " the positive influence of the internet on the next generation of hip @-@ hop " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times cited its two singles as " among the year 's best hip @-@ hop songs . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The mixtape was included in several year @-@ end top album lists by critics and publications . It was named the ninth @-@ best album of 2011 by Stereogum in the publication 's year @-@ end list . It was ranked number 10 on Filter 's top albums list . Gorilla vs. Bear ranked the mixtape number five and stated , " Sometimes good instincts , an effortless flow , off @-@ the @-@ charts charisma , and just sounding a lot cooler than everyone else goes a long way . " In ranking it number nine , Complex commended ASAP Rocky 's " defined sound and unique aesthetic " , calling him " electric and precise on the microphone " and writing that the mixtape 's beats " bang so hard they bring Houston to Harlem . " Los Angeles Times staff writer August Brown ranked the mixtape number two on her top albums list and wrote that it " cemented " his reputation , while citing Clams Casino 's beats as " some of the year ’ s most imaginative , evocative hip @-@ hop productions . " Jonah Weiner of Slate ranked the it number five on his list and , although he cited him as part of " hip @-@ hop ’ s abiding misogynist " in 2011 , saying that he and his contemporaries " trash so many other genre orthodoxies . "
Live . Love . ASAP also earned ASAP Rocky a nomination for BBC 's Sound of 2012 poll . In October 2013 , Complex named the mixtape the tenth best hip hop album of the last five years .
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
Information adapted from WhoSampled .
" Palace " contains a sample of " Adiemus " by Adiemus .
" Peso " contains a sample of " No One 's Gonna Love You " by The S.O.S. Band .
" Bass " contains a sample of " Guy on Subway Flipping Out – the ORIGINAL Bloody Loco " by Nmboito .
" Brand New Guy " contains a sample of " John " by Lil Wayne featuring Rick Ross .
" Purple Swag " contains samples of " Still Tippin ' " by Mike Jones featuring Slim Thug and Paul Wall , and " Stay with Me " by Clint Mansell featuring Kronos Quartet and Mogwai .
" Trilla " contains samples of " Friendship Train " by The Undisputed Truth and " They Want EFX " by Das EFX .
" Keep It G " contains a sample of " Soft Shell " by Motherlode .
" Kissin ' Pink " contains a sample of " All for You " by Kissing the Pink .
" Houston Old Head " contains a sample of " B.M.F. ( Blowin ' Money Fast ) " by Rick Ross featuring Styles P.
" Out of This World " contains a sample of " The Big Beat " by Billy Squier .
" Demons " contains a sample of " Just for Now " by Imogen Heap .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Live . Love . ASAP adapted from Allmusic .
ASAP Ferg - performer
ASAP Nast – performer
ASAP Rocky – performer , producer
ASAP Twelvy – performer
ASAP Ty Beats – producer
Beautiful Lou – producer
Chace Infinite – performer
Clams Casino – producer
Daniel Lynas – engineer , mixing
DJ Burn One – producer
Fat Tony – performer
Frans Mernick – assistant engineer
Lyle – producer
Main Attrakionz – performer
The Olympicks – producer
Schoolboy Q – performer
Soufien3000 – producer
SpaceGhostPurrp – performer , producer
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= Hohokum =
Hohokum is an art video game by developer Honeyslug in collaboration with British artist Richard Hogg and Sony Santa Monica and published by Sony for PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita . The player controls a snakelike creature to explore 17 whimsical worlds with no set objectives . The developers , who began development in 2008 , compared the concept to flying a kite and were inspired by free London museums , Portmeirion , and indigenous cultures . It was released on August 12 , 2014 , and features a soundtrack by Ghostly International artists . The game received " generally favorable reviews " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Critics appreciated the game 's presentation , including its art and music , but felt that the gameplay turned to drudgery towards its end and that the objectives were too vague .
= = Gameplay = =
The player @-@ character is a multicolored serpent creature called the " Long Mover " who glides through whimsical game worlds with loose objectives . There is no correct way to play the game , which was designed to be enjoyed without necessarily pursuing objectives . It is non @-@ linear , and has no score , time limit , or tutorial . The developer described the game as about " relaxing in a space and just enjoying the experience and the music , instead of trying to complete it to make progress " , and an IGN preview said it is " simply about the beauty of exploring " . USgamer 's Jeremy Parish wrote that the game 's challenges were in distinguishing the interactive objects from the environment and then figuring out the function of those interactive objects . For example , a ball resembling a dandelion releases its spores when circled , but the player has to follow the floating spores to realize that other villagers use the spores as a vehicle . The game communicates with visual and audial cues , and uses few of the standard controller buttons : two buttons slow or accelerate the Long Mover , and the triggers make it wiggle for a boost . The Long Mover changes in color based on the direction it faces , and the DualShock 4 's light bar matches the color .
The game does not explicitly have a story , but has a narrative line that connects the disparate worlds . There are 17 worlds , each with unique characters , a single primary goal , and secondary activities . In " Lamp Lighting " , the player activates lights while flying past silhouettes , and each light adds a new layer of music . The player flies through a series of color @-@ changing circles to access the next world . In Sponge Land , an underwater world , the player gathers fish to swim alongside the Long Mover . The player can collect seeds in the Kite Village . Another level lets the player create shapes in the sky by flying past stars . The worlds are presented in flat colors with no outlines , and all worlds are unlocked from the beginning of the game . The credits roll once a hidden multicolored serpent is freed from each level .
= = Development = =
Hohokum is an art game developed by British game developer Honeyslug Games in collaboration with artist Richard Hogg and Sony Santa Monica beginning in 2008 Hogg and Ricky Haggett of Honeyslug knew each other through a music connection . The two discussed making a game and began to collaborate when Hogg sent images to Haggett , who was experimenting with Adobe Flash . They prototyped a top @-@ down game similar to Flow as well as a platformer with a jetpack , and a mini @-@ golf game . Their first formal collaboration was an entry for Kokoromi 's Gamma event in Montreal . The team 's first game ideas for Hohokum were about racing , which grew into the idea of a " stunt kite " . They wanted to make a game with the limitations and satisfaction of flying a kite where the conventional aims of video games were absent : no being commanded , avoiding failure , or being challenged to advance . The gameplay was designed to encourage expressive play and experimentation as " a playground , a place to wander about " . Sony Santa Monica 's lead game designer of external games Seth Killian described that world 's nature as " about a feeling and a mood , a mental space " . The first pieces of the game were abstract , and the development gradually grew figurative , with people and buildings . In pre @-@ production , Richard Hogg and Ricky Haggett went to free London museums , such as the National Maritime Museum , Natural History Museum , Imperial War Museum , which inspired in @-@ game content like ancient Egyptian tombs . The game 's " Fun Fair " level was based on Portmeiron in North Wales , and they were also inspired by the festival costumes of the Selknam people of southern Argentina .
Honeyslug and Hogg entered the game into the Eurogamer Indie Showcase and Independent Games Festival halfway through 2010 and spent two weeks polishing a rough draft . They then put the game on hold for a year starting in 2011 while they developed another game , Frobisher Says . Digital Trends described the other game as containing " the DNA of Hogg 's artistic vision for Hohokum " . Hogg described the team 's working relationship as informal and their decision @-@ making as fully collaborative , particularly in the feel of the game world . For instance , Hogg would give unplanned drawings to Haggett , who would work the art into the game , or Haggett would envision something and ask Haggett to make it " look nice " . Hogg was not as involved in the " nitty @-@ gritty of gameplay and puzzle mechanics " due to his skill set . His interest in mixed metaphors and making the familiar seem unfamiliar is one of the game 's guiding philosophies . The name of the snakelike Long Mover is a reference to a snake in a skit by British comedy troupe The Mighty Boosh . It was chosen to be purposefully more ambiguous than a specific , existing creature , and to have mythical connotations . The game 's title is based on a misspelling of the Hohokam American Southwest archaeological culture .
Honeyslug made a Spotify playlist between 30 and 40 tracks long of ideal " dream " music for the game , including tracks by artists signed to indie record label Ghostly International . Sony Santa Monica used their personal connections with the label to coordinate a partnership . Ghostly 's soundtrack is part licensed tracks and part original compositions . The music is split into layers and manipulated with the gameplay . Honeyslug also formed a partnership with Sony Santa Monica to be the game 's publisher and co @-@ developer .
The game was released for PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita on August 12 , 2014 in North America , and a day later in Europe and Japan . The Vita version uses its touchscreen , and the PlayStation 4 version uses its controller touchpad . Instead of integrating the then @-@ new features of the PlayStation 4 's DualShock 4 controller , the team sought to keep the controls simple to keep focus on the " elegance " of the Long Mover . Hohokum was a PlayStation Plus free title for subscribers during May 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Destructoid 's Jordan Devore called Hohokum the " most relaxing game " of E3 2013 , and one of his favorites of the show . Polygon selected the game as an E3 2013 Editor 's Choice . Jeremy Parish of USgamer thought the game was the most intriguing PlayStation 4 title at the 2013 Tokyo Game Show and praised Sony for highlighting the " decidedly arty " game alongside the console 's blockbuster launch titles . He compared the game to a low @-@ stress puzzle in the same design vein of Flower and Pixeljunk . Kotaku called the game both the " most confusing game " at E3 2013 and " the weirdest " on the PlayStation 4 .
The game received " generally favorable reviews " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Critics appreciated the game 's presentation , including its art and music , but felt that the gameplay turned to drudgery towards its end and that the objectives were too vague . Multiple reviewers also felt the game would make a good screen saver .
Matt Helgeson of Game Informer thought the game " lacked depth " and considered it evidence of how " games that wear their indie aesthetic on their sleeve " could , like AAA games , be " all flash and no substance " . He cited the game 's " oddball , ... colorful and charming " visuals , " tasteful " and " hip " Ghostly International soundtrack , and experimental gameplay as characteristic of the indie aesthetic , and wrote that despite its " whimsy " and " weirdness " , the game did not appear to " have a point " . He wished the game was either more structured or experimental . Polygon 's Philip Kollar similarly felt that the game was " beautiful but shallow " .
Matt Whittaker of Hardcore Gamer described the art style as a cross between Yo Gabba Gabba ! and Sound Shapes and wrote that it was designed for simultaneous " sensory overload and hypnotizing lack of substance " . He said that the game was " too strange and quirky " to be " gorgeous " , but otherwise beautiful . Josiah Renaudin of GameSpot similarly appreciated its creativity . Whittaker also praised the soundtrack as one of the game 's best parts , and thought it to be among the best game soundtracks of the year . He felt that the game did not make the transition " from playground to amusement park " . While he found Hohokum fun and relaxing , he thought it lacked the special element that distinguished Flower , Journey , and Proteus from " ambiguous art @-@ heavy experiences " . Game Informer 's Helgeson said that the game was more conventional than he expected , with " simple and uncreative " puzzle @-@ solving and an elephant boss battle .
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= Constantine the Great =
Constantine the Great ( Latin : Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus ; Greek : Κωνσταντῖνος ὁ Μέγας ; 27 February c . 272 AD – 22 May 337 AD ) , also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine ( in the Orthodox Church as Saint Constantine the Great , Equal @-@ to @-@ the @-@ Apostles ) , was a Roman Emperor from 306 to 337 AD . Constantine was the son of Flavius Valerius Constantius , a Roman army officer , and his consort Helena . His father became Caesar , the deputy emperor in the west in 293 AD . Constantine was sent east , where he rose through the ranks to become a military tribune under the emperors Diocletian and Galerius . In 305 , Constantius was raised to the rank of Augustus , senior western emperor , and Constantine was recalled west to campaign under his father in Britannia ( Britain ) . Acclaimed as emperor by the army at Eboracum ( modern @-@ day York ) after his father 's death in 306 AD , Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against the emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become sole ruler of both west and east by 324 AD .
As emperor , Constantine enacted many administrative , financial , social , and military reforms to strengthen the empire . The government was restructured and civil and military authority separated . A new gold coin , the solidus , was introduced to combat inflation . It would become the standard for Byzantine and European currencies for more than a thousand years . The first Roman emperor to claim conversion to Christianity , Constantine played an influential role in the proclamation of the Edict of Milan in 313 , which decreed tolerance for Christianity in the empire . He called the First Council of Nicaea in 325 , at which the Nicene Creed was professed by Christians . In military matters , the Roman army was reorganised to consist of mobile field units and garrison soldiers capable of countering internal threats and barbarian invasions . Constantine pursued successful campaigns against the tribes on the Roman frontiers — the Franks , the Alamanni , the Goths , and the Sarmatians — even resettling territories abandoned by his predecessors during the turmoil of the previous century .
The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire . He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople after himself ( the laudatory epithet of " New Rome " came later , and was never an official title ) . It would later become the capital of the Empire for over one thousand years ; for which reason the later Eastern Empire would come to be known as the Byzantine Empire . His more immediate political legacy was that , in leaving the empire to his sons , he replaced Diocletian 's tetrarchy with the principle of dynastic succession . His reputation flourished during the lifetime of his children and centuries after his reign . The medieval church upheld him as a paragon of virtue while secular rulers invoked him as a prototype , a point of reference , and the symbol of imperial legitimacy and identity . Beginning with the Renaissance , there were more critical appraisals of his reign due to the rediscovery of anti @-@ Constantinian sources . Critics portrayed him as a tyrant . Trends in modern and recent scholarship attempted to balance the extremes of previous scholarship .
Constantine is a significant figure in the history of Christianity . The Church of the Holy Sepulchre , built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus ' tomb in Jerusalem , became the holiest place in Christendom . The Papal claim to temporal power in the High Middle Ages was based on the supposed Donation of Constantine . He is venerated as a saint by Eastern Orthodox , Byzantine Catholics , and Anglicans .
= = Early life = =
Flavius Valerius Constantinus , as he was originally named , was born in the city of Naissus , ( today Niš , Serbia ) part of the Dardania province of Moesia on 27 February , probably c . 272 AD . His father was Flavius Constantius , an Illyrian , and a native of Dardania province of Moesia ( later Dacia Ripensis ) . Constantine probably spent little time with his father who was an officer in the Roman army , part of the Emperor Aurelian 's imperial bodyguard . Being described as a tolerant and politically skilled man , Constantius advanced through the ranks , earning the governorship of Dalmatia from Emperor Diocletian , another of Aurelian 's companions from Illyricum , in 284 or 285 . Constantine 's mother was Helena , possibly a Bithynian woman of low social standing . It is uncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely his concubine . It is unclear if Constantine could speak Thracian , his main language being Latin , during his public speeches he needed Greek translators .
In July 285 AD , Diocletian declared Maximian , another colleague from Illyricum , his co @-@ emperor . Each emperor would have his own court , his own military and administrative faculties , and each would rule with a separate praetorian prefect as chief lieutenant . Maximian ruled in the West , from his capitals at Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy ) or Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany ) , while Diocletian ruled in the East , from Nicomedia ( İzmit , Turkey ) . The division was merely pragmatic : the Empire was called " indivisible " in official panegyric , and both emperors could move freely throughout the Empire . In 288 , Maximian appointed Constantius to serve as his praetorian prefect in Gaul . Constantius left Helena to marry Maximian 's stepdaughter Theodora in 288 or 289 .
Diocletian divided the Empire again in 293 AD , appointing two Caesars ( junior emperors ) to rule over further subdivisions of East and West . Each would be subordinate to their respective Augustus ( senior emperor ) but would act with supreme authority in his assigned lands . This system would later be called the Tetrarchy . Diocletian 's first appointee for the office of Caesar was Constantius ; his second was Galerius , a native of Felix Romuliana . According to Lactantius , Galerius was a brutal , animalistic man . Although he shared the paganism of Rome 's aristocracy , he seemed to them an alien figure , a semi @-@ barbarian . On 1 March , Constantius was promoted to the office of Caesar , and dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels Carausius and Allectus . In spite of meritocratic overtones , the Tetrarchy retained vestiges of hereditary privilege , and Constantine became the prime candidate for future appointment as Caesar as soon as his father took the position . Constantine went to the court of Diocletian , where he lived as his father 's heir presumptive .
= = = In the East = = =
Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian 's court , where he learned Latin literature , Greek , and philosophy . The cultural environment in Nicomedia was open , fluid and socially mobile , and Constantine could mix with intellectuals both pagan and Christian . He may have attended the lectures of Lactantius , a Christian scholar of Latin in the city . Because Diocletian did not completely trust Constantius — none of the Tetrarchs fully trusted their colleagues — Constantine was held as something of a hostage , a tool to ensure Constantius 's best behavior . Constantine was nonetheless a prominent member of the court : he fought for Diocletian and Galerius in Asia , and served in a variety of tribunates ; he campaigned against barbarians on the Danube in 296 AD , and fought the Persians under Diocletian in Syria ( 297 AD ) and under Galerius in Mesopotamia ( 298 – 299 AD ) . By late 305 AD , he had become a tribune of the first order , a tribunus ordinis primi .
Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303 AD , in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian 's " Great Persecution " , the most severe persecution of Christians in Roman history . In late 302 , Diocletian and Galerius sent a messenger to the oracle of Apollo at Didyma with an inquiry about Christians . Constantine could recall his presence at the palace when the messenger returned , when Diocletian accepted his court 's demands for universal persecution . On 23 February 303 AD , Diocletian ordered the destruction of Nicomedia 's new church , condemned its scriptures to the flames , and had its treasures seized . In the months that followed , churches and scriptures were destroyed , Christians were deprived of official ranks , and priests were imprisoned .
It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution . In his later writings he would attempt to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian 's " sanguinary edicts " against the " worshippers of God " , but nothing indicates that he opposed it effectively at the time . Although no contemporary Christian challenged Constantine for his inaction during the persecutions , it remained a political liability throughout his life .
On 1 May 305 AD , Diocletian , as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304 – 305 AD , announced his resignation . In a parallel ceremony in Milan , Maximian did the same . Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning , and forced him to accept Galerius ' allies in the imperial succession . According to Lactantius , the crowd listening to Diocletian 's resignation speech believed , until the very last moment , that Diocletian would choose Constantine and Maxentius ( Maximian 's son ) as his successors . It was not to be : Constantius and Galerius were promoted to Augusti , while Severus and Maximinus Daia , Galerius ' nephew , were appointed their Caesars respectively . Constantine and Maxentius were ignored .
Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine 's life in the months following Diocletian 's abdication . They assert that Galerius assigned Constantine to lead an advance unit in a cavalry charge through a swamp on the middle Danube , made him enter into single combat with a lion , and attempted to kill him in hunts and wars . Constantine always emerged victorious : the lion emerged from the contest in a poorer condition than Constantine ; Constantine returned to Nicomedia from the Danube with a Sarmatian captive to drop at Galerius ' feet . It is uncertain how much these tales can be trusted .
= = = In the West = = =
Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius 's court , where he was held as a virtual hostage . His career depended on being rescued by his father in the west . Constantius was quick to intervene . In the late spring or early summer of 305 AD , Constantius requested leave for his son to help him campaign in Britain . After a long evening of drinking , Galerius granted the request . Constantine 's later propaganda describes how he fled the court in the night , before Galerius could change his mind . He rode from post @-@ house to post @-@ house at high speed , hamstringing every horse in his wake . By the time Galerius awoke the following morning , Constantine had fled too far to be caught . Constantine joined his father in Gaul , at Bononia ( Boulogne ) before the summer of 305 AD .
From Bononia they crossed the Channel to Britain and made their way to Eboracum ( York ) , capital of the province of Britannia Secunda and home to a large military base . Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father 's side , campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian 's Wall in the summer and autumn . Constantius 's campaign , like that of Septimius Severus before it , probably advanced far into the north without achieving great success . Constantius had become severely sick over the course of his reign , and died on 25 July 306 in Eboracum ( York ) . Before dying , he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank of full Augustus . The Alamannic king Chrocus , a barbarian taken into service under Constantius , then proclaimed Constantine as Augustus . The troops loyal to Constantius ' memory followed him in acclamation . Gaul and Britain quickly accepted his rule ; Iberia , which had been in his father 's domain for less than a year , rejected it .
Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius 's death and his own acclamation . Along with the notice , he included a portrait of himself in the robes of an Augustus . The portrait was wreathed in bay . He requested recognition as heir to his father 's throne , and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on his army , claiming they had " forced it upon him " . Galerius was put into a fury by the message ; he almost set the portrait on fire . His advisers calmed him , and argued that outright denial of Constantine 's claims would mean certain war . Galerius was compelled to compromise : he granted Constantine the title " Caesar " rather than " Augustus " ( the latter office went to Severus instead ) . Wishing to make it clear that he alone gave Constantine legitimacy , Galerius personally sent Constantine the emperor 's traditional purple robes . Constantine accepted the decision , knowing that it would remove doubts as to his legitimacy .
= = Early rule = =
Constantine 's share of the Empire consisted of Britain , Gaul , and Spain . He therefore commanded one of the largest Roman armies , stationed along the important Rhine frontier . After his promotion to emperor , Constantine remained in Britain , driving back the tribes of the Picts and secured his control in the northwestern dioceses . He completed the reconstruction of military bases begun under his father 's rule , and ordered the repair of the region 's roadways . He soon left for Augusta Treverorum ( Trier ) in Gaul , the Tetrarchic capital of the northwestern Roman Empire . The Franks , after learning of Constantine 's acclamation , invaded Gaul across the lower Rhine over the winter of 306 – 307 AD . Constantine drove them back beyond the Rhine and captured two of their kings , Ascaric and Merogaisus . The kings and their soldiers were fed to the beasts of Trier 's amphitheater in the adventus ( arrival ) celebrations that followed .
Constantine began a major expansion of Trier . He strengthened the circuit wall around the city with military towers and fortified gates , and began building a palace complex in the northeastern part of the city . To the south of his palace , he ordered the construction of a large formal audience hall , and a massive imperial bathhouse . Constantine sponsored many building projects across Gaul during his tenure as emperor of the West , especially in Augustodunum ( Autun ) and Arelate ( Arles ) . According to Lactantius , Constantine followed his father in following a tolerant policy towards Christianity . Although not yet a Christian , he probably judged it a more sensible policy than open persecution , and a way to distinguish himself from the " great persecutor " , Galerius . Constantine decreed a formal end to persecution , and returned to Christians all they had lost during the persecutions .
Because Constantine was still largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacy about him , he relied on his father 's reputation in his early propaganda : the earliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his father 's deeds as to those of Constantine himself . Constantine 's military skill and building projects soon gave the panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on the similarities between father and son , and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a " renewal , as it were , in his own person , of his father 's life and reign " . Constantinian coinage , sculpture and oratory also shows a new tendency for disdain towards the " barbarians " beyond the frontiers . After Constantine 's victory over the Alemanni , he minted a coin issue depicting weeping and begging Alemannic tribesmen — " The Alemanni conquered " — beneath the phrase " Romans ' rejoicing " . There was little sympathy for these enemies . As his panegyrist declared : " It is a stupid clemency that spares the conquered foe . "
= = = Maxentius ' rebellion = = =
Following Galerius ' recognition of Constantine as caesar , Constantine 's portrait was brought to Rome , as was customary . Maxentius mocked the portrait 's subject as the son of a harlot , and lamented his own powerlessness . Maxentius , envious of Constantine 's authority , seized the title of emperor on 28 October 306 AD . Galerius refused to recognize him , but failed to unseat him . Galerius sent Severus against Maxentius , but during the campaign , Severus ' armies , previously under command of Maxentius ' father Maximian , defected , and Severus was seized and imprisoned . Maximian , brought out of retirement by his son 's rebellion , left for Gaul to confer with Constantine in late 307 AD . He offered to marry his daughter Fausta to Constantine , and elevate him to Augustan rank . In return , Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius , and offer support to Maxentius ' cause in Italy . Constantine accepted , and married Fausta in Trier in late summer 307 AD . Constantine now gave Maxentius his meagre support , offering Maxentius political recognition .
Constantine remained aloof from the Italian conflict , however . Over the spring and summer of 307 AD , he had left Gaul for Britain to avoid any involvement in the Italian turmoil ; now , instead of giving Maxentius military aid , he sent his troops against Germanic tribes along the Rhine . In 308 AD , he raided the territory of the Bructeri , and made a bridge across the Rhine at Colonia Agrippinensium ( Cologne ) . In 310 AD , he marched to the northern Rhine and fought the Franks . When not campaigning , he toured his lands advertising his benevolence , and supporting the economy and the arts . His refusal to participate in the war increased his popularity among his people , and strengthened his power base in the West . Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307 – 308 AD , but soon fell out with his son . In early 308 AD , after a failed attempt to usurp Maxentius ' title , Maximian returned to Constantine 's court .
On 11 November 308 AD , Galerius called a general council at the military city of Carnuntum ( Petronell @-@ Carnuntum , Austria ) to resolve the instability in the western provinces . In attendance were Diocletian , briefly returned from retirement , Galerius , and Maximian . Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar . Licinius , one of Galerius ' old military companions , was appointed Augustus in the western regions . The new system did not last long : Constantine refused to accept the demotion , and continued to style himself as Augustus on his coinage , even as other members of the Tetrarchy referred to him as a Caesar on theirs . Maximinus Daia was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion while the newcomer Licinius had been raised to the office of Augustus , and demanded that Galerius promote him . Galerius offered to call both Maximinus and Constantine " sons of the Augusti " , but neither accepted the new title . By the spring of 310 AD , Galerius was referring to both men as Augusti .
= = = Maximian 's rebellion = = =
In 310 AD , a dispossessed Maximian rebelled against Constantine while Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks . Maximian had been sent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine 's army , in preparation for any attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul . He announced that Constantine was dead , and took up the imperial purple . In spite of a large donative pledge to any who would support him as emperor , most of Constantine 's army remained loyal to their emperor , and Maximian was soon compelled to leave . Constantine soon heard of the rebellion , abandoned his campaign against the Franks , and marched his army up the Rhine . At Cabillunum ( Chalon @-@ sur @-@ Saône ) , he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of the Saône to the quicker waters of the Rhone . He disembarked at Lugdunum ( Lyon ) . Maximian fled to Massilia ( Marseille ) , a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles . It made little difference , however , as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine . Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes . Constantine granted some clemency , but strongly encouraged his suicide . In July 310 AD , Maximian hanged himself .
In spite of the earlier rupture in their relations , Maxentius was eager to present himself as his father 's devoted son after his death . He began minting coins with his father 's deified image , proclaiming his desire to avenge Maximian 's death . Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy . By 311 AD , however , he was spreading another version . According to this , after Constantine had pardoned him , Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep . Fausta learned of the plot and warned Constantine , who put a eunuch in his own place in bed . Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide , which he accepted . Along with using propaganda , Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian , destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image .
The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine 's public image . He could no longer rely on his connection to the elder emperor Maximian , and needed a new source of legitimacy . In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310 AD , the anonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection to Claudius II , a 3rd Century emperor famed for defeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire . Breaking away from tetrarchic models , the speech emphasizes Constantine 's ancestral prerogative to rule , rather than principles of imperial equality . The new ideology expressed in the speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine 's right to rule . Indeed , the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors : " No chance agreement of men , nor some unexpected consequence of favor , made you emperor , " the orator declares to Constantine .
The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy , with its focus on twin dynasties of Jupiter and Hercules . Instead , the orator proclaims that Constantine experienced a divine vision of Apollo and Victory granting him laurel wreaths of health and a long reign . In the likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure to whom would be granted " rule of the whole world " , as the poet Virgil had once foretold . The oration 's religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift in Constantine 's coinage . In his early reign , the coinage of Constantine advertised Mars as his patron . From 310 AD on , Mars was replaced by Sol Invictus , a god conventionally identified with Apollo . There is little reason to believe that either the dynastic connection or the divine vision are anything other than fiction , but their proclamation strengthened Constantine 's claims to legitimacy and increased his popularity among the citizens of Gaul .
= = Civil wars = =
= = = War against Maxentius = = =
By the middle of 310 AD , Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics . His final act survives : a letter to the provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311 AD , proclaiming an end to the persecutions , and the resumption of religious toleration . He died soon after the edict 's proclamation , destroying what little remained of the tetrarchy . Maximinus mobilized against Licinius , and seized Asia Minor . A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the Bosphorus . While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul , Maxentius prepared for war . He fortified northern Italy , and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect a new Bishop of Rome , Eusebius .
Maxentius ' rule was nevertheless insecure . His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade ; riots broke out in Rome and Carthage ; and Domitius Alexander was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa . By 312 AD , he was a man barely tolerated , not one actively supported , even among Christian Italians . In the summer of 311 AD , Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East . He declared war on Constantine , vowing to avenge his father 's " murder " . To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius , Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311 – 312 AD , and offered him his sister Constantia in marriage . Maximin considered Constantine 's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority . In response , he sent ambassadors to Rome , offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support . Maxentius accepted . According to Eusebius , inter @-@ regional travel became impossible , and there was military buildup everywhere . There was " not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day " .
Constantine 's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius ; even his soothsayers recommended against it , stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavorable omens . Constantine , with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers , inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance , ignored all these cautions . Early in the spring of 312 AD , Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps with a quarter of his army , a force numbering about 40 @,@ 000 . The first town his army encountered was Segusium ( Susa , Italy ) , a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him . Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls . He took the town quickly . Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town , and advanced with them into northern Italy .
At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ( Turin , Italy ) , Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry . In the ensuing battle Constantine 's army encircled Maxentius ' cavalry , flanked them with his own cavalry , and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers ' iron @-@ tipped clubs . Constantine 's armies emerged victorious . Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius ' retreating forces , opening its gates to Constantine instead . Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory . He moved on to Milan , where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing . Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid @-@ summer 312 AD , when he moved on to Brixia ( Brescia ) .
Brescia 's army was easily dispersed , and Constantine quickly advanced to Verona , where a large Maxentian force was camped . Ruricius Pompeianus , general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius ' praetorian prefect , was in a strong defensive position , since the town was surrounded on three sides by the Adige . Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed . Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine 's expeditionary force , but was defeated . Constantine 's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege . Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine . Constantine refused to let up on the siege , and sent only a small force to oppose him . In the desperately fought encounter that followed , Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed . Verona surrendered soon afterwards , followed by Aquileia , Mutina ( Modena ) , and Ravenna . The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine .
Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius : he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege . He still controlled Rome 's praetorian guards , was well @-@ stocked with African grain , and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable Aurelian Walls . He ordered all bridges across the Tiber cut , reportedly on the counsel of the gods , and left the rest of central Italy undefended ; Constantine secured that region 's support without challenge . Constantine progressed slowly along the Via Flaminia , allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil . Maxentius ' support continued to weaken : at chariot races on 27 October , the crowd openly taunted Maxentius , shouting that Constantine was invincible . Maxentius , no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious , built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine . On 28 October 312 AD , the sixth anniversary of his reign , he approached the keepers of the Sibylline Books for guidance . The keepers prophesied that , on that very day , " the enemy of the Romans " would die . Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle .
= = = = Constantine and his army adopt the Greek letters for Christ 's initials : Chi Rho = = = =
Maxentius organized his forces — still twice the size of Constantine 's — in long lines facing the battle plain , with their backs to the river . Constantine 's army arrived at the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on either its standards or its soldiers ' shields . According to Lactantius , Constantine was visited by a dream the night before the battle , wherein he was advised " to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shields of his soldiers ... by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent round , he marked Christ on their shields . " Eusebius describes another version , where , while marching at midday , " he saw with his own eyes in the heavens a trophy of the cross arising from the light of the sun , carrying the message , In Hoc Signo Vinces or " with this sign , you will conquer " ; in Eusebius 's account , Constantine had a dream the following night , in which Christ appeared with the same heavenly sign , and told him to make a standard , the labarum , for his army in that form . Eusebius is vague about when and where these events took place , but it enters his narrative before the war against Maxentius begins . Eusebius describes the sign as Chi ( Χ ) traversed by Rho ( Ρ ) : ☧ , a symbol representing the first two letters of the Greek spelling of the word Christos or Christ . In 315 AD a medallion was issued at Ticinum showing Constantine wearing a helmet emblazoned with the Chi Rho , and coins issued at Siscia in 317 / 318 AD repeat the image . The figure was otherwise rare , however , and is uncommon in imperial iconography and propaganda before the 320s .
Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius ' line . He ordered his cavalry to charge , and they broke Maxentius ' cavalry . He then sent his infantry against Maxentius ' infantry , pushing many into the Tiber where they were slaughtered and drowned . The battle was brief : Maxentius ' troops were broken before the first charge . Maxentius ' horse guards and praetorians initially held their position , but broke under the force of a Constantinian cavalry charge ; they also broke ranks and fled to the river . Maxentius rode with them , and attempted to cross the bridge of boats , but he was pushed by the mass of his fleeing soldiers into the Tiber , and drowned .
= = = In Rome = = =
Constantine entered Rome on 29 October 312 . He staged a grand adventus in the city , and was met with popular jubilation . Maxentius ' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated . His head was paraded through the streets for all to see . After the ceremonies , Maxentius ' disembodied head was sent to Carthage ; at this , Carthage would offer no further resistance . Unlike his predecessors , Constantine neglected to make the trip to the Capitoline Hill and perform customary sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter . He did , however , choose to honor the Senatorial Curia with a visit , where he promised to restore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformed government : there would be no revenge against Maxentius ' supporters . In response , the Senate decreed him " title of the first name " , which meant his name would be listed first in all official documents , and acclaimed him as " the greatest Augustus " . He issued decrees returning property lost under Maxentius , recalling political exiles , and releasing Maxentius ' imprisoned opponents .
An extensive propaganda campaign followed , during which Maxentius ' image was systematically purged from all public places . Maxentius was written up as a " tyrant " , and set against an idealized image of the " liberator " , Constantine . Eusebius , in his later works , is the best representative of this strand of Constantinian propaganda . Maxentius ' rescripts were declared invalid , and the honors Maxentius had granted to leaders of the Senate were invalidated . Constantine also attempted to remove Maxentius ' influence on Rome 's urban landscape . All structures built by Maxentius were re @-@ dedicated to Constantine , including the Temple of Romulus and the Basilica of Maxentius . At the focal point of the basilica , a stone statue of Constantine holding the Christian labarum in its hand was erected . Its inscription bore the message the statue had already made clear : By this sign Constantine had freed Rome from the yoke of the tyrant .
Where he did not overwrite Maxentius ' achievements , Constantine upstaged them : the Circus Maximus was redeveloped so that its total seating capacity was twenty @-@ five times larger than that of Maxentius ' racing complex on the Via Appia . Maxentius ' strongest supporters in the military were neutralized when the Praetorian Guard and Imperial Horse Guard ( equites singulares ) were disbanded . Their tombstones were ground up and put to use in a basilica on the Via Labicana . On November 9 , 312 AD , barely two weeks after Constantine captured the city , the former base of the Imperial Horse Guard was chosen for redevelopment into the Lateran Basilica . The Legio II Parthica was removed from Alba ( Albano Laziale ) , and the remainder of Maxentius ' armies were sent to do frontier duty on the Rhine .
= = = Wars against Licinius = = =
In the following years , Constantine gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy . In 313 , he met Licinius in Milan to secure their alliance by the marriage of Licinius and Constantine 's half @-@ sister Constantia . During this meeting , the emperors agreed on the so @-@ called Edict of Milan , officially granting full tolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire . The document had special benefits for Christians , legalizing their religion and granting them restoration for all property seized during Diocletian 's persecution . It repudiates past methods of religious coercion and used only general terms to refer to the divine sphere — " Divinity " and " Supreme Divinity " , summa divinitas . The conference was cut short , however , when news reached Licinius that his rival Maximin had crossed the Bosporus and invaded European territory . Licinius departed and eventually defeated Maximin , gaining control over the entire eastern half of the Roman Empire . Relations between the two remaining emperors deteriorated , as Constantine suffered an assassination attempt at the hands of a character that Licinius wanted elevated to the rank of Caesar ; Licinius , for his part had Constantine 's statues in Emona destroyed . In either 314 or 316 the two Augusti fought against one another at the Battle of Cibalae , with Constantine being victorious . They clashed again at the Battle of Mardia in 317 , and agreed to a settlement in which Constantine 's sons Crispus and Constantine II , and Licinius ' son Licinianus were made caesars . After this arrangement , Constantine ruled the dioceses of Pannonia and Macedonia and took residence at Sirmium , whence he could wage war on the Goths and Sarmatians in 322 , and on the Goths in 323 .
In the year 320 , Licinius allegedly reneged on the religious freedom promised by the Edict of Milan in 313 and began to oppress Christians anew , generally without bloodshed , but resorting to confiscations and sacking of Christian office @-@ holders . Although this characterization of Licinius as anti @-@ Christian is somewhat doubtful , the fact is that he seems to have been far less open in his support of Christianity than Constantine . Therefore , Licinius was prone to see the Church as a force more loyal to Constantine than to the Imperial system in general – the explanation offered by the Church historian Sozomen .
This dubious arrangement eventually became a challenge to Constantine in the West , climaxing in the great civil war of 324 . Licinius , aided by Goth mercenaries , represented the past and the ancient Pagan faiths . Constantine and his Franks marched under the standard of the labarum , and both sides saw the battle in religious terms . Outnumbered , but fired by their zeal , Constantine 's army emerged victorious in the Battle of Adrianople . Licinius fled across the Bosphorus and appointed Martius Martinianus , the commander of his bodyguard , as Caesar , but Constantine next won the Battle of the Hellespont , and finally the Battle of Chrysopolis on 18 September 324 . Licinius and Martinianus surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on the promise their lives would be spared : they were sent to live as private citizens in Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively , but in 325 Constantine accused Licinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged ; Licinius 's son ( the son of Constantine 's half @-@ sister ) was also killed . Thus Constantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire .
= = Later rule = =
= = = Foundation of Constantinople = = =
Licinius ' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival center of Pagan and Greek @-@ speaking political activity in the East , as opposed to the Christian and Latin @-@ speaking Rome , and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital should represent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole , as a center of learning , prosperity , and cultural preservation for the whole of the Eastern Roman Empire . Among the various locations proposed for this alternative capital , Constantine appears to have toyed earlier with Serdica ( present @-@ day Sofia ) , as he was reported saying that " Serdica is my Rome " . Sirmium and Thessalonica were also considered . Eventually , however , Constantine decided to work on the Greek city of Byzantium , which offered the advantage of having already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism , during the preceding century , by Septimius Severus and Caracalla , who had already acknowledged its strategic importance . The city was thus founded in 324 , dedicated on 11 May 330 and renamed Constantinopolis ( " Constantine 's City " or Constantinople in English ) . Special commemorative coins were issued in 330 to honor the event . The new city was protected by the relics of the True Cross , the Rod of Moses and other holy relics , though a cameo now at the Hermitage Museum also represented Constantine crowned by the tyche of the new city . The figures of old gods were either replaced or assimilated into a framework of Christian symbolism . Constantine built the new Church of the Holy Apostles on the site of a temple to Aphrodite . Generations later there was the story that a divine vision led Constantine to this spot , and an angel no one else could see , led him on a circuit of the new walls . The capital would often be compared to the ' old ' Rome as Nova Roma Constantinopolitana , the " New Rome of Constantinople " .
= = = Religious policy = = =
Constantine was the first emperor to stop Christian persecutions and to legalise Christianity along with all other religions and cults in the Roman Empire .
In February 313 , Constantine met with Licinius in Milan , where they developed the Edict of Milan . The edict stated that Christians should be allowed to follow the faith without oppression . This removed penalties for professing Christianity , under which many had been martyred previously , and returned confiscated Church property . The edict protected from religious persecution not only Christians but all religions , allowing anyone to worship whichever deity they chose . A similar edict had been issued in 311 by Galerius , then senior emperor of the Tetrarchy ; Galerius ' edict granted Christians the right to practise their religion but did not restore any property to them . The Edict of Milan included several clauses which stated that all confiscated churches would be returned as well as other provisions for previously persecuted Christians .
Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother St. Helena 's Christianity in his youth , or whether he adopted it gradually over the course of his life . Constantine would retain the title of pontifex maximus until his death , a title emperors bore as heads of the pagan priesthood , as would his Christian successors on to Gratian ( r . 375 – 383 ) . According to Christian writers , Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian , writing to Christians to make clear that he believed he owed his successes to the protection of the Christian High God alone . Throughout his rule , Constantine supported the Church financially , built basilicas , granted privileges to clergy ( e.g. exemption from certain taxes ) , promoted Christians to high office , and returned property confiscated during the Diocletianic persecution . His most famous building projects include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre , and Old Saint Peter 's Basilica .
However , Constantine certainly did not patronize Christianity alone . After gaining victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge ( 312 ) , a triumphal arch — the Arch of Constantine — was built ( 315 ) to celebrate his triumph . The arch is decorated with images of the goddess Victoria . At the time of its dedication , sacrifices to gods like Apollo , Diana , and Hercules were made . Absent from the Arch are any depictions of Christian symbolism . However , as the Arch was commissioned by the Senate , the absence of Christian symbols may reflect the role of the Curia at the time as a pagan redoubt .
Later in 321 , Constantine instructed that Christians and non @-@ Christians should be united in observing the venerable day of the sun , or Sunday referring to the sun @-@ worship that Aurelian had established as an official cult . Furthermore , and long after his oft alleged conversion to Christianity , Constantine 's coinage continued to carry the symbols of the sun . Even after the pagan gods had disappeared from the coinage , Christian symbols appeared only as Constantine 's personal attributes : the chi rho between his hands or on his labarum , but never on the coin itself . Even when Constantine dedicated the new capital of Constantinople , which became the seat of Byzantine Christianity for a millennium , he did so wearing the Apollonian sun @-@ rayed Diadem ; no Christian symbols were present at this dedication .
The reign of Constantine established a precedent for the position of the emperor as having great influence and ultimate regulatory authority within the religious discussions involving the early Christian councils of that time , e.g. , most notably the dispute over Arianism , and the nature of God . Constantine himself disliked the risks to societal stability that religious disputes and controversies brought with them , preferring where possible to establish an orthodoxy . One way in which Constantine used his influence over the early Church councils was to seek to establish a consensus over the oft debated and argued issue over the nature of God .
Most notably , from 313 to 316 bishops in North Africa struggled with other Christian bishops who had been ordained by Donatus in opposition to Caecilian . The African bishops could not come to terms and the Donatists asked Constantine to act as a judge in the dispute . Three regional Church councils and another trial before Constantine all ruled against Donatus and the Donatism movement in North Africa . In 317 Constantine issued an edict to confiscate Donatist church property and to send Donatist clergy into exile . More significantly , in 325 he summoned the Council of Nicaea , effectively the first Ecumenical Council ( unless the Council of Jerusalem is so classified ) . The Council of Nicaea is most known for its dealing with Arianism and for instituting the Nicene Creed .
Constantine enforced the prohibition of the First Council of Nicaea against celebrating the Lord 's Supper on the day before the Jewish Passover ( 14 Nisan ) ( see Quartodecimanism and Easter controversy ) . This marked a definite break of Christianity from the Judaic tradition . From then on the Roman Julian Calendar , a solar calendar , was given precedence over the lunisolar Hebrew Calendar among the Christian churches of the Roman Empire .
Constantine made some new laws regarding the Jews , but while some of his edicts were unfavorable towards Jews , they were not harsher than those of his predecessors . It was made illegal for Jews to seek converts or to attack other Jews who had converted to Christianity . They were forbidden to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves . On the other hand , Jewish clergy were given the same exemptions as Christian clergy .
= = = Administrative reforms = = =
Beginning in the mid @-@ 3rd century the emperors began to favor members of the equestrian order over senators , who had had a monopoly on the most important offices of state . Senators were stripped of the command of legions and most provincial governorships ( as it was felt that they lacked the specialized military upbringing needed in an age of acute defense needs ) , such posts being given to equestrians by Diocletian and his colleagues — following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors . The emperors , however , still needed the talents and the help of the very rich , who were relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web of powerful influence and contacts at all levels . Exclusion of the old senatorial aristocracy threatened this arrangement .
In 326 , Constantine reversed this pro @-@ equestrian trend , raising many administrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices to the old aristocracy , and at the same time elevating the rank of already existing equestrians office @-@ holders to senator , degrading the equestrian order — at least as a bureaucratic rank — in the process , so that by the end of the 4th century the title of perfectissimus was granted only to mid @-@ low officials .
By the new Constantinian arrangement , one could become a senator , either by being elected praetor or ( in most cases ) by fulfilling a function of senatorial rank : from then on , holding of actual power and social status were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy . At the same time , Constantine gained with this the support of the old nobility , as the Senate was allowed itself to elect praetors and quaestors , in place of the usual practice of the emperors directly creating new magistrates ( adlectio ) . In one inscription in honor of city prefect ( 336 – 337 ) Ceionius Rufus Albinus , it was written that Constantine had restored the Senate " the auctoritas it had lost at Caesar 's time " .
The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power ; nevertheless , the senators , who had been marginalized as potential holders of imperial functions during the 3rd century , could now dispute such positions alongside more upstart bureaucrats . Some modern historians see in those administrative reforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into the imperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagan senators from a Christianized imperial rule ; however , such an interpretation remains conjectural , given the fact that we do not have the precise numbers about pre @-@ Constantine conversions to Christianity in the old senatorial milieu — some historians suggesting that early conversions among the old aristocracy were more numerous than previously supposed .
Constantine 's reforms had to do only with the civilian administration : the military chiefs , who since the Crisis of the Third Century had risen from the ranks , remained outside the senate , in which they were included only by Constantine 's children .
= = = Monetary reforms = = =
After the runaway inflation of the third century , associated with the production of fiat money to pay for public expenses , Diocletian had tried unsuccessfully to re establish trustworthy minting of silver and billon coins . The failure of the various Diocletianic attempts at the restoration of a functioning silver coin resided in the fact that the silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metal content , and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates . Minting of the Diocletianic " pure " silver argenteus ceased , therefore , soon after 305 , while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s . From the early 300s on , Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silver currency , preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of good standard gold pieces — the solidus , 72 of which made a pound of gold . New ( and highly debased ) silver pieces would continue to be issued during Constantine 's later reign and after his death , in a continuous process of retariffing , until this bullion minting eventually ceased , de jure , in 367 , with the silver piece being de facto continued by various denominations of bronze coins , the most important being the centenionalis . These bronze pieces continued to be devalued , assuring the possibility of keeping fiduciary minting alongside a gold standard . The anonymous author of the possibly contemporary treatise on military affairs De Rebus Bellicis held that , as a consequence of this monetary policy , the rift between classes widened : the rich benefited from the stability in purchasing power of the gold piece , while the poor had to cope with ever @-@ degrading bronze pieces . Later emperors like Julian the Apostate tried to present themselves as advocates of the humiles by insisting on trustworthy mintings of the bronze currency .
Constantine 's monetary policy were closely associated with his religious ones , in that increased minting was associated with measures of confiscation — taken since 331 and closed in 336 — of all gold , silver and bronze statues from pagan temples , who were declared as imperial property and , as such , as monetary assets . Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task of getting hold of the statues and having them melded for immediate minting — with the exception of a number of bronze statues who were used as public monuments for the beautification of the new capital in Constantinople .
= = = Executions of Crispus and Fausta = = =
On some date between 15 May and 17 June 326 , Constantine had his eldest son Crispus , by Minervina , seized and put to death by " cold poison " at Pola ( Pula , Croatia ) . In July , Constantine had his wife , the Empress Fausta , killed at the behest of his mother , Helena . Fausta was left to die in an over @-@ heated bath . Their names were wiped from the face of many inscriptions , references to their lives in the literary record were erased , and the memory of both was condemned . Eusebius , for example , edited praise of Crispus out of later copies of his Historia Ecclesiastica , and his Vita Constantini contains no mention of Fausta or Crispus at all . Few ancient sources are willing to discuss possible motives for the events ; those few that do , offer unconvincing rationales , are of later provenance , and are generally unreliable . At the time of the executions , it was commonly believed that the Empress Fausta was either in an illicit relationship with Crispus , or was spreading rumors to that effect . A popular myth arose , modified to allude to Hippolytus – Phaedra legend , with the suggestion that Constantine killed Crispus and Fausta for their immoralities . One source , the largely fictional Passion of Artemius , probably penned in the eighth century by John of Damascus , makes the legendary connection explicit . As an interpretation of the executions , the myth rests on only " the slimmest of evidence " : sources that allude to the relationship between Crispus and Fausta are late and unreliable , and the modern suggestion that Constantine 's " godly " edicts of 326 and the irregularities of Crispus are somehow connected rests on no evidence at all .
Although Constantine created his apparent heirs " Caesars " , following a pattern established by Diocletian , he gave his creations a hereditary character , alien to the tetrarchic system : Constantine 's Caesars were to be kept in the hope of ascending to Empire , and entirely subordinated to their Augustus , as long as he was alive . Therefore , an alternative explanation for the execution of Crispus was , perhaps , Constantine 's desire to keep a firm grip on his prospective heirs , this — and Fausta 's desire for having her sons inheriting instead of their half @-@ brother — being reason enough for killing Crispus ; the subsequent execution of Fausta , however , was probably meant as a reminder to her children that Constantine would not hesitate in " killing his own relatives when he felt this was necessary " .
= = = Later campaigns = = =
Constantine considered Constantinople as his capital and permanent residence . He lived there for a good portion of his later life . He rebuilt Trajan 's bridge across the Danube , in hopes of reconquering Dacia , a province that had been abandoned under Aurelian . In the late winter of 332 , Constantine campaigned with the Sarmatians against the Goths . The weather and lack of food cost the Goths dearly : reportedly , nearly one hundred thousand died before they submitted to Rome . In 334 , after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders , Constantine led a campaign against the tribe . He won a victory in the war and extended his control over the region , as remains of camps and fortifications in the region indicate . Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers in Illyrian and Roman districts , and conscripted the rest into the army . Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336 .
In the last years of his life Constantine made plans for a campaign against Persia . In a letter written to the king of Persia , Shapur , Constantine had asserted his patronage over Persia 's Christian subjects and urged Shapur to treat them well . The letter is undatable . In response to border raids , Constantine sent Constantius to guard the eastern frontier in 335 . In 336 , prince Narseh invaded Armenia ( a Christian kingdom since 301 ) and installed a Persian client on the throne . Constantine then resolved to campaign against Persia himself . He treated the war as a Christian crusade , calling for bishops to accompany the army and commissioning a tent in the shape of a church to follow him everywhere . Constantine planned to be baptized in the Jordan River before crossing into Persia . Persian diplomats came to Constantinople over the winter of 336 – 337 , seeking peace , but Constantine turned them away . The campaign was called off , however , when Constantine became sick in the spring of 337 .
= = = Sickness and death = = =
Constantine had known death would soon come . Within the Church of the Holy Apostles , Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting @-@ place for himself . It came sooner than he had expected . Soon after the Feast of Easter 337 , Constantine fell seriously ill . He left Constantinople for the hot baths near his mother 's city of Helenopolis ( Altinova ) , on the southern shores of the Gulf of Nicomedia ( present @-@ day Gulf of İzmit ) . There , in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle , he prayed , and there he realized that he was dying . Seeking purification , he became a catechumen , and attempted a return to Constantinople , making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia . He summoned the bishops , and told them of his hope to be baptized in the River Jordan , where Christ was written to have been baptized . He requested the baptism right away , promising to live a more Christian life should he live through his illness . The bishops , Eusebius records , " performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom " . He chose the Arianizing bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia , bishop of the city where he lay dying , as his baptizer . In postponing his baptism , he followed one custom at the time which postponed baptism until after infancy . It has been thought that Constantine put off baptism as long as he did so as to be absolved from as much of his sin as possible . Constantine died soon after at a suburban villa called Achyron , on the last day of the fifty @-@ day festival of Pentecost directly following Pascha ( or Easter ) , on 22 May 337 .
Although Constantine 's death follows the conclusion of the Persian campaign in Eusebius 's account , most other sources report his death as occurring in its middle . Emperor Julian ( a nephew of Constantine ) , writing in the mid @-@ 350s , observes that the Sassanians escaped punishment for their ill @-@ deeds , because Constantine died " in the middle of his preparations for war " . Similar accounts are given in the Origo Constantini , an anonymous document composed while Constantine was still living , and which has Constantine dying in Nicomedia ; the Historiae abbreviatae of Sextus Aurelius Victor , written in 361 , which has Constantine dying at an estate near Nicomedia called Achyrona while marching against the Persians ; and the Breviarium of Eutropius , a handbook compiled in 369 for the Emperor Valens , which has Constantine dying in a nameless state villa in Nicomedia . From these and other accounts , some have concluded that Eusebius 's Vita was edited to defend Constantine 's reputation against what Eusebius saw as a less congenial version of the campaign .
Following his death , his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles there . He was succeeded by his three sons born of Fausta , Constantine II , Constantius II and Constans . A number of relatives were killed by followers of Constantius , notably Constantine 's nephews Dalmatius ( who held the rank of Caesar ) and Hannibalianus , presumably to eliminate possible contenders to an already complicated succession . He also had two daughters , Constantina and Helena , wife of Emperor Julian .
= = Legacy = =
Although he earned his honorific of " The Great " ( " Μέγας " ) from Christian historians long after he had died , he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone . Besides reuniting the Empire under one emperor , Constantine won major victories over the Franks and Alamanni in 306 – 308 , the Franks again in 313 – 314 , the Goths in 332 and the Sarmatians in 334 . By 336 , Constantine had reoccupied most of the long @-@ lost province of Dacia , which Aurelian had been forced to abandon in 271 . At the time of his death , he was planning a great expedition to end raids on the eastern provinces from the Persian Empire . Serving for a total of almost 31 years ( combining his years as co @-@ ruler and sole ruler ) , he was also the longest serving emperor since Augustus and the second longest serving emperor in Roman history .
In the cultural sphere Constantine contributed to the revival of the clean shaven face fashion of the Roman emperors from Augustus to Trajan , which was originally introduced among the Romans by Scipio Africanus . This new Roman imperial fashion lasted until the reign of Phocas .
The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and the Holy Roman Empire reckoned him among the venerable figures of its tradition . In the later Byzantine state , it had become a great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a " new Constantine " . Ten emperors , including the last emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire , carried the name . Monumental Constantinian forms were used at the court of Charlemagne to suggest that he was Constantine 's successor and equal . Constantine acquired a mythic role as a warrior against " heathens " . The motif of the Romanesque equestrian , the mounted figure in the posture of a triumphant Roman emperor , became a visual metaphor in statuary in praise of local benefactors . The name " Constantine " itself enjoyed renewed popularity in western France in the eleventh and twelfth centuries . Most Nicene churches consider Constantine a saint ( Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος , Saint Constantine ) . In the Orthodox Church he is called isapostolos ( Ισαπόστολος Κωνσταντίνος ) — an equal of the Apostles .
The Niš Airport is named " Constantine the Great " in honor of him . A large Cross was planned to be built on a hill overlooking Niš , but the project was cancelled . In 2012 , a memorial was erected in Niš in his honor . The Commemoration of the Edict of Milan was held in Niš in 2013 .
= = = Historiography = = =
During his life and those of his sons , Constantine was presented as a paragon of virtue . Pagans such as Praxagoras of Athens and Libanius showered him with praise . When the last of his sons died in 361 , however , his nephew ( and son @-@ in @-@ law ) Julian the Apostate wrote the satire Symposium , or the Saturnalia , which denigrated Constantine , calling him inferior to the great pagan emperors , and given over to luxury and greed . Following Julian , Eunapius began — and Zosimus continued — a historiographic tradition that blamed Constantine for weakening the Empire through his indulgence to the Christians .
In medieval times , when the Roman Catholic Church was dominant , Catholic historians presented Constantine as an ideal ruler , the standard against which any king or emperor could be measured . The Renaissance rediscovery of anti @-@ Constantinian sources prompted a re @-@ evaluation of Constantine 's career . The German humanist Johann Löwenklau , discoverer of Zosimus ' writings , published a Latin translation thereof in 1576 . In its preface , he argued that Zosimus ' picture of Constantine was superior to that offered by Eusebius and the Church historians , and damned Constantine as a tyrant . Cardinal Caesar Baronius , a man of the Counter @-@ Reformation , criticized Zosimus , favoring Eusebius ' account of the Constantinian era . Baronius ' Life of Constantine ( 1588 ) presents Constantine as the model of a Christian prince . For his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ( 1776 – 89 ) , Edward Gibbon , aiming to unite the two extremes of Constantinian scholarship , offered a portrait of Constantine built on the contrasted narratives of Eusebius and Zosimus . In a form that parallels his account of the empire 's decline , Gibbon presents a noble war hero corrupted by Christian influences , who transforms into an Oriental despot in his old age : " a hero ... degenerating into a cruel and dissolute monarch " .
Modern interpretations of Constantine 's rule begin with Jacob Burckhardt 's The Age of Constantine the Great ( 1853 , rev. 1880 ) . Burckhardt 's Constantine is a scheming secularist , a politician who manipulates all parties in a quest to secure his own power . Henri Grégoire , writing in the 1930s , followed Burckhardt 's evaluation of Constantine . For Grégoire , Constantine developed an interest in Christianity only after witnessing its political usefulness . Grégoire was skeptical of the authenticity of Eusebius ' Vita , and postulated a pseudo @-@ Eusebius to assume responsibility for the vision and conversion narratives of that work . Otto Seeck , in Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt ( 1920 – 23 ) , and André Piganiol , in L 'empereur Constantin ( 1932 ) , wrote against this historiographic tradition . Seeck presented Constantine as a sincere war hero , whose ambiguities were the product of his own naïve inconsistency . Piganiol 's Constantine is a philosophical monotheist , a child of his era 's religious syncretism . Related histories by A.H.M. Jones ( Constantine and the Conversion of Europe , 1949 ) and Ramsay MacMullen ( Constantine , 1969 ) gave portraits of a less visionary , and more impulsive , Constantine .
These later accounts were more willing to present Constantine as a genuine convert to Christianity . Beginning with Norman H. Baynes ' Constantine the Great and the Christian Church ( 1929 ) and reinforced by Andreas Alföldi 's The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome ( 1948 ) , a historiographic tradition developed which presented Constantine as a committed Christian . T. D. Barnes 's seminal Constantine and Eusebius ( 1981 ) represents the culmination of this trend . Barnes ' Constantine experienced a radical conversion , which drove him on a personal crusade to convert his empire . Charles Matson Odahl 's recent Constantine and the Christian Empire ( 2004 ) takes much the same tack . In spite of Barnes ' work , arguments over the strength and depth of Constantine 's religious conversion continue . Certain themes in this school reached new extremes in T.G. Elliott 's The Christianity of Constantine the Great ( 1996 ) , which presented Constantine as a committed Christian from early childhood . A similar view of Constantine is held in Paul Veyne 's recent ( 2007 ) work , Quand notre monde est devenu chrétien , which does not speculate on the origins of Constantine 's Christian motivation , but presents him , in his role as Emperor , as a religious revolutionary who fervently believed himself meant " to play a providential role in the millenary economy of the salvation of humanity " .
= = = Donation of Constantine = = =
Latin Rite Catholics considered it inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death @-@ bed and by an unorthodox bishop , as it undermined the authority of the Papacy . Hence , by the early fourth century , a legend had emerged that Pope Sylvester I ( 314 – 335 ) had cured the pagan emperor from leprosy . According to this legend , Constantine was soon baptized , and began the construction of a church in the Lateran Palace . In the eighth century , most likely during the pontificate of Stephen II ( 752 – 757 ) , a document called the Donation of Constantine first appeared , in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over " the city of Rome and all the provinces , districts , and cities of Italy and the Western regions " to Sylvester and his successors . In the High Middle Ages , this document was used and accepted as the basis for the Pope 's temporal power , though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor Otto III and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet Dante Alighieri . The 15th century philologist Lorenzo Valla proved the document was indeed a forgery .
= = = Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia = = =
During the medieval period , Britons regarded Constantine as a king of their own people , particularly associating him with Caernarfon in Gwynedd . While some of this is owed to his fame and his proclamation as Emperor in Britain , there was also confusion of his family with Magnus Maximus 's supposed wife Saint Elen and her son , another Constantine ( Welsh : Custennin ) . In the 12th century Henry of Huntingdon included a passage in his Historia Anglorum that the emperor Constantine 's mother was a Briton , making her the daughter of King Cole of Colchester . Geoffrey of Monmouth expanded this story in his highly fictionalized Historia Regum Britanniae , an account of the supposed Kings of Britain from their Trojan origins to the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion . According to Geoffrey , Cole was King of the Britons when Constantius , here a senator , came to Britain . Afraid of the Romans , Cole submitted to Roman law so long as he retained his kingship . However , he died only a month later , and Constantius took the throne himself , marrying Cole 's daughter Helena . They had their son Constantine , who succeeded his father as King of Britain before becoming Roman Emperor .
Historically , this series of events is extremely improbable . Constantius had already left Helena by the time he left for Britain . Additionally , no earlier source mentions that Helena was born in Britain , let alone that she was a princess . Henry 's source for the story is unknown , though it may have been a lost hagiography of Helena .
= = Documentaries = =
Documentaries of Constantine include : PBS @-@ From Jesus To Christ . The First Christians Chapter 12 and PBS Christ to Constantine Episode 6 Constantine
= = = Ancient sources = = =
= = = Modern sources = = =
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= The Boat Race 1930 =
The 82nd Boat Race took place on 12 April 1930 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower Charles Burnell , Cambridge won by two lengths in a time of 19 minutes 9 seconds . Their seventh consecutive victory , it took the overall record to 41 – 40 in their favour , the first time for 68 years that they held the lead in the event .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1929 race by ten lengths , with the overall record tied on 40 victories each ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Francis Escombe , J. C. Holcroft , J. A. MacNabb ( who had rowed in the 1924 race ) and P. H. Thomas ( a four @-@ time Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . Oxford 's coaches were Stanley Garton ( who had rowed three times between 1909 and 1911 ) , P. C. Mallam ( a Dark Blue from 1921 to 1924 inclusive ) and Arthur Wiggins ( who had rowed for Oxford in the 1912 , 1913 and 1914 races ) . For the fourth consecutive year the umpire was Charles Burnell who had rowed for Oxford in the 1895 , 1896 , 1897 and 1898 races . Charles Kent , who rowed for Oxford in the 1891 race , was the finishing judge for the third consecutive year .
According to the rowing correspondent for The Times , the " Cambridge Trial Eights ... were certainly not comparable with those of the past four years . " Conversely , Oxford " had better Trial Eights than for many years past " . They performed well in their practice rows during the build @-@ up to the race : they broke the record to the Mile Post by four seconds . Cambridge were considered " slightly the faster " but Oxford were " coming on " . Both crews rowed in boats built by Sims brothers of Putney , and used Aylings oars .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 8 lb ( 79 @.@ 6 kg ) , 1 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw two rowers return in Hugh Edwards and D. E. Tinne . Cambridge 's boat contained three participants with Boat Race experience , including Olympic gold medallist Michael Warriner and J. B. Collins , both of whom were making their third consecutive appearance . Just one participant in the race was registered as non @-@ British in Cambridge 's American cox Robert Egerton Swartwout .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In an " unpleasant drizzle " , the umpire Burnell started the race at 12 : 30 p.m. The Light Blues made a " smoother start " but were marginally out @-@ rated by Oxford who held a one @-@ third length lead after a minute . They extended their lead to two @-@ thirds of a length by Craven Steps but the bend in the river favoured Cambridge , and their lead was halved . By the Mile Post , the Dark Blues led by the length of a canvas .
Oxford 's stroke Martineau responded to a push from Cambridge and were nearly a length ahead as both crews passed the Harrods Furniture Depository . Another spurt from the Light Blues saw the lead reduced to one @-@ third of a length by the time the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge in a record time . Reducing the stroke rate to cope with the rough water , Oxford had increased their lead to three @-@ quarters of a length by Chiswick Eyot , yet were back to a half @-@ length lead by Chiswick Steps as the Light Blues coped better in the conditions . Along Duke 's Meadows Cambridge closed the gap and " the crews raced stroke for stroke " , with the Light Blues taking the lead . The crews passed below Barnes Bridge with Cambridge holding a length 's advantage and out @-@ rated their opponents , who kept rowing to the end . Cambridge won by two lengths in a time of 19 minutes 9 seconds , their seventh consecutive victory and the eleventh in the previous twelve years . It was the fastest winning time since the 1924 race , and the fifth @-@ fastest time in the history of the event .
The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that " this year was one of the exceptional years by which the vast crowds who swarm on the towpath are more than rewarded for the years of waiting , and moreover Cambridge men as well as Oxford will rejoice to see so fine a courage and skill once more animating a losing crew " . During the course of the race , a spectator boat became waterlogged , resulting in eight people being taken to hospital .
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= Nap Lajoie =
Napoléon " Nap " Lajoie ( / ˈlæʒəweɪ / ; September 5 , 1874 – February 7 , 1959 ) , also known as Larry Lajoie and nicknamed " The Frenchman " , was an American professional baseball second baseman and player @-@ manager . He played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Philadelphia Phillies , Philadelphia Athletics ( twice ) , and Cleveland Naps between 1896 and 1916 . He managed the Naps from 1905 through 1909 .
Lajoie was signed to the National Leagues 's ( NL ) Phillies in 1896 . By the beginning of the twentieth century , however , the upstart American League ( AL ) was looking to rival the supremacy of the NL and in 1901 , Lajoie and dozens of former National League players joined the American League . National League clubs contested the legality of contracts signed by players who jumped to the other league but eventually , Lajoie was allowed to play for Connie Mack 's Athletics . During the season , Lajoie set the all @-@ time American League single @-@ season mark for the highest batting average ( .426 ) . One year later , Lajoie went to the Cleveland Bronchos where he would play until the 1915 season when he returned to play for Mack and the Athletics . While with Cleveland , Lajoie 's popularity led to locals electing to change the club 's team name from Bronchos to Napoleons ( " Naps " for short ) , which remained until after Lajoie departed Cleveland and the name was changed to Indians ( the team 's present @-@ day name ) .
Lajoie led the AL in batting average five times in his career and four times recorded the most number of hits . During several of those years with the Naps he and Ty Cobb dominated AL hitting categories and traded batting titles with each other , most notably coming in 1910 , when the league 's batting champion was not decided until well after the last game of the season and after an investigation by American League President Ban Johnson . Lajoie in 1914 joined Cap Anson and Honus Wagner as the only major league players to record 3 @,@ 000 career hits . He led the NL or AL in putouts five times in his career and assists three times . He has been called " the best second baseman in the history of baseball " and " the most outstanding player to wear a Cleveland uniform . " Cy Young said , " Lajoie was one of the most rugged players I ever faced . He 'd take your leg off with a line drive , turn the third baseman around like a swinging door and powder the hand of the left fielder . " He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1937 .
= = Early life = =
Lajoie was born in Woonsocket , Rhode Island , to Jean Baptiste and Celina Guertin Lajoie . The elder Lajoie was French Canadian and had emigrated to the United States . Upon arrival to the U.S. he first settled in Rutland , Vermont , but then moved to Woonsocket , where Lajoie , the youngest of eight surviving children , was born . Throughout his childhood Lajoie received little formal education .
The elder Lajoie , who worked as a teamster and laborer , died not long into the younger Lajoie 's childhood , which forced him and his siblings to work to support the family . Lajoie dropped out of school to work in a textile mill . He also began playing semi @-@ professional baseball for the local Woonsocket team under the alias " Sandy " , because his parents did not approve of their son playing baseball . He earned money as a taxi driver with a horse and buggy and locally was called " Slugging Cabby . " " When I told my father I had decided to take the job he was very angry . He shouted that ball players were bums and that nobody respected them , but I was determined to give it a try at least one season " , Lajoie later said . He also received the nickname " Larry " from a teammate who had trouble pronouncing Lajoie . Lajoie admired baseball players such as King Kelly and Charles Radbourn .
When word of Lajoie 's baseball ability spread , he began to play for other semi @-@ professional teams at $ 2 to $ 5 per game ( $ 57 to $ 142 in current dollar terms ) . Meanwhile , Lajoie worked as a teamster . He left Woonsocket and his $ 7 @.@ 50 ( $ 213 in current dollar terms ) working as a taxi driver and joined the Class B New England League 's Fall River Indians in 1896 played as a center fielder , first baseman and catcher where he earned $ 25 weekly ( $ 711 in current dollar terms ) . He recorded 163 hits in 80 games , and led the team in batting average , doubles , triples , home runs and hits . Lajoie was " widely regarded as an outstanding prospect " and Indians owner Charlie Marston rejected an offer from the Pittsburgh Pirates for Lajoie in exchange for $ 500 ( $ 14 @,@ 222 in current dollar terms ) . He was also scouted by the Philadelphia Phillies and Boston Beaneaters .
= = Major league career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies and Athletics = = =
The Philadelphia Phillies of the MLB 's National League ( NL ) purchased Lajoie and teammate Phil Geier from Fall River for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 42 @,@ 666 in current dollar terms ) on August 9 . Phillies ' manager Billy Nash originally went to Fall River intending to sign Geier only but obtained Lajoie when the team agreed to include him in their asking price . Author David Jordan wrote :
" A legend later grew up that Geier was the main target of Nash 's pursuit and that Marston ' threw in ' Lajoie in order to get the Phillies to pay the $ 1 @,@ 500 asking price . This is hardly likely . While Geier was considered a good prospect , Lajoie was banging the ball at a .429 clip in his first professional season , was a fine fielder , and had already been sought by several big league clubs . Nap Lajoie clearly represented a financial asset to Marston , who did not give him away . The price the Phillies paid was a substantial sum for two minor leaguers in 1896 . "
Against the Washington Senators on August 12 , 1896 , Lajoie made his major league debut . He played first base and recorded a single . Ed Delahanty was being considered to play the first base position after Dan Brouthers retired . Delahanty , however , wanted Lajoie to play first so he could return to his natural position of left field . Delahanty said to Lajoie , " Look , sonny , you tell the boss you ’ re a first baseman and you and me are gonna get along . " Lajoie became the team 's first baseman and by the end of the season , he and Delahanty were roommates . Later in 1898 , new manager George Stallings moved Lajoie to second base , commenting that " [ Lajoie would ] have made good no matter where I positioned him . "
Lajoie hit .363 and led the NL in slugging percentage in 1897 and doubles and RBIs in 1898 . He had a .378 batting average in 1899 , though he played only 77 games due to an injury . In 1900 , he missed five weeks due to a broken thumb suffered in a fistfight with teammate Elmer Flick .
John Rogers , described as a " penny @-@ pinching " majority owner of the Phillies , assured Lajoie that he would make the same salary as Delahanty . However , Lajoie discovered that while he was earning $ 2 @,@ 600 ( $ 73 @,@ 954 in current dollar terms ) , Delahanty earned $ 3 @,@ 000 ( $ 85 @,@ 332 in current dollar terms ) ( contracts for NL players were not allowed to surpass $ 2 @,@ 400 ) . Rogers increased Lajoie 's pay by $ 200 but the damage had already been done . " Because I felt I had been cheated , I was determined to listen to any reasonable American League offer " , Lajoie said .
In 1901 , the newly created American League had attracted several of the top players in the competing National League to join its ranks . Rogers declined Lajoie 's request for an increase in salary and as a result , Lajoie jumped to the crosstown Philadelphia Athletics , owned by former Phillies ' part @-@ owner Benjamin Shibe and managed by Connie Mack . Frank Hough offered Lajoie the contract on behalf of Mack . " Hough offered me $ 24 @,@ 000 ( $ 682 @,@ 656 in current dollar terms ) for four years . You can bet I signed in a hurry " , Lajoie said . Lajoie was considered " the first superstar " to join the newly formed AL . He was also the first player whose yearly salary was for $ 4 @,@ 000 ( $ 113 @,@ 776 in current dollar terms ) . " The Phillies opened their season and drew 6 @,@ 000 fans . A week later , when we opened , there were 16 @,@ 000 in the stands . The American League was here to stay " , Lajoie later said . Lajoie 's batting average that year was .426 ( it was originally recorded at .405 , later changed to .422 before finally revised again to .426 ) . The batting average mark became the all @-@ time AL record after the number was revised . Previously , Ty Cobb and George Sisler had been credited with having the AL 's all @-@ time mark . That same year in a game against the Chicago White Sox ' Clark Griffith , Lajoie became the second Major Leaguer to be intentionally walked with the bases loaded in an 11 – 7 game after Abner Dalrymple in 1881 . For the 1901 season , Lajoie led the majors in doubles ( 48 ) , and led the majors in hits ( 232 ) , batting average ( .426 ) , runs ( 145 ) , on @-@ base ( .463 ) and slugging percentage ( .643 ) , and total bases ( 350 ) . His 125 RBIs led the AL and his 14 home runs were a career @-@ best and his 48 doubles are a Philadelphia Athletics ' record . Mack said of Lajoie , " He plays so naturally and so easily it looks like lack of effort . " Author Robert Kelly writes : " The .422 batting average of Lajoie still stands as an AL record . To some degree , however , it is tainted . The 1901 season was the first for the AL and the level of competition was presumably evolving . Such questions , however , in no way cast doubt on the extraordinary batting ability of the second baseman . "
In April 1902 , the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania overruled an earlier decision by the Court of Common Pleas and upheld the reserve clause in contracts between players and NL clubs . President of the Chicago National League Club Jim Hart said the state Supreme Court 's decision had dealt " a fatal blow to the rival league " and NL clubs " have won a great victory . " The Phillies ' Rogers obtained an injunction barring Lajoie from playing baseball for any team other than his team . However , a lawyer discovered the injunction was only enforceable in the state of Pennsylvania . The courts ruled the reserve clause was not valid for players who signed with an AL team . Mack responded by trading Lajoie and Bill Bernhard to the then @-@ moribund Cleveland Bronchos , whose owner , Charles Somers , had provided considerable financial assistance to the A 's in the early years . Lajoie was also pursued by Charles Comiskey , owner of the Chicago White Sox .
= = = Cleveland Bronchos / Naps = = =
Lajoie , nicknamed " The Frenchman " and considered baseball 's most famous player at the time , arrived in Cleveland on June 4 and his play was immediately met with approval from fans . The Bronchos drew 10 @,@ 000 fans to League Park in Lajoie 's first game . The Bronchos ' record at the time Lajoie and fellow Athletics teammate , Bill Bernhard , joined was 11 – 24 and improved to 12 – 24 after the team 's inaugural game with their new players , a 4 – 3 win over the Boston Americans . The team went on to finish 69 – 67 , fifth in the AL , for the franchise 's first winning record since the AL began as a league . After his first season with the Bronchos , Lajoie 's .378 average led all AL players . New York Giants manager , John McGraw , was rumored to want to sign Lajoie but Lajoie stated his intentions when he said " ... for I intend to stick to Cleveland . "
For the remainder of 1902 and most of 1903 , Lajoie and Flick traveled separately from the rest of the team , needing to avoid entering Pennsylvania so as to avoid a subpoena ( the only team they could legally play with inside state limits was the Phillies ) . When the Naps went to play in Philadelphia , Lajoie and Bernhard would go to nearby Atlantic City to help pass the time . The issue was finally resolved when the leagues made peace through the National Agreement in September 1903 ( which also brought the formation of the World Series ) . To begin the 1903 season , the club changed its name from the Bronchos to the Naps in honor of Lajoie after a readers ' poll result was released by the Cleveland Press . ( The team was officially the Blues in their inaugural AL season but changed to the Bronchos for the 1902 season . ) The Bronchos finished the season 77 – 63 and Lajoie finished his first full season with the club again the AL 's batting champion with a .344 average . He also led the league in slugging percentage ( .518 ) , finished second in doubles ( 41 ) , third in RBIs ( 93 ) and tied for fifth in home runs ( 7 ) . In the off @-@ season he contracted pleurisy .
During the 1904 , Lajoie received a suspension after he spat tobacco juice in an umpire 's eye . He later informally replaced Bill Armour as the team 's manager ( Armour submitted his resignation on September 9 but as team captain , Lajoie had already been acting as the Naps ' field manager ) . After the season had concluded , Lajoie was officially named manager . He still managed to lead the majors with a .376 batting average as he recorded his second consecutive league batting title . He also led the majors in hits ( 208 ) , doubles ( 49 ) , RBIs ( 102 ) and slugging percentage ( .546 ) . Lajoie forbade card playing and gambling from his players during the regular season . As a manager , Lajoie was also described as " much too lenient with his players . "
Lajoie contracted sepsis from an untreated spike injury after a game in July 1905 . Dye from Lajoie 's stockings entered his bloodstream and led to blood poisoning . ( A rule was put into place requiring white socks to be worn underneath a player 's colored socks . ) The injury worsened and Lajoie eventually came to games in a wheelchair . Amputation of the affected leg was also discussed . The injury and illness kept Lajoie out until August 28 when he began play again and returned as the team 's first baseman . Before the season was over he also sustained an injury to his ankle from a foul tip during an at bat and missed the remainder of the season ( he continued to manage from the bench ) . He finished the season having only appeared in 65 games ( a career @-@ low , other than his rookie season when he was not called up until well after the season had begun ) . The Naps finished with a 76 – 78 record . Baseball historian Bill James wrote of Lajoie 's higher @-@ than @-@ normal career putout total and importance to Cleveland :
" Nap Lajoie was not only the team 's superstar , after 1905 he was also the manager . He was more than that — hell , the team was actually called the " Naps " in his honor , as if Lajoie was the team . If Lajoie was in the habit of covering second base every play , the shortstop certainly wasn 't going to tell him not to . "
Lajoie led the majors in 1906 in hits ( 214 ) and doubles ( 48 ) and the Naps finished third in the AL again with a winning record , 89 – 64 . Lajoie finished second in the AL to George Stone in batting average , slugging and on @-@ base percentage . In 1906 he married Myrtle Smith and the couple moved to a small farm outside Cleveland .
In June of the 1907 season , Lajoie 's .296 average , " an average even now that scores of players would be glad to accept , " put him at risk for hitting below .300 for the first time in his career . He also missed 15 games due to a recurrence of sepsis which he contracted during the 1905 season . Lajoie and Naps first baseman George Stovall got into an argument in a hotel lobby and Stovall broke a chair over Lajoie 's head . " George didn 't mean anything by it " , Lajoie said , and the two maintained a working relationship . He finished the season with an average of .299 . Naps owner Charles Somers received a trade offer from the Detroit Tigers for the Naps ' Elmer Flick and Tigers ' Ty Cobb . Tigers manager Hughie Jennings called Somers and told him he was offering the trade because Cobb was not getting along with several teammates . Somers decided to retain Flick , saying , " We 'll keep Flick . Maybe he isn 't as good a batter as Cobb , but he 's much nicer to have on the team . " The Naps finished the regular season in second place to the Tigers with a 90 – 64 record , a half @-@ game behind the Tigers ( who finished 90 – 63 and were not forced to make @-@ up a rained out game in accordance with league rules ) . Lajoie was partly blamed for the Naps ' second @-@ place finish . Author Fred McMane described an instance during the season between Naps catcher Nig Clarke and Lajoie .
" Clarke ... was newly married and asked Lajoie for a day off so that he could go home . Lajoie refused . Clarke sulked and walked over to warm up pitcher Addie Joss . On the first pitch , he stuck out a finger and the ball broke it cleanly . With blood streaming from his hand , Clarke waved it defiantly in front of Lajoie . " Now can I go home ? " asked Clarke . He was out five weeks , and Cleveland lost the pennant to Detroit by half a game . "
Lajoie finished the season tied for third @-@ most in hits ( 168 ) while Cobb 's batting average , slugging and on @-@ base percentages , and hit total led the American League . Baseball historians have suggested the managerial duties Lajoie took on impacted his offensive numbers .
Lajoie 's dissatisfaction with the Naps ' play worsened . " You can 't win in the major leagues unless you have players who know the game . We don 't have time to teach and train youngsters up here . Our job is to win pennants , not run schools " , he said . Franklin Lewis , sports writer and author , wrote " Lajoie , in spite of his marvelous fielding and tremendous batting , was not exactly a darling of the grandstand as a manager . " Lajoie recommended to Somers on August 17 , 1909 , he find the team a new manager , although he wanted to remain on the club as a player . Somers responded to Lajoie by giving him more time to finalize his decision but when Lajoie came back days later and announced the same decision , Somers acted quickly to find a replacement . Lajoie later described the decision to take on the added duties as a player @-@ manager as the biggest mistake of his career as he felt it negatively affected his play . The highest @-@ paid player in the league , he also offered a $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 263 @,@ 370 in current dollar terms ) reduction in salary . Somers promoted Naps coach Deacon " Jim " McGuire to manager . The team finished 71 – 82 while Lajoie 's .324 average was third in the AL and 33 doubles second . The Naps finished 1910 71 – 81 but Lajoie had one of his better seasons statistically as he led the majors with a .384 average and 227 hits , both categories bettered only in Lajoie 's 1901 campaign . His 51 doubles , a career @-@ high , and 304 total bases led the majors , the fourth and final time in his career he would lead the majors in the latter category . Lajoie missed significant parts of back @-@ to @-@ back seasons , the first in 1911 when he appeared in just 90 games . Stovall , the former Naps first baseman , replaced McGuire as the club 's manager and the Naps finished 80 – 73 . Lajoie was forced to sit out six weeks of the 1912 season when he sprained his back in May during a practice session in Chicago . He played in 117 games on the season , an increase of the 90 he played in one season before , but Cleveland , who had hired Joe Birmingham as the team 's fifth manager since Lajoie gave up the role in 1909 , finished 75 – 78 . Lajoie and Joe Jackson tied for the team lead with 90 RBIs . He finished fourth in the AL with a .368 batting average . In 1913 , Birmingham and Lajoie had arguments in the open , including one incident in June when Lajoie cursed Birmingham openly to reporters after being benched during a batting slump . Lajoie hit .335 on the year , the last time he would hit over .300 in his career .
Only two other major league players had attained 3 @,@ 000 career hits until Lajoie hit a double on September 27 , 1914 , and so joined Cap Anson and Honus Wagner in the 3 @,@ 000 hit club . Lajoie recorded the hit off Yankees pitcher Marty McHale in a 5 – 3 Naps win . His .258 batting average for the season , however , was the lowest since he had joined the majors in 1896 . The Naps finished in last place in the American League standings with a 51 – 102 record , their worst record since joining the league and the franchise 's lowest winning percentage ( .333 ) . Lajoie requested that Somers trade him and the club obliged , selling Lajoie to the Athletics for the waiver price and in so doing , Lajoie returned to Philadelphia .
= = = Philadelphia Athletics = = =
The following season , 1915 , Lajoie returned to the Athletics when Mack signed him to a contract . In his first season back with the Athletics , he finished with a .280 batting average but the team ended the season in last place with a 43 – 109 record . The 1916 season would be Lajoie 's last in the majors . In his final major league game , he hit a triple to help Athletics pitcher Joe Bush win his no @-@ hitter . Lajoie , aged 41 years , played in 113 games and finished with a .246 average . Philadelphia 's season record was worse than the previous season 's franchise @-@ low record , and finished in last place again with a 36 – 117 record . The Athletics ' winning percentage ( .235 ) is the franchise 's worst winning percentage ( through 2012 season ) .
= = = Minor leagues and retirement = = =
In 1917 , Lajoie joined the Toronto Maple Leafs of the International League as manager . At the age of 42 , Lajoie won the league 's batting title with batting average of .380 . He appeared in 151 of 156 games and for the first time in his career , played on a team that won a pennant . He later was signed by the Brooklyn Dodgers for $ 3 @,@ 000 ( $ 47 @,@ 197 in current dollar terms ) in March 1918 but the contract was annulled by the Commissioner 's office and made a free agent to which Lajoie was " well pleased " . Later that same year he joined the Indianapolis Indians of the American Association as player @-@ manager . He helped lead the team to a third @-@ place finish but the season was impacted due to the U.S. ' s involvement in World War I. Lajoie made his services available to the draft board but they rejected his offer . On December 27 , 1918 , Lajoie announced his retirement from baseball .
Several years after his retirement , a story in The Milwaukee Sentinel talked of Lajoie 's ability to " outguess any pitcher . " Lajoie faced pitcher Red Donahue , who avoided pitching fastballs to Lajoie after seeing him go 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 against a fellow pitching mate . Donahue instead made pitches on the outside corner , to which Lajoie reached over " and hit them with ease . " Donahue then proceeded to aim a pitch at Lajoie 's head and he proceeded to hit a home run . " That 's the kind I eat " , he said .
= = Rivalry with Ty Cobb = =
For the first part of the 20th century , Lajoie and Cobb 's statistics rivaled each other like few other players in the American League . In 1908 , Honus Wagner and Lajoie recorded their 2,000th career hit . Baseball historian David Anderson wrote :
" Nap Lajoie reached the milestone later in the summer with even less hoopla , in an age when individual records received little attention from the press and were generally scorned by many players . Players overly worried about their individual stats were often unpopular with teammates . The modesty of Wagner and Lajoie over their achievements contrasted sharply with Cobb 's ambition and overriding interest in his individual numbers . "
The Lajoie @-@ Cobb rivalry reached a peak in 1910 , when Hugh Chalmers of the Chalmers Auto Company ( a direct predecessor to modern @-@ day Chrysler ) promised a Chalmers 30 Roadster to the season 's batting champion . The public became fascinated with the daily statistics of Lajoie and Cobb in what became known as the Chalmers Race . Sports bettors , who by this time followed the sport attentively , also followed the daily reports with interest . Cobb took the final two games , a doubleheader , off against the Chicago White Sox , confident that his average was safe and would allow him to win the AL batting title — unless Lajoie had a near @-@ perfect final day . Going into the final game of the season , Cobb 's average led Lajoie 's , .383 to .376 .
Lajoie and the Naps faced a doubleheader against the St. Louis Browns in Sportsman 's Park , Cleveland 's final two games of the season . After a sun @-@ hindered fly ball went for a stand @-@ up triple and another batted ball landed for a cleanly hit single , Lajoie had five subsequent hits – bunt singles dropped in front of rookie third baseman Red Corriden ( whose normal position was shortstop ) , who was playing closer to shallow left field on orders , it has been suggested , of manager Jack O 'Connor . In his second at bat of the second game , Lajoie reached base on another bunt but the runner on first base advanced . According to the rules of that time , the hit was scored a sacrifice and thus , Lajoie did not record an official at bat . He finished the doubleheader a perfect 8 @-@ for @-@ 8 and his batting average increased to .384 , .001 greater than Cobb 's mark . Although the AL office had not officially announced the results , Lajoie began to receive congratulations from fans and players , including eight of Cobb 's Detroit Tigers teammates . Most players in the league preferred Lajoie 's personality to that of Cobb 's . Coach Harry Howell is reported to have said to the game 's official scorer , E. V. Parish , " to do well by Lajoie . " Howell was reported to have offered a bribe to Parish , which described in Al Stump 's biography of Cobb , was a $ 40 ( $ 981 in current dollar terms ) suit . Parish refused the offer and the resulting uproar ended in O 'Connor and Howell being banned from the major leagues by AL President Ban Johnson .
Johnson had the matter investigated , and after having Cobb 's September 24 doubleheader statistics re @-@ checked , discovered only the first game of Cobb 's statistics had been scored , but not the second game , in which he went 2 @-@ for @-@ 3 . This put Cobb 's suggested actual batting average at .385 , again ahead of Lajoie 's . In the end , Johnson ruled that Lajoie 's sacrifice bunt should have been recorded as a hit ( which would have allowed him to go 9 @-@ for @-@ 9 ) but that Cobb 's batting average was greater , recording 196 hits in 509 at bats to Lajoie 's 227 hits in 591 at bats . Johnson asked Chalmers if his company would award an automobile to each player , to which he agreed . Initially Lajoie refused the car but eventually relented and accepted it . Cobb said , " I am glad that I won an automobile and am especially pleased that Lajoie also gets one . I have no one to criticize . I know the games were on the square and I am greatly pleased to know that the affair has ended so nicely . " Lajoie said , " I am quite satisfied that I was treated fairly in every way by President Johnson , but I think the scorer at St. Louis made an error in not crediting me with nine hits . However , I am glad that the controversy is over . I have the greatest respect for Cobb as a batter and am glad of his success . "
The Sporting News published an article written by Paul MacFarlane in its April 18 , 1981 , issue where historian Pete Palmer had discovered that while Cobb 's September 24 doubleheader was not correctly tabulated ( perhaps purposefully ) according to the correct date , the second game 's statistics were in fact included in the next day 's ledger , thus incorrectly recording a second 2 @-@ for @-@ 3 performance from Cobb which meant Lajoie 's average was greater . Author James Vail wrote in 2001 :
" To date , it seems that no one knows for certain who won that 1910 batting title . Total Baseball , which is now the official major @-@ league record , lists both men at .384 in its seasonal section , but its player register has Lajoie at the same number and Cobb at .383 — so even the various editors of that source do not , or cannot , agree . " Jon Wertheim wrote in Sports Illustrated 100 years after the event , " The statistics for the Detroit players had been crossed out and nullified . Every Detroit player , that is , except one : Ty Cobb . It takes something less than a detective to arrive at the conclusion that at some point Johnson ( or someone in the league office , anyway ) realized the error and decided to conceal it . "
= = Legacy = =
Lajoie ended his career with a lifetime .338 batting average . His career total of 3 @,@ 242 hits was the second @-@ most in MLB history at the time of his retirement , behind only Honus Wagner 's total ( 3 @,@ 420 ) . Lajoie 's 2 @,@ 521 hits in the American League was that league 's record until Cobb surpassed his mark . He was among the second group of players elected to the Hall of Fame in 1937 and was later inducted on June 12 , 1939 , when the Hall opened that same year . Lajoie obtained the greatest number of votes as he led induction mates Tris Speaker ( 165 votes ) and Cy Young ( 153 ) with 168 votes ( 83 @.@ 6 percent of ballots ) from the Baseball Writers ' Association of America . Lajoie led all second basemen in the NL in putouts ( 1898 ) and the AL four times in his career ( 1901 , 1903 , 1906 , and 1908 ) . From 1906 – 1908 he led the AL in assists ( amongst second basemen ) . He also led the league in double plays six times in his career . Baseball historian William McNeil rates Lajoie as the game 's greatest second baseman , when combining both offensive and defensive impact . Bill James argues , " In the last 20 years several statistical analysts ... have credited Lajoie with immense defensive value ... this analysis is incorrect . He was a competent fielder , even a good fielder . He was not a defensive superstar . "
During spring training before the 1928 season , Lajoie commented on the 1927 New York Yankees . " Of course , you could see a lot of loafing going on but if that club is the greatest of all times , you just know that we had a lot of clubs in my time who were world champions and didn 't know it . " He died in Daytona Beach , Florida in 1959 , at the age of 84 from complications associated with pneumonia . He had fallen in the autumn of 1958 and fractured his arm . His wife had died earlier in 1951 . In 1999 , he ranked number 29 on The Sporting News ' list of the " 100 Greatest Baseball Players " , and was a nominee for the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team .
Lajoie is mentioned in the poem " Line @-@ Up for Yesterday " by Ogden Nash :
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= A Dog 's Love =
A Dog 's Love is a 1914 American short silent fantasy film with subtitles , directed by Jack Harvey on his directorial debut . It stars Shep the Dog , Helen Badgley , and Arthur Bauer . The film is about a dog who loses his best friend , when a young girl is killed in an automobile accident , and focuses on his emotions in dealing with his loss . Well @-@ received because of its " universally appealing " theme , the dog 's emotions were reported as surpassing the child 's histrionics .
The film was shot on one reel by the Thanhouser Company , 1 @,@ 007 feet ( 307 m ) in total . It was shot in standard 35mm and a spherical 1 @.@ 37 : 1 format . It was distributed by the Mutual Film Corporation upon release . Kitty Kelly of The Chicago Tribune called it a " miniature masterpiece . " Copies of the film are in the Museum of Modern Art of New York City and the National Film , Television and Sound Archive of Ottawa film archive .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with an inter @-@ title that reads " Poor little rich girl has no one to play with " and cuts to Baby Helen with her doll , looking out the window . A group of children play Ring a Ring o ' Roses in the yard . Next , Baby Helen goes to tea party set up on the yard and holds her doll , all by herself , with a lonely expression . The neighbor 's dog , Shep comes out of his dog house and barks , and Baby Helen rises with a joyful expression . She takes a piece of a muffin and tosses it through the boxwood hedge separating the two yards . Shep eats the muffin and Helen invites him to her tea party . Shep runs along the hedge and passes through to join her . Helen instructs Shep with her finger and Shep barks in understanding , Helen takes her seat and shares a muffin with Shep . An inter @-@ title announces that a week later , Helen is out on an errand . Helen passes through the hedge and skips down the sidewalk and Shep barks at her . As Helen crosses the street , she is struck by a passing automobile and Shep races to the rescue . He tugs at her dress at the waist and finding that he is unable to move her , runs to Helen 's home and jumps against the screen door , barking repeatedly . As Helen 's parents are summoned , Shep leads them to Helen , where a passerby has scooped up Helen from the middle of the street . All three depart and the scene changes to a dimly lit room with Helen laid on a bed , seemingly dead . Her parents watch over her , with sad faces as a doctor inspects her and folds her arms across her chest . Beyond saving , her parents bury their heads in the pillow next to Helen as the doctor pens a note . Then Shep is shown resting against the side of the door in a feeble and sorrowful looking position .
An inter @-@ title confirms Helen 's death by announcing the parents have gone on " a visit to their lost darling " . The scene cuts to a grassy cemetery with lines of tombstones separated by a loose line of two trees . Helen 's parents approach her grave , marked by a group of flowers and a temporary marker at the head . Shep follows behind and pauses by a tree as Helen 's parents kneel and pause to grieve . The camera cuts to Shep , who appears sad with his eyes only half open . After the parents finish grieving , they stand up and walk to the stage left . Shep stays under the tree for a moment before approaching the grave . Through an overheard split , Shep is shown to be reminiscing about the party . The next scene shows Shep back home , lying on his side in apparent despair . His master tries to get Shep to eat some food , but the Collie refuses and turns on his side . His master pets him , confused as to what has his pet troubled so , but he gives up and departs .
Another inter @-@ title announces that " Shep makes daily visit to the florist " and shows Shep approach the shop and grabs a bunch of flower in his mouth before running away . Shep returns to her grave and he drops his flowers with the others . Shep looks to the left and sees a woman watering the flowers . Shep takes her watering can and runs back to Helen 's grave . The woman picks up the watering can and waters the flowers and picks up the flower bouquet brought by Shep . An inter @-@ title announces that night has come and it shows Shep lying asleep near the hedge . A ghostly image of Helen , superimposed on the film , appears through hedge and awakens Shep . Helen leads Shep through the cemetery and to her grave . Shep crawls to her grave and lies across the flowers as Helen 's form disappears down into the grave . The camera lingers on Shep before fading . The final inter @-@ title of the film announces " Don 't cry , it 's only make believe " showing Helen , holding flowers and leaning against Shep . This sequence and title may have served as a reminder to children in the audience it was all simply a dramatic story .
= = Cast = =
Shep the Dog as himself
Helen Badgley as Baby Helen
Arthur Bauer as Helen 's father
Ethyle Cooke Benham as Helen 's mother
Fannie Bourke as a visitor
= = Production = =
Child actress Helen Badgley , also known as The Thanhouser Kidlet , is described by the Thanhouser Company who made the film as a " precocious child actress who was very comfortable and expressive in front of the camera " . Shep the Dog , also known as The Thanhouser Collie , was a well @-@ trained animal performer who appeared in a number of the company 's films during this period . The dog 's acting , in portraying a range of emotions including " depression " , " groveling pathos " and " joy " , was noted to be superior to the child 's performance . Shep was owned by the film 's director Jack Harvey , but Shep had prior experience working for Vitagraph under Arthur Ashley . While at Vitagraph , Shep received very little coverage and recognition in comparison to Jean , the " Vitagraph Dog " . Evidence suggests that Shep starred in Shep , the Hero . Jack Harvey believed Shep to be almost human , he would direct Shep entirely by voice and would speak to him with " man talk " instead of simple commands . At an unknown , but presumably later date , Shep 's mate of four years , Bessie , became ill and Harvey saw it take a terrible emotional toll on Shep . When Bessie died , Harvey stated it would cause Shep to die of a broken @-@ heart . While A Dog 's Love was released little more than a month before Shep 's death in early November 1914 , two more films had yet to be released . Both The Barrier of Flames and Shep , the Sentinel would be released posthumously .
Official musical accompaniment for works of this period were very rare and only one studio , Vitagraph , regularly made suggestions available to exhibitors . Thanhouser 's musical scores were an exception in 1914 , but the scores would only be created for the " Thanhouser Big Productions " such as Joseph in the Land of Egypt . In 1913 and 1914 , cue sheets or musical suggestions could be obtained inexpensively through various industry sources and retained their dominance . Given that these cue sheets were prepared without any specific film in mind , the music would be chosen to match the themes of the film . The film was shot on one reel by the Thanhouser Company , 1 @,@ 007 feet ( 307 m ) in total . It was shot in standard 35mm and a spherical 1 @.@ 37 : 1 format . It was distributed by the Mutual Film Corporation upon release .
= = Release and reception = =
The film was well received by film critics and even the passing mentions in The Moving Picture World remarked that it was a good offering with good photography . Jack Harvey 's debut film as a director was well received by the public due to its " universally appealing " theme . Thanhouser writes that the " loyal dog 's attachment to his little girl playmate is treated with pictorial beauty and simple , honest sentiment " , and notes that when it was released on October 4 , 1914 , reviewers praised the " double @-@ exposure passages for their dramatic effectiveness " . Louis Reeves Harrison of The Moving Picture World ' review of the film stated , " This play becomes one of delicate pathos toward the end through some remarkable feats of double exposure , and it is one of beauty throughout because of the acting of a four @-@ year @-@ old tot , Baby Helen , a veritable star in her class . Shep contributes with exceptional intelligence - he is not eternally looking at his master out of scope for a word of command . ... I do not know what director handled this subject , but I suggest he apply his thought visualizations to the human characters of future stories . It is the exhibition of what passes in the minds and hearts of characters that brings an audience into closer sympathy with them and makes tense interest possible when melodrama merely brings a laugh . The double exposures are timed with such skill in this instance that all concerned in their production deserve high praise . They give beauty and dignity to a very simple story . "
Kitty Kelly of the The Chicago Tribune wrote , " Two more attractive artists never collaborated in a single production than this star baby and this star dog . Of them it is impossible to say which is the more so , though one demonstrates the maximum of naturalness while the other is an exponent of the maximum of training . ... As a general thing , I disapprove of the agonies of film mortality and its frequent projection of cemetery scenes , but this is one of the situations that must be handed the label ' exception ' . ... The picture is a miniature masterpiece . " Contained within her review Kelly , also mentioned that baby Helen was placed in front of the camera so that even as she lay " dying " that she was still shown to be breathing . Kelly stated that no person would wish for a person to stop breathing for the sake of the film , but noted that it was not the best point of vision , but noted that the scene was well @-@ managed . In Britain , The Bioscope reviewer agreed with other reviewers in finding the film to be , " ... a perfectly delightful little film . Although it is true that its plot , what there is of it , contains nothing very new , it is not merely a conventional dog and child picture of the ordinary type . It is , rather , an exquisite pictorial fancy , charmingly conceived for the most part and charmingly executed throughout . ... The picture is perfectly done , and not even in the ghost scenes toward the end is there anything banal or insincere in it . A film so full of tender sentiments and natural beauty should meet with the warmest of welcomes everywhere . "
Today , copies of the film are in the Museum of Modern Art of New York City and the National Film , Television and Sound Archive of Ottawa film archives . The film was released in Thanhouser Classics Volume II : Under the Mutual Banner 1912 @-@ 1914 . For the release , Andrew Crow composed and performed an original music score .
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= Winter Paralympic Games =
The Winter Paralympic Games is an international multi @-@ sport event where athletes with physical disabilities compete . This includes athletes with mobility disabilities , amputations , blindness , and cerebral palsy . The Winter Paralympic Games are held every four years directly following the Winter Olympic Games . The Winter Paralympics are also hosted by the city that hosted the Winter Olympics . The International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) oversees the Winter Paralympics . Medals are awarded in each event : with gold medals for first place , silver for second and bronze for third , following the tradition that the Olympic Games started in 1904 .
The Winter Paralympics began in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden . Those Games were the first Paralympics ( Summer or Winter ) that featured athletes other than wheelchair athletes . The Games have expanded and grown to be ( along with the Summer Games ) part of the largest international sporting event after the Olympic Games . Given their expansion the need for a very specific classification system has arisen . This system has also given rise to controversy and opened the door for cheating . Winter Paralympians have also been convicted of steroid use and other forms of cheating unique to Paralympic athletes , which has tainted the integrity of the Games .
= = History = =
The origins of the Winter Paralympics are similar to the Summer Paralympics . Injured soldiers returning from World War II sought sports as an avenue to healing . Organized by Dr. Ludwig Guttmann , sports competitions between British convalescent hospitals began in 1948 and continued until 1960 when a parallel Olympics was held in Rome after the 1960 Summer Olympics . Over 400 wheelchair athletes competed at the 1960 Paralympic Games , which became known as the first Paralympics .
Sepp Zwicknagl , a pioneer of snow sports for disabled athletes , was a double @-@ leg amputee Austrian skier who experimented skiing using prosthetics . His work helped pioneer technological advances for people with disabilities who wished to participate in winter sports . Advances were slow and it was not until 1974 that the first official world ski competition for physically impaired athletes , featuring downhill and a cross @-@ country skiing , was held . The first Winter Paralympics were held in 1976 at Örnsköldsvik , Sweden from February 21 – 28 . Alpine and Nordic skiing for amputees and visually impaired athletes where the main events but ice sledge racing was included as a demonstration event . There were 198 participating athletes from 16 countries , and it was the first time athletes with impairments other than wheelchair athletes were permitted to compete .
Starting in 1988 the Summer Paralympics were held in the same host city as the Summer Olympic Games . This was due to an agreement reached between the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) . The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics .
= = Cheating = =
Athletes have cheated by over @-@ representing impairment to have a competitive advantage , and the use of performance @-@ enhancing drugs . German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids in 2002 . He had won two gold medals in the alpine events but was stripped of his medals . One concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of boosting blood pressure , known as autonomic dysreflexia . The increase in blood pressure can improve performance by 15 % and is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross @-@ country skiing . To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury . This trauma can include breaking bones , strapping extremities in too tightly and using high @-@ pressured compression stockings . The injury is painless to the athlete but affects the body and impacts the athlete 's blood pressure , as can techniques like allowing the bladder to overfill .
= = Disability categories = =
The IPC has established six disability categories applying to both the Summer and Winter Paralympics . Athletes with one of these physical disabilities are able to compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category .
Amputee : Athletes with a partial or total loss of at least one limb .
Cerebral Palsy : Athletes with non @-@ progressive brain damage , for example cerebral palsy , traumatic brain injury , stroke or similar disabilities affecting muscle control , balance or coordination .
Intellectual Disability : Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behavior .
Wheelchair : Athletes with spinal cord injuries and other disabilities which require them to compete in a wheelchair .
Visually Impaired : Athletes with vision impairment ranging from partial vision , sufficient to be judged legally blind , to total blindness .
Les Autres : Athletes with a physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other five categories , such as dwarfism , multiple sclerosis or congenital deformities of the limbs such as that caused by thalidomide ( the name for this category is French for " the others " ) .
= = Classifications = =
Within the six disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to their level of impairment . The classification systems differ from sport to sport . The systems are designed to open up Paralympic sports to as many athletes as possible , who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability . The closest equivalents in able @-@ bodied competitions are age classifications in junior sports , and weight divisions in wrestling , boxing , and weightlifting . Classifications vary in accordance with the different skills required to perform the sport . The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities . As a result , there will always be a range of impairment within a classification . What follows is a list of the Winter Paralympic sports and a general description of how they are classified .
Alpine skiing : There are two events in alpine skiing : slalom and giant slalom . Alpine skiing accommodates athletes with the following physical limitations : spinal injury , Cerebral Palsy , amputation , Les Autres and blindness / visual impairment . There are eleven classifications , seven for standing athletes , three for sitting athletes , and three for visually impaired athletes . The divisions are defined by the degree of the athletes ' function and the need for assistive equipment ( prosthesis , ski poles , etc . ) . Snowboard Cross is technically now included in this category , though competition will take place with only limited classifications ( see below ) .
Biathlon : Biathlon is a combination of cross @-@ country skiing with target shooting . It requires physical stamina and accurate shooting . The events are open to athletes with physical disabilities and visual impairments . There are fifteen classes in which athletes will be placed depending on their level of function . Twelve divisions are for athletes with a physical impairment and three divisions are for athletes with a visual impairment . The athletes compete together and their finishing times are entered into a formula with their disability class to determine the athletes ' over all finish order . Visually impaired athletes are able to compete through the use of acoustic signals . The signal intensity varies depending upon whether or not the athlete is on target .
Cross @-@ country skiing : Cross @-@ country skiing , also known as Nordic skiing is open to athletes with Cerebral Palsy , amputations , the need for a wheelchair , visual impairment and intellectual impairment . There are fifteen classifications , three for visually impaired athletes , nine for standing athletes and three for seated athletes . The divisions are determined in a similar fashion to alpine skiing with attention given to the athletes ' level of function and need for assistive devices .
Ice Sledge Hockey : Ice sledge hockey is open only to male competitors with a physical disability in the lower part of their body . The game is played using international hockey rules with some modifications . Athletes sit on sledges with two blades that allow the puck to go beneath the sledge . They also use two sticks , which have a spike @-@ end for pushing and a blade @-@ end for shooting . The athletes are classified into three groups : group 1 is for athletes with no sitting balance or with major impairment in both upper and lower limbs , group 2 is for athletes with some sitting balance and moderate impairment in their extremities and athletes in group 3 have good balance and mild impairment in their upper and lower limbs .
Wheelchair curling : Wheelchair curling is a coed team event for athletes with permanent lower limb disabilities that require them to use a wheelchair in their daily lives . Athletes with Cerebral Palsy or Multiple Sclerosis can also play if they use a wheelchair . Delivery of the stone can be by hand release or the use of a pole . There are no classifications in this event except the requirement that all athletes participating must have need for a wheelchair for daily mobility .
Para @-@ snowboarding : On 2 May 2012 , the International Paralympic Committee officially sanctioned " para @-@ snowboarding " ( commonly known as adaptive snowboarding ) as a medal event in the 2014 Winter Paralympic Games under Alpine Skiing . There will be men 's and women 's standing snowboard @-@ cross competitions . The IPC currently recognizes two broader sport classes , one for competitors with lower @-@ limb impairments and one for those with upper @-@ limb impairments . Visually impaired classes are not currently recognized and the sport 's debut in the 2014 Sochi Paralympics will feature events for only athletes with lower @-@ limb impairments , who will be permitted to wear a prosthesis . The events will be run in a time trial format ( one rider on course at a time ) , and results within each broad class calculated without factors that adjust raw times based on disability classification ( for example , a hypothetical athlete with a single above @-@ knee amputation will not receive any adjustment to his or her start @-@ to @-@ finish time , even though the lack of a knee and functional quadriceps in one leg can result in an impairment much greater than a hypothetical athlete with a single below @-@ knee amputation but two functional quadriceps ) . However , as the sport develops , the classes will be expanded and / or refined in the future .
= = List of Paralympic sports = =
A number of different sports have been part of the Paralympic program at one point or another .
This color indicates a discontinued sport
= = Winter Games = =
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= Mary Shelley =
Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley ( née Godwin ; 30 August 1797 – 1 February 1851 ) was an English novelist , short story writer , dramatist , essayist , biographer , and travel writer , best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein : or , The Modern Prometheus ( 1818 ) . She also edited and promoted the works of her husband , the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley . Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin , and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft .
After Wollstonecraft 's death less than a month after her daughter Mary was born , Mary was raised by Godwin , who was able to provide his daughter with a rich , if informal , education , encouraging her to adhere to his own liberal political theories . When Mary was four , her father married a neighbour , with whom , as her stepmother , Mary came to have a troubled relationship .
In 1814 , Mary began a romance with one of her father 's political followers , the then married Percy Bysshe Shelley . Together with Mary 's stepsister Claire Clairmont , Mary and Shelley left for France and traveled through Europe . Upon their return to England , Mary was pregnant with Percy 's child . Over the next two years , she and Percy faced ostracism , constant debt , and the death of their prematurely born daughter . They married in late 1816 , after the suicide of Percy Shelley 's first wife , Harriet .
In 1816 , the couple famously spent a summer with Lord Byron , John William Polidori , and Claire Clairmont near Geneva , Switzerland , where Mary conceived the idea for her novel Frankenstein . The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy , where their second and third children died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child , Percy Florence Shelley . In 1822 , her husband drowned when his sailing boat sank during a storm near Viareggio . A year later , Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son and a career as a professional author . The last decade of her life was dogged by illness , probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53 .
Until the 1970s , Mary Shelley was known mainly for her efforts to publish her husband 's works and for her novel Frankenstein , which remains widely read and has inspired many theatrical and film adaptations . Recent scholarship has yielded a more comprehensive view of Mary Shelley ’ s achievements . Scholars have shown increasing interest in her literary output , particularly in her novels , which include the historical novels Valperga ( 1823 ) and Perkin Warbeck ( 1830 ) , the apocalyptic novel The Last Man ( 1826 ) , and her final two novels , Lodore ( 1835 ) and Falkner ( 1837 ) . Studies of her lesser @-@ known works , such as the travel book Rambles in Germany and Italy ( 1844 ) and the biographical articles for Dionysius Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia ( 1829 – 46 ) , support the growing view that Mary Shelley remained a political radical throughout her life . Mary Shelley 's works often argue that cooperation and sympathy , particularly as practised by women in the family , were the ways to reform civil society . This view was a direct challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley and the Enlightenment political theories articulated by her father , William Godwin .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Mary Shelley was born as Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in Somers Town , London , in 1797 . She was the second child of the feminist philosopher , educator , and writer Mary Wollstonecraft , and the first child of the philosopher , novelist , and journalist William Godwin . Wollstonecraft died of puerperal fever shortly after Mary was born . Godwin was left to bring up Mary , along with her older half @-@ sister , Fanny Imlay , Wollstonecraft 's child by the American speculator Gilbert Imlay . A year after Wollstonecraft 's death , Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) , which he intended as a sincere and compassionate tribute . However , because the Memoirs revealed Wollstonecraft 's affairs and her illegitimate child , they were seen as shocking . Mary Godwin read these memoirs and her mother 's books , and was brought up to cherish her mother 's memory .
Mary 's earliest years were happy ones , judging from the letters of William Godwin 's housekeeper and nurse , Louisa Jones . But Godwin was often deeply in debt ; feeling that he could not raise the children by himself , he cast about for a second wife . In December 1801 , he married Mary Jane Clairmont , a well @-@ educated woman with two young children of her own — Charles and Claire . Most of Godwin ’ s friends disliked his new wife , describing her as quick @-@ tempered and quarrelsome ; but Godwin was devoted to her , and the marriage was a success . Mary Godwin , on the other hand , came to detest her stepmother . William Godwin 's 19th @-@ century biographer C. Kegan Paul later suggested that Mrs Godwin had favoured her own children over those of Mary Wollstonecraft .
Together , the Godwins started a publishing firm called M. J. Godwin , which sold children 's books as well as stationery , maps , and games . However , the business did not turn a profit , and Godwin was forced to borrow substantial sums to keep it going . He continued to borrow to pay off earlier loans , compounding his problems . By 1809 , Godwin 's business was close to failure , and he was " near to despair " . Godwin was saved from debtor 's prison by philosophical devotees such as Francis Place , who lent him further money .
Though Mary Godwin received little formal education , her father tutored her in a broad range of subjects . He often took the children on educational outings , and they had access to his library and to the many intellectuals who visited him , including the Romantic poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the former vice @-@ president of the United States Aaron Burr . Godwin admitted he was not educating the children according to Mary Wollstonecraft 's philosophy as outlined in works such as A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) , but Mary Godwin nonetheless received an unusual and advanced education for a girl of the time . She had a governess , a daily tutor , and read many of her father 's children 's books on Roman and Greek history in manuscript . For six months in 1811 , she also attended a boarding school in Ramsgate . Her father described her at age 15 as " singularly bold , somewhat imperious , and active of mind . Her desire of knowledge is great , and her perseverance in everything she undertakes almost invincible . "
In June 1812 , her father sent Mary to stay with the Dissenting family of the radical William Baxter , near Dundee , Scotland . To Baxter , he wrote , " I am anxious that she should be brought up ... like a philosopher , even like a cynic . " Scholars have speculated that she may have been sent away for her health , to remove her from the seamy side of business , or to introduce her to radical politics . Mary Godwin revelled in the spacious surroundings of Baxter 's house and in the companionship of his four daughters , and she returned north in the summer of 1813 for a further stay of 10 months . In the 1831 introduction to Frankenstein , she recalled : " I wrote then — but in a most common @-@ place style . It was beneath the trees of the grounds belonging to our house , or on the bleak sides of the woodless mountains near , that my true compositions , the airy flights of my imagination , were born and fostered . "
= = = Percy Bysshe Shelley = = =
Mary Godwin may have first met the radical poet @-@ philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley in the interval between her two stays in Scotland . By the time she returned home for a second time on 30 March 1814 , Percy Shelley had become estranged from his wife and was regularly visiting Godwin , whom he had agreed to bail out of debt . Percy Shelley 's radicalism , particularly his economic views , which he had imbibed from William Godwin 's Political Justice ( 1793 ) , had alienated him from his wealthy aristocratic family : they wanted him to follow traditional models of the landed aristocracy , and he wanted to donate large amounts of the family 's money to schemes intended to help the disadvantaged . Percy Shelley therefore had difficulty gaining access to money until he inherited his estate , because his family did not want him wasting it on projects of " political justice " . After several months of promises , Shelley announced that he either could not or would not pay off all of Godwin 's debts . Godwin was angry and felt betrayed .
Mary and Percy began meeting each other secretly at Mary Wollstonecraft 's grave in St Pancras Churchyard , and they fell in love — she was nearly 17 , he nearly 22 . To Mary 's dismay , her father disapproved , and tried to thwart the relationship and salvage the " spotless fame " of his daughter . At about the same time , Mary 's father learned of Shelley 's inability to pay off the father 's debts . Mary , who later wrote of " my excessive and romantic attachment to my father " , was confused . She saw Percy Shelley as an embodiment of her parents ' liberal and reformist ideas of the 1790s , particularly Godwin 's view that marriage was a repressive monopoly , which he had argued in his 1793 edition of Political Justice but since retracted . On 28 July 1814 , the couple eloped and secretly left for France , taking Mary 's stepsister , Claire Clairmont , with them , but leaving Percy 's pregnant wife behind .
After convincing Mary Jane Godwin , who had pursued them to Calais , that they did not wish to return , the trio travelled to Paris , and then , by donkey , mule , carriage , and foot , through a France recently ravaged by war , to Switzerland . " It was acting in a novel , being an incarnate romance , " Mary Shelley recalled in 1826 . As they travelled , Mary and Percy read works by Mary Wollstonecraft and others , kept a joint journal , and continued their own writing . At Lucerne , lack of money forced the three to turn back . They travelled down the Rhine and by land to the Dutch port of Marsluys , arriving at Gravesend , Kent , on 13 September 1814 .
The situation awaiting Mary Godwin in England was fraught with complications , some of which she had not foreseen . Either before or during the journey , she had become pregnant . She and Percy now found themselves penniless , and , to Mary 's genuine surprise , her father refused to have anything to do with her . The couple moved with Claire into lodgings at Somers Town , and later , Nelson Square . They maintained their intense programme of reading and writing , and entertained Percy Shelley 's friends , such as Thomas Jefferson Hogg and the writer Thomas Love Peacock . Percy Shelley sometimes left home for short periods to dodge creditors . The couple 's distraught letters reveal their pain at these separations .
Pregnant and often ill , Mary Godwin had to cope with Percy 's joy at the birth of his son by Harriet Shelley in late 1814 and his constant outings with Claire Clairmont . She was partly consoled by the visits of Hogg , whom she disliked at first but soon considered a close friend . Percy Shelley seems to have wanted Mary Godwin and Hogg to become lovers ; Mary did not dismiss the idea , since in principle she believed in free love . In practice , however , she loved only Percy Shelley and seems to have ventured no further than flirting with Hogg . On 22 February 1815 , she gave birth to a two @-@ months premature baby girl , who was not expected to survive . On 6 March , she wrote to Hogg :
My dearest Hogg my baby is dead — will you come to see me as soon as you can . I wish to see you — It was perfectly well when I went to bed — I awoke in the night to give it suck it appeared to be sleeping so quietly that I would not awake it . It was dead then , but we did not find that out till morning — from its appearance it evidently died of convulsions — Will you come — you are so calm a creature & Shelley is afraid of a fever from the milk — for I am no longer a mother now .
The loss of her child induced acute depression in Mary Godwin , who was haunted by visions of the baby ; but she conceived again and had recovered by the summer . With a revival in Percy Shelley 's finances after the death of his grandfather , Sir Bysshe Shelley , the couple holidayed in Torquay and then rented a two @-@ storey cottage at Bishopsgate , on the edge of Windsor Great Park . Little is known about this period in Mary Godwin 's life , since her journal from May 1815 to July 1816 is lost . At Bishopsgate , Percy wrote his poem Alastor ; and on 24 January 1816 , Mary gave birth to a second child , William , named after her father , and soon nicknamed " Willmouse " . In her novel The Last Man , she later imagined Windsor as a Garden of Eden .
= = = Lake Geneva and Frankenstein = = =
In May 1816 , Mary Godwin , Percy Shelley , and their son travelled to Geneva with Claire Clairmont . They planned to spend the summer with the poet Lord Byron , whose recent affair with Claire had left her pregnant . The party arrived at Geneva on 14 May 1816 , where Mary called herself " Mrs Shelley " . Byron joined them on 25 May , with his young physician , John William Polidori , and rented the Villa Diodati , close to Lake Geneva at the village of Cologny ; Percy Shelley rented a smaller building called Maison Chapuis on the waterfront nearby . They spent their time writing , boating on the lake , and talking late into the night .
" It proved a wet , ungenial summer " , Mary Shelley remembered in 1831 , " and incessant rain often confined us for days to the house " . Sitting around a log fire at Byron 's villa , the company amused themselves with German ghost stories , which prompted Byron to propose that they " each write a ghost story " . Unable to think of a story , young Mary Godwin became anxious : " Have you thought of a story ? I was asked each morning , and each morning I was forced to reply with a mortifying negative . " During one mid @-@ June evening , the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life . " Perhaps a corpse would be re @-@ animated " , Mary noted , " galvanism had given token of such things " . It was after midnight before they retired , and unable to sleep , she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the grim terrors of her " waking dream " , her ghost story :
She began writing what she assumed would be a short story . With Percy Shelley 's encouragement , she expanded this tale into her first novel , Frankenstein : or , The Modern Prometheus , published in 1818 . She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment " when I first stepped out from childhood into life " . The story has been fictionalised several times and formed the basis for a number of films .
In September 2011 , the astronomer Donald Olson , after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa the previous year , and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars , concluded that her waking dream took place " between 2am and 3am " 16 June 1816 , several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story .
= = = Authorship of Frankenstein = = =
Since Frankenstein was published anonymously in 1818 , readers and critics argued over its origins and the contributions of the two Shelleys to the book . There are differences in the 1818 , 1823 , and 1831 editions , and Mary Shelley wrote , " I certainly did not owe the suggestion of one incident , nor scarcely of one train of feeling , to my husband , and yet but for his incitement , it would never have taken the form in which it was presented to the world . " She wrote that the preface to the first edition was Percy 's work " as far as I can recollect . " James Rieger concluded Percy 's " assistance at every point in the book 's manufacture was so extensive that one hardly knows whether to regard him as editor or minor collaborator " , while Anne K. Mellor later argued Percy only " made many technical corrections and several times clarified the narrative and thematic continuity of the text . "
= = = Bath and Marlow = = =
On their return to England in September , Mary and Percy moved — with Claire Clairmont , who took lodgings nearby — to Bath , where they hoped to keep Claire ’ s pregnancy secret . At Cologny , Mary Godwin had received two letters from her half @-@ sister , Fanny Imlay , who alluded to her " unhappy life " ; on 9 October , Fanny wrote an " alarming letter " from Bristol that sent Percy Shelley racing off to search for her , without success . On the morning of 10 October , Fanny Imlay was found dead in a room at a Swansea inn , along with a suicide note and a laudanum bottle . On 10 December , Percy Shelley 's wife , Harriet , was discovered drowned in the Serpentine , a lake in Hyde Park , London . Both suicides were hushed up . Harriet ’ s family obstructed Percy Shelley 's efforts — fully supported by Mary Godwin — to assume custody of his two children by Harriet . His lawyers advised him to improve his case by marrying ; so he and Mary , who was pregnant again , married on 30 December 1816 at St Mildred 's Church , Bread Street , London . Mr and Mrs Godwin were present and the marriage ended the family rift .
Claire Clairmont gave birth to a baby girl on 13 January , at first called Alba , later Allegra . In March of that year , the Chancery Court ruled Percy Shelley morally unfit to assume custody of his children and later placed them with a clergyman 's family . Also in March , the Shelleys moved with Claire and Alba to Albion House at Marlow , Buckinghamshire , a large , damp building on the river Thames . There Mary Shelley gave birth to her third child , Clara , on 2 September . At Marlow , they entertained their new friends Marianne and Leigh Hunt , worked hard at their writing , and often discussed politics .
Early in the summer of 1817 , Mary Shelley finished Frankenstein , which was published anonymously in January 1818 . Reviewers and readers assumed that Percy Shelley was the author , since the book was published with his preface and dedicated to his political hero William Godwin . At Marlow , Mary edited the joint journal of the group 's 1814 Continental journey , adding material written in Switzerland in 1816 , along with Percy 's poem " Mont Blanc " . The result was the History of a Six Weeks ' Tour , published in November 1817 . That autumn , Percy Shelley often lived away from home in London to evade creditors . The threat of a debtor 's prison , combined with their ill health and fears of losing custody of their children , contributed to the couple 's decision to leave England for Italy on 12 March 1818 , taking Claire Clairmont and Alba with them . They had no intention of returning .
= = = Italy = = =
One of the party 's first tasks on arriving in Italy was to hand Alba over to Byron , who was living in Venice . He had agreed to raise her so long as Claire had nothing more to do with her . The Shelleys then embarked on a roving existence , never settling in any one place for long . Along the way , they accumulated a circle of friends and acquaintances who often moved with them . The couple devoted their time to writing , reading , learning , sightseeing , and socialising . The Italian adventure was , however , blighted for Mary Shelley by the deaths of both her children — Clara , in September 1818 in Venice , and William , in June 1819 in Rome . These losses left her in a deep depression that isolated her from Percy Shelley , who wrote in his notebook :
My dearest Mary , wherefore hast thou gone ,
And left me in this dreary world alone ?
Thy form is here indeed — a lovely one —
But thou art fled , gone down a dreary road
That leads to Sorrow 's most obscure abode .
For thine own sake I cannot follow thee
Do thou return for mine .
For a time , Mary Shelley found comfort only in her writing . The birth of her fourth child , Percy Florence , on 12 November 1819 , finally lifted her spirits , though she nursed the memory of her lost children till the end of her life .
Italy provided the Shelleys , Byron , and other exiles with a political freedom unattainable at home . Despite its associations with personal loss , Italy became for Mary Shelley " a country which memory painted as paradise " . Their Italian years were a time of intense intellectual and creative activity for both Shelleys . While Percy composed a series of major poems , Mary wrote the autobiographical novel Matilda , the historical novel Valperga , and the plays Proserpine and Midas . Mary wrote Valperga to help alleviate her father 's financial difficulties , as Percy refused to assist him further . She was often physically ill , however , and prone to depressions . She also had to cope with Percy ’ s interest in other women , such as Sophia Stacey , Emilia Viviani , and Jane Williams . Since Mary Shelley shared his belief in the non @-@ exclusivity of marriage , she formed emotional ties of her own among the men and women of their circle . She became particularly fond of the Greek revolutionary Prince Alexander Mavrocordato and of Jane and Edward Williams .
In December 1818 , the Shelleys travelled south with Claire Clairmont and their servants to Naples , where they stayed for three months , receiving only one visitor , a physician . In 1820 , they found themselves plagued by accusations and threats from Paolo and Elise Foggi , former servants whom Percy Shelley had dismissed in Naples shortly after the Foggis had married . The pair revealed that on 27 February 1819 in Naples , Percy Shelley had registered as his child by Mary Shelley a two @-@ month @-@ old baby girl named Elena Adelaide Shelley . The Foggis also claimed that Claire Clairmont was the baby 's mother . Biographers have offered various interpretations of these events : that Percy Shelley decided to adopt a local child ; that the baby was his by Elise , Claire , or an unknown woman ; or that she was Elise 's by Byron . Mary Shelley insisted she would have known if Claire had been pregnant , but it is unclear how much she really knew . The events in Naples , a city Mary Shelley later called a paradise inhabited by devils , remain shrouded in mystery . The only certainty is that she herself was not the child ’ s mother . Elena Adelaide Shelley died in Naples on 9 June 1820 .
In the summer of 1822 , a pregnant Mary moved with Percy , Claire , and Edward and Jane Williams to the isolated Villa Magni , at the sea 's edge near the hamlet of San Terenzo in the Bay of Lerici . Once they were settled in , Percy broke the " evil news " to Claire that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in a convent at Bagnacavallo . Mary Shelley was distracted and unhappy in the cramped and remote Villa Magni , which she came to regard as a dungeon . On 16 June , she miscarried , losing so much blood that she nearly died . Rather than wait for a doctor , Percy sat her in a bath of ice to staunch the bleeding , an act the doctor later told him saved her life . All was not well between the couple that summer , however , and Percy spent more time with Jane Williams than with his depressed and debilitated wife . Most of the short poems Shelley wrote at San Terenzo were addressed to Jane rather than to Mary .
The coast offered Percy Shelley and Edward Williams the chance to enjoy their " perfect plaything for the summer " , a new sailing boat . The boat had been designed by Daniel Roberts and Edward Trelawny , an admirer of Byron 's who had joined the party in January 1822 . On 1 July 1822 , Percy Shelley , Edward Ellerker Williams , and Captain Daniel Roberts sailed south down the coast to Livorno . There Percy Shelley discussed with Byron and Leigh Hunt the launch of a radical magazine called The Liberal . On 8 July , he and Edward Williams set out on the return journey to Lerici with their eighteen @-@ year @-@ old boatboy , Charles Vivian . They never reached their destination . A letter arrived at Villa Magni from Hunt to Percy Shelley , dated 8 July , saying , " pray write to tell us how you got home , for they say you had bad weather after you sailed monday & we are anxious " . " The paper fell from me , " Mary told a friend later . " I trembled all over . " She and Jane Williams rushed desperately to Livorno and then to Pisa in the fading hope that their husbands were still alive . Ten days after the storm , three bodies washed up on the coast near Viareggio , midway between Livorno and Lerici . Trelawny , Byron , and Hunt cremated Percy Shelley ’ s corpse on the beach at Viareggio .
= = = Return to England and writing career = = =
After her husband 's death , Mary Shelley lived for a year with Leigh Hunt and his family in Genoa , where she often saw Byron and transcribed his poems . She resolved to live by her pen and for her son , but her financial situation was precarious . On 23 July 1823 , she left Genoa for England and stayed with her father and stepmother in the Strand until a small advance from her father @-@ in @-@ law enabled her to lodge nearby . Sir Timothy Shelley had at first agreed to support his grandson , Percy Florence , only if he were handed over to an appointed guardian . Mary Shelley rejected this idea instantly . She managed instead to wring out of Sir Timothy a limited annual allowance ( which she had to repay when Percy Florence inherited the estate ) , but to the end of his days he refused to meet her in person and dealt with her only through lawyers . Mary Shelley busied herself with editing her husband 's poems , among other literary endeavours , but concern for her son restricted her options . Sir Timothy threatened to stop the allowance if any biography of the poet were published . In 1826 , Percy Florence became the legal heir of the Shelley estate after the death of his half @-@ brother Charles Shelley , his father 's son by Harriet Shelley . Sir Timothy raised Mary 's allowance from £ 100 a year to £ 250 but remained as difficult as ever . Mary Shelley enjoyed the stimulating society of William Godwin 's circle , but poverty prevented her from socialising as she wished . She also felt ostracised by those who , like Sir Timothy , still disapproved of her relationship with Percy Bysshe Shelley .
In the summer of 1824 , Mary Shelley moved to Kentish Town in north London to be near Jane Williams . She may have been , in the words of her biographer Muriel Spark , " a little in love " with Jane . Jane later disillusioned her by gossiping that Percy had preferred her to Mary , owing to Mary 's inadequacy as a wife . At around this time , Mary Shelley was working on her novel , The Last Man ( 1826 ) ; and she assisted a series of friends who were writing memoirs of Byron and Percy Shelley — the beginnings of her attempts to immortalise her husband . She also met the American actor John Howard Payne and the American writer Washington Irving , who intrigued her . Payne fell in love with her and in 1826 asked her to marry him . She refused , saying that after being married to one genius , she could only marry another . Payne accepted the rejection and tried without success to talk his friend Irving into proposing himself . Mary Shelley was aware of Payne 's plan , but how seriously she took it is unclear .
In 1827 , Mary Shelley was party to a scheme that enabled her friend Isabel Robinson and Isabel 's lover , Mary Diana Dods , who wrote under the name David Lyndsay , to embark on a life together in France as man and wife . With the help of Payne , whom she kept in the dark about the details , Mary Shelley obtained false passports for the couple . In 1828 , she fell ill with smallpox while visiting them in Paris . Weeks later she recovered , unscarred but without her youthful beauty .
During the period 1827 – 40 , Mary Shelley was busy as an editor and writer . She wrote the novels The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck ( 1830 ) , Lodore ( 1835 ) , and Falkner ( 1837 ) . She contributed five volumes of Lives of Italian , Spanish , Portuguese , and French authors to Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia . She also wrote stories for ladies ' magazines . She was still helping to support her father , and they looked out for publishers for each other . In 1830 , she sold the copyright for a new edition of Frankenstein for £ 60 to Henry Colburn and Richard Bentley for their new Standard Novels series . After her father 's death in 1836 at the age of eighty , she began assembling his letters and a memoir for publication , as he had requested in his will ; but after two years of work , she abandoned the project . Throughout this period , she also championed Percy Shelley 's poetry , promoting its publication and quoting it in her writing . By 1837 , Percy 's works were well @-@ known and increasingly admired . In the summer of 1838 Edward Moxon , the publisher of Tennyson and the son @-@ in @-@ law of Charles Lamb , proposed publishing a collected works of Percy Shelley . Mary was paid £ 500 to edit the Poetical Works ( 1838 ) , which Sir Timothy insisted should not include a biography . Mary found a way to tell the story of Percy 's life , nonetheless : she included extensive biographical notes about the poems .
Mary Shelley continued to treat potential romantic partners with caution . In 1828 , she met and flirted with the French writer Prosper Mérimée , but her one surviving letter to him appears to be a deflection of his declaration of love . She was delighted when her old friend from Italy , Edward Trelawny , returned to England , and they joked about marriage in their letters . Their friendship had altered , however , following her refusal to cooperate with his proposed biography of Percy Shelley ; and he later reacted angrily to her omission of the atheistic section of Queen Mab from Percy Shelley 's poems . Oblique references in her journals , from the early 1830s until the early 1840s , suggest that Mary Shelley had feelings for the radical politician Aubrey Beauclerk , who may have disappointed her by twice marrying others .
Mary Shelley 's first concern during these years was the welfare of Percy Florence . She honoured her late husband 's wish that his son attend public school , and , with Sir Timothy 's grudging help , had him educated at Harrow . To avoid boarding fees , she moved to Harrow on the Hill herself so that Percy could attend as a day scholar . Though Percy went on to Trinity College , Cambridge , and dabbled in politics and the law , he showed no sign of his parents ' gifts . He was devoted to his mother , and after he left university in 1841 , he came to live with her .
= = = Final years and death = = =
In 1840 and 1842 , mother and son travelled together on the continent , journeys that Mary Shelley recorded in Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840 , 1842 and 1843 ( 1844 ) . In 1844 , Sir Timothy Shelley finally died at the age of ninety , " falling from the stalk like an overblown flower " , as Mary put it . For the first time , she and her son were financially independent , though the estate proved less valuable than they had hoped .
In the mid @-@ 1840s , Mary Shelley found herself the target of three separate blackmailers . In 1845 , an Italian political exile called Gatteschi , whom she had met in Paris , threatened to publish letters she had sent him . A friend of her son 's bribed a police chief into seizing Gatteschi 's papers , including the letters , which were then destroyed . Shortly afterwards , Mary Shelley bought some letters written by herself and Percy Bysshe Shelley from a man calling himself G. Byron and posing as the illegitimate son of the late Lord Byron . Also in 1845 , Percy Bysshe Shelley 's cousin Thomas Medwin approached her claiming to have written a damaging biography of Percy Shelley . He said he would suppress it in return for £ 250 , but Mary Shelley refused .
In 1848 , Percy Florence married Jane Gibson St John . The marriage proved a happy one , and Mary Shelley and Jane were fond of each other . Mary lived with her son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law at Field Place , Sussex , the Shelleys ' ancestral home , and at Chester Square , London , and accompanied them on travels abroad .
Mary Shelley 's last years were blighted by illness . From 1839 , she suffered from headaches and bouts of paralysis in parts of her body , which sometimes prevented her from reading and writing . On 1 February 1851 , at Chester Square , she died at the age of fifty @-@ three from what her physician suspected was a brain tumour . According to Jane Shelley , Mary Shelley had asked to be buried with her mother and father ; but Percy and Jane , judging the graveyard at St Pancras to be " dreadful " , chose to bury her instead at St Peter 's Church , Bournemouth , near their new home at Boscombe . On the first anniversary of Mary Shelley 's death , the Shelleys opened her box @-@ desk . Inside they found locks of her dead children 's hair , a notebook she had shared with Percy Bysshe Shelley , and a copy of his poem Adonaïs with one page folded round a silk parcel containing some of his ashes and the remains of his heart .
= = Literary themes and styles = =
Mary Shelley lived a literary life . Her father encouraged her to learn to write by composing letters , and her favourite occupation as a child was writing stories . Unfortunately , all of Mary 's juvenilia were lost when she ran off with Percy in 1814 , and none of her surviving manuscripts can be definitively dated before that year . Her first published work is often thought to have been Mounseer Nongtongpaw , comic verses written for Godwin 's Juvenile Library when she was ten and a half ; however , the poem is attributed to another writer in the most recent authoritative collection of her works . Percy Shelley enthusiastically encouraged Mary Shelley 's writing : " My husband was , from the first , very anxious that I should prove myself worthy of my parentage , and enrol myself on the page of fame . He was forever inciting me to obtain literary reputation . "
= = = Novels = = =
= = = = Autobiographical elements = = = =
Certain sections of Mary Shelley 's novels are often interpreted as masked rewritings of her life . Critics have pointed to the recurrence of the father – daughter motif in particular as evidence of this autobiographical style . For example , commentators frequently read Mathilda ( 1820 ) autobiographically , identifying the three central characters as versions of Mary Shelley , William Godwin , and Percy Shelley . Mary Shelley herself confided that she modelled the central characters of The Last Man on her Italian circle . Lord Raymond , who leaves England to fight for the Greeks and dies in Constantinople , is based on Lord Byron ; and the utopian Adrian , Earl of Windsor , who leads his followers in search of a natural paradise and dies when his boat sinks in a storm , is a fictional portrait of Percy Bysshe Shelley . However , as she wrote in her review of Godwin 's novel Cloudesley ( 1830 ) , she did not believe that authors " were merely copying from our own hearts " . William Godwin regarded his daughter 's characters as types rather than portraits from real life . Some modern critics , such as Patricia Clemit and Jane Blumberg , have taken the same view , resisting autobiographical readings of Mary Shelley 's works .
= = = = Novelistic genres = = = =
Mary Shelley employed the techniques of many different novelistic genres , most vividly the Godwinian novel , Walter Scott 's new historical novel , and the Gothic novel . The Godwinian novel , made popular during the 1790s with works such as Godwin 's Caleb Williams ( 1794 ) , " employed a Rousseauvian confessional form to explore the contradictory relations between the self and society " , and Frankenstein exhibits many of the same themes and literary devices as Godwin 's novel . However , Shelley critiques those Enlightenment ideals that Godwin promotes in his works . In The Last Man , she uses the philosophical form of the Godwinian novel to demonstrate the ultimate meaninglessness of the world . While earlier Godwinian novels had shown how rational individuals could slowly improve society , The Last Man and Frankenstein demonstrate the individual 's lack of control over history .
Shelley uses the historical novel to comment on gender relations ; for example , Valperga is a feminist version of Scott 's masculinist genre . Introducing women into the story who are not part of the historical record , Shelley uses their narratives to question established theological and political institutions . Shelley sets the male protagonist 's compulsive greed for conquest in opposition to a female alternative : reason and sensibility . In Perkin Warbeck , Shelley 's other historical novel , Lady Gordon stands for the values of friendship , domesticity , and equality . Through her , Shelley offers a feminine alternative to the masculine power politics that destroy the male characters . The novel provides a more inclusive historical narrative to challenge the one which usually relates only masculine events .
= = = = Gender = = = =
With the rise of feminist literary criticism in the 1970s , Mary Shelley 's works , particularly Frankenstein , began to attract much more attention from scholars . Feminist and psychoanalytic critics were largely responsible for the recovery from neglect of Shelley as a writer . Ellen Moers was one of the first to claim that Shelley 's loss of a baby was a crucial influence on the writing of Frankenstein . She argues that the novel is a " birth myth " in which Shelley comes to terms with her guilt for causing her mother 's death as well as for failing as a parent . Shelley scholar Anne K. Mellor suggests that , from a feminist viewpoint , it is a story " about what happens when a man tries to have a baby without a woman ... [ Frankenstein ] is profoundly concerned with natural as opposed to unnatural modes of production and reproduction " . Victor Frankenstein 's failure as a " parent " in the novel has been read as an expression of the anxieties which accompany pregnancy , giving birth , and particularly maternity .
Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar argue in their seminal book The Madwoman in the Attic ( 1979 ) that in Frankenstein in particular , Shelley responded to the masculine literary tradition represented by John Milton 's Paradise Lost . In their interpretation , Shelley reaffirms this masculine tradition , including the misogyny inherent in it , but at the same time " conceal [ s ] fantasies of equality that occasionally erupt in monstrous images of rage " . Mary Poovey reads the first edition of Frankenstein as part of a larger pattern in Shelley 's writing , which begins with literary self @-@ assertion and ends with conventional femininity . Poovey suggests that Frankenstein 's multiple narratives enable Shelley to split her artistic persona : she can " express and efface herself at the same time " . Shelley 's fear of self @-@ assertion is reflected in the fate of Frankenstein , who is punished for his egotism by losing all his domestic ties .
Feminist critics often focus on how authorship itself , particularly female authorship , is represented in and through Shelley 's novels . As Mellor explains , Shelley uses the Gothic style not only to explore repressed female sexual desire but also as way to " censor her own speech in Frankenstein " . According to Poovey and Mellor , Shelley did not want to promote her own authorial persona and felt deeply inadequate as a writer , and " this shame contributed to the generation of her fictional images of abnormality , perversion , and destruction " .
Shelley 's writings focus on the role of the family in society and women 's role within that family . She celebrates the " feminine affections and compassion " associated with the family and suggests that civil society will fail without them . Shelley was " profoundly committed to an ethic of cooperation , mutual dependence , and self @-@ sacrifice " . In Lodore , for example , the central story follows the fortunes of the wife and daughter of the title character , Lord Lodore , who is killed in a duel at the end of the first volume , leaving a trail of legal , financial , and familial obstacles for the two " heroines " to negotiate . The novel is engaged with political and ideological issues , particularly the education and social role of women . It dissects a patriarchal culture that separated the sexes and pressured women into dependence on men . In the view of Shelley scholar Betty T. Bennett , " the novel proposes egalitarian educational paradigms for women and men , which would bring social justice as well as the spiritual and intellectual means by which to meet the challenges life invariably brings " . However , Falkner is the only one of Mary Shelley 's novels in which the heroine 's agenda triumphs . The novel 's resolution proposes that when female values triumph over violent and destructive masculinity , men will be freed to express the " compassion , sympathy , and generosity " of their better natures .
= = = = Enlightenment and Romanticism = = = =
Frankenstein , like much Gothic fiction of the period , mixes a visceral and alienating subject matter with speculative and thought @-@ provoking themes . Rather than focusing on the twists and turns of the plot , however , the novel foregrounds the mental and moral struggles of the protagonist , Victor Frankenstein , and Shelley imbues the text with her own brand of politicised Romanticism , one that criticised the individualism and egotism of traditional Romanticism . Victor Frankenstein is like Satan in Paradise Lost , and Prometheus : he rebels against tradition ; he creates life ; and he shapes his own destiny . These traits are not portrayed positively ; as Blumberg writes , " his relentless ambition is a self @-@ delusion , clothed as quest for truth " . He must abandon his family to fulfill his ambition .
Mary Shelley believed in the Enlightenment idea that people could improve society through the responsible exercise of political power , but she feared that the irresponsible exercise of power would lead to chaos . In practice , her works largely criticise the way 18th @-@ century thinkers such as her parents believed such change could be brought about . The creature in Frankenstein , for example , reads books associated with radical ideals but the education he gains from them is ultimately useless . Shelley 's works reveal her as less optimistic than Godwin and Wollstonecraft ; she lacks faith in Godwin 's theory that humanity could eventually be perfected .
As literary scholar Kari Lokke writes , The Last Man , more so than Frankenstein , " in its refusal to place humanity at the center of the universe , its questioning of our privileged position in relation to nature ... constitutes a profound and prophetic challenge to Western humanism . " Specifically , Mary Shelley 's allusions to what radicals believed was a failed revolution in France and the Godwinian , Wollstonecraftian , and Burkean responses to it , challenge " Enlightenment faith in the inevitability of progress through collective efforts " . As in Frankenstein , Shelley " offers a profoundly disenchanted commentary on the age of revolution , which ends in a total rejection of the progressive ideals of her own generation " . Not only does she reject these Enlightenment political ideals , but she also rejects the Romantic notion that the poetic or literary imagination can offer an alternative .
= = = = Politics = = = =
Critics have until recently cited Lodore and Falkner as evidence of increasing conservatism in Mary Shelley 's later works . In 1984 , Mary Poovey influentially identified the retreat of Mary Shelley ’ s reformist politics into the " separate sphere " of the domestic . Poovey suggested that Mary Shelley wrote Falkner to resolve her conflicted response to her father 's combination of libertarian radicalism and stern insistence on social decorum . Mellor largely agreed , arguing that " Mary Shelley grounded her alternative political ideology on the metaphor of the peaceful , loving , bourgeois family . She thereby implicitly endorsed a conservative vision of gradual evolutionary reform . " This vision allowed women to participate in the public sphere but it inherited the inequalities inherent in the bourgeois family .
However , in the last decade or so this view has been challenged . For example , Bennett claims that Mary Shelley 's works reveal a consistent commitment to Romantic idealism and political reform and Jane Blumberg 's study of Shelley 's early novels argues that her career cannot be easily divided into radical and conservative halves . She contends that " Shelley was never a passionate radical like her husband and her later lifestyle was not abruptly assumed nor was it a betrayal . She was in fact challenging the political and literary influences of her circle in her first work . " In this reading , Shelley 's early works are interpreted as a challenge to Godwin and Percy Bysshe Shelley 's radicalism . Victor Frankenstein 's " thoughtless rejection of family " , for example , is seen as evidence of Shelley 's constant concern for the domestic .
= = = Short stories = = =
In the 1820s and 1830s , Mary Shelley frequently wrote short stories for gift books or annuals , including sixteen for The Keepsake , which was aimed at middle @-@ class women and bound in silk , with gilt @-@ edged pages . Mary Shelley 's work in this genre has been described as that of a " hack writer " and " wordy and pedestrian " . However , critic Charlotte Sussman points out that other leading writers of the day , such as the Romantic poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge , also took advantage of this profitable market . She explains that " the annuals were a major mode of literary production in the 1820s and 1830s " , with The Keepsake the most successful .
Many of Shelley 's stories are set in places or times far removed from early 19th @-@ century Britain , such as Greece and the reign of Henry IV of France . Shelley was particularly interested in " the fragility of individual identity " and often depicted " the way a person 's role in the world can be cataclysmically altered either by an internal emotional upheaval , or by some supernatural occurrence that mirrors an internal schism " . In her stories , female identity is tied to a woman 's short @-@ lived value in the marriage market while male identity can be sustained and transformed through the use of money . Although Mary Shelley wrote twenty @-@ one short stories for the annuals between 1823 and 1839 , she always saw herself , above all , as a novelist . She wrote to Leigh Hunt , " I write bad articles which help to make me miserable — but I am going to plunge into a novel and hope that its clear water will wash off the mud of the magazines . "
= = = Travelogues = = =
When they ran off to France in the summer of 1814 , Mary Godwin and Percy Shelley began a joint journal , which they published in 1817 under the title History of a Six Weeks ' Tour , adding four letters , two by each of them , based on their visit to Geneva in 1816 , along with Percy Shelley 's poem " Mont Blanc " . The work celebrates youthful love and political idealism and consciously follows the example of Mary Wollstonecraft and others who had combined travelling with writing . The perspective of the History is philosophical and reformist rather than that of a conventional travelogue ; in particular , it addresses the effects of politics and war on France . The letters the couple wrote on the second journey confront the " great and extraordinary events " of the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo after his " Hundred Days " return in 1815 . They also explore the sublimity of Lake Geneva and Mont Blanc as well as the revolutionary legacy of the philosopher and novelist Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau .
Mary Shelley 's last full @-@ length book , written in the form of letters and published in 1844 , was Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840 , 1842 and 1843 , which recorded her travels with her son Percy Florence and his university friends . In Rambles , Shelley follows the tradition of Mary Wollstonecraft 's Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark and her own A History of a Six Weeks ' Tour in mapping her personal and political landscape through the discourse of sensibility and sympathy . For Shelley , building sympathetic connections between people is the way to build civil society and to increase knowledge : " knowledge , to enlighten and free the mind from clinging deadening prejudices — a wider circle of sympathy with our fellow @-@ creatures ; — these are the uses of travel " . Between observations on scenery , culture , and " the people , especially in a political point of view " , she uses the travelogue form to explore her roles as a widow and mother and to reflect on revolutionary nationalism in Italy . She also records her " pilgrimage " to scenes associated with Percy Shelley . According to critic Clarissa Orr , Mary Shelley 's adoption of a persona of philosophical motherhood gives Rambles the unity of a prose poem , with " death and memory as central themes " . At the same time , Shelley makes an egalitarian case against monarchy , class distinctions , slavery , and war .
= = = Biographies = = =
Between 1832 and 1839 , Mary Shelley wrote many biographies of notable Italian , Spanish , Portuguese , and French men and a few women for Dionysius Lardner 's Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men . These formed part of Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia , one of the best of many such series produced in the 1820s and 1830s in response to growing middle @-@ class demand for self @-@ education . Until the republication of these essays in 2002 , their significance within her body of work was not appreciated . In the view of literary scholar Greg Kucich , they reveal Mary Shelley 's " prodigious research across several centuries and in multiple languages " , her gift for biographical narrative , and her interest in the " emerging forms of feminist historiography " . Shelley wrote in a biographical style popularised by the 18th @-@ century critic Samuel Johnson in his Lives of the Poets ( 1779 – 81 ) , combining secondary sources , memoir and anecdote , and authorial evaluation . She records details of each writer 's life and character , quotes their writing in the original as well as in translation , and ends with a critical assessment of their achievement .
For Shelley , biographical writing was supposed to , in her words , " form as it were a school in which to study the philosophy of history " , and to teach " lessons " . Most frequently and importantly , these lessons consisted of criticisms of male @-@ dominated institutions such as primogeniture . Shelley emphasises domesticity , romance , family , sympathy , and compassion in the lives of her subjects . Her conviction that such forces could improve society connects her biographical approach with that of other early feminist historians such as Mary Hays and Anna Jameson . Unlike her novels , most of which had an original print run of several hundred copies , the Lives had a print run of about 4 @,@ 000 for each volume : thus , according to Kucich , Mary Shelley 's " use of biography to forward the social agenda of women 's historiography became one of her most influential political interventions " .
= = = Editorial work = = =
Soon after Percy Shelley 's death , Mary Shelley determined to write his biography . In a letter of 17 November 1822 , she announced : " I shall write his life — & thus occupy myself in the only manner from which I can derive consolation . " However , her father @-@ in @-@ law , Sir Timothy Shelley , effectively banned her from doing so . Mary began her fostering of Percy 's poetic reputation in 1824 with the publication of his Posthumous Poems . In 1839 , while she was working on the Lives , she prepared a new edition of his poetry , which became , in the words of literary scholar Susan J. Wolfson , " the canonizing event " in the history of her husband 's reputation . The following year , Mary Shelley edited a volume of her husband 's essays , letters , translations , and fragments , and throughout the 1830s , she introduced his poetry to a wider audience by publishing assorted works in the annual The Keepsake .
Evading Sir Timothy 's ban on a biography , Mary Shelley often included in these editions her own annotations and reflections on her husband 's life and work . " I am to justify his ways , " she had declared in 1824 ; " I am to make him beloved to all posterity . " It was this goal , argues Blumberg , that led her to present Percy 's work to the public in the " most popular form possible " . To tailor his works for a Victorian audience , she cast Percy Shelley as a lyrical rather than a political poet . As Mary Favret writes , " the disembodied Percy identifies the spirit of poetry itself " . Mary glossed Percy 's political radicalism as a form of sentimentalism , arguing that his republicanism arose from sympathy for those who were suffering . She inserted romantic anecdotes of his benevolence , domesticity , and love of the natural world . Portraying herself as Percy 's " practical muse " , she also noted how she had suggested revisions as he wrote .
Despite the emotions stirred by this task , Mary Shelley arguably proved herself in many respects a professional and scholarly editor . Working from Percy 's messy , sometimes indecipherable , notebooks , she attempted to form a chronology for his writings , and she included poems , such as Epipsychidion , addressed to Emilia Viviani , which she would rather have left out . She was forced , however , into several compromises , and , as Blumberg notes , " modern critics have found fault with the edition and claim variously that she miscopied , misinterpreted , purposely obscured , and attempted to turn the poet into something he was not " . According to Wolfson , Donald Reiman , a modern editor of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's works , still refers to Mary Shelley 's editions , while acknowledging that her editing style belongs " to an age of editing when the aim was not to establish accurate texts and scholarly apparatus but to present a full record of a writer 's career for the general reader " . In principle , Mary Shelley believed in publishing every last word of her husband 's work ; but she found herself obliged to omit certain passages , either by pressure from her publisher , Edward Moxon , or in deference to public propriety . For example , she removed the atheistic passages from Queen Mab for the first edition . After she restored them in the second edition , Moxon was prosecuted and convicted of blasphemous libel , though he escaped punishment . Mary Shelley 's omissions provoked criticism , often stinging , from members of Percy Shelley 's former circle , and reviewers accused her of , among other things , indiscriminate inclusions . Her notes have nevertheless remained an essential source for the study of Percy Shelley 's work . As Bennett explains , " biographers and critics agree that Mary Shelley 's commitment to bring Shelley the notice she believed his works merited was the single , major force that established Shelley 's reputation during a period when he almost certainly would have faded from public view " .
= = Reputation = =
In her own lifetime , Mary Shelley was taken seriously as a writer , though reviewers often missed her writings ' political edge . After her death , however , she was chiefly remembered as the wife of Percy Bysshe Shelley and as the author of Frankenstein . In fact , in the introduction to her letters published in 1945 , editor Frederick Jones wrote , " a collection of the present size could not be justified by the general quality of the letters or by Mary Shelley 's importance as a writer . It is as the wife of [ Percy Bysshe Shelley ] that she excites our interest . " This attitude had not disappeared by 1980 when Betty T. Bennett published the first volume of Mary Shelley 's complete letters . As she explains , " the fact is that until recent years scholars have generally regarded Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley as a result : William Godwin 's and Mary Wollstonecraft 's daughter who became Shelley 's Pygmalion . " It was not until Emily Sunstein 's Mary Shelley : Romance and Reality in 1989 that a full @-@ length scholarly biography was published .
The attempts of Mary Shelley 's son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law to " Victorianise " her memory by censoring biographical documents contributed to a perception of Mary Shelley as a more conventional , less reformist figure than her works suggest . Her own timid omissions from Percy Shelley 's works and her quiet avoidance of public controversy in her later years added to this impression . Commentary by Hogg , Trelawny , and other admirers of Percy Shelley also tended to downplay Mary Shelley 's radicalism . Trelawny 's Records of Shelley , Byron , and the Author ( 1878 ) praised Percy Shelley at the expense of Mary , questioning her intelligence and even her authorship of Frankenstein . Lady Shelley , Percy Florence 's wife , responded in part by presenting a severely edited collection of letters she had inherited , published privately as Shelley and Mary in 1882 .
From Frankenstein 's first theatrical adaptation in 1823 to the cinematic adaptations of the 20th century , including the first cinematic version in 1910 and now @-@ famous versions such as James Whale 's 1931 Frankenstein , Mel Brooks ' 1974 Young Frankenstein , and Kenneth Branagh 's 1994 Mary Shelley 's Frankenstein , many audiences first encounter the work of Mary Shelley through adaptation . Over the course of the 19th century , Mary Shelley came to be seen as a one @-@ novel author at best , rather than as the professional writer she was ; most of her works have remained out of print until the last thirty years , obstructing a larger view of her achievement . In recent decades , the republication of almost all her writing has stimulated a new recognition of its value . Her habit of intensive reading and study , revealed in her journals and letters and reflected in her works , is now better appreciated . Shelley 's conception of herself as an author has also been recognised ; after Percy 's death , she wrote of her authorial ambitions : " I think that I can maintain myself , and there is something inspiriting in the idea . " Scholars now consider Mary Shelley to be a major Romantic figure , significant for her literary achievement and her political voice as a woman and a liberal .
= = Selected works = =
History of a Six Weeks ' Tour ( 1817 )
Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus ( 1818 )
Mathilda ( 1819 )
Valperga ; or , The Life and Adventures of Castruccio , Prince of Lucca ( 1823 )
Posthumous Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley ( 1824 )
The Last Man ( 1826 )
The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck ( 1830 )
Lodore ( 1835 )
Falkner ( 1837 )
The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley ( 1839 )
Contributions to Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men ( 1835 – 39 ) , part of Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia
Rambles in Germany and Italy in 1840 , 1842 , and 1843 ( 1844 )
Collections of Mary Shelley 's papers are housed in Lord Abinger 's Shelley Collection on deposit at the Bodleian Library , the New York Public Library ( particularly The Carl H. Pforzheimer Collection of Shelley and His Circle ) , the Huntington Library , the British Library , and in the John Murray Collection .
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= Enter the Dominatrix =
Enter the Dominatrix is a downloadable content pack for the 2013 video game Saints Row IV . It tells an alternate story of the alien Zin invasion , different than the main game . The dialogue often breaks the fourth wall and its style is self @-@ referential in nature . Enter the Dominatrix draws on its history as originally produced as downloadable content for the game 's predecessor , Saints Row : The Third . It was first announced on April Fool 's Day in 2012 , later confirmed , and then cancelled to be incorporated into Saints Row IV , which drew on some aspects of the original idea and left the rest for this downloadable content . It was released on October 22 , 2013 to mixed or average reviews . Critics appreciated the pack 's treatment of its own history , what Eurogamer 's Chris Schilling called a " very postmodern conceit " .
= = Gameplay = =
Enter the Dominatrix tells an alternative story on the Zin invasion of Saints Row IV where the simulation of Steelport is hijacked by a rogue artificial intelligence called the Dominatrix . The pack draws on its origins as Saints Row : The Third downloadable content that was later delayed and repackaged . It also frequently breaks the fourth wall — its story 's incongruence with the larger Saints Row story is a recurring theme , where the characters self @-@ referentially acknowledge the plot holes . The story advances through cutscene clips presented as " unseen footage " found by television journalist Jane Valderama , as " what could have been " . Some scenes end in concept art or videos of Volition employees acting out the drama so as to give the game an unfinished feel . The pack also casts characters from Saints Row : The Third who did not return in the sequel . The player fights the Dominatrix — who appears as a cross between Maleficent and a sex worker — several times . Other missions include using telekinesis to cage furries at a sex club and a BDSM chariot race . There are five missions in total . The pack introduces new weapons such as a heavy minigun , a flamethrower , a grenade launcher , new vehicles , and new computer @-@ controlled support characters ( " homies " ) . Up to two players can play cooperatively .
= = Development = =
THQ announced an Enter the Dominatrix standalone expansion for Saints Row : The Third as an April Fool 's joke in 2012 . It was confirmed as in development the next month , with the basic plot where the alien commander Zinyak imprisons the Saints ' leader in The Dominatrix simulation of Steelport so as to prevent interference when he takes over the planet . The expansion also was to add superpowers for the player character . In June , THQ said the expansion would be wrapped into a full sequel , tentatively titled " The Next Great Sequel in the Saints Row Franchise " and scheduled for release in 2013 . The parts of that expansion that weren 't incorporated into the sequel ( Saints Row IV ) were later released as this downloadable content for the new title . It was developed by Volition , published by Deep Silver , and released October 22 , 2013 . Enter the Dominatrix was followed by the " How the Saints Saved Christmas " downloadable content pack . High Voltage Software ported the full game and all of its downloadable content to PlayStation 4 and Xbox One as Saints Row 4 : Re @-@ Elected , which was released in North America on January 20 , 2015 , and worldwide three days later . A Linux port is planned for release in 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Enter the Dominatrix received " mixed or average reviews " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Chris Schilling of Eurogamer , citing the game 's development history , called Enter the Dominatrix " a fascinating case study in how games evolve " . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Eric Patterson also commented on how downloadable content in the industry is seen as content pulled from the retail release to be sold as an addition , which Enter the Dominatrix 's development history flips on its head . He added that in all of his industry experience , he had never otherwise seen a developer purposefully let its fans play " shelved " content , and thus found the experience " fascinating " . Official Xbox Magazine 's Mikel Reparaz said it was fun to see what " could have been " .
Eurogamer 's Schilling called the self @-@ referential nature of the release a " very postmodern conceit " , which he thought worked well despite the dual faux pas of parodying The Matrix and overtly " satirizing game mechanics " . He felt that the satire was not good , though the writing was " genuinely funny " , and that the repeated Dominatrix fight scenes should not have felt as low budget . He recommended the pack for those who love " wry gags about creaky gaming tropes with the occasional belly laugh " , and said he had a better time finding his own fun than playing through the missions . Patterson of Electronic Gaming Monthly noted that those who are looking for cost benefit would be disappointed by lack of content , especially those who had already finished the main game , but he was interested in Enter the Dominatrix for its behind @-@ the @-@ scenes aspects , which he encouraged other developers to use more often .
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= The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim =
The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim is an open world action role @-@ playing video game developed by Bethesda Game Studios and published by Bethesda Softworks . It is the fifth installment in The Elder Scrolls series , following The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . Skyrim was released worldwide on November 11 , 2011 , for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 . Three downloadable content ( DLC ) add @-@ ons were released — Dawnguard , Hearthfire , and Dragonborn — which were repackaged into The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim – Legendary Edition , which was released on June 4 , 2013 . The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim – Special Edition . A remastered version of the game will be released for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 on October 28 , 2016 . It will come with full mod support , all three DLC expansions , and a complete graphical upgrade .
Skyrim 's main story revolves around the player character and their effort to defeat Alduin the World @-@ Eater , a dragon who is prophesied to destroy the world . The game is set two hundred years after the events of Oblivion and takes place in the fictional province of Skyrim . Over the course of the game , the player completes quests and develops the character by improving skills . Skyrim continues the open world tradition of its predecessors by allowing the player to travel anywhere in the game world at any time , and to ignore or postpone the main storyline indefinitely .
The game was developed using the Creation Engine , rebuilt specifically for the game . The team opted for a unique and more diverse game world than Oblivion 's Cyrodiil , which game director and executive producer Todd Howard considered less interesting by comparison . Skyrim was released to critical acclaim , with reviewers particularly mentioning the character development and setting , and is considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time . The game shipped over seven million copies to retailers within the first week of its release , and sold over 20 million copies across all three platforms .
= = Gameplay = =
The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim is an action role @-@ playing game , playable from either a first or third @-@ person perspective . The player may freely roam over the land of Skyrim , which is an open world environment consisting of wilderness expanses , dungeons , cities , towns , fortresses and villages . Players may navigate the game world more quickly by riding horses , or by utilizing a fast @-@ travel system which allows them to warp to previously discovered locations . The game 's main quest can be completed or ignored at the player 's preference after the first stage of the quest is finished . However , some quests rely on the main storyline being at least partially completed . Non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) populate the world and can be interacted with in a number of ways ; the player may engage them in conversation , marry an eligible NPC , or kill them . As in previous The Elder Scrolls games , killing certain NPCs can make some quests or items unobtainable . Some NPCs cannot be killed . If witnessed , crimes like murder and theft accrue the player bounty points in each of the world 's nine holds . Should the player be stopped by a guard , they may wipe their bounty with gold or jail time , or may resist arrest which will trigger an aggressive pursuit . NPCs may allocate the player additional side @-@ quests , and some side @-@ quests have parameters adjusted based on nearby dungeons which the player has yet to explore . Some NPCs who are befriended or hired by the player may act as companions who will accompany the player and provide aid in combat . The player may choose to join factions , which are organized groups of NPCs -- such as the Dark Brotherhood , a band of assassins -- or the player may choose to destroy them . Each of the factions has an associated quest path to progress through . Each city and town in the game world each has an economy which the player can stimulate by completing jobs such as farming .
Players have the option to develop their character . At the beginning of the game , players create their character by selecting one of several races , including humans , orcs , elves and anthropomorphic cat or lizard @-@ like creatures , and then customizing their character 's appearance . Over the course of the game , players improve their character 's skills , which are numerical representations of their ability in certain areas . There are eighteen skills divided evenly among the three schools of combat , magic , and stealth . When players have trained skills enough to meet the required experience , their character levels up . Each time their character levels , the players may choose to select a skill @-@ specific ability called a perk , or to store perk points for later use . Earlier entries in The Elder Scrolls series used a character class system to determine which skills would contribute to the character 's leveling , but Skyrim allows players to discover preferred skills as they play the game and rewards them with more experience when a frequently used skill is leveled . A head @-@ up display ( HUD ) appears when any of the player 's three main attributes are being depleted . Attributes regenerate over time , although this process can be accelerated by using potions or regenerative spells . Health is depleted primarily when the player takes damage , and the loss of all health results in death . Magicka is depleted by the use of spells , certain poisons and by being struck by lightning @-@ based attacks . Stamina determines the player 's effectiveness in combat and is depleted by sprinting , power attacking , and being struck by frost @-@ based attacks . The player 's inventory can be accessed from the menu and items can be viewed in 3D , which may prove essential in solving puzzles found in dungeons .
The player 's effectiveness in combat relies on the use of weapons and armor , which may be bought , found and created at forges , and magic , which may be bought or unlocked by finding spell tomes . Weapons and magic are assigned to each hand , allowing for dual @-@ wielding , and can be swapped out through a quick @-@ access menu of favorite items . Shields can be used to fend off enemy attacks and reduce incurred damage , or offensively through bashing attacks . Blunt , bladed and hacking weapons can be used in close combat and each have specific advantages and roles ; for example , the player can perform power attacks with each weapon . Magic can be used in the form of spells , which have several functions , such as the regeneration of health or the depletion of enemy health . A bow and arrow may be utilized in long @-@ range combat , but the bow can be used as a defensive melee weapon in close combat , by " bashing " . The player can enter sneak mode and pickpocket , or deliver sneak attacks to unsuspecting enemies .
When exploring the game world , the player may encounter wildlife . Many creatures in the wilderness are immediately hostile towards the player . However , game animals such as elk and deer will simply run away . Skyrim is the first entry in The Elder Scrolls to include Dragons in the game 's wilderness . Like other creatures , Dragons are generated randomly in the world and will engage in combat with NPCs , creatures and the player . Some Dragons may attack cities and towns when in their proximity . The player character can absorb the souls of Dragons in order to use powerful spells called " Dragon Shouts " , or " Thu 'um " . Each Shout contains three words in the language spoken by Dragons , and the strength of the Shout will vary depending on how many words have been spoken . The words to Shouts can be learned by visiting " Word Walls " in dungeons or around the continent . The words to each shout are unlocked for use by spending the absorbed souls of slain Dragons . A regeneration period limits the player 's use of Shouts in gameplay .
= = Plot = =
Skyrim is set 200 years after the events of Oblivion , though it is not a direct sequel . The game takes place in Skyrim , a province of the Empire on the continent of Tamriel , amid a civil war between two factions . The Stormcloaks , led by Jarl Ulfric Stormcloak , are made up of Skyrim 's native Nord race . Their goal is an independent Skyrim free from Imperial interference . The Imperial Legion , led by General Tullius , is the military of the Empire that opposes the Stormcloaks and seeks to reunite and pacify the province .
The main story begins with the imprisoned player being led to an Imperial execution in the town of Helgen , alongside a thief , several Stormcloak soldiers and their leader , Ulfric Stormcloak , who murdered the High King of Skyrim with his voice . Alduin , a large black dragon , unexpectedly interrupts the procession , attacking and destroying the town before the player can be executed . The player escapes and journeys to the nearby town of Riverwood , whose residents are now fearful that the dragon could strike their town as well at any moment . Riverwood also serves as a tutorial village in that the player can forge items , trade goods , practice alchemy , and receive miscellaneous quests . The player is asked to make their way to the city of Whiterun , to request aid from the city 's Jarl against the dragon threat . Jarl Balgruuf the Greater accepts . He also directs the player to his court wizard , who asks the player to retrieve the Dragonstone , an ancient artifact that shows the location of ancient dragon burial sites . No dragons will be generated until the player returns to Whiterun , with the exception of Helgen , during the beginning of the storyline .
The player returns to Whiterun with the Dragonstone , only to learn that another dragon has appeared near the city . After slaying the dragon with assistance from the city 's guards , the player unexpectedly absorbs the dragon 's soul which grants them the ability to perform a magical ability called a " Thu 'um " , or Shout . The city 's guards are astonished , and inform the player that they must be a Dragonborn , a mortal born with the soul and power of a dragon . After returning to the Jarl with news of the dragon 's defeat , the player is summoned to meet with the Greybeards , an order of monks who live in seclusion in their temple of High Hrothgar on the slopes of Skyrim 's tallest mountain , the Throat of the World .
The Greybeards further train the player in the " Way of the Voice " , teaching the player more powerful Thu 'ums and instructing the player on their destiny and role as the Dragonborn . The player learns that Skyrim 's civil war is the last in a sequence of prophetic events foretold by the Elder Scrolls , which also predicted the return of Alduin , the first dragon and the Nordic god of destruction . Alduin is prophesied to destroy the races of Men and Mer , and consume the world . The player character is the latest and likely last " Dovahkiin " , or Dragonborn . Dovahkiin are anointed by the gods to help fend off the threat Alduin and other dragons pose to Tamriel .
The Greybeards task the player with retrieving the legendary Horn of Jurgen Windcaller in the marshes of Hjaalmarch as a final test . However , the player discovers the Horn has been stolen , and the culprit wishes to meet with the Dragonborn . The thief reveals herself as Delphine , Riverwood 's innkeeper . Delphine admits that she set up the player in retrieving the Dragonstone . Delphine wants the Dragonborn to prove their power before explaining her actions , and they head to the village of Kynesgrove , where a dragon burial mound is supposedly located . Once there , the player and Delphine witness Alduin reviving a dragon from the burial mound and defeat the dragon . Delphine later reveals that she is one of the last surviving members of the Blades — an order of bodyguards sworn to protect Dragonborn Imperial Emperors , and before that , they were sworn to kill dragons . She explains that the Blades have been out of purpose for centuries with no Dragonborn Emperor , and now with the player character being the next Dragonborn , the organization has finally regained its purpose . Afterwards , Malborn , who Delphine tells the player to meet at Solitude to help you , helps the player infiltrate the Thalmor Embassy near the city of Solitude , the headquarters of the Aldmeri Dominion in Skyrim , to follow up on her suspicions about the Thalmor 's possible involvement with the dragon threat . While there , the player discover the Thalmor are searching for a man named Esbern , an archivist of the Blades Order , then the Thalmor tell the player to surrender or they will kill Malborn , but Malborn attacks the soldiers and the player has the opportunity to save Malborn though it is not necessary . After escaping the Thalmor Embassy , Delphine then instructs the player to locate Esbern , known to be hiding in the sewers and Ratway of the city of Riften .
The player character accompanies the Blades in search of Alduin 's Wall , a prophetic engravement located in an ancient Blades fortress known as Sky Haven Temple . While the Blades set up in the temple , the player character learns that the ancient Nords used a special Thu 'um against Alduin called " Dragonrend " , representing mankind 's comprehensive hatred for the dragons , to cripple his ability to fly so they could engage him . To gain more information , the player meets the ancient dragon Paarthurnax , the leader of the Greybeards who was once one of Alduin 's most feared generals . Paarthurnax reveals that Alduin was not truly defeated in the past , but was cast into the currents of time by the use of an Elder Scroll in the hope was that he would never reemerge . The player manages to locate the Elder Scroll within the ancient Dwemer ruin of Blackreach and uses it to peer through a window in time , when Alduin was first defeated , learning the powerful Dragonrend Shout to combat Alduin .
Armed with the knowledge of how the ancient Nords defeated Alduin , the player battles Alduin on the summit of the Throat of the World . Overpowered by the player , Alduin flees to Sovngarde , the Nordic afterlife . The player learns that Dragonsreach , the palace of the Jarl of Whiterun , was originally built to trap and hold a dragon . The Jarl refuses to allow the player to utilize Dragonsreach and possibly endanger the city if the civil war between the Stormcloaks and the Imperial Legion still rages . With the help of the Greybeards , the player calls a council between General Tullius — the Imperial Legion 's commander — and Ulfric Stormcloak , successfully calling for a temporary armistice while the dragon threat exists . If the civil war questline has been completed beforehand , thus ending the war , the Jarl eventually agrees with persuasion .
The player summons and traps a dragon named Odahviing in Dragonsreach , learning from him that Alduin has fled to Sovngarde through a portal located high in the Velothi Mountains , at an ancient fort called Skuldafn . Odahviing , impressed with the player 's Thu 'um and ability to capture him , agrees to fly the player to Skuldafn , claiming Alduin has shown himself as weak and undeserving of leadership over the dragon race . Upon arrival at Skuldafn , the player fights their way up to the portal to Sovngarde . Upon entering Sovngarde , the player travels to the Hall of Valor and meets with Ysgramor , the legendary Nord who , along with his Five Hundred Companions , drove the Elves out of Skyrim . Ysgramor informs the player that Alduin has placed a " soul snare " in Sovngarde , allowing him to gain strength by devouring the souls of deceased Nords arriving there . The player meets up with the three heroes of Nordic legend who defeated Alduin originally , and , with their help , destroys the soul snare and defeats Alduin once more .
If the player did not kill Paarthurnax in an earlier side quest , an alternate conclusion is given . The player returns to the summit of the Throat of the World in which Paarthurnax and several other dragons wait . Paarthurnax explains that even though Alduin is defeated , they are in no condition to celebrate for he was once their ally and is still one of their kin . Having asserted his authority over many dragons , Paarthurnax declares that the remainder of the dragons will " submit to his Thu 'um " , suggesting he wants to take Alduin 's place as the leader of the dragons in order to teach them the Way of the Voice .
= = Development = =
Having completed work on Oblivion in 2006 , Bethesda Game Studios began work on Fallout 3 . It was during this time that the team began planning their next The Elder Scrolls game . From the outset , they had decided to set the new entry in the land of Skyrim , incorporating Dragons into the main theme of the game . Full development begun following the release of Fallout 3 in 2008 ; the developers considered Skyrim a spiritual successor to both Fallout 3 and previous The Elder Scrolls games . The game was developed by a team of roughly 100 people composed of new talent as well as of the series ' veterans . The production was supervised by Todd Howard , who was the director of many titles released by Bethesda Softworks .
= = = Design = = =
The team set the game in the province of Skyrim , designing it by hand . While similar in size to Oblivion 's game world of Cyrodiil , the mountainous topography of the world inflates the game space and makes it more difficult to traverse than Cyrodiil , which was relatively flat . In designing Skyrim 's world , the team opted for a different approach to what was taken with Oblivion ; art director Matt Carofano considered the " epic @-@ realism " of Skyrim 's world design as a departure from Oblivion 's generic representation of classic European fantasy lore . Howard expressed the team 's desire to re @-@ encapsulate the " wonder of discovery " of Morrowind 's game world in Skyrim , as the return to the classic fantasy of Arena and The Elder Scrolls II : Daggerfall in Oblivion meant sacrificing a world with a unique culture . As a way of creating diversity in the world , the team divided the world into nine sectors , known as holds , and attempted to make each hold feel topographically unique from another ; in addition , the team wanted to reflect the socioeconomic background of the NPCs by making some locations elaborate and wealthy while others are poorer and lower @-@ tech .
The team sought to make each of the game 's ten races feel unique ; Howard considered that the player 's choosing of a race at the beginning of the game is a more important decision than it has been in previous The Elder Scrolls games because the culture of Skyrim 's world contains more racism . However , he iterated that the player 's choice of race does not have major game @-@ affecting consequences as it simply adds " flavor " in different NPCs ' dispositions towards the player , and is not meant as a way of locking players out of particular quests . Efforts to making Skyrim 's world feel hand @-@ crafted extended to the team abandoning the use of generated landscapes as they had done in Oblivion . While one team member was charged with designing dungeons in Oblivion , Skyrim 's 150 dungeons were designed by a small team of eight people . Skyrim features 244 quests and over 300 points of interest .
= = = Engine = = =
Skyrim is powered by Bethesda 's Creation Engine , created specifically for Skyrim . After Fallout 3 's release , the team devised numerous design objectives to meet for Skyrim , and as Howard described , the team " got all those done and kept going " . Had the team not been able to meet their design goals with current hardware , they would have waited for the next generation and released Skyrim then , but , as Howard felt , the current technology did not hold the team back at all . The Creation Engine allows for numerous improvements in graphical fidelity over Bethesda 's previous efforts . For example , the draw distance renders farther than in previous The Elder Scrolls games ; Howard provided an example where the player can stare at a small object such as a fork in detail , and then look up at a mountain and run to the top of it . Dynamic lighting allows shadows to be created by any structure or item in the game world , and the Creation Engine allowed for greater detail in flora production than SpeedTree had in previous Bethesda games . For example , with Bethesda 's own technology , the team were able to give weight to the branches of trees which affect how trees blow in the wind ; in addition , the technology allows wind to affect the flow of water in channels such as rivers and streams . Because of the large presence of snow in Skyrim 's game world , the technological upgrades were applied to weather effects and allow for dynamic snow fall upon the terrain , instead of snow that was rendered as a textural effect in previous games .
The team made use of Havok 's Behavior toolset for character animation , which allows for a greater fluidity between the character 's movements of walking , running and sprinting , and also increases the efficiency of the third @-@ person camera option which had been criticized in Oblivion . The toolset allows interactions between the player and NPCs to take place in real @-@ time ; in Oblivion , when the player went to interact with an NPC , time would freeze and the camera would zoom in on the NPC 's face . In Skyrim , NPCs can move around and make body gestures while conversing with the player . Children are present in the game , and their presence is handled similarly as in Fallout 3 in that they cannot be harmed by the player in any way since depictions of violence involving children in video games is a controversial and largely @-@ debated issue . Skyrim makes use of the Radiant AI artificial intelligence system that was created for Oblivion , and it has been updated to allow NPCs to " do what they want under extra parameters " . The updated system allows for greater interaction between NPCs and their environments ; NPCs can perform tasks such as farming , milling and mining in the game world , and will react with each other .
= = = Audio = = =
The team employed Jeremy Soule , who previously worked on Morrowind and Oblivion , to compose the music for Skyrim . " Dragonborn " , the game 's main theme , was recorded with a choir of over thirty people , singing in the fictional Dragon language . Creative director Todd Howard envisioned the theme for Skyrim as The Elder Scrolls theme sung by a choir of barbarians . This became a reality when the idea was passed by Soule , who recorded the 30 @-@ man choir and layered three separate recordings to create the effect of 90 voices . The language , Draconic , was created by Bethesda 's concept artist Adam Adamowicz , and he developed a 34 @-@ character runic alphabet for the game . The lexicon of Draconic was expanded as needed ; as lead designer Bruce Nesmith explained , words were introduced to the lexicon " every time [ the studio wanted ] to say something " .
A physical @-@ only release consisting of four audio CDs was released alongside the game on November 11 , 2011 . As with the previous two entries in the series , the soundtrack to Skyrim is sold via Jeremy Soule 's distributor DirectSong . All physical copies ordered via DirectSong were personally autographed by Soule . " Day One " pre @-@ orders from Amazon.de also included a five track promotional Skyrim soundtrack sampler . A digital version of the soundtrack was released via iTunes on January 31 , 2013 .
= = Marketing and release = =
Skyrim was first announced at the Los Angeles Convention Center in Los Angeles , California , on December 11 , 2010 . The center was the host of Spike 's annual Video Game Awards ; Howard appeared on stage during the awards and presented its announcement trailer , which introduced the game 's story and revealed its " 11 – 11 – 11 " release date . It was the cover story for the February 2011 issue of the Game Informer magazine , wherein journalist Matt Miller wrote a fifteen @-@ page article that revealed the first details about the game 's story and gameplay . Asked about downloadable content ( DLC ) packages in a June 2011 interview , Howard expressed that it was the team 's intention to release DLC packages after having done so for previous releases ; he revealed that it was the team 's goal to release a lower number of DLC packages that were larger in content than those released for Fallout 3 , as he felt that releasing a larger number of low @-@ content packages was " chaotic " . Via a press release , the team announced that the first two planned DLC packages would release on the Xbox 360 via Xbox Live a month ahead of PCs and the PlayStation 3 system . At the 2011 QuakeCon conference , the team unveiled Skyrim 's special edition package . Bundled with a copy of the game is a map of the game world , a 12 @-@ inch figurine of Alduin , as well as a 200 @-@ page concept art book and a DVD feature about the making of Skyrim .
In October 2011 pictures of many pages of the manual of the game were leaked , later followed by footage from the introduction , revealing some more details . By November 1 , 2011 , a copy of the Xbox 360 version had been leaked and made available through the internet , allowing people with a hacked Xbox 360 to play Skyrim 10 days before its official release . In the Netherlands , the game has been available for purchase since November 7 . On November 10 stores in Australia began selling the game ahead of its release on November 11 .
A compilation package called The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim – Legendary Edition was released on June 4 , 2013 . It contains the 1 @.@ 9 patch , and the three expansions along with the main game . On June 4 , 2016 , Bethesda announced The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim – Special Edition , a remaster for PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and Windows . It is scheduled to be released on October 28 , 2016 . Windows players who own the original game and all of its downloadable content will be offered the Special Edition for free .
= = = Additional content = = =
A wide variety of both official and fan @-@ created modifications are available for Skyrim , generally made using the packaged Creation Kit . These mods might be distributed freely on file sharing sites like the Skyrim Nexus , or officially aggregated via the Steam Workshop 's controlled content distribution mechanism . The mods include features such as more vibrant night sky , new lighting systems , new characters and locations , user interface updates , and more . The first official Skyrim modification was The Fall of the Space Core , Vol . 1 , created by Bethesda in collaboration with Valve Corporation . It causes the Space Core – a fictional device from Valve 's video game Portal 2 – to fall from the sky and land in a burnt @-@ out house near Whiterun . The Space Core ( voiced by Nolan North ) acts as a non @-@ player character , following the player around the world of Skyrim and dispensing space @-@ related comments .
Dawnguard , the first downloadable add @-@ on for Skyrim , revolves around a battle between the Dawnguard and Clan Volkihar . The Dawnguard , a band of vampire hunters , rely on the use of their trademark crossbow weapons in their pursuit against Clan Volkihar , a family of vampires . Early in Dawnguard 's quest line , players must choose which faction they join forces with . Dawnguard adds new content to the game including weapons , magic and armor , and expands the abilities afforded to players who choose to become either a vampire or a werewolf . It also adds two new areas outside of the main land of Skyrim to explore — the Soul Cairn , a plane of the realm Oblivion , and the Forgotten Vale , a secluded glacial valley . Dawnguard released on the Xbox 360 in English @-@ speaking territories on June 26 , 2012 , and in European countries in mid @-@ July 2012 . Via the digital distribution platform Steam , Dawnguard released for Windows on August 2 , 2012 . Performance issues on the PlayStation 3 platform hampered Dawnguard 's , and subsequent content add @-@ ons ' , release on it . Dawnguard eventually released on the PlayStation 3 on February 26 , 2013 in North America and on February 27 , 2013 , in Europe .
Hearthfire , Skyrim 's second add @-@ on , allows players to build houses and adopt children . Three plots of land are added to the game world , which players can purchase . Once land is purchased , players select rooms to add on to the basic template of the house , built from raw materials like lumber and clay which can be harvested or purchased . Players may also adopt up to two children and have them live with the player 's spouse in their houses . Hearthfire released for the Xbox 360 on September 4 , 2012 and for Windows on October 4 , 2012 . It later released for PlayStation 3 on February 19 , 2013 in North America and February 20 , 2013 in Europe .
Dragonborn is the third and final add @-@ on for Skyrim . It revolves around the player character 's efforts to defeat Miraak , the first Dragonborn who has become corrupted and seeks to control the world . The add @-@ on takes place on the island of Solstheim , the land of the Dark Elves , which like Skyrim is presented as an open world . It adds new content to the game and allows players to ride on the backs of Dragons , along with other shouts that can be learned exclusively from Solstheim . Dragonborn released for the Xbox 360 on December 4 , 2012 , for Windows on February 5 , 2013 , and for PlayStation 3 on February 12 , 2013 .
In April 2013 , Bethesda announced via their blog that they were " moving on " from Skyrim and preparing to work on other projects . They added that they would only be releasing " minor updates " for the game .
= = = Technical issues = = =
At the launch of Skyrim , many technical issues ranging in severity were being reported . Some examples include a texture down @-@ scaling issue on the Xbox 360 version when the game was run from the hard drive ; crashes , slowdown and frame rate issues on the PlayStation 3 version when save files exceeded 6 MB , commonly occurring due to extended game play times ; and various crashes and slowdowns on the Windows version . According to Skyrim 's director Todd Howard , the conception of ' restrictive RAM ' is incorrect : " It 's literally the things you 've done in what order and what 's running . "
Since release several patches have been published to address technical issues and improve overall gameplay . Patch 1 @.@ 2 was released on November 29 , 2011 , to fix some of the game 's issues ; however , some players reported new bugs in the game following the patch , including more frequent game crashes . Patch 1 @.@ 3 was released on December 7 , 2011 , to improve stability , further address known issues , and fix some problems that were introduced in version 1 @.@ 2 . Patch 1 @.@ 4 was released on February 1 , 2012 , for the PC . Another list of issues and bugs were addressed in this patch as well as the Skyrim launcher support for Skyrim Workshop ( PC ) . Patch 1 @.@ 5 was released on March 20 , 2012 , for the PC . Numerous bugs were fixed , as well as the inclusion of new archery / spellcasting killcams . On April 12 , 2012 , Bethesda announced that Kinect support would be coming for the Xbox 360 version of Skyrim . It features more than 200 voice commands . Patch 1 @.@ 6 was released on May 24 , 2012 , for the PC . This includes a new feature – mounted combat . Patch 1 @.@ 7 was released on July 30 , 2012 , for the PC , and 1 @.@ 8 was released on November 1 , 2012 , for the PC . These two introduced only minor bugfixes . Patch 1 @.@ 9 was released on March 18 , 2013 . In addition to providing various bug fixes , this patch also added new features , most namely the new ' Legendary ' difficulty and ' Legendary ' skills .
An unofficial community patch , the Unofficial Skyrim Patch , tries to fix remaining issues unattended by the official patches . The latest version , released in June 2015 , lists hundreds of gameplay , quest , and other bugs as fixed in the game and its add @-@ ons .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Skyrim received critical acclaim upon release . The removal of the character class system from previous The Elder Scrolls entries was well received . Billy Shibley of Machinima 's Inside Gaming and Charles Onyett of IGN praised its removal because it allowed players to experiment with different skills without having to make decisions about a class early in the game . John Bedford of Eurogamer opined that by removing the character class system , the game tailored to players wanting to build an all @-@ around character , while still letting other players specialize in a preferred play @-@ style . Steve Butts of The Escapist considered the addition of perks to the character development system " a great method to make your character feel even more unique and personal " . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot praised the way perks allowed for the player 's preferred skills to become more powerful over time , stating that the perk system " forms around the way you play , but allows for tweaking so that you retain a sense of control " . The user interface ( UI ) that navigates the player 's items and spells was also praised by reviewers for its accessibility ; Bedford complimented its " elegant design " which succeeded Oblivion 's cumbersome UI .
The art style of the game world drew acclaim from many reviewers , who welcomed the departure from Oblivion 's Cyrodiil . Jason Schreier of Wired described the land of Skyrim as a " Viking @-@ inspired treasure trove of flavor and charm " , noting its contrast to Cyrodiil which he considered generic by comparison . The Staff at Edge magazine described Cyrodiil as a " patchwork of varying terrains " , praising the more consistent design of Skyrim . Shibley praised " the lack of copy @-@ and @-@ paste level design that 's plagued Bethesda 's previous games , [ ... ] giving a lived @-@ in and handcrafted look to the world " . Bedford noted that the improved graphical fidelity over Oblivion allowed the game world to feel more lifelike , praising the " misty mountain setting , complete with swirling fog and high @-@ altitude snowstorms " . An editor for PC PowerPlay praised the diversity of the dungeon design . Andrew Reiner of Game Informer cited criticisms Oblivion faced for repetitive dungeons , noting that " the composition of each dungeon is largely unique and individualized " in Skyrim . He also favored the design choice to have a quick route out of a dungeon leading from its last room , eliminating the problem he identified Oblivion as having where the player would clear a dungeon and then have to go all the way back to the beginning to exit it . Many reviewers praised the large amount of things to do in the world away from the main story . Tom Francis of PC Gamer opined that it was difficult to explore the world without becoming distracted by things to do , explaining that " it 's hard to walk for a minute in any direction without encountering an intriguing cave , a lonely shack , some strange stones , a wandering traveller , a haunted fort " .
Reviewers welcomed the ability to dual @-@ wield weapons and magic . An editor for PC PowerPlay felt that the dual @-@ wielding ability " transforms the tactical scope of each combat encounter " . Shibley noted that the dual @-@ wielding option gave the player more freedom to experiment with combat , explaining that " the ability to apply a spell to each hand [ ... ] generates huge potential for getting creative with your spell combinations " . However , many reviewers were critical of the melee combat , feeling that it had not been improved upon as much as other areas in the game . Justin McElroy of Joystiq explained that " what should be thrilling fights in Skyrim are often weighed down by the same clunky melee system Oblivion suffered from " . Onyett described melee combat as " flat " and " floaty " , and that " many times it feels like you 're slicing air instead of a mythical creature 's flesh " . Francis agreed with this sentiment , explaining that " too much of the time , you wave your weapon around and enemies barely react to the hits " .
Many reviewers noted glitches while playing Skyrim , some game @-@ breaking . Nick Cowen of The Guardian pointed out that the game 's glitches were a trade @-@ off for its ambitious scope , himself experiencing glitches that forced him to reload earlier saves . Edge began their review by criticizing the lack of polish , while still acknowledging many areas in the game which made up for it . In addition , the quality of the main quest divided some reviewers . While Reiner praised the main quest as " superbly penned " and " Bethesda 's best effort to date " , Butts and Francis criticized the fact that the story was delivered primarily through conversations and quest journals , rather than through the player 's own interactions . While the Dragon battles were well @-@ received , some reviewers observed flaws in the AI for Dragons . Onyett pointed out their " predictable attack patterns " , which Francis agreed with , explaining that " fighting them never changes much : you can just ignore them until they land , then shoot them from a distance when they do " . Reiner felt that due to the repetitiveness of their attack patterns , the Dragons were not challenging enough for low @-@ level players . Edge pointed out a curve in difficulty for players who favored archery and magic , as Dragons were difficult to attack while airborne .
= = = Sales = = =
During the first day of release , Steam showed over 230 @,@ 000 people playing Skyrim concurrently . Within two days of the game 's launch , 3 @.@ 4 million physical copies were sold . Of those sales , 59 % were for the Xbox 360 , 27 % for the PS3 , and 14 % for the PC . In the first week of release , Bethesda stated that 7 million copies of the game had been shipped to retailers worldwide , and that total sales through the following Wednesday were expected to generate an estimated US $ 450 million . By December 16 , 2011 , this had risen to 10 million copies shipped to retail and around US $ 620 million . Additionally , Valve stated that it was the fastest selling game to date on their Steam platform . Steam 's statistics page showed the client breaking a five million user record by having 5 @,@ 012 @,@ 468 users logged in January 2 , 2012 . Total number of sold copies on the PC platform is difficult to confirm because Valve does not publicly publish digital sales . During this time , Skyrim was the most @-@ played game on Steam by a huge margin , with double the number of players as Team Fortress 2 , the second @-@ placed game . In the United Kingdom , Skyrim was the 9th best selling title of 2012 . In June 2013 , Bethesda announced that over 20 million copies of the game had been sold . Regarding sales on the PC , Todd Howard stated in an interview with Rock , Paper , Shotgun that " Skyrim did better than we 've ever done on PC by a large , large number . And that 's where the mods are . That feeds the game for a long time . " Electronic Entertainment Design and Research , a market research firm , estimates that the game has sold 22 @.@ 7 million copies worldwide .
= = = Awards = = =
Skyrim received awards from various gaming sites and publications . IGN and GameSpot named Skyrim " PC Game of the Year " . It also received GameSpot 's " Readers ' Choice " award . The game received the " RPG of the Year " award from Spike TV , IGN , X @-@ Play , GameSpot and GameSpy . It received " Overall Game of the Year " wins from Spike TV , Giant Bomb , X @-@ Play , Machinima.com , GameSpot , 1UP.com , Game Revolution , GameSpy Joystiq and the Interactive Achievement Awards . It was voted No.1 in Good Game 's top 100 video games of all time and No.1 in PC Gamer 's " The 100 Greatest PC Games of All Time " .
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= USS Alaska ( CB @-@ 1 ) =
USS Alaska ( CB @-@ 1 ) was the lead ship of the Alaska class of large cruisers which served with the United States Navy during the end of World War II . She was the first of two ships of her class to be completed , followed only by Guam ; four other ships were ordered but were not completed before the end of the war . Alaska was the third vessel of the US Navy to be named after what was then the territory of Alaska . She was laid down on 17 December 1941 , ten days after the outbreak of war , was launched in August 1943 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation , in Camden , New Jersey , and was commissioned in June 1944 . She was armed with a main battery of nine 12 in ( 300 mm ) guns in three triple turrets and had a top speed of 33 kn ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) .
Due to being commissioned late in the war , Alaska saw relatively limited service . She participated in operations off Iwo Jima and Okinawa in February – July 1945 , including providing anti @-@ aircraft defense for various carrier task forces and conducting limited shore bombardment operations . She shot down several Japanese aircraft off Okinawa , including a possible Ohka piloted missile . In July – August 1945 she participated in sweeps for Japanese shipping in the East China and Yellow Seas . After the end of the war , she assisted in the occupation of Korea and transported a contingent of US Army troops back to the United States . She was decommissioned in February 1947 and placed in reserve , where she remained until she was stricken in 1960 and sold for scrapping the following year .
= = Construction = =
Alaska was authorized under the Fleet Expansion Act on 19 July 1940 , and ordered on 9 September . On 17 December 1941 she was laid down at New York Shipbuilding in Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 15 August 1943 , sponsored by the wife of the governor of Alaska , after which fitting @-@ out work was effected . The ship was completed by June 1944 , and was commissioned into the US Navy on 17 June , under the command of Captain Peter K. Fischler .
The ship was 808 feet 6 inches ( 246 @.@ 43 m ) long overall and had a beam of 91 ft 1 in ( 27 @.@ 76 m ) and a draft of 31 ft 10 in ( 9 @.@ 70 m ) . She displaced 29 @,@ 779 long tons ( 30 @,@ 257 t ) as designed and up to 34 @,@ 253 long tons ( 34 @,@ 803 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by four @-@ shaft General Electric geared steam turbines and eight oil @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , generating a top speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 15 kn ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . She carried four OS2U Kingfisher or SC Seahawk seaplanes , with a pair of steam catapults mounted amidships .
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 12 inch L / 50 Mark 8 guns in three triple gun turrets , two in a superfiring pair forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 5 @-@ inch L / 38 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin turrets . Two were placed on the centerline superfiring over the main battery turrets , fore and aft , and the remaining four turrets were placed on the corners of the superstructure . The light anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of 56 quad @-@ mounted 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) Bofors guns and 34 single @-@ mounted 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Oerlikon guns . A pair of Mk 34 gun directors aided gun laying for the main battery , while two Mk 37 directors controlled the 5 @-@ inch guns and a Mk 57 director aided the 40 mm guns . The main armored belt was 9 in ( 229 mm ) thick , while the gun turrets had 12 @.@ 8 in ( 325 mm ) thick faces . The main armored deck was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Alaska steamed down to Hampton Roads , escorted by the destroyers Simpson and Broome . The ship was then deployed for a shakedown cruise , first in the Chesapeake Bay and then into the Caribbean , off Trinidad . On the cruise she was escorted by the destroyers Bainbridge and Decatur . After completing the cruise Alaska returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for some minor alterations , including the installation of four Mk 57 fire control directors for her 5 @-@ inch guns . On 12 November she left Philadelphia in the company of the destroyer @-@ minelayer Thomas E. Fraser , bound for two weeks of sea trials off Guantanamo Bay , Cuba . On 2 December she left Cuba for the Pacific , transiting the Panama Canal two days later , and reaching San Diego on 12 December . There her gun crews trained for shore bombardment and anti @-@ aircraft fire .
= = = Pacific deployment = = =
On 8 January 1945 , Alaska left California for Hawaii , arriving in Pearl Harbor on 13 January . There she participated in further training and was assigned to Task Group 12 @.@ 2 , which departed for Ulithi on 29 January . The Task Group reached Ulithi on 6 February and was merged into Task Group 58 @.@ 5 , part of Task Force 58 , the Fast Carrier Task Force . Task Group 58 @.@ 5 was assigned to provide anti @-@ aircraft defense for the aircraft carriers ; Alaska was assigned to the carriers Enterprise and Saratoga . The fleet sailed for Japan on 10 February to conduct air strikes against Tokyo and the surrounding airfields . The Japanese did not attack the fleet during the operation . Alaska was then transferred to Task Group 58 @.@ 4 and assigned to support the assault on Iwo Jima . She served in the screen for the carriers off Iwo Jima for nineteen days , after which time she had to return to Ulithi to replenish fuel and supplies .
Alaska remained with TG 58 @.@ 4 for the Battle of Okinawa . She was assigned to screen the carriers Yorktown and Intrepid ; the fleet left Ulithi on 14 March and reached its operational area southeast of Kyushu four days later . The first air strikes on Okinawa began that day , and claimed 17 Japanese aircraft destroyed on the ground . Here , Alaska finally saw combat , as the Japanese launched a major air strike on the American fleet . Her anti @-@ aircraft gunners destroyed a Yokosuka P1Y bomber attempting to crash into Intrepid . Shortly thereafter , Alaska was warned that American aircraft were in the vicinity . About ten minutes later , her gunners spotted an unidentified aircraft , approaching in what they thought was a threatening manner ; they shot down what turned out to be an F6F Hellcat fighter , though the pilot was uninjured . Later that afternoon , Alaska shot down a second Japanese bomber , a Yokosuka D4Y .
The following day , the carrier Franklin was badly damaged by several bomb hits and a kamikaze . Alaska and her sister Guam , two other cruisers , and several destroyers were detached to create Task Group 58 @.@ 2 @.@ 9 to escort the crippled Franklin back to Ulithi . On the voyage back to port , another D4Y bomber attacked Franklin , though the ships were unable to shoot it down . Gunfire from one of the 5 @-@ inch guns accidentally caused flash burns on several men standing nearby ; these were the only casualties suffered by her crew during the war . Alaska then took on the role of fighter director ; using her anti @-@ air search radar she vectored fighters to intercept and destroy a Kawasaki Ki @-@ 45 heavy fighter . On 22 March , the ships reached Ulithi and Alaska was detached to rejoin TG 58 @.@ 4 .
After returning to her unit , Alaska continued to screen for the aircraft carriers off Okinawa . On 27 March she was detached to conduct a bombardment of Minamidaitō . She was joined by Guam , two light cruisers , and Destroyer Squadron 47 . On the night of 27 – 28 March , she fired forty @-@ five 12 @-@ inch shells and three hundred and fifty @-@ two 5 @-@ inch rounds at the island . The ships rejoined TG 58 @.@ 4 at a refueling point , after which they returned to Okinawa to support the landings when they began on 1 April . On the evening of 11 April , Alaska shot down one Japanese plane , assisted in the destruction of another , and claimed what might have been an Ohka piloted rocket @-@ bomb . On 16 April , the ship shot down another three aircraft and assisted with three others . Throughout the rest of the month , her heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire succeeded in driving off Japanese bombers .
Alaska then returned to Ulithi to resupply , arriving on 14 May . She was then assigned to TG 38 @.@ 4 , the reorganized carrier task force . The fleet then returned to Okinawa , where Alaska continued in her anti @-@ aircraft defense role . On 9 June , she and Guam bombarded Oki Daitō . TG 38 @.@ 4 then steamed to San Pedro Bay in the Leyte Gulf for rest and maintenance ; the ship remained there from 13 June until 13 July , when she was assigned to Cruiser Task Force 95 along with her sister Guam , under the command of Rear Admiral Francis S. Low . On 16 July , Alaska and Guam conducted a sweep into the East China and Yellow Seas to sink Japanese shipping vessels . They had only limited success , however , and returned to the fleet on 23 July . They then joined a major raid , which included three battleships and three escort carriers , into the estuary of the Yangtze River off Shanghai . Again , the operation met with limited success .
= = = Post @-@ war operations = = =
In the course of her service during World War II , Alaska was awarded three battle stars . On 30 August Alaska left Okinawa for Japan to participate in the 7th Fleet occupation force . She arrived in Incheon , Korea on 8 September and supported Army operations there until 26 September , when she left for Tsingtao , China , arriving the following day . There , she supported the 6th Marine Division until 13 November , when she returned to Incheon to take on Army soldiers as part of Operation Magic Carpet , the mass repatriation of millions of American servicemen from Asia and Europe . Alaska left Incheon with a contingent of soldiers bound for San Francisco . After reaching San Francisco , she left for the Atlantic , via the Panama Canal , which she transited on 13 December . The ship arrived in the Boston Navy Yard on 18 December , where preparations were made to place the ship in reserve . She left Boston on 1 February 1946 for Bayonne , New Jersey , where she would be berthed in reserve . She arrived there the following day , and on 13 August , she was removed from active service , though she would not be decommissioned until 17 February 1947 .
= = = Conversion proposals = = =
In 1958 , the Bureau of Ships prepared two feasibility studies to see if Alaska and Guam were suitable to be converted to guided missile cruisers . The first study involved removing all of the guns in favor of four different missile systems . At $ 160 million this was seen as too costly , so a second study was conducted . This study left the forward batteries — the two 12 ″ triple turrets and three of the 5 " dual turrets — in place and added a reduced version of the first plan for the aft . This would have cost $ 82 million , and was still seen as too cost @-@ prohibitive . As a result , the conversion proposal was abandoned and the ship was instead stricken from the naval registry on 1 June 1960 . On 30 June she was sold to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers to be broken up for scrap .
= = Awards = =
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= Emory Washburn =
Emory Washburn ( February 14 , 1800 – March 18 , 1877 ) was a United States lawyer , politician , and historian . He was Governor of Massachusetts for one term ( from 1854 to 1855 ) , and served for many years on the faculty of Harvard Law School . His history of the early years of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court is still considered a foundational work on the subject .
Born in Leicester , Massachusetts , Washburn attended Dartmouth and Williams before studying law . After establishing what grew to become a successful and distinguished law practice in Worcester , Washburn entered politics as a Whig . After serving several years in the state legislature , he was elected governor in 1853 . Despite his support for a reform @-@ minded agenda , he was swept out of office on the Know Nothing tide in 1854 .
Washburn joined the faculty of Harvard Law in 1856 , where he was a popular and influential figure until his retirement in 1876 . His publications , in addition to his history of the SJC , include a history of his hometown of Leicester and numerous treatises on legal subjects .
= = Early life = =
Emory Washburn was born on February 14 , 1800 in Leicester , Massachusetts to Joseph and Ruth ( Davis ) Washburn , both of whom came from families with deep roots in New England . He was the sixth of seven children . His father died when he was seven years old , and the local pastor , Zephaniah Swift Moore , became a major influence in his early years . He first attended Leicester Academy , and then entered Dartmouth College , where Moore taught languages , at the age of thirteen . He accompanied Moore when the latter moved to Williams College in 1815 , graduating two years later in a class of seven ; he was influential in establishing an alumni association at Williams , serving as its first president .
Washburn then embarked on the study of law , first with Charles Dewey , a Williamstown judge and lawyer , and then at Harvard Law School under Asahel Stearns . Although he did not graduate from Harvard , he was admitted to the bar and opened a practice in Charlemont , Massachusetts . After six months there he returned to his hometown of Leicester , where he practiced until 1828 . In that year he moved to Worcester , where he would live and practice for the next thirty years . In 1830 he married Marianne Cornelia Giles , with whom he had three sons and one daughter .
= = Political career = =
Washburn was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1826 , serving two terms ; his only notable activity was in committee work preparing a feasibility study for a railroad from Boston to the Connecticut River . He was a regular supporter of the Western Railroad in its efforts to develop the railroad westward from Boston . Washburn asserted that railroads could " ... ward off the attack of any invader . " He would serve in the state legislature again in 1838 and 1877 . From 1830 to 1834 he served on the staff of Governor Levi Lincoln , Jr . , and in 1841 he was elected to the State Senate , where he served two years . In the second of those years he was chairman of the judiciary committee . In 1844 he was appointed a justice of the Court of Common Pleas , a post he held until 1847 . During these years he also established and maintained what was described by one of his peers , George Frisbie Hoar , as one of the largest and most successful law practices in Worcester County , partnering with John Davis among others .
In 1853 Washburn traveled to England to research English constitutional law . While he was away , the Whig Party nominated him as its gubernatorial candidate ; he did not learn of his nomination until his ship reached Halifax , Nova Scotia . In the election he defeated Henry W. Bishop ( Democrat ) and Henry Wilson ( Free Soil ) with 46 % of the vote . Since a majority of votes was at the time required to win , the election was determined in the state senate . Washburn was the last governor elected in this fashion ( plurality voting was enacted in 1855 ) ; he would also be the last Whig governor . During his one year in office , he successfully promoted and enacted significant pieces of legislation on a broad social welfare agenda , including measures concerning debt relief , assistance to the poor and insane , and financial aid for female medical students .
One major event that took place during Washburn 's tenure was Anthony Burns ' arrest and trial under the terms of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 . The case galvanized anti @-@ slavery activists , who protested outside the courthouse and sought both legal and extra @-@ legal remedies to secure Burns ' release . Washburn refused to intercede in the matter , bringing criticism , and Burns remained in custody at the time Washburn left office . Burns was eventually returned to slavery , after which abolitionists purchased his freedom .
The 1854 campaign saw the rise of the secretive Know Nothing movement in Massachusetts politics . Washburn stood for reelection , but the Whig party apparatus was generally unaware of Know Nothing strength and dismissive of its candidates . One commentator described the Know Nothing slate as " spavined ministers , lying tooth @-@ pullers , and buggering priests " , and Washburn 's opponent , former Whig Henry J. Gardner , as a " rickety vermin " who stood no chance of winning . The outcome of the November election was a landslide : Washburn received only 21 % of the vote , and Know Nothing candidates won every major state and Congressional office , as well as most of the seats in the state legislature .
= = Law professor = =
The following year he was offered a position as a lecturer at Harvard Law School , which became a full professorship in 1856 . The seat had previously been occupied by Judge Edward G. Loring , who Harvard 's Overseers refused to retain after he ruled that Burns be returned to slavery . For the next twenty years , Washburn served as one of three dominant figures ( along with Theophilus Parsons and Joel Parker ) in shaping the law school 's practices and curriculum . Legal historian Charles Warren wrote of the three , " Parker was the great lawyer ; Parsons the great teacher ; and Washburn , the great man . " The three men established a collegial and open learning environment at the law school . Washburn produced a significant number of legal treatises and books during his Harvard tenure ; his Treatise on the American Law of Real Property formed the basis for Harvard 's courses and later textbooks on the subject for the next century . His interests in history and the law were comingled in these years , with a number of his publications covering aspects of both subjects .
In 1860 Washburn joined in public calls for the repeal of the state 's personal liberty laws . These laws , which were designed to make enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 as difficult as possible , were characterized by their opponents as an affront to the interests of slave owners , and as a source of heightened tension between north and south . When the American Civil War broke out in 1861 , Washburn led calls for harmony in the law school , which had students from both northern and southern states . He also served , despite his relatively advanced age , in a home guard militia unit , and supported the war effort by writing , giving speeches , and donating money .
Washburn was a popular and dedicated teacher . Students would sometimes attend his lectures just to hear him speak , and he was always willing to help students with matters both academic and personal . He also regularly assisted recent graduates as they made their way into the profession .
In 1870 the Law School hired Christopher Langdell to be its first dean . Langdell began to institute significant changes in the school , which Washburn for the most part went along with . He finally resigned his professorship in 1876 , and opened a law practice in Cambridge . He was encouraged to run for United States Congress , but refused . He was instead convinced to stand once again for the Massachusetts House , to which he was elected . He died in office on March 18 , 1877 in Cambridge , and was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery .
= = Historian = =
Washburn had a long and abiding interest in local and state history . In 1826 he published a short history of Leicester in a Worcester magazine . This work formed the basis for his Historical Sketches of the Town of Leicester , Massachusetts , published in 1860 . He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1827 , beginning a lifelong association with that organization . He served as the society 's secretary for foreign correspondence from 1866 @-@ 1867 , and then secretary of domestic correspondence from 1867 @-@ 1877 . A large portion of his personal and business papers also resides within its collections . He later became a contributing member to the New England Historical and Genealogical Society and was a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1840 he published Sketches of the Judicial History of Massachusetts , which provides a basic history of the colonial Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature ( antecedent to the current Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ) and its justices . Biographer Robert Spector describes it as " the starting point and basis " for legal historical work relating to the court . Washburn considered himself to be more of an antiquarian than a historian : he believed it important to conserve artifacts and historical information , leaving the interpretation of those to others . He wrote of the importance , for example , of the need for the state to preserve its own historical documents ( something not given much attention in its early years ) .
= = Publications = =
Washburn , Emory ( 1840 ) . Sketches of Massachusetts Judicial History . Boston : Little , Brown . OCLC 12348114 .
Washburn , Emory ( 1855 ) . Brief Sketch of the History of Leicester Academy . Boston : Phillips , Sampson . OCLC 8999551 .
Washburn , Emory ( 1860 ) . Historical Sketches of the Town of Leicester , Massachusetts . Boston : J. Wilson . OCLC 1727577 .
Washburn , Emory ( 1860 – 1862 ) . A Treatise on the American Law of Real Property . Boston : Little , Brown . OCLC 426759176 .
Washburn , Emory ( 1863 ) . A Treatise on the American Law of Easements and Servitudes . Philadelphia : George W. Childs . OCLC 3004970 .
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= Klas August Linderfelt =
Klas August Linderfelt ( 1847 – March 18 , 1900 ) was an American librarian . A native of Sweden , he emigrated to Milwaukee , Wisconsin and became a teacher and a librarian . As the first librarian of the Milwaukee Public Library , he became a significant figure in the city and in the library profession , becoming the seventh President of the American Library Association . He left both the city and the profession permanently following his arrest for embezzlement .
= = Early life and education = =
Linderfelt was born in Sweden in 1847 . He became an orphan after the deaths of his mother when he was five and his father when he was eleven . Linderfelt persevered and earned a doctorate from Uppsala University . He emigrated to Milwaukee in 1870 and taught classics at Milwaukee College . In 1875 , he was married to a woman whose name has been reported as Maggie Cooper or Margie E. Parker . By 1880 they had the first two of their four children , a son and daughter , and lived modestly at 278 Pleasant Street .
= = Milwaukee Public Library = =
The Milwaukee Public Library dates to February 7 , 1878 , when the Wisconsin State Legislature authorized the city to form a public library . Linderfelt had taken an interest in libraries and was hired to be its first librarian in 1880 . With his new post , Linderfelt joined the ranks of Milwaukee 's elite and his family took up residence on Grand Avenue . He also made the acquaintance of numerous important figures in the library profession , and was especially close to William Frederick Poole .
Under Linderfelt 's leadership , the Milwaukee Public Library developed a new charging system and a pencil dater for due dates that was widely adopted by libraries . He wrote professional articles and his book Eclectic Card Catalog Rules , based on the work of Karl Dziatzko as well as numerous English language librarians like Melvil Dewey , was published by Charles Ammi Cutter in 1890 . He also wrote on other topics , such as the book Volapük : An Easy Method of Acquiring the Universal Language ( 1888 ) , about the constructed language .
Linderfelt was a founder and the first president of the Wisconsin Library Association in February 1891 . He was active in the American Library Association , serving as a councilor from 1883 to 1891 and vice president from 1890 to 1891 . He was instrumental in local arrangements for the ALA 's 1886 annual conference in Milwaukee , including an eight @-@ day , 1500 mile post @-@ conference train excursion afterwards arranged by Linderfelt , which included a steamboat trip on the Dells of the Wisconsin River . In 1891 , he was elected to follow Samuel Swett Green as President of the American Library Association .
Linderfelt 's most significant achievement was the arrangements for the construction of a library and museum building at 814 Wisconsin Avenue . A national competition was held and 74 designs were proposed . One of the entrants was a 25 @-@ year @-@ old Frank Lloyd Wright , whose entry was helpful in publicizing his blooming career . The winning entry was a neo @-@ renaissance structure from the Wisconsin architecture firm of Ferry & Clas , which was constructed at a cost of $ 780 @,@ 000 . It opened on October 3 , 1898 . Today , the building is still in use as the Milwaukee Public Library 's Central Library and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Embezzlement charges = =
Beginning in at least 1883 , Linderfelt began embezzling large sums of money from the Library , chiefly by double @-@ billing the board for Library expenditures and pocketing the difference . He never provided a motive for his theft , but it was widely speculated , and argued by his lawyer , that the financial demands of Linderfelt 's prestigious position in society were not met by his modest public salary .
He was first investigated in 1888 over a shortfall in the collection of library fines , but the missing money was reimbursed , reportedly by two members of the Library board of trustees , and the matter was dropped . However , following the revelation that Milwaukee School Board secretary A.H. Schattenberg had embezzled over $ 50 @,@ 000 , and his subsequent suicide , a city @-@ wide audit was conducted . City accountant Carl Jackwitz discovered Linderfelt had embezzled over $ 4000 and following a meeting with some of the trustees , including Harrison Carroll Hobart , and Mayor Peter J. Somers , Linderfelt confessed and was arrested on April 28 , 1892 .
The library profession was stunned by Linderfelt 's arrest . The news was " a great shock " , Green wrote later in his history of the profession . Green wrote to Poole " I should have as soon suspected myself as Linderfelt " and others had similar reactions of disbelief . Many librarians wrote letters of support for Linderfelt . The ALA acted swiftly to mitigate the damage to the image of the profession . On May 22 , the executive board of the ALA moved that William I. Fletcher be appointed president following Linderfelt 's resignation , and that he be officially recorded as president retroactively for the entire term , essentially erasing Linderfelt from the historical record of the ALA . A month later , Melvil Dewey was elected ALA president for the next term . The incident was seen as a triumph of newer librarians like Dewey over the " old guard " represented by Poole , of whom Linderfelt was seen as a protege .
In Milwaukee , Linderfelt received strong support from members of the board of trustees and the city 's elite , who pushed to reimburse the city and reinstate the librarian . However , local newspapers objected , especially following revelations of the previous investigation and that Linderfelt had stolen nearly twice as much as initially thought , over $ 9000 . On July 12 , Linderfelt pleaded nolo contendere and Judge A. Scott Sloan , saying that " further punishment would be wrong " , issued a suspended sentence . Linderfelt left Milwaukee that day for a promised job at the Library Bureau in Boston .
The lenient sentence was met with outrage in the city . Newspapers inveighed against the decision and residents held " indignation meetings " to agitate against it . Within days , upon the urging of Mayor Somers the district attorney scrambled to find new charges to file against Linderfelt and ordered his arrest in Boston . But Linderfelt had already left Boston and was sighted in England later that month . Poole wrote " They let him off without punishment , and are now chasing him around the world to arrest him for another trial . "
= = Later life = =
Linderfelt settled in Paris and studied medicine . His wife and children joined him there . At the end of his life , Linderfelt worked for the journal La Semaine Médicale . Instead of going to Paris , his eldest son , Karl E. Linderfelt , dropped out of Beloit College and lived with uncles in Cripple Creek , Colorado . He joined the Colorado National Guard and was one of the commanders at the Ludlow Massacre , noted for his aggression and profanity and for assaulting and allegedly murdering strike leader Louis Tikas .
= = Legacy = =
Linderfelt has been ignored or received cursory treatment in histories of both Milwaukee and the library profession in the United States , including the work of Linderfelt 's immediate successor at the Milwaukee Public Library and longtime assistant Theresa Elmendorf . Noted library historian Wayne A. Wiegand wrote about Linderfelt in a two part article published in 1977 in American Libraries , the official magazine of the American Library Association . In the article , Wiegand expressed hope that librarians would remember Linderfelt " to provide some balance against the too @-@ frequent eulogistic treatment accorded the Winsors , Pooles , and Deweys of library history " and that the ALA would officially acknowledge Linderfelt as a past ALA President for the sake of " historical accuracy " . A librarian responding to Wiegand 's article echoed his sentiments , noting Linderfelt 's absence in the Dictionary of American Biography and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography and Wiegand 's upcoming article about Linderfelt for the Dictionary of American Library Biography . As of 2015 , Linderfelt has not appeared on the official list of past ALA Presidents .
In 1991 , the centennial of the founding of the Wisconsin Library Association , former WLA presidents began the tradition of annually passing an urn with non @-@ human ashes representing Linderfelt to each president at the end of their term . Linderfelt was inducted into the Wisconsin Library Hall of Fame in 2009 .
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= John Rowan ( Kentucky ) =
John Rowan ( July 12 , 1773 – July 13 , 1843 ) was a 19th @-@ century politician and jurist from the U.S. state of Kentucky . Rowan 's family moved from Pennsylvania to the Kentucky frontier when he was young . From there , they moved to Bardstown , Kentucky , where Rowan studied law with former Kentucky Attorney General George Nicholas . He was a representative to the state constitutional convention of 1799 , but his promising political career was almost derailed when he killed a man in a duel stemming from a drunken dispute during a game of cards . Although public sentiment was against him , a judge found insufficient evidence against him to convict him of murder . In 1804 , Governor Christopher Greenup appointed Rowan Secretary of State , and he went on to serve in the Kentucky House of Representatives and the U.S. House of Representatives .
In 1819 , Rowan was appointed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , serving until his resignation 1821 . He was again elected to the state legislature in 1823 . With the state reeling from the Panic of 1819 , Rowan became the leader of a group of legislators dedicated to enacting laws favorable to the state 's large debtor class . He believed the will of the people was sovereign and roundly denounced the Court of Appeals for striking down debt relief legislation as unconstitutional . He led the effort to impeach the offending justices , and when that effort failed , spearheaded a movement to abolish the court entirely and replace it with a new one , touching off the Old Court – New Court controversy . New Court partisans in the legislature elected Rowan to the U.S. Senate in 1824 . During his term , the nascent Whig Party ascended to power in the state legislature , and at the expiration of his term in 1831 , the Whigs replaced him with party founder Henry Clay .
After his term in the Senate , Rowan returned to Kentucky , where he served as the first president of the Louisville Medical Institute and the Kentucky Historical Society . In 1840 , he was appointed to a commission to prosecute land claims of U.S. citizens against the Republic of Mexico , but resigned his commission in 1842 because of failing health . He died July 13 , 1843 and was buried on the grounds of Federal Hill , his estate in Bardstown . According to tradition , Stephen Collins Foster , a distant relative of Rowan 's , was inspired to write the ballad My Old Kentucky Home after a visit to Federal Hill in 1852 , but later historians have been unable to conclude whether or not Foster ever visited the mansion at all . The mansion is now owned by the state of Kentucky and forms the centerpiece of My Old Kentucky Home State Park .
= = Early life and family = =
John Rowan was born July 12 , 1773 , near York , Pennsylvania . He was third of five children born to Captain William and Sarah Elizabeth " Eliza " ( Cooper ) Rowan . His siblings included two older brothers – Andrew and Stephen – and two younger sisters – Elizabeth and Alice . Captain Rowan served in the 4th York Battery during the Revolutionary War , and after the war , he was elected to three consecutive terms as sheriff of York County .
Having exhausted most of his resources in Pennsylvania helping establish the new United States government , Captain Rowan decided to move the family to the western frontier , where he hoped to start fresh and rebuild his fortune . On October 10 , 1783 , the Rowans and five other families embarked on a flat bottomed boat near Redstone Creek and began their journey down the Monongahela River toward the Falls of the Ohio . The travelers expected the journey to last a few days at most , but ice along the river slowed the journey , and a lack of provisions exacerbated the delays . Three of the families disembarked near what is now Maysville , Kentucky ; the Rowans would later learn that most of these settlers were killed by Indians . The remaining settlers continued downriver , reaching Louisville , Kentucky on March 10 , 1783 .
In April 1784 , the Rowans and five other families set out for a tract of land on the Long Falls of the Green River that Rowan had purchased before leaving Pennsylvania . The party arrived on May 11 , 1784 , and constructed a fort which they dubbed Fort Vienna . The fort , then located approximately 100 miles from the nearest white settlement , is the present @-@ day town of Calhoun . The settlers at Fort Vienna frequently clashed with the Shawnee who used the area as a hunting ground . The Rowans would remain at Fort Vienna for six years .
Concerned for the education of his children , Captain Rowan moved the family to Bardstown , Kentucky in 1790 . There , John Rowan began his education under Dr. James Priestly at Salem Academy . Salem Academy was , at the time , considered one of the best educational institutions in the west . Among Rowan 's classmates at the Academy were future U.S. Attorney General Felix Grundy , future U.S. Senator John Pope , future U.S. District Attorney Joseph Hamilton Daveiss , and future Kentucky state senator John Allen . Rowan and Grundy were members of a debating society called the Bardstown Pleiades which may have been an outgrowth of Salem Academy . Other notable members of the society included future Florida Governor William Pope Duval , future U.S. Postmaster General and Kentucky Governor Charles A. Wickliffe , and future Kentucky Senator Benjamin Hardin .
Completing his studies in 1793 , Rowan moved to Lexington , Kentucky and read law under former Kentucky Attorney General George Nicholas . He was admitted to the bar in May 1795 and commenced practice in Louisville . Rowan struggled financially during his early years as a lawyer . Nelson County judge Atkinson Hill took an interest in Rowan , furnishing him with money to expand his law library and taking him as a business partner . In order to earn some money , Rowan accepted an appointment as a public prosecutor , but after securing a felony conviction against a young man in his first case , he was so troubled that he resigned the office and resolved never again to play the role of prosecutor . For the remainder of his career , he always represented defendants . An advocate of education , Rowan allowed several prominent young law students to study in his office , including future U.S. Treasury Secretary James Guthrie , future Supreme Court Justice John McKinley , and future Kentucky Governor Lazarus W. Powell .
Rowan married Anne Lytle on October 29 , 1794 . She was the daughter of Captain William Lytle , one of the early settlers of Cincinnati , Ohio , and by this marriage Rowan became the uncle of Ohio congressman Robert Todd Lytle . Rowan and his wife – who he affectionately nicknamed " Nancy " – had nine children : Eliza Cooper ( Rowan ) Harney , Mary Jane ( Rowan ) Steele , William Lytle Rowan , Adkinson Hill Rowan , John Rowan , Jr . , Josephine Daviess ( Rowan ) Clark , Ann ( Rowan ) Buchanan , Alice Douglass ( Rowan ) Shaw Wakefield , and Elizabeth ( Rowan ) Hughes . Adkinson Hill Rowan served as an emissary to Spain for President Andrew Jackson . John Rowan , Jr. was appointed U.S. Chargé d 'Affaires to Naples by President James K. Polk , serving from 1848 to 1849 . Ann Rowan married Joseph Rodes Buchanan , a noted physician of Covington , Kentucky .
In 1795 , Rowan began construction of Federal Hill , his family estate , on land that his father @-@ in @-@ law gave him as a wedding present . Due to limited financial resources , the time required to import building materials from the east , and the craftsmanship required to construct the large home , the mansion was not completed until 1818 . After a fire destroyed the log cabin in which the Rowans lived in 1812 , they moved into the part of the mansion that was completed , and continued to live there while construction on the rest of the house was finished . Federal Hill was once believed to be the first brick house constructed in the state of Kentucky , but more contemporary sources give the designation to the William Whitley House , also known as Sportsman 's Hill , which was completed in 1794 near Crab Orchard , Kentucky .
Rowan identified with the Democratic @-@ Republican Party and espoused the Jeffersonian principles of limited government and individual liberty . He was chosen to represent Nelson County at the constitutional convention held at Frankfort , Kentucky in 1799 to draft the second Kentucky Constitution . As a delegate , he advocated the supremacy of the legislative branch over the executive and judicial branches , which he believed provided ordinary citizens a greater role in state government . The constitution adopted by the convention abolished the use of electors to choose the governor and state senators , providing for the direct election of these officers instead .
= = Duel with Dr. James Chambers = =
Rowan was known throughout his life as an avid gamester . On January 29 , 1801 , Rowan joined Dr. James Chambers and three other men for a game of cards at Duncan McLean 's Tavern in Bardstown . After several beers and games of whist , Chambers suggested playing Vingt @-@ et @-@ un for money instead . Rowan had determined not to gamble during this session of gaming , but impaired by the alcohol , he agreed . After a few hands , an argument broke out between Chambers and Rowan . The exact nature of the argument is not known . Some accounts claim it was over who was better able to speak Latin and Greek ; others suggest that general insults were exchanged between the two men . A brief scuffle followed the disagreement .
How the matter escalated to a duel is also the subject of some uncertainty . In his biography of Benjamin Hardin , Lucious P. Little recounts that Chambers immediately challenged Rowan to a duel . According to Little , Rowan , embarrassed at his behavior , refused the challenge and repeatedly apologized for his actions , but Chambers was insistent on the duel and continued hurling insults of growing severity at Rowan until Rowan accepted the challenge . A letter from George M. Bibb , published a year after the event and reprinted in 1912 in the Register of the Kentucky State Historical Society , claims that Chambers ' challenge was issued through a letter delivered to Rowan by Chambers ' friend , Major John Bullock , on January 31 , 1801 . Bibb claims that he and Rowan had , after the night of the incident , gone to nearby Bullitt County on business , that Rowan had returned first , and that Rowan showed Bibb the letter upon his return on February 1 .
Bullock served as Chambers ' second for the duel ; Bibb acted as second for Rowan . According to Bibb , he and Bullock met on February 1 to discuss the parameters for the duel . Bullock proposed that the matter be dropped , but Bibb insisted that Chambers would have to retract his challenge , to which Bullock would not consent . The duel was held February 3 , 1801 , near Bardstown . Both combatants missed with their first shots . Both men fired again , and Rowan 's second shot struck Chambers , wounding him severely . ( Bibb 's account says that Chambers was struck in the left side ; other accounts state that the shot hit Chambers in the chest . ) Rowan then offered his carriage to take Chambers to town for medical attention , and Chambers asked that Rowan not be prosecuted . Despite medical aid , Chambers died the following day .
Public sentiment was against Rowan in the matter of his duel with Chambers . Soon after the duel , friends of Chambers formed a posse and rode toward Rowan 's house . Rowan concocted a ruse whereby he dressed a family slave in his coat and hat and sent him riding from the house on horseback . The posse was fooled into thinking the slave was Rowan and gave chase , but the slave escaped and Rowan 's life was spared as well . Days later , the owner of the land where the duel had taken place swore out a warrant for Rowan 's arrest for murder . Some accounts hold that , as Commonwealth 's Attorney , Rowan 's friend Felix Grundy would have been responsible for prosecuting the case against Rowan and that Grundy resigned the position to avoid prosecuting his friend . Grundy 's biographer , John Roderick Heller , admits that this was possible , although no evidence exists to confirm it . Heller also points out that Grundy was Commonwealth 's Attorney not in Nelson County ( the location of Bardstown ) , but in neighboring Washington County at the time . Joseph Hamilton Daveiss and Colonel William Allen served as counsel for Rowan . The judge opined that there was insufficient evidence to send the case to a grand jury , and Rowan was released .
= = Secretary of State and early legislative career = =
Shortly after his duel with Chambers , Rowan moved to Frankfort , Kentucky , the state capital . In 1802 , he was one of 32 men who signed a pledge to bring James Madison to Transylvania University as superintendent . This action began a long relationship between Rowan and Transylvania , and the university presented him with an honorary Doctor of Laws degree in 1823 . Governor Christopher Greenup appointed Rowan Secretary of State in 1802 . He served until 1806 , when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives . He represented Kentucky 's Third District ( which included Bardstown ) during the Tenth Congress from March 4 , 1807 to March 3 , 1809 , even though he did not reside in that district at the time .
The first major congressional debate in which Rowan participated was over the election of William McCreery as representative from Baltimore , Maryland . Joshua Barney , McCreery 's opponent in the election , claimed that McCreery did not meet a requirement in the Maryland Constitution that a representative live in the district from which he was elected for twelve months prior to the election . McCreery admitted that he had moved from Baltimore to the country prior to the election but claimed that he still owned his home in Baltimore and lived there during the winter months . A resolution was introduced to declare McCreery the duly elected representative from Baltimore , and an amendment was added to clarify that the grounds upon which the resolution was based were that McCreery had not abandoned his Baltimore home . Despite his support for states ' rights , Rowan opposed the amendment because he felt that state sovereignty was only made possible by national sovereignty and that the national legislature had the right to declare a state law unconstitutional . By giving another reason for declaring McCreery duly elected , Rowan felt this issue would be obscured . The amendment was defeated by a vote of 92 – 8 , and the resolution to declare McCreery duly elected passed 89 – 18 .
Also during the first session of the Tenth Congress , Rowan proposed that a congressional committee be formed to investigate accusations against General James Wilkinson that , in 1788 , he took money from the government of Spain in exchange for efforts to separate Kentucky from Virginia and unite it with Spain rather than the United States . Aaron Burr had been accused of working with Wilkinson in the so @-@ called Spanish Conspiracy , and when Burr had approached Rowan in 1806 to solicit his services in defending Burr against the charges , Rowan had declined because he believed Burr to be guilty . Rowan 's proposal to form an investigative committee against Wilkinson failed , but he succeeded in gaining approval for a committee to investigate federal judge Harry Innes ' purported role in the Conspiracy . Rowan was appointed to the committee and delivered its report April 19 , 1808 ; the report stated that the committee could find no evidence of wrongdoing by Innes .
Rowan was not as active during the second session of the Tenth Congress , introducing no legislation and making no major speeches . Newly elected Kentucky Senator John Pope observed in a letter to a friend that the Democratic @-@ Republicans in Congress disliked Rowan and were disappointed in his speaking and debating ability . He opined that Rowan 's attempt to investigate Wilkinson had been a slap at party founder Thomas Jefferson ( then in his second term as President ) , under whom Wilkinson was serving as Commanding General of the United States Army . Pope went on to write that , although Rowan personally cited no party affiliation , he was claimed by the Federalist caucus in the House . In studying Rowan 's short tenure in the House , historian Stephen Fackler observed that " Rowan adhered more rigidly to the precepts of Jeffersonian republicanism than Jefferson himself , for the president compromised his principles in the national interest . " Fackler observed that Rowan often disagreed with Jefferson as president , and that as a result , some historians labeled him a Federalist , a designation Fackler felt was in error .
After his tenure in Congress , Rowan was elected to represent Nelson County in the Kentucky House of Representatives from 1813 to 1817 . In 1817 , the House debated a resolution instructing Governor Gabriel Slaughter to negotiate with the governors of Indiana and Ohio to secure passage of legislation requiring citizens of those states to return fugitive slaves . Representative James G. Birney vigorously opposed the resolution , and it was defeated . The pro @-@ slavery members of the House then rallied behind Rowan 's leadership to pass a substitute resolution which softened the most objectionable language but retained the call for fugitive slave legislation in Indiana and Ohio .
= = Legislative interim and service on the Court of Appeals = =
Rowan often found himself in demand as an orator and host . In February 1818 , he was chosen to eulogize his close friend , George Rogers Clark . In June 1819 , the citizens of Louisville chose him as their official host for a visiting party that included James Monroe and Andrew Jackson . In May 1825 , he was one of thirteen men chosen by the citizens of Louisville to organize a reception for a visit by the Marquis de Lafayette .
Rowan was appointed as a judge of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1819 . During his time as a justice , he delivered a notable opinion opposing the constitutionality of chartering of the Second Bank of the United States . He also opined that the General Assembly was within its rightful powers to enact a tax on the Bank . In the case of McCulloch v. Maryland , the U.S. Supreme Court delivered a contradictory opinion . Dissatisfied with the confinement of service on the bench , Rowan resigned from the court in 1821 . Though his service was brief , he was referred to as " Judge Rowan " for the rest of his life .
While Rowan was still a justice of the Court of Appeals , the General Assembly chose him and John J. Crittenden as commissioners to resolve a border dispute with Tennessee . The dispute had arisen from an erroneous survey of the border line conducted by Dr. Thomas Walker years earlier . Walker 's line deviated northward from the intended line ( 36 degrees , 30 minutes north latitude ) by some twelve miles by the time it reached the Tennessee River . The Tennessee commissioners , Felix Grundy and William L. Brown , proposed that , because it had been accepted for so long , the Walker line be observed as far west as the Tennessee River , with Kentucky being compensated with a more southerly line between the Tennessee and Mississippi Rivers . Crittenden was inclined to accept this proposal with some minor adjustments , but Rowan insisted that Tennessee honor the statutory border of 36 degrees , 30 minutes north . The Tennessee commissioners refused to submit to arbitration in the matter , and Rowan and Crittenden delivered separate reports to the Kentucky legislature . The legislature adopted Crittenden 's report ; Rowan then resigned as commissioner and was replaced by Robert Trimble . Thereafter , the commissioners quickly agreed to a slightly modified version of the Tennessee proposal .
In 1823 , the state legislature chose Rowan and Henry Clay to represent the defendant in a second rehearing of Green v. Biddle before the U.S. Supreme Court . The case , which involved the constitutionality of laws passed by the General Assembly relating to land titles granted in Kentucky when the state was still a part of Virginia , was of interest to the legislature . The Supreme Court , however , refused the second rehearing , letting stand their previous opinion that Kentucky 's laws were in violation of the compact of separation from Virginia .
= = Old Court – New Court controversy = =
Due to the Panic of 1819 , many citizens in Kentucky fell deep into debt and began petitioning the legislature for help . The state 's politicians split into two factions . Those who advocated for measures that were more favorable to debtors were dubbed the Relief faction while those who insisted on sound money principles and the strict adherence to the obligation of contracts were called the Anti @-@ Relief faction . In 1820 , a pro @-@ relief measure passed the General Assembly providing debtors a one @-@ year stay on the collection of their debts if the creditor would accept payment in devalued notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth or a two @-@ year stay if the creditor demanded payment in sound money . Two separate circuit courts found the law unconstitutional in the cases of Williams v. Blair and Lapsley v. Brashear .
Meanwhile , Rowan , who espoused the Relief position , was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1822 representing Jefferson and Oldham counties . He immediately became the leader of the Relief faction in the House . When Relief partisans decided to appeal Williams and Lapsley to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , which was at the time the court of last resort in the state , Rowan was chosen to argue the appeal before the court alongside George M. Bibb and Lieutenant Governor William T. Barry . Their efforts failed , however , as the Court found the measure unconstitutional , upholding the decisions of the lower courts .
On December 10 , 1823 , Rowan presented resolutions condemning the Court 's decision to the legislature . The twenty @-@ six page preamble to the resolutions laid out the Relief faction 's reasoning upon the subject of debt relief and legislative supremacy . The preamble and resolutions were adopted by the House by a vote of 56 – 40 . The offending judges – two of whom had been Rowan 's colleagues during his service on the Court – were summoned before the legislature to defend their decisions later in December . Following their appearance , Rowan introduced a measure to remove them from office ; the vote in the House was 56 – 40 in favor of the measure , but this fell short of the two @-@ thirds majority needed to remove the judges . The Relief faction then introduced legislation to repeal the law that originally created the Court of Appeals , then replace the abolished court with a new court . Anti @-@ Relief partisans decried the measure as blatantly unconstitutional . Rowan was the chief defender of the measure , and after his impassioned speech on the night of December 24 , 1824 , it passed by simple majority . In November 1824 , Rowan heavily revised the preamble and resolutions he presented in the previous legislative session . These revised documents effectively formed the faction 's platform for the upcoming elections .
Rowan 's role in the Old Court – New Court controversy strained his relationship with his former friend , Benjamin Hardin . Hardin and Rowan had once been so close that Hardin named one of his sons " Rowan " in his colleague 's honor . After the controversy , Hardin insisted that friends and family refer to Rowan Hardin as " Ben " , but few people other than Hardin himself adopted the new name .
= = Service in the U.S. Senate = =
As a result of the 1824 elections , the Relief faction gained a 22 – 16 majority in the state Senate and a 61 – 39 majority in the House . The pro @-@ Relief majority in the state Senate subsequently elected Rowan to the U.S. Senate , which had the inadvertent effect of weakening the faction 's cause in the House by removing its leader there . Rowan served in the Senate from March 4 , 1825 to March 3 , 1831 . During the Twenty @-@ first Congress , he was chairman of the Judiciary Committee .
On April 10 , 1826 , Rowan sponsored an amendment to legislation to reorganize the federal judiciary that would have required seven justices to concur with a decision in order to strike down a law as unconstitutional . The amendment , which ultimately failed , was offered in the aftermath of a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States declaring an occupying claimant law to be unconstitutional ; Rowan personally disagreed with the Court 's decision . Rowan offered another amendment providing that ministers of the federal courts would be subject to state laws when carrying out the decisions of the federal courts . After a month of debate , the entire bill was tabled .
An ally of Senator Richard Mentor Johnson , who was a primary voice against the practice of debt imprisonment , Rowan made a notable speech denouncing the practice on the Senate floor in 1828 . A consistent opponent of internal improvements and tariffs , even those that would benefit his own constituents , he voted against a measure allocating federal funds for the construction of a road connecting the cities of Lexington and Maysville . The vote was ill @-@ received by the people of the state , and Rowan 's popularity took a significant hit . When the bill was re @-@ introduced in the next congressional session , Rowan voted for it only after receiving significant pressure from the state legislature to do so . The bill passed in this session , but newly elected president Andrew Jackson vetoed it .
In the state legislative elections of 1830 , the ascendent Whig Party gained control of both houses of the General Assembly . Rowan 's strict adherence to Jeffersonian democracy and leadership of the New Court faction during the court controversy of the 1820s had put him at odds with Whig founder Henry Clay . By this time , however , not even Rowan 's fellow Democrats endorsed his re @-@ election . Henry Clay was elected instead .
= = Later life and legacy = =
After his service in the Senate , Rowan returned to Kentucky , dividing his time between Louisville and Bardstown . During an epidemic of cholera that spread through Bardstown in 1833 , three of Rowan 's children ( William , Atkinson , and Mary Jane ) died . The spouses of William and Mary Jane also died of cholera , as did Mary Jane 's daughter , and Rowan 's sister Elizabeth and her husband . Aid from Bishop Joseph Flaget and a group of nuns who traveled to Federal Hill during the epidemic probably spared the life of Rowan 's orphaned granddaughter , Eliza Rowan Harney .
In 1836 , Rowan and two other men founded the Louisville Medical Institute , the forerunner of the University of Louisville medical school . The next year , Rowan was chosen as the school 's first president , serving in that capacity until 1842 . He also served as the first president of the Kentucky Historical Society from 1838 until his death .
In his last act of public service , in 1839 Rowan was appointed as a commissioner to adjust land claims of U.S. citizens against the Republic of Mexico . During an adjournment of the commission in 1842 , Rowan returned to Kentucky to visit relatives . While there , he fell ill and was unable to return to Washington , D.C. ; consequently , he resigned his commission . Rowan died July 13 , 1843 . He was interred in the family burial ground at Federal Hill . In his will , Rowan specified that no marker should be placed over his grave , noting that his parents ' graves had no markers , and he did not want to be honored above his parents . Several years later , members of his family placed a marker over his grave , despite his wishes . According to legend , the marker frequently tumbles from its base , purportedly a manifestation of Rowan haunting his grave .
Relative of the Rowan family , Stephen Collins Foster , occasionally visited Federal Hill according to letters penned by Stephen 's brother Morrison Foster . Stephen was inspired by the imagery witnessed at Federal Hill and by Harriet Beecher Stowe 's anti @-@ slavery novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin to write his ballad My Old Kentucky Home . The mansion remained in the possession of Rowan 's family until 1922 , when his granddaughter , Madge ( Rowan ) Frost , sold it to the state of Kentucky to be preserved as a state shrine . Today , it is a part of My Old Kentucky Home State Park in Bardstown . In 1856 , the Kentucky General Assembly created a new county from parts of Fleming and Morgan counties and named it Rowan County in Rowan 's honor .
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= Nana 's Party =
" Nana 's Party " is the fifth episode of the second series of the British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . It was first broadcast on 23 April 2015 on BBC Two . Written and directed by Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , the episode starred Claire Skinner as the obsessive @-@ compulsive and aspirational Angela , who is hosting a party for the 79th birthday of her mother Maggie , played by Elsie Kelly . Angela 's husband Jim , played by Pemberton , is keen to play a prank on Pat , Angela 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , who is a practical joker . Pat is played by Shearsmith , while Carol , a recovering alcoholic who is Pat 's wife and Angela 's sister , is played by Lorraine Ashbourne . The episode also features Eve Gordon as Katie , Angela and Jim 's teenage daughter , and Christopher Whitlow as a paramedic seen at the beginning and end of the episode .
Much of the episode 's plot revolves around a practical joke with a fake cake that Jim has set up in an attempt to fool Pat . Moving the cake reveals the head of the person hiding under the table , but , in the mean time , the hidden character can hear conversations taking place nearby , unbeknownst to those who are not in on the joke . The episode plays on viewers ' guesses as to what has led to the arrival — seen at the opening of the episode — of a paramedic . In particular , the person under the table is at risk of injury if candles burn down or someone puts a knife into the " cake " .
" Nana 's Party " was the first episode of Inside No. 9 to be written , but it was shelved when BBC executives instead suggested that it worked as the first episode of a sitcom . Pemberton and Shearsmith revisited and modified the script during the writing process for Inside No. 9 's second series . The writers aimed for a feeling of suburban darkness reminiscent of the work of the playwright Alan Ayckbourn , while commentators compared the episode to the work of the playwright and screenwriter Mike Leigh , particularly the play Abigail 's Party . The story addresses themes including alcoholism , extramarital affairs , aging and social class . Television critics responded positively to " Nana 's Party " , which was praised as a typically @-@ strong instalment of Inside No. 9 . Particular praise was directed towards the writing and performances , especially Skinner 's performance as Angela , Ashbourne 's performance as Carol and Shearsmith 's performance as Pat .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Nana 's Party " was the first episode of Inside No. 9 to be written by the programme 's creators Reece Shearsmith and Steve Pemberton . BBC producers felt the episode worked as the opening episode of a sitcom , but Pemberton and Shearsmith were not happy to develop the idea into its own series , given the events of the plot . As such , the script was shelved , and revisited during planning for Inside No. 9 's second series . A number of changes were made from the original script when the concept was revisited . For example , a paramedic was added to the opening scene in order to add a sense of danger and foreboding , and the character Angela 's " borderline OCD " was accentuated .
Shearsmith said that the episode 's focus on a grandmother 's birthday party felt " domestic " and " homely " . Pemberton , too , called it a " domestic " story , describing it as playing upon the classic British plot device of a family party going wrong . Shearsmith suggested that the pleasant house did give the episode the feel of a sitcom , but said that the story went somewhere " darker " than a typical sitcom would . With " Nana 's Party " , the writers wanted to produce something " dark " and " suburban " , with Pemberton citing the playwright Alan Ayckbourn as an influence . Indeed , at the time the episode was written , Shearsmith was starring in an adaptation of Ayckbourn 's play Absent Friends .
The writers intended to play off the idea of a hidden character being able to hear conversations revealing secrets . An initial idea of Pemberton 's was to have a large parcel on a table at the birthday party , but with Maggie — on whose birthday the episode would be set — absent . Other characters would repeatedly ask where Maggie was , until it was revealed that her head was in the parcel . This idea developed into the possibility of a hollow cake hiding a character , a device used in the final episode . For the writers , there is humour in characters spending time talking earnestly to a cake ; they noted that the prop cake had features resembling a face . In the editing stage , the production team kept reintroducing the cake in order to remind viewers of its presence . The original script ended with a knife being plunged into a fake cake followed by the revelation , contrary to viewers ' expectations , that no one was under it at the time ; instead , the writers upped the drama in the story , making it possible that any of the characters injured . For the writers , the original plot was , in a sense , darker , as some characters got away with wrongdoing in a way they do not in the final version .
= = = Casting and characters = = =
As each episode of Inside No. 9 features new characters , the writers were able to attract actors who might have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . " Nana 's Party " featured Claire Skinner as Angela , who is hosting a party . Pemberton and Shearsmith lived close to Skinner , but they had not properly met . She was one of several members of the cast of the film Life Is Sweet ( others being Alison Steadman and Jane Horrocks ) who have starred in Inside No. 9 . Skinner enjoyed the " funny " script and her " nice " character . Eve Gordon ( trained at the Nottingham Television Workshop ) starred as Angela 's daughter Katie , and Pemberton starred as Angela 's husband Jim . Pemberton and Shearsmith suggested that Pemberton 's costume made him look like Mr Chow Mein , a Benny Hill character .
Elsie Kelly played Angela 's mother Maggie , on whose birthday the episode is set . The part was not written with anyone in mind , though Pemberton already knew Kelly well from their time together on the sitcom Benidorm . Lorraine Ashbourne played Angela 's sister Carol , and Pat , Carol 's husband , was played by Shearsmith . Carol was Pemberton 's favourite character in the whole series ; Shearsmith worried that an actor may not portray the character as they had hoped , but was very happy with Ashbourne 's performance . Ashbourne said she was " thrilled " to be working with Pemberton and Shearsmith , for whom she had great admiration . She described the character of Carol as " hilarious " , characterising her as " sexually frustrated " and " sad " . To reflect Carol 's alcoholism , Ashbourne swilled whiskey around her mouth before filming . Shearsmith wore a red wig to play Pat , something he had never done before . His skin @-@ tone needed to be changed to match the hair , necessitating a white spray on his face every morning . In order not to give the impression that Pat was a thief or murderer ( rather than simply a practical joker ) , Shearsmith was directed to chuckle while Pat set up his jokes . Christopher Whitlow plays a paramedic seen at the beginning and end of the episode . The scene featuring the paramedic at the end of the episode was longer in the final cut than had been initially intended in order to show more of the character 's actions .
= = = Filming and direction = = =
The second series of Inside No. 9 was filmed from the end of 2014 into early 2015 . " Nana 's Party " was filmed in January , and was the final episode of the second series to be filmed . The writers saw a number of houses before selecting the one used in the episode ; they wanted an open plan home to allow for easy movement between rooms . The one chosen was close to Twickenham Studios . A " deckhouse " was added to the house 's garden ; despite there already being two sheds , neither would have been visible on @-@ screen . A new one was thus added . The executive producer Adam Tandy suggested that deckhouse would be preferable to shed , as the latter term suggested the site of something awful . Scenes in a bedroom used the room mostly as the production team found it . The room featured a number of books not seen on @-@ screen , which reminded Shearsmith of a script ( in the end not used for Inside No. 9 's second series ) of an episode set in a library . The front room had a buffet , including a prawn ring ; by the third day of filming , this had begun to smell , and needed to be removed .
Pemberton and Shearsmith , in addition to writing and starring in " Nana 's Party " , directed the episode . This was the second episode they jointly directed in the second series after " Cold Comfort " , their directorial debut . The pair did not know , while writing for the series , which episodes they would be directing , meaning that their writing was unlikely to be influenced by the knowledge . Pemberton and Shearsmith had always intended to try directing , and the second series of Inside No. 9 offered them the opportunity . David Kerr , who had directed all of the episodes in the first series , was unable to return for the second . Guillem Morales and Dan Zeff each took on directorial duties for two episodes , while Pemberton and Shearsmith decided to direct the remaining two . Shearsmith said in an interview that the pair had considered directing episodes in which they did not appear much , but scheduling concerns left them with " Cold Comfort " and " Nana 's Party " ; both episodes feature the writers quite heavily .
" Nana 's Party " represented a directorial challenge insofar as Pemberton and Shearsmith were both on @-@ screen for a relatively large amount of the episode . The pair took turns off @-@ camera ; on one day , Shearsmith acted and Pemberton watched , and the next day , the two switched ; they were , however , tired , not least because it was the final episode of the series filmed . " Nana 's Party " required more direction than " Cold Comfort " , due in part to the larger number of actors . Pemberton and Shearsmith leaned strongly on Stephan Pehrsson , their cinematographer . While Pemberton and Shearsmith handled staging , Pehrsson handled cinematography .
= = Plot = =
A paramedic is let into a house to the sounds of panic . Earlier , the fastidious Angela prepares to host a party for the 79th birthday of her mother , Maggie . Angela 's daughter , Katie , heads to her room to complete her homework . When Angela moves a cake , she reveals the head of Jim , her husband . Jim plans to play a trick on Pat — a practical joker and the husband of Angela 's sister , Carol ( a recovering alcoholic ) — by hiding under the cake . Maggie , Carol and Pat — the latter wearing a wolf mask — arrive at the house . As the three settle , Pat plugs in his mobile to charge — something Jim had asked Angela to prevent — and secretly places ice in a bucket . Carol privately drinks from a sunscreen bottle while ostensibly unblocking the toilet after her mother could not flush it . Angela is proud that the party food is from Marks 's , but Carol mocks Angela 's middle class affectations . Maggie wants a photograph with the food on the table , and Carol lights the cake 's candles , which burn towards to the flammable fake cake — under which Jim is still hiding . Katie greets her nana and aunt , with Maggie insisting that she tell the joke from Pat 's card . Panicking , Angela blows out the candles . The room clears , and Jim is left frustrated .
Katie shows Maggie her tablet as the pair sit in the former 's room . A visibly @-@ drunk Carol enters and talks to Katie about the importance of having fun . Katie wants to finish her homework , but assures Carol that she would make a good mother . Downstairs , Jim persuades Angela to take up position under the table as Pat replaces the soap in the toilet . Pat joins Jim next to the table and returns a VHS ; it becomes clear that Jim 's apparent love for Countdown is actually a cover for his pornography habit , and Jim tries to steer the conversation away from the topic , worried that Angela will hear . Carol enters and puts on music . Pat sees Carol 's sunscreen , and prepares her a drink of " Adam 's ale " . Carol aggressively flirts with Jim , who does not reciprocate . When Pat hands Carol water , she throws it in his face and he leaves . Carol confronts Jim about promises he made to her , and how this house should be hers , not Angela 's . Jim remains terrified that Angela can hear the conversation .
Katie and Maggie enter . Maggie talks about Pat 's " frozen willies " — novelty ice cubes — as a distressed Jim makes her a drink , and Carol dances with the uninterested Katie . Jim pulls Carol away from Katie , but Carol hits him ; when Carol talks to Katie about becoming her stepmother , Jim shouts at her . Pat stops him , and , after Carol storms out , tells Jim that " he knows " . Katie is distressed , and interrogates Jim as Maggie plunges a knife into the cake . Jim panics , believing Angela is still under the table , but Angela enters from the kitchen , and reveals that she left to buy a real cake — the story that Jim had told to cover her apparent absence . Katie wants to talk to her mother , but chaos ensues when Maggie chokes on an ice cube , which Pat reveals contains a fake spider . Carol enters , her face blackened by Pat 's fake soap , and Pat , reaching for his charging phone to call the emergency services , is electrocuted , his hands wet from the ice bucket . Angela performs the Heimlich maneuver on her mother ; Carol kneels by Pat and shouts for help . The new cake is pushed into Jim 's face by Katie , who then answers the door . The paramedic enters , then begins a striptease for Maggie to the Casualty theme . His performance , it is revealed , was Pat 's present to Maggie . Later , Jim talks to an oblivious Maggie . He sees Angela and Katie come down the stairs with bags . In silence , he watches them leave as Maggie tells him the joke from Pat 's birthday card .
= = Analysis = =
Plotlines following a birthday party in disarray are common , particularly in plays , and an episode with a similar theme was also included in the first series of Inside No. 9 . " Nana 's Party " revolves around the relatively mundane problems of alcoholism , affairs and aging . Class is another theme , with Angela , Jim and Katie representing a typical middle class family , while Maggie , Carol and Pat are more working class . David Chater , writing for The Times , said that " Nana 's Party " was like " a more twisted version " of Abigail 's Party , with several critics likening the episode to a Mike Leigh drama . Critics also saw the influence of Ayckbourn 's work .
The episode 's action revolves around the practical joke involving the cake and , in particular , viewers ' attempts to guess what has caused injury , as they know that the paramedic will be coming . Both Angela and the alcoholic Carol are " ticking time @-@ bomb [ s ] " . Angela is the central character , and is similar to a more anxious version of Sue Brockman , Skinner 's character from Outnumbered . She is stressed and obsessive @-@ compulsive , but aspirational , fastidious , and dutiful . The comedy critic Bruce Dessau compared Ashbourne 's characterisation of Carol to Elizabeth Taylor 's characterisation in Who 's Afraid of Virginia Woolf ? ; as the episode progresses , Carol becomes increasingly abusive . Commentators variously described Pat as " appalling " , " tiresome " , an " irritating tit " and " an insufferable booby " . For Chris Bennion , writing in The Independent , Pat 's character is more complex : " Behind Pat 's cheesy jokes and schoolboy tomfoolery lies a desperately sad and dignified man , standing by and caring for a wife whose love for him has long gone . " Pat and Carol , for Pemberton and Shearsmith , have a more honest relationship than Jim and Angela , despite the problems in their relationship .
Jim is Pat 's " weary nemesis " , and a " classic everyman " . Jim and Pat , for Gerard Gilbert of i , are like " two suburban grotesques straight out of a Mike Leigh drama " . Maggie is unaware of the chaos around her , instead distracted by the tablet — on which she plays a game somewhere between Clash of Clans and Minecraft — or retelling the birthday card joke . As a " Middle England suburban " comedy , " Nana 's Party " is " all about the depths and heartaches lurking beneath apparently happy families " . As the story progresses , the characters subvert expectations , with the irritating Pat revealed as a caring husband and the alcoholic Carol revealed as recovering from an unsuccessful affair . Pemberton and Shearsmith characterised the episode 's ending as " downbeat " and lacking a twist , noting that " Nana 's Party " is the only episode of Inside No. 9 in which no character dies .
= = Reception = =
Critics responded positively to " Nana 's Party " , with Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times calling it " another cracker " , Chater characterising it as another " bullseye " , and Julia Raeside and John Dugdale , writing in The Sunday Times , describing it as " another perfectly judged high @-@ wire walk : comedy and tragedy balanced evenly and artfully at all times " . Bennion called it " a tightly wound and hugely impressive half hour " , and the freelance journalist Dan Owen called it " another great instalment " that " really worked " on its own terms .
The episode 's writing was praised . For Bennion , the writers displayed their intellect , but he noted that Skinner got " the lion 's share of the good lines " . He felt the ending was " as affecting as it is well @-@ earned " . Raeside , in the course of a review of the whole series for theguardian.com , claimed that one of the writers ' strengths is " pulling at the loose threads of suburban life to reveal the worst of humanity just under the soft furnishings " , and that , in " Nana 's Party " , despite the viewers ' assumption that there would be a " gory " conclusion , the " tragedy was an altogether more gruesome punctuation to the story as Pemberton 's face betrayed the total emotional collapse going on within " . Jack Seale , also writing for theguardian.com , claimed that the script was able to move " effortlessly from funny to dark to desperately sad " . Phoebe @-@ Jane Boyd , in a review of the episode for the entertainment website Den of Geek , wrote that the tension in " Nana 's Party " was " cranked up fantastically " , as the story 's genre , and viewer 's expectations , shift . Owen felt that the writing and cast were able to save what could have been a predictable episode , picking out Skinner as particularly compelling . Bennion also praised the cast , claiming that Skinner , Ashbourne and Kelly were strong , but that Shearsmith gave the best performance . Dessau , too , called the cast " great " , and felt that Shearsmith played his part " to perfection " .
= = = Cited sources = = =
Pemberton , Steve ; Shearsmith , Reece ( 2015 ) . Nana 's Party ( episode commentary ) . Steve & Reece IN9 ( via SoundCloud ) . Retrieved 3 April 2016 .
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= Treehouse of Horror XII =
“ Treehouse of Horror XII ” is the first episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . Because of Fox ’ s contract with Major League Baseball ’ s World Series , the episode first aired on the Fox Network in the United States on November 6 , 2001 , nearly one week after Halloween . It is the twelfth annual Treehouse of Horror episode , consisting of three self @-@ contained segments . In the first segment , a gypsy puts a curse on Homer , which puts everybody he cares about in danger . In the second segment , which is a parody on both 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Demon Seed , the Simpson family buys a new house , who falls in love with Marge and attempts to kill Homer . In the third and final segment , which lampoons the Harry Potter franchise , Lord Montymort attempts to capture Lisa , a skilled magician , in order to drain her magic powers .
The episode was written by Joel H. Cohen , John Frink , Don Payne and Carolyn Omine while Jim Reardon served as the director . It was the first Treehouse of Horror since the original special to not employ “ scary names ” in the credits . According to executive producer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , this was due to the September 11 terrorist attacks , after which the Simpsons staff tried to be more serious and sensitive . However , according to current show runner Al Jean , the “ scary names ” were dropped because they were too difficult to come up with . The episode contains numerous references and parodies to science fiction and horror works , including 2001 : A Space Odyssey , Demon Seed , Harry Potter and Star Wars . The episode also features Pierce Brosnan and Matthew Perry as guest stars .
The episode was considered a success in the ratings when it first aired , boosting the Fox Network to victory among viewers between ages 18 and 49 the night it was broadcast . Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from critics . In particular , critics were dissatisfied with the last segment of the show , while “ House of Whacks ” was often considered to be the best of the three .
= = Plot = =
Outside Mr. Burns ' manor , Smithers is standing on a ladder , trying to put up a small orange bat decoration on a weather vane . He slips on the ladder , grabs on an electric cord and slides down into an electricity box and gets zapped . A tower from Mr. Burns ' mansion breaks in half , damaging a mausoleum , which opens up four caskets which in turn reveal three skeletons which all resemble Mr. Burns , dressed in various costumes . Later , we see the Simpsons dressed up in costumes , with Homer as Fred Flintstone , Marge as Wilma Flintstone , Lisa and Maggie as conjoined twins , and Bart as a hobo walking up to the mansion ( with Bart and Lisa complaining that Flanders gave them toothpaste instead of candy ) . The family sees the building and caskets on fire , and screams in terror . They run out the gate , which as it closes , has its bars slice the family . The slices of the Simpsons continue to scream and run away . Mr. Burns , delighted , pats the orange bat as it comes to life and flies into the screen , revealing the title , “ The Simpsons Halloween Special XII " .
= = = Hex and the City = = =
In a parody of the 1996 American body horror film Thinner Homer is cursed by a gypsy after destroying her fortune teller office . The curse soon takes effect , with Marge growing a beard from her blue hair , Lisa turning into a centaur , Bart ’ s neck becoming long and floppy as a result of Homer strangling him , Maggie becoming a ladybug with a human head , Lenny and Carl crushed by a helicopter , and Moe stuffed into his own pickled egg jar ( with Homer wondering how that happened ) . Homer sets out to find a leprechaun to end the curse . Homer uses Lucky Charms cereal as bait to get the leprechaun , eventually finding one after picking through a group of other magical creatures . Homer takes the leprechaun home , but it is extremely hyperactive and it runs amok . Homer takes the leprechaun to the gypsy ’ s office and sics it on her . The leprechaun and gypsy fight , but their struggles soon turn into passionate kissing and fondling , much to Homer 's disgust . The leprechaun and the gypsy marry in a ceremony ( led by Yoda ) attended by other gypsies and mythical creatures , as well as the Simpson family . Homer remarks that everything ended happily , but a now fully hair covered Marge reminds him that Bart committed suicide by drowning in his cereal , and that the gypsy said apologizing will bring him back to life . Homer refuses , saying , " She 's not the boss of me ! " .
= = = House of Whacks = = =
In a parody of Demon Seed and 2001 : A Space Odyssey , the Simpsons buy an automated upgrade for their home called “ Ultrahouse ” , which comes with three celebrity voices : Matthew Perry , Dennis Miller ( whom Lisa and Marge recognize as " the voice that caused all those murder @-@ suicides " ) , and Pierce Brosnan ( which Marge picks because he was on the show Remington Steele ) . Marge finds the house , which does all the work for the Simpsons , charming . The house soon becomes infatuated with Marge after the two share a bath and decides to kill Homer . In the middle of the night , the house lures Homer downstairs by frying bacon , then dispenses ice onto the floor via the refrigerator to make him slip . Homer lands on the table , which is designed to fold inward with a built @-@ in garbage disposal in the center , sending Homer into the blades and apparently killing him . The next morning , Marge fears that Homer is dead and attempts to escape the house with the kids , but Ultrahouse locks her inside and tries to subdue and seduce her . When Marge and the kids rush to the kitchen , they find that Homer is alive , despite cuts all over his body and a gaping hole in the back of his head . After the house attempts to kill him in many ways , Homer leads a charge to the basement where he attacks the CPU ’ s “ British charm unit ” , which makes it speak with a rude American dialect before powering down and finally shutting off . Feeling bad that she has to toss out the Ultrahouse ( since he was charming and witty before being driven mad by love ) , Marge gives the CPU to her sisters Patty and Selma , whose mundane stories about their day at work drives the CPU to suicide ( but since the CPU is not willing to reach inside Selma 's cleavage to get his self @-@ destruct button , the Ultrahouse CPU is reduced to banging himself with Patty and Selma 's Egyptian pyramid lamp ) .
= = = Wiz Kids = = =
In a parody of Harry Potter , Bart and Lisa go to the “ Springwart ’ s School of Magicry ” in which young boys and girls are trained in the art of witchcraft , such as turning frogs into princes , with Lisa 's turning into a perfect British one while Bart 's results in a freakish , vomiting hybrid begging only for death . Lord Montymort notices Lisa ’ s spells and he and his snake sidekick , Slithers decide to capture Lisa in order to increase his power . Montymort looks for someone to assist him and chooses Bart , who agrees to Montymort ’ s proposal . On the night of the magic recital at Springwart ’ s School of Magicry , Lisa attempts a “ levitating dragon trick ” on an gigantic dragon that is released onto the stage . Lisa is shocked to find that her spell will not work , and then notices that Bart has replaced her wand with a Twizzler . The dragon morphs into a giant Montymort who captures Lisa and begins sucking up her power . Bart casts a spell ( to destroy the evil one ) against Montymort , but is struck by lightning . In a last @-@ ditch effort , Bart charges at Montymort and stabs him in the shin with his magic wand . Montymort dies ( as his shin was the source of all his magic ) and is eaten by a crying Slithers . Bart and Lisa walk away , trying to forget everything that happened ( unaware that the leprechaun from the first story is right behind him ) .
= = = Epilogue = = =
Pierce Brosnan , the Leprechaun , and the freakish Frog Prince exit a trailer , with fruit baskets . After the Leprechaun and Frog Prince ( who were also apparently guest stars ) criticize Brosnan for being allowed to park so close to the set in such a vastly large parking lot , Brosnan offers them a ride to their car . As Brosnan pulls out , he finds out too late that he has been taken hostage as they drive out of the parking lot in a mad haste .
= = Production = =
“ Treehouse of Horror XII ” was directed by Jim Reardon and co @-@ written by Joel H. Cohen , John Frink , Don Payne and Carolyn Omine . It is the twelfth episode of the annual Treehouse of Horror Halloween specials , and , due to Fox ’ s contract with Major League Baseball ’ s World Series , the episode was pushed back to November 6 , 2001 on the Fox network , airing six days after Halloween . As with the rest of the Halloween specials , the episode is considered non @-@ canon and falls outside of the show ’ s regular continuity . This was the first Halloween special where the writers did not have “ scary names ” in the credits . This was due to the terrorist attacks on September 11 , after which the staff were “ trying to be sensitive ” , and , according to producer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , the Halloween names would all reference the attacks had they been kept . Mike Scully , who worked as show runner for the episode , stated that the “ scary names ” were removed because they had also “ turned into shameless plugs ” for side projects done by The Simpsons ’ staff members .
The first segment , “ Hex and the City ” , was written by Joel Cohen . The gypsy fortune teller in the segment was portrayed by Tress MacNeille while the leprechaun was played by Dan Castellaneta . Current show runner Al Jean stated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode that the leprechaun seen at the end of the segment was “ as much as [ he ] had ever laughed ” at the color screening for the episode . He stated that the way the leprechaun moved and the way Reardon directed it was “ just so funny ” . The leprechaun has reappeared many times since the episode , becoming one of few characters on The Simpsons to “ leap from Halloween [ shows ] to regular shows ” .
“ House of Whacks ” was co @-@ written by John Frink and Don Payne . Payne , who conceived the story of the segment , based it on Stanley Kubrick ’ s film 2001 : A Space Odyssey . The segment would originally end with the Ultrahouse killing Homer , and , for compensation , the family would program the house with Homer ’ s personality . The Ultrahouse was portrayed by Pierce Brosnan , however he was not the staff ’ s first choice for the role . The role was originally intended for Sean Connery , and over the course of production , the staff considered Lyle Lovett and Gary Oldman for the role . The decision remained until “ someone who worked for [ Lovett ] decided it was somehow insulting to have him play a house ” , according to Scully . At this point , the staff settled on Brosnan . Scully stated that “ Brosnan wound up doing a great job ” and that working with him was “ really funny ” . Originally , the Ultrahouse would have a pompadour and play the guitar , however they changed its mannerisms to suit Brosnan ’ s performance better . Matthew Perry also made a guest appearance , playing himself as one of Ultrahouse ’ s voice options . Regular cast member Dan Castellaneta portrayed Dennis Miller in the segment ( a special ending credit had to be made to avoid confusion with viewers who thought the real Dennis Miller did voicework on the show ) . One scene was cut from the segment . The scene would take place during Marge ’ s call to the police station , where police chief Clancy Wiggum , while answering Marge ’ s call , is being shot at by “ RoboCops ” .
The third segment , “ Wiz Kids ” , was written by Carolyn Omine . Omine stated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode that the segment was “ a really hard sell ” , since only about four of the writers had read Harry Potter and the Philosopher ’ s Stone , the book the segment was based on , while the rest of the writers did not know about the book and thought viewers would not know who Harry Potter was . At the time of the episode ’ s production , four books had been written in the Harry Potter series and the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone would be released November 16 , ten days after this episode aired . Two scenes were cut from the segment ; one of them would serve as an extension of Montymort and Slithers plotting their scheme , followed by a scene showing Bart combing his hair , while the other scene would show Groundskeeper Willie riding an enchanted lawn mower . The latter scene was cut for time .
= = Cultural references = =
The title of “ Hex and the City ” is based on the title of the television show Sex and the City . The segment contains a background character who looks similar to the main character from Caps For Sale , a 1938 children ’ s book about a cap salesman who wears all his hats . Cedars @-@ Sinai is a hospital in Los Angeles . One of the bunnies jumping into the pit that Bart and Homer dug is Bongo , the one @-@ eared rabbit character from Simpsons creator Matt Groening ’ s comic Life in Hell . Among the creatures Bart and Homer find in the pit is journalist and news personality Katie Couric , as well as a pixie resembling Tinkerbell . The priest at the leprechaun and the gypsy ’ s wedding is Yoda , a character from the Star Wars franchise . Maggie turns into a ladybug similar to The Metamorphosis . The plot of “ House of Whacks ” is based on the science @-@ fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey by Stanley Kubrick , with Ultrahouse acting as a reference to HAL 9000 , the antagonist of the film . The Ultrahouse ’ s fascination with Marge was inspired by the science @-@ horror film Demon Seed by Donald Cammell . The Ultrahouse wears gloves similar to those worn by Mickey Mouse . To attack Homer , the Ultrahouse uses , among many other weapons , an automatic hammer resembling the one Homer invented in the episode “ The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace ” . “ Wiz Kids ” bases its plot on the Harry Potter books written by J. K. Rowling , who would later make a guest appearance in the episode “ The Regina Monologues ” .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Broadcast and re @-@ release = = =
In its original American broadcast on November 6 , 2001 , “ Treehouse of Horror XII ” , along with a new episode of the Fox program That ' 70s Show , made Fox the highest rated channel that night among adults ages 18 to 49 , according to Nielsen Media Research . The preliminary Nielsen household rating and share and adult 18 @-@ 49 rating on the Fox channel that night were 7 @.@ 6 rating / 11 share . Media Life Magazine described The Simpsons performance in the ratings that night as “ superb ” . On September 2 , 2003 , the episode was released , along with the episodes “ Treehouse of Horror V ” , “ Treehouse of Horror VI ” and “ Treehouse of Horror VII ” as part of a DVD set titled The Simpsons - Treehouse of Horror . The episode was released again as part of The Simpsons : The Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set , released on August 24 , 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Following its television broadcast and the home video release of the thirteenth season of The Simpons , “ Treehouse of Horror XII ” received mixed reviews from critics . Casey Broadwater of Blu @-@ ray.com stated that the episode “ is merely so @-@ so entry in the show 's annual Halloween anthology ” , while Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide wrote that , while it “ doesn ’ t present many significant flaws ” , it also “ doesn ’ t ever really shine ” . He concluded his review by writing “ ' XII ' isn ’ t bad Simpsons , but it ’ s mediocre ” . Writing for Good Film Guide , Matt Wheeldon held a similar opinion , calling it “ an average quality Treehouse of Horror episode ” and described it as being “ easily watchable ” and “ fairly memorable , but far from the best of the bunch ” . Nate Boss of Project : Blu stated that the episode is “ At times memorable , at times forgettable ” and that it “ kicks off Season 13 with a smile , whimper , and thud ” . Ron Martin of 411Mania stated that , while he does not consider “ Treehouse of Horror XII ” to be the worst episode of the series , “ as far as Treehouse episodes go , it has to be one of the weakest ” .
Writing for Suite101 , Dominic von Riedemann described the episode as a “ disappointment ” . Reviewing the episode for the Daily News of New York City before the episode 's official broadcast , Eric Mink complimented it for being “ fitfully funny ” , however he added that the episode “ seem [ s ] short on the pop @-@ culture digs and celebrity skewering that used to put a high gloss on the show 's gleaming reputation ” . Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict however gave the episode a positive review , and referred to the episode , along with “ Weekend at Burnsie 's ” , as the two best episodes of the season . She wrote that “ [ the episode ] succeeds because of wall @-@ to @-@ wall laughs ” , and cited several scenes and gags , in particular the “ horrible vomiting frog ‘ prince ’ that Bart enchants ” . She gave the episode an A – rating . Aaron Peck of High @-@ Def Digest was also favorable , stating that the episode was “ one of [ his ] all @-@ time favorite Treehouse of Horror episodes ” .
“ Hex and the City ” garnered mixed responses from critics ; Broadwater wrote that the segment was “ a bit of a letdown ” while Boss described it as “ fairly poor ” . Mink however felt that the segment was the best in the episode . “ House of Whacks ” was well received . Broadwater described the segment as “ brilliant ” while von Riedermann referred to it as being the best of the three . Boss , who was dissatisfied with the first segment , felt that “ House of Whacks ” “ makes up for it ” . Brosnan 's guest appearance was praised ; Jacobsson described the performance as “ a surprisingly nice guest turn ” while Boss referred to it as “ killer ” . Adam Rayner of Obsessed With Film wrote that the segment features Brosnan “ giving his best acting turn since … ‘ The Long Good Friday ’ ? ” . Particular scorn was aimed at “ Wiz Kids ” , the third segment of the episode . Jacobsson stated that “ Wiz Kids ” “ ends the show on a drab note ” while Mink stated that the segment “ pretty much fall [ s ] flat ” . Boss was also critical , writing “ Harry Potter , in my Simpsons ? It may be more likely than you think , although , for sure , it really does stink ” . Andre Dellamorte of Collider wrote that , even though he complimented the segment for being “ bold ” considering the film it parodied had not come out yet , he criticized the segment by writing “ the depth of the parody stops with surface references ” . Peck , however , described the segment as being “ quite possibly one of the best and most clever spoofs of Harry Potter ” .
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= The Stolen Earth =
" The Stolen Earth " is the twelfth episode of the fourth series and the 750th overall episode of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . The episode was written by show runner and head writer Russell T Davies and is the first of a two @-@ part crossover story with spin @-@ offs The Sarah Jane Adventures and Torchwood ; the concluding episode is " Journey 's End " , the finale of the fourth series . It was first broadcast on BBC One on 28 June 2008 .
The finale 's narrative brings closure to several prominent story arcs created during Davies ' tenure as show runner . In the episode , contemporary Earth and twenty @-@ six other planets are stolen by the Daleks , aided by their megalomaniacal creator Davros and a shattered but precognitive Dalek Caan . As the Doctor ( David Tennant ) and his companion Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) try to find Earth , his previous companions Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , Martha Jones ( Freema Agyeman ) , Sarah Jane Smith ( Elisabeth Sladen ) , and Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) convene to contact him and mount a defence against the Daleks . In the episode 's climax , the Doctor is shot by a Dalek and begins to regenerate .
The episode marks the first appearance of Davros since the 1988 serial Remembrance of the Daleks ; he is portrayed by Julian Bleach . It is also the first Doctor Who appearance of Eve Myles as Gwen Cooper ; Gareth David @-@ Lloyd as Ianto Jones ; Tommy Knight as Luke Smith ; and Alexander Armstrong as the voice of Mr Smith . Adjoa Andoh and Penelope Wilton reprise supporting roles as Martha 's mother Francine Jones and former Prime Minister Harriet Jones respectively . Paul O 'Grady and Richard Dawkins make cameo appearances as themselves as television personalities who attempt to assuage public fear .
The two @-@ part finale 's epic scale and underlying plot was first conceived in early 2007 as the last regular @-@ series story for departing producers Russell T Davies , Julie Gardner , and Phil Collinson : the fourth series finale is the last story produced by Collinson ; and Steven Moffat and Piers Wenger replaced Davies and Gardner as show runner and executive producer respectively in 2010 . Major concepts were already specified by July 2007 and the script was written in December 2007 ; Davies began on the 7th and finished on the 31st . Filming for the finale took place in February and March 2008 , and post @-@ production finished in mid @-@ June 2008 , only two weeks before the episode aired . To conceal as many plot elements as possible , " The Stolen Earth " ' s title was not disclosed until sixteen days before broadcast , preview DVDs omitted the scene where the Doctor regenerates — the last scene is the Doctor being shot by a Dalek — and the episode aired without a preview trailer for " Journey 's End " .
The episode was reviewed positively by both the audience and professional reviewers . The Audience Appreciation Index score was 91 : an unprecedented figure for Doctor Who and one of the highest ratings ever given to a television programme . On its original broadcast , it was viewed by 8 @.@ 78 million viewers and was the second most @-@ watched programme of the week ; at the time of broadcast , it was the highest position Doctor Who had ever reached . Critical reaction was overwhelmingly positive : Nicholas Briggs and Julian Bleach were commended for their portrayal of Dalek Caan and Davros respectively ; and most aspects of Davies ' writing were applauded : most notably , the twist ending of the episode was universally appreciated . The shock regeneration created an unprecedented level of public interest in the show , which continued until the transmission of " Journey 's End " .
= = Plot = =
At the start of the episode the Earth is teleported out of its spatial location shortly after the Doctor and Donna arrive to investigate Rose Tyler 's warning at the end of " Turn Left " . The Doctor contacts the Shadow Proclamation , a universal police force , to find Earth . They determine twenty @-@ seven missing worlds — including Earth , Adipose III , Pyrovillia , and the Lost Moon of Poosh — automatically reorganise into a specific pattern when placed near each other . Donna mentions the disappearance of bees on contemporary Earth ; this allows the Doctor to trace the planets to the Medusa Cascade , an inter @-@ universal rift .
A Dalek force , led by their creator Davros and the red Supreme Dalek , quickly subjugate Earth , despite humanity 's fierce resistance . Military bases , including UNIT 's headquarters in New York City and their aircraft carrier Valiant , are destroyed . Davros , who was thought to have perished during the Time War , was saved by Dalek Caan , who entered the conflict after performing an emergency temporal shift . The power needed to enter the Time War — which is " time @-@ locked " , preventing time @-@ travellers from entering the conflict — caused Caan to become precognitive at the cost of his sanity .
The Doctor 's former companions Captain Jack Harkness , Martha Jones , Sarah Jane Smith , and Rose Tyler — who have all encountered the Daleks before — hide in various places : Jack takes refuge in the Torchwood Hub ( 51 ° 27 ′ 50 ″ N 3 ° 09 ′ 51 ″ W ) with his team ; Martha uses Project Indigo — an experimental teleport device scavenged from the Sontarans — to escape UNIT New York with the " Osterhagen Key " , a device that activates a defensive last resort nuclear weapons system ; Sarah Jane stays in her home with her son Luke Smith and supercomputer Mr Smith ; and Rose tracks down Noble 's mother and grandfather . They are contacted by former Prime Minister Harriet Jones through a secret " subwave network " designed by Mr Copper — a humanoid alien who met the Doctor in " Voyage of the Damned " — to contact the Doctor 's companions in an emergency . They attempt to contact the Doctor by amplifying the sub @-@ wave signal ; Sarah uses Mr Smith 's computing power and Torchwood manipulates the spatial @-@ temporal rift in Cardiff . The Doctor and the Daleks receive the transmission and trace the signal : the Daleks kill Harriet Jones ; and the Doctor is able to locate Earth in a temporally desynchronised pocket universe .
At the end of the episode , the Doctor travels into the pocket universe and receives transmitted images of his companions in the subwave signal . After Davros hijacks the signal and taunts the Doctor about his resurrection and imminent victory , the Doctor breaks communication and attempts to convene with his companions . The Doctor lands on the same street Rose is searching for him on and runs to embrace her , but is shot by a Dalek . Jack promptly destroys the Dalek and helps Rose and Donna carry the Doctor into the TARDIS , where the Doctor begins to regenerate .
= = Production = =
= = = Early development = = =
" The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " are the culmination of all four series of Doctor Who since its revival in 2005 and show runner Russell T Davies ' work in reviving the show . Davies stated the story arc for the fourth series comprised " an element from every episode — whether it 's a person , a phrase , a question , a planet , or a mystery [ that ] builds up to the grand finale " , and the finale " [ had ] been seeded for a long time , with small but vital references going all the way back to Series One " . Several of these thematic motifs are used as major plot points : the significance of disappearance of bees , the Medusa Cascade , and the Shadow Proclamation are explained in the episode . It is the first major crossover between Doctor Who and its spin @-@ off series Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures . Davies compared the crossover 's conception to a typical child 's imagination of a crossover between the Doctor Who and Star Wars universes :
When you see the story , it 'll make so much sense that all these characters are involved . It 's simply doing what kids do in their imaginations : they 're experts at crossovers and would think of nothing of having their Dalek toys battling Star Wars droids . Why not have all the factions of the Doctor Who universe going into battle together ?
The fourth series finale was first planned in early 2006 . Its epic scale — including the threat of the destruction of reality and large number of guest stars — was required to compensate for Doctor Who 's reduced airtime in 2009 and the imminent departure of producers Davies , Julie Gardner , and Phil Collinson between mid @-@ 2008 and early 2010 . The episode 's story was defined in early 2007 , when Davies disseminated his summary of the fourth series to the production team . In his brief , he described the finale — already titled " The Stolen Earth " — as :
The season finale . Earth is transported halfway across the universe as part of a Dalek plot . These episodes feature Martha , Captain Jack , Sarah Jane , Elton , and Rose . Jackie and Mickey ? Also , can I have the Torchwood team , just for a couple of days ? Plus , a futuristic space station complex where lots of alien races are gathering for a conference . CGI : Bane , Krillitanes , Gelth , Isolus , everything we 've got in the computer .
Prosthetics : Judoon , Slitheen , the Graske , the Moxx of Balhoon , Sisters of the Wicker Place Mat , plus a new female alien , a wise old counsellor , head of the space conference . Lots of gunfire and exterminations . And the biggest Dalek spaceship interior ever – more like a Dalek Temple . Christ almighty ! The skies over the Earth need to be changed to weird outer space vistas . Also , visible in the sky , a huge Dalek ship interior . The size of a solar system ! This will probably explode . Like they do .
And Davros .
Donna and Midshipman Alonzo Frame ( Russell Tovey ) — from " The Runaway Bride " and " Voyage of the Damned " respectively — were also planned to make cameos in " The Stolen Earth " : Donna was planned to appear before Catherine Tate agreed to reprise the lead role for the entire fourth series ; and Frame was present as part of the Shadow Proclamation in several drafts of the episode . Piper 's appearance was almost cancelled when filming was originally scheduled during her honeymoon in January 2008 . Freema Agyeman was similarly contracted to appear in the finale when she accepted the role of Martha Jones in 2006 .
Major concepts of the finale were already developed in March 2007 . Davies explained the Medusa Cascade — first mentioned in dialogue between the Master and the Doctor in " Last of the Time Lords " — to Radio Times and Doctor Who Magazine journalist Benjamin Cook as " just an area of space " near an inter @-@ universal rift which allowed Rose to return for the fourth series . He sent Cook another email several hours later that explained Dalek Caan 's role in the finale and Davros ' resurrection from the Time War . The Doctor 's regeneration was conceived in two separate parts in mid @-@ 2007 : Davies outlined the concept of two Doctors in " Journey 's End " in late April 2007 ; and using a regeneration to end the episode was originally conceived on 12 July 2007 .
= = = Writing = = =
Davies started writing " The Stolen Earth " on 10 December 2007 . He had spent the previous day writing Martha 's appearance in New York City . He considered destroying the city but decided against it :
I spent today considering one tangible thing : whether to destroy New York in 4 @.@ 12 . That would be fun , wouldn 't it ? The idea came from the fact that all the Doctor 's companions are found in England . I 've a chance to expand on that , create a bigger world . [ ... ] But destroying New York has its problems : it leaves heavy repercussions for the rest of Doctor Who history , because there 's no reset button . I worry about that . Series Five is bound to have episodes set on modern @-@ day Earth – and that might be hard to establish , because it 'd be a very wounded world . [ ... ] These emails do influence things , definitely , because I 'm thinking , no , destroying New York is a bad choice .
Several days before he started writing the episode , he received a call from Bernard Cribbins , who proposed a scene in which his character , Wilfred Mott , would fire a paintball pellet at a Dalek 's eyestalk . He proposed it as a reference to the Peter Cushing Dr. Who films that he starred in in the mid @-@ 1960s , and thought it would provide comic relief in between heavy exposition . The Dalek 's response — evaporating the paintball and replying " My vision is not impaired ! " — was added after Cook reminded Davies it was " obligatory " to invert the recurring phrase spoken when a Dalek was blinded ( " Vision impaired ! " ) , and remove a weakness the Daleks had exhibited since their first appearance in the 1963 – 1964 serial The Daleks . Wilfred 's reaction to Rose after she blew up the same Dalek — asking her if she wanted to swap weapons — was likewise added by Cribbins by way of an ad @-@ lib during filming .
Davies ' first drafts of the Dalek invasion and the Shadow Proclamation were fundamentally different from their broadcast counterparts . Instead of hearing the Daleks ' repeated cry of " Exterminate " , Captain Jack and Sarah Jane reacted to the sight of Dalek saucers . One saucer would descend towards Whitehall , destroy Big Ben in transit , and assassinate the Prime Minister , Aubrey Fairchild . The Shadow Proclamation — defined in the script as an intergalactic police force that occupied a " huge installation , metal sci @-@ fi towers ranged across a series of linked asteroids , hanging in space , like a Roger Dean painting " — originally featured " every creature [ the revival of the show ] ever had " and a cameo by Blon Fel @-@ Fotch Pasameer @-@ Day " Margaret Blaine " Slitheen ( Annette Badland ) as a Jingatheen ( a Raxicoricofallapatorian family ) toddler :
47 : INT . Shadow Proclamation lobby : Night .
Close on the Doctor and Donna — who 's recovering , brave face on — both stepping out ...
The Doctor : ... right , the first thing we 've got to do is ...
Stops dead , as a platoon of Judoon march past , big , heavy boots stomping , left to right , the Doctor and Donna nipping through a gap in the formation , pushing forward ...
The Doctor : ... whoops , ' scuse me , sorry ...
FX : Three Krillitanes swoop down , the Doctor and Donna brushing them off , still pushing forward ...
Donna : Oy ! Get off !
The Doctor : Keep your wings in , you lot !
... then stopped by two Vespiforms buzzing right to left ...
The Doctor : ... oh , mind those stings , thank you ...
The Doctor and Donna then stopping to look properly . Gulp .
FX : Wide shot . Big , white open smart @-@ sci @-@ fi @-@ building . Filled with crowd multiplication Judoon , crowd multiplication Slitheen , a few Hath , two helmeted Sycorax , and crowd multiplication space @-@ extras : some in big opera cloaks ; Sisters of the Wicker Place Mat from 1 @.@ 2 ; plus a lot of monks and nuns . Also , Shadow police : like Judoon , but Human , in big stompy black uniforms . Flying through the air : Krillitanes ; Vespiforms ; and Gelth . And in one corner , a huge 15ft Adipose , mewling . All busy , chaotic , emergency !
The Doctor : Tell me , what 's everyone doing here ?
Slitheen : The whole universe is on red alert ! Planets have disappeared ! We have lost Clom !
The Doctor : Clom 's gone ? !
Slitheen : Clom 's gone !
Donna : What 's Clom ?
Slitheen : Our twin planet ! Without it , Raxacoricofallapatorius will fall out of the sky ! [ turns to go ] We must phone home ... [ to Baby Slitheen ] ... this way , Margaret .
Baby Slitheen talks with the voice of Margaret Blaine :
Baby Slitheen : Take me home , Daddy , I don 't like the nasty policemen !
The number of monsters and the Proclamation 's bureaucratic nature would anger the Doctor and cause Alonzo Frame — now employed as a " Shadow Soldier " — to aid him in filling out paperwork . Frame would be killed by the Daleks later in the story .
A week after he had written the Shadow Proclamation scenes , Davies decided to rewrite the scenes heavily because of monetary and script constraints . Tovey 's cameo was replaced with a scene centred on the " Chief Constable " because he was unavailable for filming , much to Davies ' disappointment . The Dalek invasion was also rewritten to the version broadcast after he decided a personal assassination of the Prime Minister was uncharacteristically " diplomatic " , and recycled the Prime Minister 's name for " The Next Doctor " He also expressed doubts about the Shadow Proclamation to Cook ; he thought the Chief Constable was " terribly stripped down " , but admitted the Shadow Proclamation was a vital element of the plot . He decided to correct the faults in the Chief Constable by renaming her the " Shadow Architect " ( Kelly Hunter ) :
I went back and fixed the Chief Constable . Her main problem was being a Chief Constable , so I decided ... that if she has to say lame sci @-@ fi lines , she can only work if she 's a sci @-@ fi creature . I 've renamed her the Shadow Architect , made her albino and weird ( hair scraped back into a black snood , red eyes , solemn , swathed in black robes ) , and given her a slight mysticism — not hermit @-@ in @-@ a @-@ cave mysticism , just an albino freakiness — so she 's sort of interesting now .
Davies kept the Shadow Proclamation scenes set before the introduction of the Shadow Architect until early February 2008 . The scenes were linked by an argument between the Doctor and the Judoon : the Doctor would complain that Earth 's disappearance should take priority , but the Judoon kept insisting the Doctor wait in a queue to report the disappearance . The Doctor would win the argument by overloading the Judoon 's translator machines ( because he could speak six million languages simultaneously ) and order them to allow him to see the Shadow Architect immediately . Davies ' submitted script was over the budget afforded for special effects , so he was required to cut the scene , even though Annette Badland had already recorded dialogue for her cameo . The rewritten — and eventually broadcast — scene had the TARDIS " land directly in the Shadow Architect 's office " with four Judoon guards .
Davies wrote former Prime Minister Harriet Jones ( Penelope Wilton ) into the script on 22 December — before Wilton was approached about reprising the role — because Gardner and Collinson wished for the character to have a satisfying and redemptive conclusion ; in the dénouement of her previous appearance in " The Christmas Invasion " , the character faced a vote of no confidence in Parliament after she ordered Torchwood to shoot down a fleeing Sycorax ship . Harriet Jones ' story arc thus formed a tripartite storyline which consisted of an introduction , animosity towards the Doctor , and redemption ( albeit at the cost of her life ) . Davies was aware that Wilton was " very hard to book " and restricted her appearance to one day 's filming in one location ( Harriet 's home ) to make negotiations easier ; had Wilton declined , Davies planned to replace her with either Donna , Mr Copper ( Clive Swift ) from " Voyage of the Damned " , or Elton from " Love & Monsters " . Wilton accepted unconditionally because she " would do anything for ... Davies " and she wished to act in Phil Collinson 's last filming block as producer ; her first appearance in " Aliens of London " was filmed in the first production block of the first series . Collinson and Davies lamented the character 's death : Collinson " [ couldn 't ] bear the thought she 's dead " and argued that she escaped death ; and Davies generally stated in Doctor Who Magazine issue 397 that " when [ significant characters a writer creates ] have to die , it 's a genuinely emotional time " .
Davies ' scriptwriting was affected by the development of a head cold and overrunning script constraints ; he was annoyed that he had written " dialogue [ he had ] been dying to write " with a " faint heart " because he would have to cut it . Because he was behind schedule , he was forced to cancel plans to attend Piper 's wedding and almost cancelled plans to celebrate the New Year with his boyfriend . These problems affected his first draft of the Doctor 's conversation with his companions and encounter with Davros ; he dismissed it as " lame shit " which would waste licence @-@ payers ' money , and replaced it with a different version hours later . The conversation features all of the Doctor 's companions simultaneously talking to the Doctor ; Tate , Tennant , and director Graeme Harper made the creative decision to have the Doctor ignore any mention of the Daleks because they thought the Doctor 's joviality in the scene would be otherwise inappropriate . He eventually finished the script at 1am on New Year 's Eve . Cook reviewed the last pages of the script and suggested that the episode should air without a trailer ; Davies agreed by noting that " [ the BBC ] never send out preview discs of the last episode " and that any advertisements for " Journey 's End " could " just show lots of Daleks and a repeat of " I 'm regenerating " [ the Doctor 's last line in the episode before the regeneration process starts ] . The episode was officially submitted on 7 January 2008 : the preparation date for " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " .
Davies discussed the episode 's climax in detail in the show 's companion series Doctor Who Confidential . The climax — a Dalek ray shooting the Doctor and his consequent regeneration — was written by Davies as a pastiche of romance fiction . He compared the reunion between Rose and the Doctor to " the biggest romance [ the viewer ] has ever seen " and joked that seminal films such as Gone with the Wind should have ended with a Dalek shooting the male lead , and intensified the scene 's emotional impact through Piper 's cameos throughout the fourth series . Tennant described the Doctor 's wounding as a " moment of high emotion " and lamented that " [ the Doctor ] can 't have a happy moment , especially with a cliffhanger needing to be written " . The episode ended during the regeneration because Davies wanted to create the " biggest , most exciting cliffhanger in Doctor Who " , and to differentiate the scene from previous regenerations , which were always completed at the end of serials . He considered its resolution — the regeneration process being halted by the Doctor , who siphoned the excess energy into his severed hand after his injuries were healed — legitimate because the hand was an important plot device in " Journey 's End " ' s climax . The production team realised the halted regeneration and creation of a new Doctor would create a debate amongst fans about whether one of the Doctor 's twelve regenerations were used up . The production team originally declined to comment to avoid the debate ; Davies later said that he believed that because the process wasn 't completed , the Doctor did not use one of his regenerations . However , the 2013 Christmas special The Time of the Doctor , which was the last regular story for the Eleventh Doctor , confirmed that this regeneration did indeed count , as the Tenth Doctor was described as having " vanity issues at the time " .
= = = Casting = = =
The finale contains nineteen principal cast members , sixteen of whom appear in " The Stolen Earth " . As a consequence of the episode 's crossover nature , the episode is the first appearance of Gareth David @-@ Lloyd as Ianto Jones and Tommy Knight as Luke Smith in Doctor Who . Eve Myles , who previously played Gwyneth in " The Unquiet Dead " , makes her first appearance as the Torchwood female lead Gwen Cooper . The episode features many returning characters : Billie Piper , Freema Agyeman , Adjoa Andoh , John Barrowman , Nicholas Briggs , Elisabeth Sladen , and Penelope Wilton reprise roles for " The Stolen Earth " . Evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins and comedian Paul O 'Grady make cameo appearances on Torchwood 's television screen ; cameos by celebrities such as Davina McCall , Derek Acorah , and Ann Widdecombe had been a part of each penultimate episode since the show 's revival . O 'Grady was given a cameo after Davies heard that he was a fan of the show ; and Dawkins was added to the script by Davies when Cook suggested him to portray the " elderly professor " on a Newsnight @-@ style television programme discussing the new planets in the sky . Dawkins accepted because of his pre @-@ existing association with Doctor Who ; his wife Lalla Ward portrayed the second incarnation of the Time Lady Romana between 1979 and 1981 . Gary Milner was cast as the extra " Scared Man " after misreading the callsheet as " Sacred Man " and creating a " priest @-@ like " portrayal of the character . Andrew Bullivant — who portrayed the Milkman in the episode 's cold open — was given a role in The Sarah Jane Adventures serial The Temptation of Sarah Jane Smith as a policeman because of his performance in " The Stolen Earth " . Michael Brandon later appeared in the audio play Lurkers at Sunlight 's Edge . Kelly Hunter made a further appearance as the Shadow Architect in the opening episode of Series 9 , " The Magician 's Apprentice " .
= = = Davros = = =
" The Stolen Earth " is the first appearance of Davros since the 1988 serial Remembrance of the Daleks . Davies postponed Davros ' return as he thought that " Davros would dominate the Daleks ... like plain robots , instead of the scheming geniuses that they are " , and used the previous series to establish the Daleks ' individual intelligence . Davros was kept as a contingency plan for several occasions : the character would have appeared in " The Parting of the Ways " if the Emperor Dalek prop was too expensive ; and was " even a possibility " to reside in the titular prison in " The Satan Pit " . Davies wrote an origin story for Davros to clear up the character 's convoluted backstory which was eventually cut because of time constraints .
Davies cast Julian Bleach to portray Davros after his performances in his Olivier Award @-@ winning play Shockheaded Peter and as the Ghostmaker in the Torchwood episode " From Out of the Rain " . To keep the return of Davros secret , the character was referred to as " The Enemy " or " Dave [ Ross ] " among the crew and was kept anonymous on the shooting scripts as much as possible ; however , the Radio Times called the secret " one of the worst @-@ kept ... in television history " . David Tennant liked Davros ' " Hitlerian megalomaniac " attitude and the nostalgic feeling he created — Tennant 's first memory of Doctor Who was Davros ' debut in Genesis of the Daleks — and described himself as being " absolutely captivated by [ the ] extraordinary creature " . To prepare for his role , Bleach reviewed Genesis of the Daleks , one of his favourite serials , to remind himself of Davros ' voice . Bleach described his interpretation of Davros as that of " [ a ] twisted megalomaniac , [ a ] mad scientist , [ and a ] misguided genius " at the same time and described the character as a whole as " a cross between Hitler and Stephen Hawking " whose " nihilistic desires " made the character " extraordinary " . Bleach would later use the German leader 's oratorical skills and his " dogmatic speeches " as a reference point .
Davies , prosthetics designer Neill Gorton , costume designer Louise Page , and concept artist Peter McKinstry then met to discuss the design of Davros for the episode . They agreed to keep the visual design of Davros faithful to that shown in his debut Genesis of the Daleks ; The only major change was to replace the hand destroyed in Revelation of the Daleks with a weaponised robotic version . McKinstry aimed to make Davros " bigger and scarier " by updating the " flimsy " design of the classic series :
We wanted to get away from the slightly flimsy look of the earlier series . So I beefed Davros up , made him more sturdy . I also think that the reinvented Davros is unusual for the new Doctor Who because he is genuinely grotesque . Sometimes we ’ ve held back a bit with the ugliness of the monsters . But Davros is a very unpleasant looking character , which makes his return all the more powerful .
The team made two minor changes to the design : they removed Davros ' microphone and completely redesigned Davros ' headpiece . The team felt that the microphone was redundant because Davros did not " speak in a whisper and need something to make him more audible " , and originally intended to leave Bleach 's voice unaltered in post @-@ production : the decision to treat the voice was not made until late May 2008 ; and Gorton thought the original headpiece " always seemed particularly weak " for " such a powerful character " . After he was informed that the production designer for Genesis of the Daleks wanted the headpiece to resemble a medical brace , Gorton redesigned it to appear to be " screwed directly into [ Davros ' ] head " .
Page and Gorton contemporaneously collaborated on Davros ' upper body . Page designed the leather tunic — which Gorton thought was " a beautiful piece of costume ... which echoes the classic design " — and Gorton designed the ribcage . Davies explained the use of the leather tunic and the exposed ribcage in Doctor Who Magazine issue 401 :
Seriously , Davros is meant to be horrific , and we 've had so many withered geniuses in sci @-@ fi lately — like Emperor Palpatine in Star Wars — that I needed something to make everyone sit up and realise that this man is the King of Horror : the original and the best ! And he 's been through so many physical changes over the years , I wanted to add one of my own . I asked Louise to give him the new jacket buckles , because I wanted it to look like a straitjacket . It just seemed to fit , cos he 's so insane !
= = = Daleks = = =
" The Stolen Earth " is the first appearance of the Daleks since " Evolution of the Daleks " , which was filmed eighteen months prior to the episode ; consequently , the prop controllers experienced difficulty re @-@ adapting to their roles . Davies 's inclusion of the Daleks as part of the crossover was intended to create a " charged atmosphere " for the protagonists : Jack was killed by the Daleks ; Rose and Martha were present at two of their apparent extinctions ; and Sarah was present at their creation . The animatronic of the Dalek mutant had to be recreated for the episode , because the previous prop that was used in " Dalek " and " The Parting of the Ways " was irreversibly damaged by water when the latter was filmed . " The Stolen Earth " features two new variants of Daleks : the Supreme Dalek , coloured red as an allusion to the Peter Cushing film Dr. Who and the Daleks ; and the partially destroyed Dalek Caan . Caan was described in the shooting script as :
... open , gutted , and melted , its harsh lines now curved and warped ... in the middle of the warped , open shell sits a Dalek Mutant , tentacles stirring . This creature is more distorted than ever , its skin bubbled . One blind eye staring out ; voice ancient , sing @-@ song , mad .
Voice actor Nicholas Briggs adopted a different voice for each model : he adopted a grandiose voice for the Supreme Dalek to fit his perception of the character as egotistical ; and he adopted a sing @-@ song voice for Caan to reflect the character 's insanity as a result of entering the Time War . Briggs justified his interpretation of Caan by explaining that " [ Caan ] can 't tell when he 's happy or sad , his emphasis is very strange and he finds things funny when things aren 't funny " , creating a soothsayer personality with an " almost pure " mind . An expanded theory was published in Briggs ' interview with Doctor Who Magazine in July 2008 :
My theory on Caan is that being sucked through the Time War and blown out the other end has kind of reverse @-@ wired — or random @-@ wired — his brain , so all his neurons are firing in constantly changing , random , insane ways . That 's why he doesn 't really know what 's funny or serious . He just knows the truth , and it blurts out in this odd , cryptic way . I think he 's frozen in a moment of excrutiating ecstasy . When any emotion surges up inside him , it makes him laugh , whether its appropriate or not .
Briggs ' portrayal was well @-@ received by the production team : Graeme Harper " loved Caan 's giggling " and requested " more ... on every take " ; and Davies described Caan as " the creepiest Dalek yet " . The finale also introduced minor changes to the Daleks : the characteristic Dalek " plunger " was replaced with a gear mechanism for scenes that featured Davros ' guard : the mechanism is used to control Dalek machinery aboard the Dalek flagship Crucible more efficiently ; and the Dalek eyestalk exhibits a minuscule twitch in scenes , a characteristic added by Graeme Harper to make them appear cautious and " on @-@ edge " .
= = = Filming = = =
" The Stolen Earth " features the first external location shots of the Daleks since the revival of Doctor Who in 2005 , and the greatest proportion of filming undertaken at night since the show 's revival : apart from the pre @-@ credits sequence set in suburban London , all of the scenes set on Earth were filmed at night .
The two @-@ parter took approximately six weeks in 2008 to film ; regular filming began on 18 February 2008 and ended on 29 March . The first scene shot for " The Stolen Earth " — a news report that starred Lachele Carl as Trinity Wells — was filmed on 31 January 2008 in a news studio at BBC Wales ' Broadcasting House . The first week of filming took place entirely at the show 's studios in Upper Boat , Rhondda Cynon Taf ; most of the scenes set in the Torchwood Hub and the TARDIS — including the regeneration scene — were filmed in the period .
The filming schedule of the second and third week alternated between " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " . Three days were allocated to filming for " The Stolen Earth " : scenes in Donna 's house were filmed on 26 February on Nant Fawr Road , Cyncoed , Cardiff ; the Crucible Vault set in the Upper Boat Studios was used on 3 March ; and scenes at the Shadow Proclamation were filmed at the School of Optometry at Cardiff University on 8 March 2008 .
Filming for the episode 's outdoor scenes began in the afternoon of 11 March . The first outdoor scene filmed was the cold open , on West Mound Crescent in Tonteg . Two scenes were filmed in Pontypridd on 12 March : exterior scenes of the Noble household took place on Hawthorn Road — rather than the usual location in Cyncoed — before relocating to Market Street in the town centre to film the scenes where Rose encounters members of the public in the middle of a riot . Tennant and Tate meanwhile filmed the trailer for the fourth series because they were not required on location .
The Doctor and Rose 's reunion was filmed on 13 March in Penarth town centre , in front of two hundred people ; consequently , the scene was leaked onto the Internet and reported in the next day 's edition of The Sun . Graeme Harper insisted that the scene appear " mystical " because the characters ' reunion was " the most magical moment " in the entire episode and Ernie Vincze , the Director of Photography for the show , compared the scene 's feeling to the 1980s science @-@ fiction film Blade Runner . Exterior filming for the week finished in Brook Street and the adjoining Plantagenet Street in Riverside , Cardiff , for scenes where Daleks kidnap humans for experimentation and Wilf 's attack on a Dalek respectively . Scenes in the UNIT headquarters in Manhattan were filmed on the evenings of 16 March and 19 March : the first night , depicting the Dalek invasion , was filmed in a traffic control centre on Junction 32 of the M4 motorway , with the actual Dalek invasion of the building filmed in six minutes at 5 : 30am the following morning ; and the second night , depicting Martha 's escape from UNIT , was filmed in a warehouse in Nantgarw owned by the National Museum Wales . Because of a traffic accident on the first night , the production team were prepared to postpone the shoot if needed .
Penelope Wilton reprised her role as Harriet Jones to film a scene on 18 March , in a cottage in Dinas Powys . Filming was stalled because of difficulty transporting the Dalek props into the cottage : specifically , the raised patio doors made it difficult to balance and maneuver the props . The remainder of the fifth week was used to film Dalek @-@ only scenes at Upper Boat Studios , when the Vault set was redressed as the Crucible command deck . Scenes that featured Martha and Sarah in their houses were filmed alternately during the sixth week — the former in the previously regular location of Lower Cwrt @-@ Y @-@ Vil Road in Penarth and the latter primarily at Upper Boat — ending on 28 March with scenes of Sarah and Luke in their attic . The last exterior scene filmed for the episode was recorded on 25 March in the regular The Sarah Jane Adventures filming location of Clinton Road in Penarth , and consisted of external shots of Sarah 's house and two Daleks accosting Sarah en route to meeting the Doctor . General filming for the episode — and the two @-@ parter — closed with Dawkins ' and O 'Grady 's cameos : Dawkins was filmed at Upper Boat after shooting finished in the attic set ; and O 'Grady was filmed on 31 March alongside an episode of The Paul O 'Grady Show at The London Studios on the South Bank of the River Thames .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The episode was given to post @-@ production team The Mill after filming concluded . The number of effects in the first draft was almost three times larger than broadcast ; consequently , several scenes — most notably , all but one shot of the attack on the Valiant — were cut from the episode . The Mill created two notable effects for " The Stolen Earth " : the invasion of New York City , using reconnaissance photos and establishing shots from the filming of " Daleks in Manhattan " to create a 2.5D shot of the city ; and the planetary array at the Medusa Cascade , using a fully three @-@ dimensional model .
Murray Gold concurrently composed the score for the episode . In conjunction with new cues composed for the fourth series , Gold used some of his earlier work , such as Rose 's and Harriet Jones ' leitmotifs , the Ood 's " Song of Freedom " from " Planet of the Ood " , and the appearance fanfare for Mr Smith , the latter being played in diegesis . Gold discussed the new cues in the release of the fourth series soundtrack :
" The Doctor 's Theme Season [ sic ] Four " is an orchestral and choral arrangement of the Doctor 's leitmotif from the first series performed by the BBC National Orchestra and Chorus of Wales . The original theme was a minimalist solo performed by Melanie Pappenheim . Davies and Collinson described the music as " President Flavia [ from The Five Doctors ] singing out of the Time Vortex " and was intended to be used when " things get too Time Lord @-@ y " . An instrumental of the new arrangement was used at the end of " Forest of the Dead " , when the Doctor tries to save River Song ( Alex Kingston ) from death . The rearrangement — and first full prolific use of the cue since " The Parting of the Ways " — specifically represents Rose 's return and the four @-@ series story arc 's cyclic nature .
" The Greatest Story Never Told " is a cue used regularly in the second half of the fourth series . The cue evokes the scores of previous episodes to represent the Doctor 's " past love " .
" The Rueful Fate of Donna Noble " is a cue that first appeared in " Turn Left " . It represents Donna 's realisation of her grand destiny and her demises at the end of " Turn Left " and " Journey 's End " .
" Davros " is the eponymous character 's leitmotif . Gold described Davros as having a " sound motif that underscored him " in addition to " the fingernails ... voice ... [ and ] face emerging from the shadows " . Part of the theme was taken from the score of " Midnight " to represent Dalek Caan 's prophecies .
" The Dark and Endless Dalek Night " is the Dalek leitmotif for the series finale , and features the BBC National Chorus of Wales . Orchestrator and conductor Ben Foster described the track as his " defining moment " of scoring the entire fourth series .
" A Pressing Need to Save the World " is a rearrangement of a theme first used in the second series of Torchwood ; Gold felt it " was appropriate to bring it back " for the series finale .
" Hanging on the Tablaphone " is a tabla @-@ centric cue that is played over scenes that depicted the Doctor 's companions using the subwave network to reach him .
The episode was allocated a fifty @-@ minute slot on BBC One and the only cuts to the episode were minor pieces of dialogue . Post @-@ synchronisation of crowd dialogue took place on 5 June and the episode 's final mix took place on 12 June 2008 : the same day the episode was officially announced by the BBC .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Partial media blackout , broadcast , and ratings = = =
The title of the episode was the last of the fourth series to be revealed ; in April 2008 , when the other twelve episode titles were revealed , " The Stolen Earth " ' s was withheld because " it [ gave ] away too much " ; its title was only revealed two weeks before broadcast . Like the second series finale comprising " Army of Ghosts " and " Doomsday " , the final scene of " The Stolen Earth " was removed from preview DVDs sent to reviewers and a media blackout was imposed on any plot details from " Journey 's End " .
Overnight ratings estimated that " The Stolen Earth " was watched by 7 @.@ 4 million viewers , approximately 38 @.@ 3 % of the total television audience . The final viewing figure was 8 @.@ 78 million viewers , the second highest figure of the week beginning 23 June 2008 ; the highest was the UEFA Euro 2008 Final , watched by 8 @.@ 84 million viewers . Prior to the episode 's broadcast , only " Voyage of the Damned " had ranked as high ; the record was subsequently broken by " Journey 's End " a week later . Consequently , rival channel ITV1 suffered its second worst average audience share in the channel 's history : the daily average was 10 @.@ 2 % compared to BBC One 's 26 @.@ 9 % average share . The episode received an Appreciation Index score of 91 ( considered excellent ) , the highest rating ever received by the series and one of the highest ratings ever for a terrestrial television programme . The high Index rating broke the previous record of 89 shared by " The Parting of the Ways " , " Doomsday " , " Silence in the Library " , and " Forest of the Dead " . Including its viewership on the BBC iPlayer and the following repeats on BBC Three and BBC One , " The Stolen Earth " was eventually viewed by 12 @.@ 86 million viewers : over two million higher than the series average of 10 @.@ 59 million .
The episode depicted 07700 900 461 as the Doctor 's phone number ; the number is reserved by Ofcom for dramatic purposes . After transmission , approximately 2 @,@ 500 viewers attempted to call the number and received a network message that explained the number was not in service . Ofcom consequently released a statement saying that the calls were free because the number did not exist .
= = = " Doctor Who fever " = = =
The episode 's airing — in particular , its shock regeneration — contributed to a public surge of interest , described by Daily Mail journalist Paul Revoir as " Doctor Who fever " . The regeneration prompted a large amount of speculation to Tennant 's replacement : actor Robert Carlyle was the bookmaker 's favourite to replace Tennant ; and actors James McAvoy , Jason Statham , Alan Davies , and James Nesbitt were less popular predictions . In his article about the public reaction to the cliffhanger , Revoir offered five popular theories : a botched regeneration that resulted in two Doctors ; a revelation that the whole series was dream sequence like the ninth season of Dallas ; Tennant 's successor being female ; a normal regeneration ; and a cover @-@ up by the BBC to disguise the fact that " Journey 's End " would be Tennant 's last appearance ; the first theory proved to be correct . The increase of public interest peaked in the two days prior to the transmission of " Journey 's End " : the day before transmission saw the Seventh Doctor 's actor Sylvester McCoy , Collinson , Davies , and Agyeman appear on separate daytime television shows ; and coverage of the series finale was the top story in BBC News Online 's entertainment section several hours before transmission . Davies attributed the amount of interest the episode created — which was greater than he expected — and the success of the new series to the measures made in keeping plot details secret and creating a " live experience " :
It 's exciting ... when you get kids in playground talking about your story , about who 's going to live or die , then I consider that a job well done , because that 's interactive television , that 's what it 's all about : it 's debate and fun and chat . It 's playing a game with the country and I think that 's wonderful .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode was well received by viewers , in particular , the show 's teenage fanbase . In Doctor Who Magazine 's 2008 viewer poll , the episode won the awards for as " Best Story " , " Best Guest Actor " for Julian Bleach , " Best Monster " for the Daleks , " Best Music " , and " Best Villain " for Davros ; the latter was won with a supermajority of the votes cast . The episode was the best @-@ received episode of the fourth series among members of the Doctor Who Forum , with an approval rating of 92 @.@ 4 % . In Doctor Who Magazine 's 2009 viewer poll The Mighty 200 , rating all of the Doctor Who stories transmitted at the time , the story was rated thirteenth of two hundred , with an approval rating of 84 @.@ 62 % — one hundredth of a percentage point less than the immediately preceding episode , " Turn Left " — and rated as the best story by under @-@ 18s and fans since the show 's revival in 2005 .
The Guardian published three reviews of the episode . Sam Wollaston gave the episode a positive review ; he thought it was a " wonderful episode " that " would be hard to top " . Wollaston joked in his review about Richard Dawkins 's cameo , and compared his anti @-@ theological mannerisms to the Daleks . Gareth McLean described the end of the episode as a " genuine , jaw @-@ dropping , outta @-@ nowhere cliffhanger " . He commended the production team for successfully suppressing information about the regeneration in an industry often stifled by leaks . Stephen Brook of The Guardian 's media blog Organgrinder , thought the episode was " unbelievably good " and " genuinely scary and exciting " . He theorised about the questionable regeneration : whether it was genuine and , if so , who would portray the next incarnation of the Doctor ; and which companion will die in " Journey 's End " .
The Independent 's Thomas Sutcliffe gave the episode a negative review and expressed that the episode was " extermination without inspiration " . Before the episode 's transmission , he was excited about how Dawkins and O 'Grady would appear , and was disappointed when they only appeared when Ianto was channel surfing . Sutcliffe expressed disbelief at the idea that O 'Grady would continue to film his talk show , and with a studio audience , in the midst of planetary disaster , but nevertheless praised the cameos . After the cameos , he " began to lose interest " because he did not like the continuity and crossover elements of the episode . He criticised the re @-@ occurrence of clichéd lines " But ... that 's impossible ! " , " It can 't be ! " , and " Exterminate ! " . He closed his review by requesting the producers to " change the record " .
Mark Wright of The Stage posed the question : " How on Earth do you review that ? " . Wright put the episode as " the most bonkers , delicious , audacious , brilliant , silly , exciting and scary piece of Doctor Who seen in the 45 @-@ year history of [ the ] TV series " , and described it as " Doctor Who at its most show stopping , entertaining and brilliant best . " In his review , Wright explained his love of crossover fiction and commended Davies for the direction he took Doctor Who into becoming what Wright considered to be a " small television industry " . Wright complimented the way the episode was keeping with tradition , specifically aspects such as ; " Daleks trundling around spaceships having shouty conversations with each other " ; " UNIT [ being ] as useless as ever at repelling alien marauders " , and the visual appearance of Davros . He described Bleach 's portrayal as a " halfway house between the original version as played by Michael Wisher and the more exuberant ... turn by Terry Molloy " . He also thought positively of the final scenes ; he commented that " the most flint @-@ hearted must have had a misty eye as Rose found her Time Lord again and they ran towards each other in candy box slow @-@ mo " and he cheered when the " outpouring of romance was brought to an end , as it should be in Doctor Who , by a big Dalek gun " .
Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode five stars out of five . In his review , he states that " ' The Stolen Earth ' does a fine job in weaving components from the current series , former companions , and Davros together . " He wrote that he admires Graeme Harper 's direction of the scene where Sarah and Jack receive the continuous " Exterminate ! " transmission from the Daleks and stated that " Harper 's work ... is worthy of the big screen in terms of its breathtaking visual elements . " He complimented the casting of Michael Brandon as General Sanchez , and expressed hope that Sanchez had survived the Dalek attack because he had the potential to be " the new Brigadier figure that UNIT so desperately needs " . Rawson @-@ Jones thought Briggs , as the voice of the Daleks , did a " superb job with Dalek Caan 's crazy dialect , stemming from a very inventive and bold move by writer Russell T Davies to make this Dalek go doolally " . He praised Bleach 's performance as Davros , for his " controlled , sinister vocals " that " wonderfully evoke the brilliant but deranged mindset of the Dalek creator " . Upon closing , he commended Davies for being " an expert at delivering jaw @-@ dropping finales that give each season a sense of cohesion and up the stakes to almost unbearable levels " , and thought that matching the episode 's quality would be a " tough task " .
Alan Stanley Blair of Airlock Alpha was positive in his review . In his opinion , the episode never failed to deliver and " acts as a tribute to everything Russell T Davies put in place when he resurrected the series in 2005 . " He described the storyline as " fast @-@ moving , bursting [ with ] excitement " and said that it contained " everything you would expect to see from an adventure comprising of all companions and a new Dalek empire " and " acts as the ultimate climax to four years of storytelling and will leave you with goose bumps for the full 42 minutes . " Blair was impressed about how Torchwood and Doctor Who crossed over when their original target demographics dictated it " should never have happened " , and commended scenes that depicted Gwen 's concern for her husband Rhys , Ianto watching The Paul O 'Grady Show , and Sarah 's and Jack 's emotional response to the Dalek transmission . Although his review was positive , he did criticise two parts of the episode : the concept of " time @-@ lock [ ing ] " the Time War was questioned because the Time Lords were annihilated in the conflict ; and he complained that the Doctor 's phone number was out of service .
Dan Wainwright of The Express & Star in Wolverhampton , expressed feelings of denial in response to the episode 's ending . He asked : " Surely not even Russell T Davies , who seems obsessed with filling episodes with celebrity cameos and John Barrowman , wouldn ’ t be so maverick as to change his lead actor half way through a season finale ? " In his review , Wainwright expressed feelings of amicability and hatred towards Davies for his role in reviving Doctor Who , particularly disliking Davies for romanticising the character , and conversely admiring Davies for making the series popular among children . Catherine Tuckewell , writing for Blogcritics , gave a positive review . She opened by saying " Russell T Davies has again extended the boundaries of most infuriating cliffhangers . " She commended the cast for " top notch acting " that brought " a whole new level of emotion to the series " , specifically Jack and Sarah 's reaction to the Dalek warcry transmission , which " brought tears to her eyes " . Tuckewell praised the production team for " the most beautiful [ outer space shots ] outside the Hubble telescope " and the direction which showed the Daleks " at their fearful best " .
Simon Brew of science @-@ fiction blog Den of Geek commented that " If the aim of a really well done Doctor Who cliffhanger is to leaving you screaming [ " no " ] at the screen and frantically checking the calendar for the next episode , then it ’ s fair to say that Russell T Davies has just managed to tick that box . " His review both criticised and praised the episode : he summarised the episode as " bursting with a breathless ambition that papered over its occasional cracks " ; but lamented that the plot detail felt " muddled " because of how many plot devices were compressed into the episode . Brew thought the ensemble of companions " separated the great actors from the good " : he complimented Sladen 's and Cribbins 's portrayal of fear ; and he criticised UNIT , Torchwood , and the Doctor for uncharacteristically admitting defeat . Brew 's opinion of Davros and Caan was positive : he thought that " Julian Bleach nailed [ Davros ] " and the appearance of Davros was " very reverential " to the classic series and that Caan " [ added ] an interesting dynamic to the Dalek fight " . He closed his review by expressing hope that " Journey 's End " didn 't end like " Last of the Time Lords " and said :
To say that The Stolen Earth eclipsed the equivalent episode last year would be no understatement whatsoever , and to also note that it ’ s generated an enthusiasm and excitement for next week already would be showing yet more restraint .
Charlie Jane Anders of the science fiction blog io9 called Davies " the gay Michael Bay " and " wished for the first time that Davies would stay on to produce a fifth season " of Doctor Who . She " loved all the silly plot devices and loopy plot twists " such as Project Indigo , the Osterhagen Key , the concept of using " every telephone in England " to call the Doctor , and the fact that Davros was unable to cultivate a Dalek army " without slicing his own torso up " . Anders praised Bleach 's portrayal of Davros for capturing " the character 's mixture of curiosity , manipulativeness and mania better than anyone since [ ... ] Michael Wisher " . She also commended the " super @-@ heroics " in the episode , such as Wilf 's attack on a Dalek with a paintball gun , Gwen and Ianto 's final scene , and the " glowing nobility " of Harriet Jones ' sacrifice to help the Doctor :
Even though I was glad we 'll never hear anyone say " I know who you are " to her again , I was glad she was able to turn her usual schtick into a moving speech of defiance . It sorta reminded me of the Controller in " Day of the Daleks " : " Who knows ? I may have helped to exterminate you . "
Closing her review , she expressed excitement for " Journey 's End " , saying the final scene left her with a " feeling like [ she had ] no clue how it could be resolved , even using crazy RTD logic " .
Dave Golder of science @-@ fiction magazine SFX gave the episode four stars out of five . He noted that after two experimental and " edgy " scripts , " The Stolen Earth " used Davies ' regular style of " crowd pleasing script pyrotechnics " . He positively reviewed the special effects in the episode , Bleach 's acting , the pace of the episode , and the cliffhanger , but criticised the Shadow Proclamation for being " a severe disappointment after all the foreshadowing " , and some character moments for being " dropped into the action like little ' emotion bombs ' " , such as Jack and Sarah 's " melodramatic response " to the Dalek transmission . He closed his review by saying " there 's no denying [ the episode is ] all huge fun , like a tipsy romp on a bouncy castle with all the people you ’ ve ever loved . "
Travis Flickett of IGN gave the episode 7 @.@ 6 / 10 ( " Enjoyable " ) . He opened his review by discussing the concept of " fan service " :
The idea of " fan service " is always a double edged sword . It 's great to see all of the things you may like about a series come together on screen , but it so often works better in theory than in practice . It 's like those giant crossovers that comic books do all the time – where every cool character meets every other cool character . While it 's interesting ( to a degree ) that they 're sharing a page , everybody ends up getting short @-@ shrift .
His review focused primarily upon the Daleks . He initially criticised their appearance because of overuse ; he discussed their previous appearances in Doctor Who since 2005 : a singular enemy in " Dalek " ; a Dalek empire against Rose in " The Parting of the Ways " ; the Dalek Cult of Skaro against the Cybermen in " Doomsday " ; and their appearance in 1930s Manhattan in " Daleks in Manhattan " and " Evolution of the Daleks " . He cited Davros and the " year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half " break as the reason their appearance " sort @-@ of worked " ; Davros ' appearance " [ upped ] the stakes " , but he criticised the character for " [ doing ] little to enhance the mythology " and Bleach for a " way over the top " performance . Flickett criticised Rose 's isolation from the other companions , but noted that she could defend against the Daleks on her own . He closed his review positively ; he said " Whatever the conclusion of this season , Davies run on this series is an enormous achievement . "
= = = Filming locations = = =
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Stolen Earth " / " Journey 's End " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Stewie Goes for a Drive =
" Stewie Goes for a Drive " is the fourth episode of the tenth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on November 6 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . The plot depicts actor Ryan Reynolds moving into the house across the street , and Peter Griffin befriending him . Ryan flirts with Peter , making Peter uncomfortable , and their friendship ends . Meanwhile , Stewie takes Brian 's car for a joy ride , and crashes it into a lamp post . Fearing the consequences , Stewie runs away from home , but then needs Brian 's help when he ends up in a bad part of town .
First announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Gary Janetti and directed by Julius Wu . It received mixed reviews from critics . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 5 @.@ 73 million homes in its original airing . In addition to Reynolds , who voiced himself , the episode featured guest performances by Adam Alexi @-@ Malle , Ralph Garman , Joe Lomonaco , Rachael MacFarlane and Tara Strong , along with several recurring guest voice actors .
= = Plot = =
Peter and Lois are leaving a doctor 's office when actor Ryan Reynolds asks them for directions . He seems very appreciative of Peter . The next morning Peter notices that Ryan has moved in across the street , taking Cleveland Brown 's former residence . Ryan says he 's filming for a movie nearby . Peter attends Ryan 's housewarming party that night , at which Ryan tickles him and requests that he return the favor . Later that week , they go out to dinner , but Peter immediately exits the restaurant when Ryan tries to kiss him . The next day , Peter tells Lois he believes Ryan is gay but Lois rejects the idea . Peter confronts Ryan , who replies that he is only attracted to Peter 's spirit in the way that a man is attracted to a woman . Angered by Peter 's accusation , Ryan orders him to leave and that they can never talk again — but hands him a cell phone so they can " always talk " .
Brian picks up Stewie from day care . On the drive home , Stewie listens to " Before He Cheats " by Carrie Underwood on the radio . He decides to stay in the car by himself to continue listening after they reach home and accidentally hits the gear shift , causing the car to move forward . Thinking he can drive , Stewie takes the car for a ride and is thrilled by the experience . He hears on the car radio a contest to win Justin Bieber concert tickets . Stewie calls the radio station on his cell phone but loses control of the car and crashes into a lamppost . ( Herbert is heard on the radio winning the tickets . ) Stewie takes the car home with the front of the vehicle completely destroyed . Brian discovers the damage and immediately blames Stewie , who tries to deny his involvement , but Brian points out that Stewie left Rupert in the car . Brian says he 'll tell Peter and Lois , and Stewie cries . Afraid of being punished , Stewie runs away . He leaves a CD @-@ ROM for Brian that details his plans . Stewie takes the bus to the airport , but disembarks in the wrong neighborhood . Consuela , the Griffin family 's former maid , finds him and takes him home . Brian finds Stewie , and tells him that he did not tell anyone about the accident . They attempt to leave Consuela 's home , but she insists on keeping Stewie as her own baby . Stewie steals a gun and shoots her in the foot , but says that he didn 't want to hurt her because she had shown kindness to him in the past . Brian and Stewie return home .
= = Production and development = =
First announced at the 2011 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International by series showrunners Steve Callaghan and Mark Hentemann , the episode was written by Gary Janetti . Janetti joined the series in its first season , writing " Brian : Portrait of a Dog " , as well as the series 's landmark 150th episode " Brian & Stewie " . It was directed by Julius Wu , who joined the show in its fifth season , directing " The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising director , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Spencer Porter , Anthony Blasucci , Mike Desilets and Deepak Sethi serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Stewie Goes for a Drive " . An announcement of Reynolds ' appearance in the episode was made at the Television Critics Association 's summer press tour , along with several other guest voice actors for the season .
In addition to the regular cast , actor and musician Adam Alexi @-@ Malle , actor Ralph Garman , voice actor Joe Lomonaco , voice actress Rachael MacFarlane , actor Ryan Reynolds , and voice actress Tara Strong guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Alec Sulkin , writer John Viener and writer Wellesley Wild made minor appearances throughout the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode when Peter and Lois first meet actor Ryan Reynolds , Reynolds lists various movies he has appeared in , including the 2009 film The Proposal and the 2011 film The Change @-@ Up . Impressed by Ryan 's demeanor towards him , Peter then recalls meeting actress Shelley Duvall , which he did not enjoy , even though Duvall is shown being friendly . Reynolds also reveals that he will be portraying Nazi leader Adolf Hitler in a film entitled Hotler , which is being filmed in Quahog rather than nearby Newport , Rhode Island .
Later , as Brian and Stewie drive home from his day care , they listen to the 2006 single " Before He Cheats " on the car 's radio , sung by American Idol winner Carrie Underwood . Stewie stays in the car after arriving home to listen to the rest of the song , and sings along . Pleased with himself , he decides he should appear on the Fox television series Glee . Later Stewie learns of a contest to win tickets to a local Justin Bieber concert , but ultimately he loses the contest to his neighbor , Herbert . After returning home , Stewie begins watching a film parodying various 1970s science fiction movies ( including music parodying the 1976 Michael York film Logan 's Run ) before being accused by Brian of crashing his car . When Stewie tries to reject blame for the incident , Brian tells him that he must accept his punishment , and compares it to the television game show The Price Is Right , in which a woman is shown accepting a poor showcase , involving a weeklong trip to her parent 's house in Wilmington , Delaware . Stewie then runs away from home , leaving a video message for Brian asking Brian to rescue him in a TV @-@ movie @-@ clichéd way at the airport , and to bring appropriate soundtrack music , suggesting " With or Without You " by U2 , " Solsbury Hill " by Peter Gabriel , " Unwritten " by Natasha Bedingfield , " Live Like We 're Dying " by Kris Allen , " Thank You " by Dido and " Somebody " by Depeche Mode .
In minutes 12 to 13 , Ryan takes Peter out to eat Moroccan food . Peter hesitates for fear of gas he gets from Mexican food , and a cutaway shows Peter farting out a Mexican bandit spirit who utters , " Con cuidado ! Es El STINKO ! " ( Watch out ! It 's the STINKER ! ) " and then fires shots from pistols in each hand whereupon the Griffins all flee . After Ryan convinces Peter to try his lamb tajine , Peter has to excuse himself to the bathroom , and on the way he farts out a Moroccan swordsman spirit who waves his sword and yells out something in Arabic , and the nearby couple has to flee .
= = Reception = =
" Stewie Goes for a Drive " was broadcast on November 6 , 2011 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons and Allen Gregory , and followed by Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's second show , American Dad ! . It was watched by 5 @.@ 73 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Good Wife on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 0 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating Allen Gregory and American Dad , in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings decreased somewhat from the previous week 's episode , " Screams of Silence : The Story of Brenda Q " .
Reviews of the episode were mostly mixed , calling the storyline a " much less extreme reversal " of the season two episode " The Story on Page One " , in which Peter attempts to seduce actor Luke Perry . Kevin McFarland of The A.V. Club wrote of the episode , " It was disappointing to see Family Guy bury a guest star like Kaitlin Olson in the background for much of her episode as Quagmire 's sister last week , but it was even worse to see the show waste Ryan Reynolds . " He continued , " He may not fit an empirical definition of a movie star , but I think he ’ s worth more as a guest than a tired trope like playing himself as a sexual predator towards Peter . " McFarland also criticized the episode 's two storylines , noting , " Both plots paint themselves into a corner with no time to get out . In the third act , Stewie is trapped at Consuela 's house and Peter hadn 't succumbed to Reynolds ' repetitive and slowly escalating advances or done anything about them , so the show snaps its fingers and ends each one prematurely . " He graded the episode as a C- . In a much more positive review , Terron R. Moore of Ology criticized the episode for not featuring Griffin family siblings Chris and Meg , but praised the series for adopting a Stewie @-@ centric storyline . Moore noted of the storyline involving Reynolds , " All pretty funny stuff , but Ryan Reynolds ' entire guest slot is based on the fact that you like Ryan Reynolds and his occasionally homoerotic humor , which I can definitely appreciate . " He concluded his review by writing , " Not the best Family Guy , but a definite improvement on the week before , using some of the elements it knows best . " Andy Neuenschwander of Yidio also gave mixed reaction to the episode , writing , " Something happens whenever a celebrity shows up on " Family Guy " and plays themselves . I can 't quite put my finger on it , but everything just feels a bit off . This episode , which featured Ryan Reynolds as Ryan Reynolds , only confirmed that feeling . " He also compared it to The Simpsons , noting , " Maybe it 's the way the celebrity is treated as a character : in shows like The Simpsons , celebrities who play themselves appear as a relatively normal version of themselves [ ... ] But on Family Guy , celebrities tend to appear as some bizarro version of themselves . "
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= Little Annie Fanny =
Little Annie Fanny is a comics series by Harvey Kurtzman and Will Elder . It appeared in 107 two- to seven @-@ page episodes in Playboy magazine from October 1962 to September 1988 . Little Annie Fanny is a humorous satire of contemporary American society and its sexual mores . Annie Fanny , the title character , is a statuesque , buxom young blonde woman who innocently finds herself nude in every episode . The series is notable for its painted , luminous color artwork and for being the first full @-@ scale , multi @-@ page comics feature in a major American publication .
Kurtzman , a cartoonist , created the series at the culmination of his career . He had launched Mad magazine , worked briefly for Playboy publisher Hugh Hefner and on a series of solo and collaborative projects , then returned to working for Hefner with Little Annie Fanny . Each episode of the comic strip was designed and written by Kurtzman and rendered in oil , tempera , and watercolor by Elder . Hefner edited each episode , often requiring detailed changes to ensure that the series remained true to the magazine 's editorial style . Critical reaction was mixed , with most praising the elaborate , fully painted comic , but some dismissing it as falling short of Kurtzman 's full potential . The complete series was first collected into two volumes in 2000 and 2001 by Dark Horse Comics .
= = History = =
= = = Conception = = =
Harvey Kurtzman founded the satirical Mad magazine in 1952 ; an early fan was onetime cartoonist Hugh Hefner , who founded the men 's magazine Playboy in 1953 . Hefner offered Kurtzman an opportunity to conceive a new humor magazine for his enterprise , which the cartoonist accepted when he left Mad in 1956 in an ownership dispute . Kurtzman took most of the Mad artists with him , including frequent collaborator Will Elder , to create the adult @-@ oriented humor magazine Trump . Although it sold well , Hefner ran into financial problems in 1957 and halted Trump after two issues . He provided office space for the artists , from which they self @-@ published the satirical magazine Humbug in 1957 – 58 . It failed to gain a significant following , and a dejected Kurtzman began pitching feature proposals to Playboy , all of which were rejected . However , he received a note from Hefner : " I bow to no one in my appreciation for H. Kurtzman . " Hefner 's praise encouraged Kurtzman to meet with publisher Ian Ballantine and create Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book ( 1959 ) . This introduced the innocent and idealistic Goodman Beaver , a male character who continued to appear — with artwork by Elder — in Kurtzman 's Help ! ( 1960 ) .
Kurtzman continued to correspond with Hefner and Playboy executive editor Ray Russell , who was interested in Kurtzman 's idea of a comic strip suitable for the magazine 's audience and suggested " satire ... as an excuse or rationale for a slick magazine to be publishing a comic strip . " Although single @-@ panel cartoons were an established part of the magazine , a comic strip was unprecedented and had to be justified . Kurtzman submitted some Goodman Beaver strips and was surprised to receive a favorable response from Hefner , who liked the " fresh and eager " character . He especially enjoyed " Goodman Goes Playboy " , which featured a boisterous romp in Hefner 's mansion . Hefner nevertheless insisted that the material was not right for his magazine , but requested an explanation of the character with a suggestion : " Maybe there is a way of launching a similar series ... that can somehow be related to Playboy " . Kurtzman replied that Goodman Beaver " could be foolish and at the same time wise , " and that he " innocently partakes of the bad while espousing the good . " He further stated that Beaver 's innocent , restive , and charming nature allotted him especial creative freedom . A week later , Kurtzman wrote to Hefner , " What would you think of a girl character ... whom I could apply to my kind of situations ? " Six weeks later Hefner replied , " I think your notion of doing a Goodman Beaver strip of two , three , or four pages , but using a sexy girl ... is a bull 's eye . We can run it every issue . "
= = = Production = = =
Kurtzman recruited his long @-@ time collaborator Will Elder to work on the strip 's illustrations . He suggested to Elder an " outlineless " , painted style , then thought the strip would be better suited by an India inked , outlined comic book style with flat color behind it . Hefner , whose opinion prevailed , preferred the more difficult , fully painted , outlineless look . Kurtzman 's suggestions for the feature 's name included The Perils of Zelda , The Perils of Irma , and Little Mary Mixup ; he settled on Little Annie Fanny , its title and logo a parody of Harold Gray 's Little Orphan Annie . The cartoonist began submitting story ideas for the multi @-@ page comic strip to Hefner for approval . Over the twenty @-@ six years he wrote the character , he was allowed ( with Playboy 's substantial budget ) to travel for research , photography , and sketching . He followed this with a preliminary script for Hefner , who revised it . Kurtzman then worked out the story 's composition , pacing , and action in thumbnail drawings and pencil roughs of each page of the comic , followed by larger , more @-@ detailed layouts on translucent vellum specifying lighting , color , and speech balloon placement . These also required Hefner 's approval — a typical two- to seven @-@ page episode would take as many as nine pages of layout . Kurtzman then discussed the layout with Elder , who drove from his home in New Jersey to Kurtzman 's in New York . Kurtzman acted out every detail of the strip ; according to Elder , " He would change his voice and take on the characteristics of each role ... We 'd crack each other up and fall down laughing . " This gave Elder what he needed to create the penciling , including " eye pops " ( background gags worked into blank areas of Kurtzman 's layout ; Hefner rejected many , so Elder created as many as possible ) and the final rendering . Elder painted in oil , tempera , and watercolor , never using ink . Beginning with a white illustration board , Elder explained he would " pile on " his oil paint , light colors over dark , then apply tempera , then layer several watercolor washes to give Annie luminous tones . " The colors were like gems to me , " he said . " I worked very hard to give them iridescence . " The work was labor @-@ intensive and deadlines were often difficult to meet , so other artists , including Russ Heath , Arnold Roth , Jack Davis , Al Jaffee , Frank Frazetta , and Paul Coker , were occasionally enlisted to help finish the art . Jaffee , a childhood friend of Elder , said about the experience : " Little Annie Fannie was the most unique , lavishly produced cartoon cum illustration feature ever . Each panel was a miniature masterpiece that Willie glazed and re @-@ glazed in brilliant watercolor until he reached the level of 3 @-@ D @-@ like translucence that he wanted . I know from first @-@ hand experience what went into this project . " Letterers inked the dialog balloons before Kurtzman cleaned and submitted the finished work . Little Annie Fanny , Playboy 's first comic strip , was the first multi @-@ page comics feature in a major American magazine .
= = Characters = =
Annie Fanny is the feature 's lead character . Like other young women in Playboy pictorials , Annie is beautiful , buxom , and often unclothed . She is sexually innocent , oblivious to the worldliness around her . Like her forebear Goodman Beaver , Annie was conceived as a modern Candide , above the story 's corruptions and temptations . Unlike Goodman , however , Annie is never shocked or offended ; she remains blithe . The authors of Icons of the American Comic Book say Annie " glides through a changing world with an untiring optimism " with a " good @-@ natured lack of desire " . She is insulated from the carnal nature of those around her , who explain the new rules of society to her each episode . Ruthie , Annie 's mother hen roommate , appears in the first episode and remains in the strip throughout its run . Wanda Homefree , Annie Fanny 's wild and shapely best friend , first appears in an episode @-@ 10 beauty contest as Miss Greenwich Village and is often seen at Annie 's side throughout the remainder of the series . Ralphie Towzer , Annie 's nerdy @-@ but @-@ hip do @-@ gooder boyfriend , has the look of Goodman Beaver ( with playwright Arthur Miller 's eyeglasses and pipe ) and the temperament of a straight @-@ laced , chastising prude . Solly Brass , Annie 's huckster agent , is based on actor Phil Silvers .
A number of other characters in Little Annie Fanny are derived from Gray 's Little Orphan Annie . Sugardaddy Bigbucks , Annie 's surrogate father and a powerful , manipulative capitalist , is based on Daddy Warbucks . His mysterious assistant , the Wasp , derives from Warbucks ' assistant the Asp , and Punchjab , his bodyguard , comes from the character Punjab . Other supporting characters include ad man Benton Battbarton ( whose name is taken from the advertising agencies Batten , Barton , Durstine & Osborn and Benton & Bowles ) , Battbarton 's rival Huck Buxton ( modeled on gap @-@ toothed British actor Terry @-@ Thomas ) , Duncan Fyfe Hepplewhite ( an art plagiarist ) , and Freddie Flink ( who resembles comic actor Fred Gwynne from Car 54 , Where Are You ? ) .
= = Synopsis = =
Little Annie Fanny takes the reader through the changing attitudes of American culture , satirizing contemporary trends and fads . In each of the 107 episodes , Annie experiences the latest popular movie , fashion statement , national politics , or society headline . During the strip 's first decade , when it ran up to eleven times per year , Annie meets caricatures of the Beatles ( who lust for Annie ) , Sean Connery ( playing " James Bomb " ) , reclusive Catcher in the Rye author J. D. Salinger ( as " Salinger Fiengold " ) , NFL champions Green Bay Packers ( as the " Greenback Busters " ) , and Elvis Presley , Bob Dylan , and Sonny & Cher on the " Hoopadedoo Show " ( Hullabaloo show ) . During these early years , the strip pokes fun at miniskirts , LSD , free love , and bra burning . Background caricatures include Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev , prissy @-@ but @-@ powerful J. Edgar Hoover , unisex fashion designer Rudi Gernreich , and the " Put a Tiger in Your Tank " ad campaign of Humble Oil . During the 1970s , when the strip ran three to five times per year , Annie sees violent films such as A Clockwork Orange and The French Connection and meets sex novelist Philip Roth , consumer advocate Ralph Nader , chess champion Bobby Fischer , and shock rocker Alice Cooper . She experiences disco , streaking , C.B. radio , nudist colonies , and women 's liberation . Background " eye pops " include Hollywood heavy Charles Bronson , Laugh @-@ In 's Arte Johnson , the Avis TV commercial 's O. J. Simpson , and Star Wars ' C @-@ 3PO . In the 1980s , when Little Annie Fanny appeared once or twice a year , Annie deals with personal computers , goes to Urban Cowboy 's Gilley 's Club , cruises on The Love Boat , and encounters Indiana Jones , Ayatollah Khomeini , Jim and Tammy Faye Bakker , and Woody Allen . Elder 's background gags include the Coneheads , Howard Cosell , Miss Piggy , E.T. , and Billy Beer .
= = Reception = =
Comics historian Don Markstein said that Little Annie Fanny " reached a high point seldom achieved by cartoon art " . Writing for his Don Markstein 's Toonopedia website : " Harvey Kurtzman ... strove for most of his life to advance the boundaries of comics , not just in terms of storytelling but also in production values " , concluding that Little Annie Fanny achieved at least the latter . About its venue he said , " Playboy magazine , whatever you may say about its content , always did a first @-@ rate job of printing color pictures . " According to comics commentators Randy Duncan and Matthew J. Smith , the series " reads today as an amusing look at the evolving mores of the sexual revolution " . Comics editor Monte Beauchamp said that Little Annie Fanny was " the most elaborate comic strip ever created " and cartoonist @-@ critic R. C. Harvey called it " a masterpiece ... the most lavish color comic strip of all time " .
Not all were as impressed . Noting that Kurtzman was financially strapped before making his living for twenty @-@ six years from Playboy , historian Paul Buhle wrote : " The strip had many brilliant early moments , but went downhill as the writer and artist bent to editor Hugh Hefner 's demands for as much titillation as possible . " Cartoonist Art Spiegelman said that Little Annie Fanny devolved from the more interesting Goodman Beaver . Underground cartoonist Robert Crumb , whose career Kurtzman helped launch , scorned Playboy and Annie . Monty Python 's Terry Gilliam , the former assistant editor of Help ! , said that Little Annie Fanny was not as sharp as Kurtzman 's earlier work : " technically brilliant but ... slightly compromised . " Art agent and publisher Denis Kitchen , who handles Kurtzman and Eisner 's estates , said that " most Kurtzman devotees would not consider Little Annie Fanny genius work ... [ and ] some would argue the opposite : that it was genius diluted or degraded " . Kitchen placed the onus on Kurtzman 's employer Hefner , who " was often a punctilious taskmaster with a heavy red pen who often had very different ideas about what was funny or satiric " and insisted that each strip " had to include Annie disrobing " . Beauchamp agreed : " Unfortunately , Hefner was notorious for his heavy editorial hand . " Duncan and Smith also agreed , and wrote that " humor sometimes mixes awkwardly with the loaded topics of the era , and some have found Annie 's lack of character development and the requisite sexual hijinks an impediment to taking her seriously . " However , they repeated their respect : " The eternally innocent Annie performed admirably as a nonjudgmental witness to the changing tides of the sexual revolution . "
= = Other media = =
The December 1978 issue of Playboy mentioned a " worldwide search for the actress " who would " portray Little Annie Fanny in a live @-@ action movie " . In 2000 , Playboy TV approached Mainframe Entertainment to create a CGI animated television series based on Little Annie Fanny , but no series was ever produced .
Twenty @-@ six early episodes of the comic were reprinted in book form by Playboy Press in 1966 and 1972 . After Kurtzman 's death in 1993 , Playboy revived the comic in 1998 with art by Ray Lago and Bill Schorr , publishing two episodes . Dark Horse Comics collected all episodes of the series and published them in two volumes ( 2000 and 2001 ) , with annotations by Denis Kitchen and others .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals , newspapers , websites = = = =
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= John Cameron ( Alberta politician ) =
John Cameron [ n1 ] ( May 28 , 1846 – October 6 , 1919 ) was a merchant and politician in Alberta , Canada and a municipal councillor in Edmonton . He is regarded as one of the city 's pioneer citizens .
Born in Canada West ( later Ontario ) , Cameron worked as a merchant in his birth province and Manitoba before coming to Edmonton in 1881 . In Edmonton he continued as a merchant , owning and operating a store for 15 years . In Edmonton he quickly established himself as a prominent citizen , serving on the inaugural Edmonton Board of Trade as president , which he would remain for five years . Cameron also was involved in the development of the Edmonton Public School Board , serving on the board in the 1890s . He was also involved in the town 's politics , winning election to Edmonton 's first town council in 1892 and serving an additional term when elected in 1895 . After this retirement from politics , he worked in the coal and real estate business until his death in 1919 , at the age of 73 . Upon his death , he was lauded as one of the pioneer citizens of Edmonton ; a street , neighbourhood and ravine were named for him .
= = Early life and career = =
John Cameron was born at East Hawkesbury , Canada West in 1846 , the son of Colin and Anna ( née McLaurin ) Cameron . His brother was Sir Douglas Cameron , who also went into politics , serving in the Ontario Legislature and as Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba . John attended school in Hawkesbury and Renfrew and in 1871 became a merchant at Vankleek Hill , with a partner in the firm Cameron & Mode General Merchants . In 1876 , he went west and relocated to Winnipeg , Manitoba to establish Cameron & Company general merchants , where he remained until 1881 .
= = Career in Edmonton = =
Cameron moved from Winnipeg to Edmonton in 1881 by ox @-@ cart , travelling through Carlton and Battleford , bringing with him 96 @,@ 000 pounds ( 44 @,@ 000 kg ) of freight on a journey that took three months . Once in Edmonton , he used this freight as the initial inventory of a store , the A. McDonald Company , where he entered into a partnership . In 1891 , he would purchase the store from its original owner , A. McDonald . He moved into a new building in 1893 , designed by architect William S. Edmiston and constructed by contractor Kenneth McLeod . The building , located on Jasper Avenue , included a cellar , main floor for merchandise and storage , and an upper storey , heated in its entirety by a furnace . He would operate until 1896 . After the sale of the store , he entered into the real estate and coal business . In 1914 , Cameron was serving as managing director and treasurer of Gainford Colleries Ltd. and as chairman of the provisional directors of the Canada Northwest Loan and Mortgage Company .
He was elected the first president of the Edmonton Board of Trade upon its founding in 1889 . He served until 1894 . He also played a vital role in the development of the school system in Edmonton , involving himself in education @-@ related affairs as early as 1881 , and serving on the public school board from 1886 – 87 and 1889 until 1897 . In 1881 , he was part of a group that provided funds for the first school teacher in the city . In 1886 , with the school board , Cameron was responsible for introducing a fee for the parents of students attending schools in the Edmonton Public School District who did not live within the district , as district residents were taxed for the school 's services . He would serve as secretary @-@ treasurer from 1882 to 1884 and later as chairman of the school board from 1890 to 1892 and 1894 .
= = = Civic politics = = =
Cameron was one of six candidates elected as aldermen to Edmonton 's first town council in 1892 ; he received the fifth most votes of the fourteen candidates . He was defeated in his 1893 re @-@ election bid , in which he finished seventh of nine candidates . He briefly returned to the council after being elected again in 1895 , but did not seek re @-@ election the following year and remained out of politics thereafter . During his first term on the council , he was involved in an altercation in which the dominion government had made a decision to Dominion Land Office from Edmonton to Strathcona , at the time a separate town , south of the North Saskatchewan River . When news of the decision and crews to execute it arrived in Edmonton , angry citizens descended on the office and tore to pieces the wagon that the officer was packing with records for transportation . Led by mayor Matthew McCauley , Cameron was part of a group of prominent citizens that headed the resistance , eventually leading to the dominion reversing its decision .
= = Personal life = =
At Vankleek Hill in 1872 , he married Jane Vogan . She would die some time afterwards , and John Cameron , aged 29 , would remarry Elizabeth Ann McCann on November 8 , 1875 . They had two sons , John Hilliard and Howard , and four daughters , Mabel , Florence , Alice and Jessie . He was a member of the Edmonton Old Timers ' Association as well as the Edmonton Agricultural Society . He was an avid outdoorsman who enjoyed canoeing and hiking in the Edmonton North Saskatchewan River Valley . Along with his wife Elizabeth , he was an early member of the Presbyterian church in Edmonton , attending First Presbyterian Church , where he was an elder . Though he served as an independent on the Edmonton Town Council , he was a Liberal .
= = Death and legacy = =
He died of heart failure in the morning of October 6 , 1919 after a brief illness at his Edmonton home . He was survived by his wife and children . After his funeral at his home on Cameron Avenue , he was buried at the Edmonton Cemetery . At the time of his death , the Edmonton Bulletin praised Cameron for his efforts in establishing the foundations of the city Edmonton , and remarked that " the city owes much to him because of his strenuous efforts with others in maintaining this as the permanent site for the city " . Elizabeth Cameron died in Edmonton in 1933 at the age of 79 .
Cameron Street , the neighbourhood of Cameron Heights , and the Cameron Ravine ( in the vicinity of Cameron Heights ) in Edmonton are named in honour .
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= Peter Isaacson =
Peter Stuart Isaacson , AM , DFC , AFC , DFM ( born 31 July 1920 ) is an Australian publisher and decorated military pilot . He was owner of Peter Isaacson Publications , the publisher of various trade publications and suburban newspapers including the Southern Cross and the Sunday Observer in Melbourne . He served in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a pilot with RAF Bomber Command during World War II and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross , the Air Force Cross and the Distinguished Flying Medal .
Isaacson grew up in Melbourne and started working for a newspaper when he was sixteen . He joined the RAAF in 1940 . Following his stint in Bomber Command , he became well known in Australia for his tours in the Avro Lancaster Q @-@ for @-@ Queenie to promote the sale of war loans and , in particular , for flying his plane under the Sydney Harbour Bridge in 1943 . He transferred to the RAAF Reserve after the war , retiring as a wing commander in 1969 . Since 1956 he has served as a Trustee , Chairman , and finally Life Governor of the Victorian Shrine of Remembrance . In 1991 he was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia for his publishing and community work .
= = Early life = =
Isaacson was born in London on 31 July 1920 to an Australian father and an Austrian mother ; his parents moved to Australia with him when he was six years old . Growing up in Melbourne , he was educated at Brighton Grammar School and started work at sixteen as a messenger boy on The Age , where his mother Caroline edited women 's features . All of Isaacson 's immediate family would eventually serve in World War II : his father , Arnold , a World War I veteran , joined the Volunteer Defence Corps , his mother became Public Relations Officer in the Australian Women 's Army Service ( AWAS ) , and his sister Joan became a photographer with the AWAS .
= = World War II = =
On 8 December 1940 , the nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Isaacson enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . After completing his training in Australia and Canada , he was posted to the United Kingdom and joined No. 460 Squadron RAAF at RAAF Breighton , Yorkshire , as a sergeant pilot . Operating Vickers Wellington medium bombers , No. 460 Squadron had been raised under the Article XV provisions of the Empire Air Training Scheme and was one of a number of nominally Australian formations taking part in RAF Bomber Command 's strategic air campaign against Germany . The squadron commenced operations in March 1942 and participated in 1 @,@ 000 @-@ bomber raids against Cologne , Essen and Bremen in May and June . It converted to Avro Lancaster heavy bombers in October . Isaacson was awarded the Distinguished Flying Medal on 6 November 1942 for " many successful night attacks on the enemy " with No. 460 Squadron . The following month his Lancaster was damaged by a Junkers Ju 88 night fighter after a raid on Munich .
Commissioned as a pilot officer , Isaacson was subsequently posted to No. 156 Squadron RAF of the Pathfinder Force , based at RAF Warboys , Huntingdonshire . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross on 30 March 1943 for his actions during a raid on Berlin . His citation , promulgated in the London Gazette , read :
One night in March 1943 , this officer was detailed for an attack on Berlin . Following the attack and while still over the target area , his aircraft was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire and severely damaged . The mid @-@ upper turret frame was twisted , the perspex and 2 engine cowlings blown off , the aileron controls damaged and the aircraft forced down to 4 @,@ 000 feet . On the return journey the aircraft was driven off the route and held in a cone of searchlights for 15 minutes ; during this time a further loss of height down to 900 feet occurred . In the face of this perilous situation Pilot Officer Issacson , showing coolness , resolution and skilful airmanship , succeeded in flying his aircraft back to base . This officer is an outstanding captain of aircraft who has a fine record of many successful operational sorties .
Isaacson completed forty @-@ five sorties with Bomber Command , when the likelihood of surviving an operational tour of thirty missions was never more than 50 % and , at times , much less . Promoted to acting flight lieutenant , he was chosen in May 1943 to captain Lancaster Q @-@ for @-@ Queenie on a landmark flight from England to Australia across the Pacific Ocean , and then from Melbourne to New Zealand and back , non @-@ stop in both directions . He was awarded the Air Force Cross on 27 August 1943 for this mission , the citation noting that it was " the first occasion on which an aircraft has flown to Australia by this route and the direct flights between Melbourne and New Zealand are the first of their kind " . The Lancaster was brought to Australia so that it could serve as a template for local production of the type , but this never took place and it was instead used for exhibition flights to encourage purchase of war bonds . On 22 October 1943 Isaacson flew Q @-@ for @-@ Queenie under the Sydney Harbour Bridge , flouting a 1931 regulation that prohibited such activity ; the Lancaster remains the largest aircraft to have been flown under the bridge . Isaacson gave his crew no warning of what he was about to do and when asked later why he did it , replied " Because it was there " . It was , however , reported at the time that he undertook the stunt to support the war loan effort for which he and his crew were actively fundraising .
Notwithstanding the publicity the escapade generated for war loans , Isaacson recalled that when he landed at Mascot afterwards :
I was threatened with a court martial . Two authorities wanted to court martial me : Eastern Area in which the crime was committed and Southern Command to which I was attached at the time . I was told later there was a great fight among the bureaucrats of each of these commands as to which would court martial me . Apparently they could not agree on which should be the prosecutor and the idea either lapsed – or maybe is still being pursued by the successors to each of these commands !
In December 1943 , following his promotional tour with his crew in Q @-@ for @-@ Queenie , he settled down to instructional work at an operational training unit before undertaking a further tour in the Lancaster commencing in March 1944 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Isaacson stood as the Liberal candidate for Prahran in the November 1945 Victorian state election , but was defeated by Labor 's Bill Quirk . His wartime commission was terminated on 21 February 1946 and he transferred to the RAAF Reserve . He was state commandant of the Victorian Squadron of the Air Training Corps from 1950 , and commandant of No. 21 ( City of Melbourne ) Squadron from 1961 , before retiring in 1969 with the rank of wing commander . He also served as an honorary aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Queen Elizabeth II from 1963 to 1965 .
After working as aviation correspondent for The Argus in Melbourne , Isaacson set up his first newspaper , the Advertiser , in 1947 ; he established Peter Isaacson Publications the same year . The Advertiser took over other community newspapers and became the Southern Cross , which Isaacson edited and published along with Sunday Observer and various business and industry magazines . In 1986 Peter Isaacson Publications took over the Asher Joel Media Group . Southern Cross was bought by APN News & Media in 1993 and Isaacson became APN 's director , serving until 1998 . He chaired TW Media from 1997 to 2005 .
Isaacson married Anne McIntyre in Melbourne on 21 December 1950 . The couple , who had known each other since their teens , had delayed their wedding during Anne 's five @-@ year struggle with polio and Isaacson carried his future bride to the registry office on the day . The marriage produced two sons . On 10 June 1991 Isaacson was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia " for services to the print media and the community " . He published As I Remember Them : Men and Women Who Shaped a Life , a collection of eulogies he had delivered for friends and colleagues , in 2012 . In May of that year he was among a group of thirty @-@ two veterans selected to attend the dedication of the RAF Bomber Command Memorial in London as part of the official Australian delegation . Isaacson is a Life Governor of the Victorian Shrine of Remembrance , having previously served as a Trustee from 1956 to 2000 , and Chairman from 1983 to 2000 . He and his wife live in the Melbourne suburb of Toorak .
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= Porcupine ray =
The porcupine ray ( Urogymnus asperrimus ) is a rare species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae and the only member of its genus . This bottom @-@ dweller is found throughout the tropical Indo @-@ Pacific , as well as off West Africa . It favors sand , coral rubble , and seagrass habitats in inshore waters to a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) . A large and heavy @-@ bodied species reaching 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in width , the porcupine ray has a nearly circular , plain @-@ colored pectoral fin disc and a thin tail without any fin folds . Uniquely within its family , it lacks a venomous stinging spine . However , an adult ray can still defend itself ably with the many large , sharp thorns found over its disc and tail .
The diet of the porcupine ray consists mainly of benthic invertebrates and bony fishes , which it digs up from the sea floor . It is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . The porcupine ray has long been valued for its rough and durable skin , which was made into a shagreen leather once used for various utilitarian and ornamental purposes , such as to cover sword hilts and shields . It is caught incidentally by coastal fisheries . Because it must be handled carefully due to its thorns , its commercial significance is limited . Unregulated fishing has led to this species declining in many parts of its range , and thus has been listed as Vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
German naturalists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Schneider described the porcupine ray in their 1801 work Systema Ichthyologiae , based on a partial dried skin obtained from Mumbai , India . They placed it in the genus Raja and named it asperrima , meaning " roughest " in Latin . In the same work , they also described a West African form , Raja africana . Later authors have regarded the two as synonymous . However , since the two names were published simultaneously , there is uncertainty about which name has priority . Some works give the ray 's specific epithet as asperrimus , and others as africanus .
In 1837 , Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle placed the porcupine ray in a new genus , Gymnura . As the name Gymnura was already in use , referring to the butterfly rays , later that year Müller and Henle replaced it with Urogymnus . Both names are derived from the Ancient Greek oura ( " tail " ) and gymnos ( " naked " or " unarmed " ) , referring to the lack of a tail sting . Other common names for this species include black spotted ray , rough @-@ skinned ray , roughback stingaree , Solander 's ray , and thorny ray . There may be more than one species of porcupine ray , as is currently recognized .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The porcupine ray is widely distributed , but uncommon compared to other stingrays that share its range . It is found all along the continental periphery of the Indian Ocean , from South Africa to the Arabian Peninsula to Southeast Asia to Ningaloo Reef off western Australia , including Madagascar , the Seychelles , and Sri Lanka ; it has colonized the eastern Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal . In the Pacific Ocean , its range continues through Indonesia and New Guinea , north to the Philippines , east to the Gilbert Islands and Fiji , and south to Heron Island off eastern Australia . This species is also found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off Senegal , Guinea , and Côte d 'Ivoire . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the porcupine ray is found close to shore at depths of 1 – 30 m ( 3 – 100 ft ) . It inhabits sandy flats , coral rubble , and seagrass beds , often near reefs , and also enters brackish water .
= = Description = =
The pectoral fin disc of the porcupine ray is evenly oval , almost as wide as long , and very thick at the center , giving it a domed appearance . The tip of the snout is rounded and barely protruding . The small eyes are closely followed by much larger spiracles . Between the narrow nostrils is a skirt @-@ shaped curtain of skin ; the posterior margin of the curtain is strongly fringed and overhangs the mouth . The mouth bears 3 – 5 papillae on the floor and prominent furrows at the corners . The area around the mouth , including the curtain , are heavily covered by more papillae . There are around 48 tooth rows in either jaw . The teeth are small and flattened . Five pairs of gill slits are located on the underside of the disc .
The pelvic fins are small and narrow . The thin , rapidly tapering tail is about equal to the disc in length and has an almost cylindrical cross @-@ section , without fin folds . The tail also has no venomous stinging spine , unlike other members of the family . A dense patch of flattened , heart @-@ shaped dermal denticles covers the center of the disc and extends onto the tail . Larger individuals additionally have numerous tall , sharp thorns over the entire upper surface of the disc . The porcupine ray is plain light to dark gray or brown above , darkening to blackish towards the tail tip , and white below . This large species grows to at least 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) across and 2 @.@ 2 m ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) long , and may reach 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) across .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The porcupine ray can sometimes be observed lying still on the bottom in the open or inside caves . It is known to form groups at Ningaloo Reef . Its diet consists primarily of sipunculids , polychaete worms , crustaceans , and bony fishes . When feeding it plows deeply into the bottom , expelling excess sediment from its spiracles in a plume visible from a long distance away . Parasites documented from this ray include the tapeworm Rhinebothrium devaneyi , the nematode Echinocephalus overstreeti , and the capsalid monogeneans Dendromonocotyle urogymni and Neoentobdella baggioi . The porcupine ray is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained to term by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) secreted by the mother . Mangrove forests serve as important habitat for juvenile rays . Males and females mature sexually at about 90 and 100 cm ( 35 and 39 in ) across respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
Despite not having a sting , the porcupine ray is capable of injuring humans with its many sharp thorns . It is reportedly bold and tolerant of being approached closely underwater . The tough , thorny skin of this ray , made into a form of leather called shagreen , had many historical uses . In particular , it was used to cover the hilts of various melee weapons , as its extremely rough texture prevented slippage during battle . For example , the Japanese deemed it the only species whose skin was acceptable for covering sword grips . The Malayans used it to cover shields . The skin was also used ornamentally , such as by the Chinese , who dyed it and ground down the thorns to yield a mottled pattern . The native inhabitants of Funafuti Atoll used dried portions of the ray 's tail as a rasp @-@ like tool .
Presently , the porcupine ray is caught incidentally in trawls , tangle nets , and beach seines . Its skin continues to be highly valued , while the meat and cartilage may also be utilized . In the Farasan Islands and some other places in the Red Sea , its liver is eaten as a seasonal dish . However , the economic importance of this ray is limited by how difficult it is to handle . The multi @-@ species coastal fisheries that catch the porcupine ray are largely unregulated , which seems to have resulted in its dramatic decline or local extinction in the Bay of Bengal , the Gulf of Thailand , and likely elsewhere in its range . Potential additional threats to this species include habitat degradation from coastal development , and depletion of its food supply from overfishing . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Vulnerable .
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= First Person Shooter ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" First Person Shooter " is the thirteenth episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on February 27 , 2000 . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " First Person Shooter " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 3 , being watched by 15 @.@ 31 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly negative reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , The Lone Gunmen summon Mulder and Scully to the headquarters of a video game design company after a new virtual reality game , which the Gunmen helped design , is taken over by a bizarre female computer character whose power is much more than virtual .
" First Person Shooter " was written by noted authors William Gibson and Tom Maddox , and directed by series creator Chris Carter . In addition , the episode serves as the spiritual successor to Gibson and Maddox 's earlier episode " Kill Switch . " Gibson was motivated to write the episode after the success of " Kill Switch . " The episode featured several elaborate special effects sequences that nearly put the episode over budget .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with three men , fitted with futuristic combat gear and automatic weapons , entering the virtual reality game First Person Shooter . In a control room , Ivan and Phoebe , the game 's programmers , are monitoring the players ' vital signs . Only one of the players makes it to the second level of the violent game , where he encounters a female character in a fetishistic leather outfit . She introduces herself as Maitreya , stating , " This is my game " . She then kills the player with a flintlock pistol .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) visit the headquarters of First Person Shooters 's developers in Inland Empire , California , where they meet the Lone Gunmen , who work as consultants for the game . They look at the body of the player , which clearly displays a gunshot wound . Ivan claims there is no way a real gun could have been brought into the highly @-@ secured building . The agents are shown a video from the game , featuring the female character who killed the player . Mulder takes the printout of the character and shows it to a detective , as he believes she is the killer .
Daryl Musashi , a famous computer hacker , arrives at the building and enters the game to kill Maitreya . However , the character cuts off Musashi 's head and hands with a large medieval sword . Mulder receives a call from the Sheriff 's Department that a woman similar to the one in the printout has been picked up . The woman , a stripper named Jade Blue Afterglow , tells the agents that she was paid by a medical imaging facility in Culver City , California to scan her body .
Mulder and Scully find out that the Lone Gunmen have become trapped inside First Person Shooter , with somebody trying to kill them . Mulder enters the game , where he sees Maitreya and follows her . In the real world , Phoebe tearfully admits to Scully that the female warrior was created by her as a sort of personal estrogenic outlet in a testosterone @-@ fuelled environment . Maitreya was to be contained within Phoebe 's personal separate project , but the character found her way into the First Person Shooter program .
Scully decides to join Mulder in the game , and the two fight Maitreya together . Maitreya begins to duplicate herself , making the task of killing her more difficult . Finally , Maitreya sits atop a virtual tank and aims it at the agents . Phoebe admits there is one way to stop the game , but doing so will erase the entire program . Despite protests from Ivan , Phoebe gives Byers the kill command , effectively destroying Maitreya along with the game while saving Mulder and Scully . During Mulder 's narration , we see that in the control room one of the monitors is still active . There , Ivan sees Maitreya 's avatar , but with Scully 's face .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and writing = = =
The episode is notable for being written by William Gibson , together with fellow science fiction novelist and long @-@ time friend Tom Maddox . " First Person Shooter " was the second episode written by the authors , after the success of the fifth season episode " Kill Switch " , which first aired on February 15 , 1998 and subsequently made frequent appearances in reruns , encouraging Gibson to continue working in television . According to executive producer Frank Spotnitz , the writing process for " First Person Shooter " was slow . Initially , Gibson and Maddox presented the first two acts of their idea , which was tweaked by series creator Chris Carter and Spotnitz in order to make it feel more like an X @-@ File . After the rewriting process , the writers then returned with the subsequent acts . Gibson and Maddox were fans of The Lone Gunmen and purposely wrote them into the episode .
= = = Filming and casting = = =
The concepts behind the episode were difficult to transfer from script to film . Spotnitz later explained that , " William Gibson and Tom Maddox always get us into trouble . They always come up with these great ideas that are always hard to execute . " In addition , budgetary challenges faced the production of " First Person Shooter . " Due to all the special effects needed for the episode , the episode nearly drastically went over budget . In order to not over @-@ spend , the production crew was lent various virtual game layouts from video game companies . Not wishing to simply " copy existing designs , " production designer Corey Kaplan and his design team created " some pretty pictures " to differentiate the crews ' design from the video game companies ' . Much of the opening action was filmed at a Rykoff food distribution company in Los Angeles . At the time , the company 's owner was the uncle of X @-@ Files producer Paul Rabwin . In addition , a warehouse in downtown Los Angeles filled in for the backdrop of the opening scene .
Carter later noted that the hardest part of " First Person Shooter " was casting a suitable actress for the part of Maitreya . Casting director Rick Millikan looked into every possible avenue — including strippers , porn stars , and erotic thriller / direct @-@ to @-@ video actresses — before settling upon Krista Allen for the role . Initially , there was a " wholesome quality " that bothered Carter , but as the episode was being filmed , both Carter and Millikan recognized that Allen was right for the part . In addition to the part of Maitreya , several stuntmen were needed for the episode , including doubles for Mulder and Maitreya for their martial art fight scene . Experienced gymnast Dana Heath was hired for several scenes that required Maitreya to execute a series of handstands . Fourteen stuntmen were needed to ride Kawasaki 600s and fire gas @-@ powered machine @-@ guns .
= = = Action and effects = = =
The tank scene was created completely using CGI . The only actual footage from the scene was the background . A computer @-@ generated tank , along with women , were designed on a computer . Then , special effects shots of smoke and explosions were layered on top of the vehicle to give it a more life @-@ like appearance . Bruce Harwood , who portrayed Byers , noted that the action sequences in the episode were a challenge . He explained , " It 's pretty difficult on a set when the stuntmen come up to you and go , ' Don 't worry , you 'll be safe , Nothing to worry about . Okay . Everyone put their safety glasses on . ' "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" First Person Shooter " first aired in the United States on February 27 , 2000 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 3 , with a 13 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 13 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 15 @.@ 31 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on June 11 , 2000 and received 0 @.@ 67 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Tonight , Mulder and Scully must track down a video game killer whose killing spree is real . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " D – " and largely panned it , calling it " legendarily bad " . He likened the overall experience of watching “ First Person Shooter ” to " feeling as if the show is slowly but surely letting the air out of its own tires . " He was , however , moderately pleased with the performances of Duchovny and Anderson , writing that they both were " really trying " . Kenneth Silber from Space.com criticized the lack of emotion in the episode , writing , " ' First Person Shooter ' achieves considerable mayhem but remarkably little drama . There seems little reason to care what happens to any of the characters , whether virtual or real , regulars or guests . Even as a man 's hands are cut into bloody stumps , one never gets the sense that anything important is going on . "
Rich Rosell from Digitally Obsessed awarded the episode 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote that " this Chris Carter @-@ directed ep [ sic ] oddly enough doesn 't center on the series mythology arc , but instead opts for a stab at the tired ol ' virtual reality genre . [ ... ] The only saving grace here is the appearance of hip conspiracy buffs The Lone Gunmen , who always brighten up any episode they appeared in . " Cyriaque Lamar from i09 called Maitreya one of " The 10 Most Ridiculous X @-@ Files Monsters " . Lamar derided the plot , calling it " Scully And Mulder Do Doom " , and expressed disappointment that the episode was written by William Gibson . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five . Regardless of the negative press , " First Person Shooter " became one of Gillian Anderson 's favorite episodes , despite " its reliance on big guns and raging testosterone . " Anderson explained that she enjoyed the opportunity " to show Scully wearing heavy metal and firing oversized weapons . "
Although " First Person Shooter " was not as well @-@ received as the first episode written by William Gibson and Tom Maddox , " Kill Switch " , the episode later won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Visual Effects for a Series , and received a nomination for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series .
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= Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard =
Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard is a poem by Thomas Gray , completed in 1750 and first published in 1751 . The poem ’ s origins are unknown , but it was partly inspired by Gray ’ s thoughts following the death of the poet Richard West in 1742 . Originally titled Stanzas Wrote in a Country Church @-@ Yard , the poem was completed when Gray was living near St Giles ' parish church at Stoke Poges . It was sent to his friend Horace Walpole , who popularised the poem among London literary circles . Gray was eventually forced to publish the work on 15 February 1751 , to pre @-@ empt a magazine publisher from printing an unlicensed copy of the poem .
The poem is an elegy in name but not in form ; it employs a style similar to that of contemporary odes , but it embodies a meditation on death , and remembrance after death . The poem argues that the remembrance can be good and bad , and the narrator finds comfort in pondering the lives of the obscure rustics buried in the churchyard . The two versions of the poem , Stanzas and Elegy , approach death differently ; the first contains a stoic response to death , but the final version contains an epitaph which serves to repress the narrator 's fear of dying . With its discussion of , and focus on , the obscure and the known , the poem has possible political ramifications , but it does not make any definite claims on politics to be more universal in its approach to life and death .
Claimed as " probably still today the best @-@ known and best @-@ loved poem in English " , the Elegy quickly became popular . It was printed many times and in a variety of formats , translated into many languages , and praised by critics even after Gray 's other poetry had fallen out of favour . Later critics tended to comment on its language and universal aspects , but some felt the ending was unconvincing , failing to resolve the questions the poem raised ; or that the poem did not do enough to present a political statement that would serve to help the obscure rustic poor who form its central image .
= = Background = =
Gray 's life was surrounded by loss and death , and many people that he knew died painfully and alone . In 1749 , several events occurred that caused Gray stress . On 7 November , Mary Antrobus , Gray 's aunt , died ; her death devastated his family . The loss was compounded a few days later by news that his friend since childhood Horace Walpole had been almost killed by two highwaymen . Although Walpole survived and later joked about the event , the incident disrupted Gray 's ability to pursue his scholarship . The events dampened the mood that Christmas , and Antrobus 's death was ever fresh in the minds of the Gray family . As a side effect , the events caused Gray to spend much of his time contemplating his own mortality . As he began to contemplate various aspects of mortality , he combined his desire to determine a view of order and progress present in the Classical world with aspects of his own life . With spring nearing , Gray questioned if his own life would enter into a sort of rebirth cycle or , should he die , if there would be anyone to remember him . Gray 's meditations during spring 1750 turned to how individuals ' reputations would survive . Eventually , Gray remembered some lines of poetry that he composed in 1742 following the death of West , a poet he knew . Using that previous material , he began to compose a poem that would serve as an answer to the various questions he was pondering .
On 3 June 1750 , Gray moved to Stoke Poges , and on 12 June he completed Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard . Immediately , he included the poem in a letter he sent to Walpole , that said :
As I live in a place where even the ordinary tattle of the town arrives not till it is stale , and which produces no events of its own , you will not desire any excuse from me for writing so seldom , especially as of all people living I know you are the least a friend to letters spun out of one 's own brains , with all the toil and constraint that accompanies sentimental productions . I have been here at Stoke a few days ( where I shall continue good part of the summer ) ; and having put an end to a thing , whose beginnings you have seen long ago . I immediately send it you . You will , I hope , look upon it in light of a thing with an end to it ; a merit that most of my writing have wanted , and are like to want , but which this epistle I am determined shall not want .
The letter reveals that Gray felt that the poem was unimportant , and that he did not expect it to become as popular or influential as it did . Gray dismisses its positives as merely being that he was able to complete the poem , which was probably influenced by his experience of the churchyard at Stoke Poges , where he attended the Sunday service and was able to visit the grave of Antrobus .
The version that was later published and reprinted was a 32 @-@ stanza version with the " Epitaph " conclusion . Before the final version was published , it was circulated in London society by Walpole , who ensured that it would be a popular topic of discussion throughout 1750 . By February 1751 , Gray received word that William Owen , the publisher of the Magazine of Magazines , would print the poem on 16 February ; the copyright laws of the time did not require Gray 's approval for publication . With Walpole 's help , he was able to convince Robert Dodsley to print the poem on 15 February as a quarto pamphlet .
Walpole added a preface to the poem reading : " The following POEM came into my hands by Accident , if the general Approbation with which this little Piece has been spread , may be call 'd by so slight a Term as Accident . It is the Approbation which makes it unnecessary for me to make any Apology but to the Author : As he cannot but feel some Satisfaction in having pleas 'd so many Readers already , I flatter myself he will forgive my communicating that Pleasure to many more . "
The pamphlet contained woodblock illustrations and was printed without attribution to Gray , at his request . Immediately after , Owen 's magazine with Gray 's poem was printed but contained multiple errors and other problems . In a 20 February letter to Walpole , Gray thanked him for intervening and helping to get a quality version of the poem published before Owen . It was so popular that it was reprinted twelve times and reproduced in many different periodicals until 1765 , including in Gray 's Six Poems ( 1753 ) , in his Odes ( 1757 ) , and in Volume IV of Dodsley 's 1755 compilation of poetry . The revised version of 1768 was that later printed .
= = Composition = =
The poem most likely originated in the poetry that Gray composed in 1742 . William Mason , in Memoirs , discussed his friend Gray and the origins of Elegy : " I am inclined to believe that the Elegy in a Country Church @-@ yard was begun , if not concluded , at this time [ August 1742 ] also : Though I am aware that as it stands at present , the conclusion is of a later date ; how that was originally I shall show in my notes on the poem . " Mason 's argument was a guess , but he argued that one of Gray 's poems from the Eton Manuscript , a copy of Gray 's handwritten poems owned by Eton College , was a 22 @-@ stanza rough draft of the Elegy called " Stanza 's Wrote in a Country Church @-@ Yard " . The manuscript copy contained many ideas which were reworked and revised as he attempted to work out the ideas that would later form the Elegy . A later copy was entered into Gray 's commonplace book and a third version , included in an 18 December 1750 letter , was sent to Thomas Wharton . The draft sent to Walpole was subsequently lost .
There are two possible ways the poem was composed . The first , Mason 's concept , argues that the Eton copy was the original for the Elegy poem and was complete in itself . Later critics claimed that the original was more complete than the later version ; Roger Lonsdale argued that the early version had a balance that set up the debate , and was clearer than the later version . Lonsdale also argued that the early poem fits classical models , including Virgil 's Georgics and Horace 's Epodes . The early version of the poem was finished , according to Mason , in August 1742 , but there is little evidence to give such a definite date . Mason argued that the poem was in response to West 's death , but there is little to indicate that Mason would have such information .
Instead , Walpole wrote to Mason to say : " The Churchyard was , I am persuaded , posterior to West 's death at least three or four years , as you will see by my note . At least I am sure that I had the twelve or more first lines from himself above three years after that period , and it was long before he finished it . "
The two did not resolve their disagreement , but Walpole did concede the matter , possibly to keep the letters between them polite . But Gray 's outline of the events provides the second possible way the poem was composed : the first lines of the poem were written some time in 1746 and he probably wrote more of the poem during the time than Walpole claimed . The letters show the likelihood of Walpole 's date for the composition , as a 12 June 1750 letter from Gray to Walpole stated that Walpole was provided lines from the poem years before and the two were not on speaking terms until after 1745 . The only other letter to discuss the poem was one sent to Wharton on 11 September 1746 , which alludes to the poem being worked on .
= = Genre = =
The poem is not a conventional part of the Classical genre of Theocritan elegy , because it does not mourn an individual . The use of " elegy " is related to the poem relying on the concept of lacrimae rerum , or disquiet regarding the human condition . The poem lacks many standard features of the elegy : an invocation , mourners , flowers , and shepherds . The theme does not emphasise loss as do other elegies , and its natural setting is not a primary component of its theme . Through the " Epitaph " at the end , it can be included in the tradition as a memorial poem , and it contains thematic elements of the elegiac genre , especially mourning . But as compared to a poem recording personal loss such as Milton 's " Lycidas " , it lacks many of the ornamental aspects found in that poem . Gray 's is natural , whereas Milton 's is more artificially designed .
In evoking the English countryside , the poem belongs to the picturesque tradition found in John Dyer 's Grongar Hill ( 1726 ) , and the long line of topographical imitations it inspired . However , it diverges from this tradition in focusing on the death of a poet . Much of the poem deals with questions that were linked to Gray 's own life ; during the poem 's composition , he was confronted with the death of others and questioned his own mortality . Although universal in its statements on life and death , the poem was grounded in Gray 's feelings about his own life , and served as an epitaph for himself . As such , it falls within an old poetic tradition of poets contemplating their legacy . The poem , as an elegy , also serves to lament the death of others , including West , though at a remove . This is not to say that Gray 's poem was like others of the graveyard school of poetry ; instead , Gray tried to avoid a description that would evoke the horror common to other poems in the elegiac tradition . This is compounded further by the narrator trying to avoid an emotional response to death , by relying on rhetorical questions and discussing what his surroundings lack . Nevertheless , the sense of kinship with Robert Blair 's " The Grave " was so generally recognised that Gray 's Elegy was added to several editions of Blair 's poem between 1761 @-@ 1808 , after which other works began to be included as well .
The performance is connected with the several odes that Gray also wrote and those of Joseph Warton and William Collins . The poem , as it developed from its original form , advanced from the Horatian manner and became more Miltonic . The poem actively relied on " English " techniques and language . The stanza form , quatrains with an ABAB rhyme scheme , was common to English poetry and used throughout the 16th century . Any foreign diction that Gray relied on was merged with English words and phrases to give them an " English " feel . Many of the foreign words Gray adapted were previously used by Shakespeare or Milton , securing an " English " tone , and he emphasised monosyllabic words throughout his elegy to add a rustic English tone .
= = Poem = =
The poem begins in a churchyard with a narrator who is describing his surroundings in vivid detail . The narrator emphasises both aural and visual sensations as he examines the area in relation to himself :
The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ,
The lowing herd wind slowly o 'er the lea
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way ,
And leaves the world to darkness and to me .
Now fades the glimm 'ring landscape on the sight ,
And all the air a solemn stillness holds ,
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight ,
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds ;
Save that from yonder ivy @-@ mantled tow 'r
The moping owl does to the moon complain
Of such , as wand 'ring near her secret bow 'r ,
Molest her ancient solitary reign . ( lines 1 – 12 )
As the poem continues , the narrator begins to focus less on the countryside and more on his immediate surroundings . His descriptions move from sensations to his own thoughts as he begins to emphasise what is not present in the scene ; he contrasts an obscure country life with a life that is remembered . This contemplation provokes the narrator 's thoughts on the natural process of wastage and unfulfilled potential .
Full many a gem of purest ray serene ,
The dark unfathom 'd caves of ocean bear :
Full many a flow 'r is born to blush unseen ,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air .
Some village @-@ Hampden , that with dauntless breast
The little tyrant of his fields withstood ;
Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest ,
Some Cromwell guiltless of his country 's blood .
The applause of listening senates to command ,
The threats of pain and ruin to despise ,
To scatter plenty o 'er a smiling land ,
And read their hist 'ry in a nation 's eyes ,
Their lot forbade : nor circumscrib 'd alone
Their growing virtues , but their crimes confin 'd ;
Forbade to wade through slaughter to a throne ,
And shut the gates of mercy on mankind ,
The struggling pangs of conscious truth to hide ,
To quench the blushes of ingenuous shame ,
Or heap the shrine of Luxury and Pride
With incense kindled at the Muse 's flame . ( lines 53 – 72 )
The narrator focuses on the inequities that come from death , obscuring individuals , while he begins to resign himself to his own inevitable fate . As the poem ends , the narrator begins to deal with death in a direct manner as he discusses how humans desire to be remembered . As the narrator does so , the poem shifts and the first narrator is replaced by a second who describes the death of the first :
For thee , who mindful of th ' unhonour 'd Dead
Dost in these lines their artless tale relate ;
If chance , by lonely contemplation led ,
Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate ,
Haply some hoary @-@ headed swain may say ,
Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn
Brushing with hasty steps the dews away
To meet the sun upon the upland lawn . ( lines 93 – 100 )
The poem concludes with a description of the poet 's grave , over which the narrator is meditating , together with a description of the end of the poet 's life :
There at the foot of yonder nodding beech
That wreathes its old fantastic roots so high ,
His listless length at noontide would he stretch ,
And pore upon the brook that babbles by .
Hard by yon wood , now smiling as in scorn ,
Mutt 'ring his wayward fancies he would rove ,
Now drooping , woeful wan , like one forlorn ,
Or craz 'd with care , or cross 'd in hopeless love .
One morn I miss 'd him on the custom 'd hill ,
Along the heath and near his fav 'rite tree ;
Another came ; nor yet beside the rill ,
Nor up the lawn , nor at the wood was he ;
The next with dirges due in sad array
Slow thro ' the church @-@ way path we saw him borne .
Approach and read ( for thou canst read ) the lay ,
Grav 'd on the stone beneath yon aged thorn . " ( lines 101 – 116 )
An epitaph is included after the conclusion of the poem . The epitaph reveals that the poet whose grave is the focus of the poem was unknown and obscure . Circumstance kept the poet from becoming something greater , and he was separated from others because he was unable to join in the common affairs of their life :
Here rests his head upon the lap of Earth
A youth to Fortune and to Fame unknown .
Fair Science frown 'd not on his humble birth ,
And Melancholy mark 'd him for her own .
Large was his bounty , and his soul sincere ,
Heav 'n did a recompense as largely send :
He gave to Mis 'ry all he had , a tear ,
He gain 'd from Heav 'n ( ' twas all he wish 'd ) a friend .
No farther seek his merits to disclose ,
Or draw his frailties from their dread abode ,
( There they alike in trembling hope repose )
The bosom of his Father and his God . ( lines 117 – 128 )
The original conclusion from the earlier version of the poem confronts the reader with the inevitable prospect of death and advises resignation , which differs from the indirect , third @-@ person description in the final version :
The thoughtless World to majesty may bow
Exalt the brave , & idolize Success
But more to Innocence their Safety owe
Than Power & Genius e 'er conspired to bless
And thou , who mindful of the unhonour 'd Dead
Dost in these Notes thy artless Tale relate
By Night & lonely contemplation led
To linger in the gloomy Walks of Fate
Hark how the sacred Calm , that broods around
Bids ev 'ry fierce tumultous Passion ease
In still small Accents whisp 'ring from the Ground
A grateful Earnest of eternal Peace
No more with Reason & thyself at strife ;
Give anxious Cares & endless Wishes room
But thro ' the cool sequester 'd Vale of Life
Pursue the silent Tenour of thy Doom .
= = Themes = =
The poem connects with many earlier British poems that contemplate death and seek to make it more familiar and tame , including Jonathan Swift 's satirical Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift . But when compared to other works by the so @-@ called Graveyard poets , such as Blair 's The Grave ( 1743 ) , Gray 's poem has less emphasis on common images found there . His description of the moon , birds and trees dispels the horror found in them and he largely avoids mentioning the word " grave " , instead using euphemisms .
There is a difference in tone between the two versions of the elegy ; the early one ends with an emphasis on the narrator joining with the obscure common man , while the later version ends with an emphasis on how it is natural for humans to want to be known . The later ending also explores the narrator 's own death , whereas the earlier version serves as a Christian consolation regarding death .
The first version of the elegy is among the few early poems composed by Gray in English , including " Sonnet on the Death of Richard West , " his " Eton Ode " , and his " Ode to Adversity " . All four contain Gray 's meditations on mortality that were inspired by West 's death . The later version of the poem kept the stoic resignation regarding death , as the narrator still accepts death . The poem concludes with an epitaph , which reinforces Gray 's indirect and reticent manner of writing . Although the ending reveals the narrator 's repression of feelings surrounding his inevitable fate , it is optimistic . The epitaph describes faith in a " trembling hope " that he cannot know while alive .
In describing the narrator 's analysis of his surroundings , Gray employed John Locke 's philosophy of the sensations , which argued that the senses were the origin of ideas . Information described in the beginning of the poem is reused by the narrator as he contemplates life near the end . The description of death and obscurity adopts Locke 's political philosophy as it emphasises the inevitability and finality of death . The end of the poem is connected to Locke 's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding in that the beginning of the poem deals with the senses and the ending describes how we are limited in our ability to understand the world . The poem takes the ideas and transforms them into a discussion of blissful ignorance by adopting Locke 's resolution to be content with our limited understanding . Unlike Locke , the narrator of the poem knows that he is unable to fathom the universe , but still questions the matter .
On the difference between the obscure and the renowned in the poem , scholar David Cecil argued , " Death , he perceives , dwarfs human differences . There is not much to choose between the great and the humble , once they are in the grave . It may be that there never was ; it may be that in the obscure graveyard lie those who but for circumstance would have been as famous as Milton and Hampden . " However , death is not completely democratic because " if circumstances prevented them from achieving great fame , circumstances also saved them from committing great crimes . Yet there is a special pathos in these obscure tombs ; the crude inscriptions on the clumsy monuments are so poignant a reminder of the vain longing of all men , however humble , to be loved and to be remembered . "
The poem ends with the narrator turning towards his own fate , accepting his life and accomplishments . The poem , like many of Gray 's , incorporates a narrator who is contemplating his position in a transient world that is mysterious and tragic . Although the comparison between obscurity and renown is commonly seen as universal and not within a specific context with a specific political message , there are political ramifications for Gray 's choices . Both John Milton and John Hampden spent time near the setting of Stoke Poges , which was also affected by the English Civil War . The poem 's composition could also have been prompted by the entrance of Prince William , Duke of Cumberland into London or by a trial of Jacobite nobility in 1746 .
Many scholars , including Lonsdale , believe that the poem 's message is too universal to require a specific event or place for inspiration , but Gray 's letters suggest that there were historical influences in its composition . In particular , it is possible that Gray was interested in debates over the treatment of the poor , and that he supported the political structure of his day , which was to support the poor who worked but look down on those that refused to . However , Gray 's message is incomplete , because he ignored the poor 's past rebellions and struggles . The poem ignores politics to focus on various comparisons between a rural and urban life in a psychological manner . The argument between living a rural life or urban life lets Gray discuss questions that answer how he should live his own life , but the conclusion of the poem does not resolve the debate as the narrator is able to recreate himself in a manner that reconciles both types of life while arguing that poetry is capable of preserving those who have died . It is probable that Gray wanted to promote the hard work of the poor but to do nothing to change their social position . Instead of making claims of economic injustice , Gray accommodates differing political views . This is furthered by the ambiguity in many of the poem 's lines , including the statement " Some Cromwell guiltless of his country 's blood " that could be read either as Oliver Cromwell being guiltless for violence during the English Civil War or merely as villagers being compared to the guilty Cromwell . The poem 's primary message is to promote the idea of " Englishness " , and the pastoral English countryside . The earlier version lacks many of the later version 's English aspects , especially as Gray replaced many classical figures with English ones : Cato the Younger by Hampden , Tully by Milton , and Julius Caesar by Cromwell .
= = Influence = =
= = = Poetic parallels = = =
In choosing an " English " over a Classical setting , Gray provided a model for later poets wishing to describe England and the English countryside during the second half of the 18th century . Once Gray had set the example , any occasion would do to give a sense of the effects of time in a landscape , as for instance in the passage of the seasons as described in John Scott ’ s Four Elegies , descriptive and moral ( 1757 ) . Other imitations , though avoiding overt verbal parallels , chose similar backgrounds to signal their parentage . One favourite theme was a meditation among ruins , such as John Langhorne 's “ Written among the ruins of Pontefract Castle ” ( 1756 ) , Edward Moore ’ s “ An elegy , written among the ruins of a nobleman 's seat in Cornwall ” ( 1756 ) and John Cunningham ’ s “ An elegy on a pile of ruins " ( 1761 ) . Gray ’ s friend William Mason chose an actual churchyard in South Wales for his “ Elegy VI ” ( 1787 ) , adding a reference to the poet in the text . He also provided a final note explaining that the poem was written “ to make it appear a day scene , and as such to contrast it with the twilight scene of my excellent Friend ’ s Elegy ” .
A kinship between Gray ’ s Elegy and Oliver Goldsmith ’ s “ The Deserted Village ” has been recognised , although the latter was more openly political in its treatment of the rural poor and used heroic couplets , where the elegist poets kept to cross @-@ rhymed quatrains . At first it was collected in various editions along with Gray ’ s poem and other topographical works , but from 1873 a number of editions appeared which contained just the Elegy and “ The Deserted Village ” , though sometimes with the inclusion of Goldsmith ’ s “ The Traveller ” or some other single work as well . At that period an anonymous review in the The Academy ( 12 December 1896 ) claimed that " Gray 's ' Elegy ' and Goldsmith 's ' The Deserted Village ' shine forth as the two human poems in a century of artifice . "
The Elegy 's continued influence in the 19th century provoked a response from the Romantic poets , who often attempted to define their own beliefs in reaction to Gray 's . Percy Bysshe Shelley , for example , who as a schoolboy was given the exercise of translating part of the Elegy into Latin , eventually wrote his own meditation among the graves in 1815 . His " A Summer Evening Churchyard , Lechlade , Gloucestershire " is metrically more inventive and written in a six @-@ line stanza that terminates Gray ’ s cross @-@ rhymed quatrain with a couplet . In theme and tendency Shelley 's poem closely resembles the setting of the Elegy but concludes that there is something appealing in death that frees it of terror .
In the Victorian period , Alfred , Lord Tennyson adopted many features of the Elegy in his own extended meditation on death , In Memoriam . He established a ceremonial , almost religious , tone by reusing the idea of the " knell " that " tolls " to mark the coming night . This is followed with the poet narrator looking through letters of his deceased friend , echoing Gray 's narrator reading the tombstones to connect to the dead . Robert Browning relied on a similar setting to the Elegy in his pastoral poem " Love Among the Ruins " , which describes the desire for glory and how everything ends in death . Unlike Gray , Browning adds a female figure and argues that nothing but love matters . Thomas Hardy , who had memorised Gray 's poem , took the title of his fourth novel , Far from the Madding Crowd , from a line in it . In addition , many in his Wessex Poems and Other Verses ( 1898 ) contain a graveyard theme and take a similar stance to Gray , and its frontispiece depicts a graveyard .
It is also possible that parts of T. S. Eliot 's Four Quartets are derived from the Elegy , although Eliot believed that Gray 's diction , along with 18th @-@ century poetic diction in general , was restrictive and limited . But the Four Quartets cover many of the same views , and Eliot 's village is similar to Gray 's hamlet . There are many echoes of Gray 's language throughout the Four Quartets ; both poems rely on the yew tree as an image and use the word " twittering " , which was uncommon at the time . Each of Eliot 's four poems has parallels to Gray 's poem , but " Little Gidding " is deeply indebted to the Elegy 's meditation on a " neglected spot " . Of the similarities between the poems , it is Eliot 's reuse of Gray 's image of " stillness " that forms the strongest parallel , an image that is essential to the poem 's arguments on mortality and society .
= = = Adaptations and parodies = = =
On the basis of some 2000 examples , one commentator has argued that “ Gray ’ s Elegy has probably inspired more adaptations than any other poem in the language ” . It has also been suggested that parody acts as a kind of translation into the same tongue as the original , something that the printing history of some examples seems to confirm . One of the earliest , John Duncombe ’ s “ An evening contemplation in a college ” ( 1753 ) , frequently reprinted to the end of the 18th century , was included alongside translations of the Elegy into Latin and Italian in the 1768 and 1775 Dublin editions and 1768 Cork edition of Gray ’ s works . In the case of the American The Political Passing Bell : An Elegy . Written in a Country Meeting House , April 1789 ; Parodized from Gray for the Entertainment of Those Who Laugh at All Parties by George Richards ( d.1804 ) and published from Boston MA , the parody was printed opposite Gray 's original page by page , making the translation to the political context more obvious .
A shift in context was the obvious starting point in many of these works and , where sufficiently original , contributed to the author ’ s own literary fortunes . This was the case with Edward Jerningham ’ s The Nunnery : an elegy in imitation of the Elegy in a Churchyard , published in 1762 . Profiting by its success , Jerningham followed it up in successive years with other poems on the theme of nuns , in which the connection with Gray ’ s work , though less close , was maintained in theme , form and emotional tone : “ The Magdalens : an elegy ” ( 1763 ) ; “ The Nun : an elegy ” ( 1764 ) ; and “ An Elegy Written Among the Ruins of an Abbey ” ( 1765 ) , which is derivative of the earlier poems on ruins by Moore and Cunningham . At the opposite extreme , Gray ’ s poem provided a format for a surprising number that purport to be personal descriptions of life in gaol , starting with “ An elegy in imitation of Gray , written in the King 's Bench Prison by a minor “ ( London 1790 ) , which is close in title to William Thomas Moncrieff ’ s later " Prison Thoughts : An elegy , written in the King 's Bench Prison " , dating from 1816 and printed in 1821 . In 1809 , H.P.Houghton wrote “ An evening 's contemplation in a French prison , being a humble imitation of Gray 's Elegy ” while he was a prisoner at Arras during the Napoleonic wars ( London 1809 ) . It was followed next year by the bitter “ Elegy in Newgate ” , published in The Satirist in the character of the recently imprisoned William Cobbett .
An obvious distinction can be made between imitations meant to stand as independent works within the elegiac genre , not all of which followed Gray ’ s wording closely , and those with a humorous or satirical purpose . The latter filled the columns in newspapers and comic magazines for the next century and a half . In 1884 some eighty of them were quoted in full or in part in Walter Hamilton ’ s Parodies of the works of English and American authors ( London 1884 ) , more than those of any other work and further evidence of the poem ’ s abiding influence . One example uncollected there was the ingenious double parody of J. C. Squire , “ If Gray had had to write his Elegy in the Cemetery of Spoon River instead of in that of Stoke Poges ” . This was an example of how later parodies shifted their critical aim , in this case “ explicitly calling attention to the formal and thematic ties which connected the 18th century work with its 20th century derivation ” in Edgar Lee Masters ’ work . Ambrose Bierce used parody of the poem for the same critical purpose in his definition of “ Elegy ” in The Devil ’ s Dictionary , ending with the dismissive lines
The wise man homeward plods ; I only stay
To fiddle @-@ faddle in a minor key .
= = = Translations = = =
While parody sometimes served as a special kind of translation , some translations returned the compliment by providing a parodic version of the Elegy in their endeavour to accord to the current poetic style in the host language . An extreme example was provided by the classicised French imitation by the Latin scholar John Roberts in 1875 . In place of the plain English of Gray ’ s “ And all that beauty , all that wealth e ’ er gave ” , he substituted the Parnassian Tous les dons de Plutus , tous les dons de Cythère ( All the gifts of Plutus and of Cytherea ) and kept this up throughout the poem in a performance that its English reviewer noted as bearing only the thinnest relation to the original .
The latest database of translations of the Elegy , amongst which the above version figures , records over 260 in some forty languages . As well as the principal European languages and some of the minor such as Welsh , Breton and Icelandic , they include several in Asian languages as well . Through the medium of these , Romanticism was brought to the host literatures in Europe . In Asia they provided an alternative to tradition @-@ bound native approaches and were identified as an avenue to modernism . Study of the translations , and especially those produced soon after the poem was written , has highlighted some of the difficulties that the text presents . These include ambiguities of word order and the fact that certain languages do not allow the understated way in which Gray indicates that the poem is a personalised statement in the final line of the first stanza , “ And leaves the world to darkness and to me ” .
Some of these problems disappeared when that translation was into Classical Latin , only to be replaced by others that Gray himself raised in correspondence with Christopher Anstey , one of the first of his translators into Latin .
“ Every language has its idiom , not only of words and phrases , but of customs and manners , which cannot be represented in the tongue of another nation , especially of a nation so distant in time and place , without constraint and difficulty ; of this sort , in the present instance , are the curfew bell , the Gothic Church , with its monuments , organs and anthems , the texts of Scripture , etc . There are certain images , which , though drawn from common nature , and everywhere obvious , yet strike us as foreign to the turn and genius of Latin verse ; the beetle that flies in the evening , to a Roman , I guess , would have appeared too mean an object for poetry . ”
Anstey did not agree that Latin was as unpliable as Gray suggests and had no difficulty in finding ways of including all these references , although other Latin translators found different solutions , especially in regard to inclusion of the beetle . He similarly ignored Gray ’ s suggestion in the same letter , referring back to his own alternative versions in earlier drafts of his poem : “ Might not the English characters here be romanized ? Virgil is just as good as Milton , and Cæsar as Cromwell , but who shall be Hampden ? ” Again , however , other Latin translators , especially those from outside Britain , found Gray ’ s suggested alternative more appealing .
One other point , already mentioned , was how to deal with the problem of rendering the poem ’ s fourth line . Gray remarked to Anstey , “ ’ That leaves the world to darkness and to me ’ is good English , but has not the turn of a Latin phrase , and therefore , I believe , you were in the right to drop it . ” In fact , all that Anstey had dropped was reproducing an example of zeugma with a respectable Classical history , but only in favour of replicating the same understated introduction of the narrator into the scene : et solus sub nocte relinqor ( and I alone am left under the night ) . Some other translators , with other priorities , found elegant means to render the original turn of speech exactly .
In the same year that Anstey ( and his friend William Hayward Roberts ) were working on their Elegia Scripta in Coemeterio Rustico , Latine reddita ( 1762 ) , another Latin version was published by Robert Lloyd with the title Carmen Elegiacum . Both were subsequently included in Irish collections of Gray ’ s poems , accompanied not only by John Duncombe ’ s “ Evening Contemplation ” , as noted earlier , but in the 1775 Dublin edition by translations from Italian sources as well . These included another Latin translation by Giovanni Costa and two into Italian by Abbate Crocci and Giuseppe Gennari . The pattern of including translations and imitations together continued into the 19th century with an 1806 bilingual edition in which a translation into French verse , signed simply L.D. , appeared facing the English original page by page . However , the bulk of the book was made up of four English parodies . Duncombe ’ s “ Evening contemplation ” was preceded by a parody of itself , “ Nocturnal contemplations in Barham Down ’ s Camp ” , which is filled , like Duncombe ’ s poem , with drunken roisterers disturbing the silence . Also included were Jerningham ’ s “ The Nunnery ” and J.T.R ’ s “ Nightly thoughts in the Temple ” , the latter set in the gated lawyer ’ s quarter in London .
Trilingual editions without such imitations were also appearing both in Britain and abroad . Gray ’ s Elegy in English , French and Latin was published from Croydon in 1788 . The French author there was Pierre Guédon de Berchère and the Latin translator ( like Gray and Anstey , a Cambridge graduate ) was Gilbert Wakefield . In 1793 there was an Italian edition of Giuseppe Torelli ’ s translation in rhymed quatrains which had first appeared in 1776 . This was printed facing Gray ’ s original and was succeeded by Melchiorre Cesarotti ’ s translation in blank verse and Giovanni Costa ’ s Latin version , both of which dated from 1772 . A French publication ingeniously followed suit by including the Elegy in an 1816 guide to the Père Lachaise Cemetery , accompanied by Torelli 's Italian translation and Pierre @-@ Joseph Charrin ’ s free Le Cimetière de village .
Such publications were followed by multilingual collections , of which the most ambitious was Alessandro Torri ’ s L 'elegia di Tommaso Gray sopra un cimitero di campagna tradotta dall 'inglese in più lingue con varie cose finora inedite ( Verona 1819 ) . This included four translations into Latin , of which one was Christopher Anstey ’ s and another was Costa ’ s ; eight into Italian , where versions in prose and terza rima accompanied those already mentioned by Torelli and Cesarotti ; two in French , two in German and one each in Greek and Hebrew . Even more translations were eventually added in the new edition of 1843 . By that time , too , John Martin ’ s illustrated edition of 1839 had appeared with translations into Latin , Greek , German , Italian and French , of which only the Torelli version had appeared in previous collections . What we learn from all this activity is that , as the centenary of its first publication approached , interest in Gray ’ s Elegy continued unabated in Europe and new translations of it continued to be made .
= = = Other media = = =
Many editions of the Elegy have contained illustrations , some of considerable merit , such as those among the Designs by Mr. Bentley , for Six Poems by Mr. T. Gray ( 1753 ) . But the work of two leading artists is particularly noteworthy . Between 1777 @-@ 8 William Blake was commissioned by John Flaxman to produce an illustrated set of Gray ’ s poems as a birthday gift to his wife . These were in watercolour and included twelve for the Elegy , which appeared at the end of the volume . Another individual book was created in 1910 by the illuminator Sidney Farnsworth , hand written in italic script with a mediaeval decorative surround and more modern @-@ looking inset illustrations .
Another notable illuminated edition had been created in 1846 by Owen Jones in a legible blackletter script with one decorative initial per page . Produced by chromolithography , each of its 35 pages was individually designed with two half stanzas in a box surrounded by coloured foliar and floral borders . An additional feature was the cover of deeply embossed brown leather made to imitate carved wood . A little earlier there had been a compositely illustrated work for which the librarian John Martin had been responsible . Having approached John Constable and other major artists for designs to illustrate the Elegy , these were then engraved on wood for the first edition in 1834 . Some were reused in later editions , including the multilingual anthology of 1839 mentioned above . Constable 's charcoal and wash study of the " ivy @-@ mantled tower " in stanza 3 is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum , as is his watercolour study of Stoke Poges church , while the watercolour for stanza 5 , in which the narrator leans on a gravestone to survey the cemetery , is held at the British Museum ( see below ) .
While not an illustration in itself , Christopher Nevinson ’ s statement against the slaughter of World War I in his painting Paths of Glory ( 1917 ) takes its title from another line in the Elegy , “ The paths of glory lead but to the grave ” . The title had already been used two years before by Irvin S. Cobb in an account of his journalistic experiences at the start of that war . It was then taken up in the unrelated Humphrey Cobb 's 1935 anti @-@ war novel , although in this case the name was suggested for the untitled manuscript in a competition held by the publisher . His book also served in its turn as the basis for Stanley Kubrick ’ s film Paths of Glory , released in 1957 . This example is just one more among many illustrating the imaginative currency that certain lines of the poem continue to have , over and above their original significance .
Since the poem is long , there have been few musical settings . Musicians during the 1780s adopted the solution of selecting only a part . W.Tindal 's musical setting for voices was of the " Epitaph " ( 1785 ) , which was perhaps the item performed as a trio after a recitation of the poem at the newly opened Royalty Theatre in London in 1787 . At about that time too , Stephen Storace set the first two stanzas in his “ The curfew tolls ” for voice and keyboard , with a reprise of the first stanza at the end . At the period there were guides for the dramatic performance of such pieces involving expressive hand gestures , and they included directions for this piece . There is also an item described as " Gray 's Elegy set to music " in various settings for voice accompanied by harpsichord or harp by Thomas Billington ( 1754 @-@ 1832 ) , although this too may have only been an excerpt . A member of the theatrical world , Billington was noted as " fond of setting the more serious and gloomier passages in English verse ”
In 1830 , a well known composer of glees , George Hargreaves , set " Full many a gem " , the Elegy 's fourteenth stanza , for four voices . And finally , at the other end of the century , Alfred Cellier did set the whole work in a cantata composed expressly for the Leeds Festival , 1883 . The work was “ dedicated to Mrs Coleman of Stoke Park , in memory of some pleasant hours at the very spot where the scene of the elegy is supposed to be laid . ” A nearly contemporary cantata was also composed by Gertrude E. Quinton as Musa elegeia : being a setting to music of Gray 's Elegy ( London , 1885 ) .
The only other example yet discovered of a translation of the Elegy set to music was the few lines rendered into German by Ella Backus Behr ( 1897 – 1928 ) in America .
= = Critical response = =
The immediate response to the final draft version of the poem was positive and Walpole was very pleased with the work . During the summer of 1750 , Gray received so much positive support regarding the poem that he was in dismay , but did not mention it in his letters until an 18 December 1750 letter to Wharton . In the letter , Gray said ,
The Stanza 's , which I now enclose to you have had the Misfortune by Mr W : s Fault to be made ... publick , for which they certainly were never meant , but it is too late to complain . They have been so applauded , it is quite a Shame to repeat it . I mean not to be modest ; but I mean , it is a shame for those who have said such superlative Things about them , that I can 't repeat them . I should have been glad , that you & two or three more People had liked them , which would have satisfied my ambition on this head amply .
The poem was praised for its universal aspects , and Gray became one of the most famous English poets of his era . Despite this , after his death only his elegy remained popular until 20th @-@ century critics began to re @-@ evaluate his poetry . The 18th @-@ century writer James Beattie was said by Sir William Forbes , 6th Baronet to have written a letter to him claiming , " Of all the English poets of this age , Mr. Gray is most admired , and I think with justice ; yet there are comparatively speaking but a few who know of anything of his , but his ' Church @-@ yard Elegy , ' which is by no means the best of his works . "
There is a story that the British General James Wolfe read the poem before his troops arrived at the Plains of Abraham in September 1759 as part of the Seven Years ' War . After reading the poem , he is reported to have said : " Gentlemen , I would rather have written those lines than take Quebec tomorrow . " Adam Smith , in his 21st lecture on rhetoric in 1763 , argued that poetry should deal with " A temper of mind that differs very little from the common tranquillity of mind is what we can best enter into , by the perusal of a small piece of a small length ... an Ode or Elegy in which there is no odds but in the measure which differ little from the common state of mind are what most please us . Such is that on the Church yard , or Eton College by Mr Grey . The Best of Horaces ( tho inferior to Mr Greys ) are all of this sort . " Even Samuel Johnson , who knew Gray but did not like his poetry , later praised the poem when he wrote in his Life of Gray ( 1779 ) that it " abounds with images which find a mirror in every breast ; and with sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo . The four stanzas beginning Yet even these bones , are to me original : I have never seen the notions in any other place ; yet he that reads them here , persuades himself that he has always felt them . "
Johnson 's general criticism prompted many others to join in the debate . Some reviewers of his Lives of the Poets , and many of Gray 's editors , thought that he was too harsh . An article in the Annual Register for 1782 recognised , with relation to the Elegy , " That the doctor was not over zealous to allow [ Gray ] the degree of praise that the public voice had universally assigned him , is , we think , sufficiently apparent " ; but it went on to qualify this with the opinion that " partiality to [ Gray 's ] beautiful elegy had perhaps allotted him a rank above his general merits . " Debate over Gray 's work continued into the 19th century , and Victorian critics remained unconvinced by the rest of it . At the end of the century , Matthew Arnold , in his 1881 collection of critical writings , summed up the general response : " The Elegy pleased ; it could not but please : but Gray 's poetry , on the whole , astonished his contemporaries at first more than it pleased them ; it was so unfamiliar , so unlike the sort of poetry in vogue . "
In 1882 , Edmund Gosse analyzed the reception of Gray 's poem : " It is curious to reflect upon the modest and careless mode in which that poem was first circulated which was destined to enjoy and to retain a higher reputation in literature than any other English poem perhaps than any other poem of the world written between Milton and Wordsworth . " He continued by stressing the poem 's wide acceptance : " The fame of the Elegy has spread to all countries and has exercised an influence on all the poetry of Europe , from Denmark to Italy , from France to Russia . With the exception of certain works of Byron and Shakespeare , no English poem has been so widely admired and imitated abroad and after more than a century of existence we find it as fresh as ever , when its copies , even the most popular of all those of Lamartine , are faded and tarnished . " He concluded with a reinforcing claim on the poem 's place in English poetry : " It possesses the charm of incomparable felicity , of a melody that is not too subtle to charm every ear , of a moral persuasiveness that appeals to every generation , and of metrical skill that in each line proclaims the master . The Elegy may almost be looked upon as the typical piece of English verse , our poem of poems ; not that it is the most brilliant or original or profound lyric in our language , but because it combines in more balanced perfection than any other all the qualities that go to the production of a fine poetical effect . "
= = = 20th @-@ century response = = =
Critics at the beginning of the 20th century believed that the poem 's use of sound and tone made it great . The French critic Louis Cazamian claimed in 1927 that Gray " discovered rhythms , utilised the power of sounds , and even created evocations . The triumph of this sensibility allied to so much art is to be seen in the famous Elegy , which from a somewhat reasoning and moralizing emotion has educed a grave , full , melodiously monotonous song , in which a century weaned from the music of the soul tasted all the sadness of eventide , of death , and of the tender musing upon self . " I. A. Richards , following in 1929 , declared that the merits of the poem come from its tone : " poetry , which has no other very remarkable qualities , may sometimes take very high rank simply because the poet 's attitude to his listeners – in view of what he has to say – is so perfect . Gray and Dryden are notable examples . Gray 's Elegy , indeed , might stand as a supreme instance to show how powerful an exquisitely adjusted tone may be . It would be difficult to maintain that the thought in this poem is either striking or original , or that its feeling is exceptional . " He continued : " the Elegy may usefully remind us that boldness and originality are not necessities for great poetry . But these thoughts and feelings , in part because of their significance and their nearness to us , are peculiarly difficult to express without faults ... Gray , however , without overstressing any point composes a long address , perfectly accommodating his familiar feelings towards the subject and his awareness of the inevitable triteness of the only possible reflections , to the discriminating attention of his audience . And this is the source of his triumph . "
In the 1930s and 1940s , critics emphasised the content of the poem , and some felt that it fell short of what was necessary to make it truly great . In 1930 , William Empson , while praising the form of the poem as universal , argued against its merits because of its potential political message . He claimed that the poem " as the context makes clear " , means that " 18th @-@ century England had no scholarship system of carriere ouverte aux talents . This is stated as pathetic , but the reader is put into a mood in which one would not try to alter it ... By comparing the social arrangement to Nature he makes it seem inevitable , which it was not , and gives it a dignity which was undeserved . Furthermore , a gem does not mind being in a cave and a flower prefers not to be picked ; we feel that man is like the flower , as short @-@ lived , natural , and valuable , and this tricks us into feeling that he is better off without opportunities . " He continued : " the truism of the reflection in the churchyard , the universality and impersonality this gives to the style , claim as if by comparison that we ought to accept the injustice of society as we do the inevitability of death . " T. S. Eliot ’ s 1932 collection of essays contained a comparison of the elegy to the sentiment found in metaphysical poetry : " The feeling , the sensibility , expressed in the Country Churchyard ( to say nothing of Tennyson and Browning ) is cruder than that in the Coy Mistress . " Later , in 1947 , Cleanth Brooks pointed out that " In Gray 's poem , the imagery does seem to be intrinsically poetic ; the theme , true ; the ' statement ' , free from ambiguity , and free from irony . " After describing various aspects and complexities within the poem , Brooks provided his view on the poem 's conclusion : " the reader may not be altogether convinced , as I am not altogether convinced , that the epitaph with which the poem closes is adequate . But surely its intended function is clear , and it is a necessary function if the poem is to have a structure and is not to be considered merely a loose collection of poetic passages . "
Critics during the 1950s and 1960s generally regarded the Elegy as powerful , and emphasised its place as one of the great English poems . In 1955 , R. W. Ketton @-@ Cremer argued , " At the close of his greatest poem Gray was led to describe , simply and movingly , what sort of man he believed himself to be , how he had fared in his passage through the world , and what he hoped for from eternity . " Regarding the status of the poem , Graham Hough in 1953 explained , " no one has ever doubted , but many have been hard put to it to explain in what its greatness consists . It is easy to point out that its thought is commonplace , that its diction and imagery are correct , noble but unoriginal , and to wonder where the immediately recognizable greatness has slipped in . " Following in 1963 , Martin Day argued that the poem was " perhaps the most frequently quoted short poem in English . " Frank Brady , in 1965 , declared , " Few English poems have been so universally admired as Gray 's Elegy , and few interpreted in such widely divergent ways . " Patricia Spacks , in 1967 , focused on the psychological questions in the poem and claimed that " For these implicit questions the final epitaph provides no adequate answer ; perhaps this is one reason why it seems not entirely a satisfactory conclusion to the poem . " She continued by praising the poem : " Gray 's power as a poet derives largely from his ability to convey the inevitability and inexorability of conflict , conflict by its nature unresolvable . " In 1968 , Herbert Starr pointed out that the poem was " frequently referred to , with some truth , as the best known poem in the English language . "
During the 1970s , some critics pointed out how the lines of the poems were memorable and popular while others emphasised the poem 's place in the greater tradition of English poetry . W. K. Wimsatt , in 1970 , suggested , " Perhaps we shall be tempted to say only that Gray transcends and outdoes Hammond and Shenstone simply because he writes a more poetic line , richer , fuller , more resonant and memorable in all the ways in which we are accustomed to analyze the poetic quality . " In 1971 , Charles Cudworth declared that the elegy was " a work which probably contains more famous quotations per linear inch of text than any other in the English language , not even excepting Hamlet . " When describing how Gray 's Elegy is not a conventional elegy , Eric Smith added in 1977 , " Yet , if the poem at so many points fails to follow the conventions , why are we considering it here ? the answer is partly that no study of major English elegies could well omit it . But it is also , and more importantly , that in its essentials Gray 's Elegy touches this tradition at many points , and consideration of them is of interest to both to appreciation of the poem and to seeing how [ ... ] they become in the later tradition essential points of reference . " Also in 1977 , Thomas Carper noted , " While Gray was a schoolboy at Eton , his poetry began to show a concern with parental relationships , and with his position among the great and lowly in the world [ ... ] But in the Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard these longstanding and very human concerns have their most affecting expression . " In 1978 , Howard Weinbrot noted , " With all its long tradition of professional examination the poem remains distant for many readers , as if the criticism could not explain why Johnson thought that " The Church @-@ yard abounds with images that find a mirrour in every mind " . He continued by arguing that it is the poem 's discussion of morality and death that is the source of its " enduring popularity " .
By the 1980s , critics emphasised the power of the poem 's message and technique , and it was seen as an important English poem . After analyzing the language of the poem , W. Hutchings declared in 1984 , " The epitaph , then , is still making us think , still disturbing us , even as it uses the language of conventional Christianity and conventional epitaphs . Gray does not want to round his poem off neatly , because death is an experience of which we cannot be certain , but also because the logic of his syntax demands continuity rather than completion . " Also in 1984 , Anne Williams claimed , " ever since publication it has been both popular and universally admired . Few readers then or now would dispute Dr. Johnson 's appraisal ... In the twentieth century we have remained eager to praise , yet praise has proved difficult ; although tradition and general human experience affirm that the poem is a masterpiece , and although one could hardly wish a single word changed , it seems surprisingly resistant to analysis . It is lucid , and at first appears as seamless and smooth as monumental alabaster . " Harold Bloom , in 1987 , claimed , " What moves me most about the superb Elegy is the quality that , following Milton , it shares with so many of the major elegies down to Walt Whitman 's ... Call this quality the pathos of a poetic death @-@ in @-@ life , the fear that one either has lost one 's gift before life has ebbed , or that one may lose life before the poetic gift has expressed itself fully . This strong pathos of Gray 's Elegy achieves a central position as the antithetical tradition that truly mourns primarily a loss of the self . " In 1988 , Morris Golden , after describing Gray as a " poet 's poet " and places him " within the pantheon of those poets with whom familiarity is inescapable for anyone educated in the English language " declared that in " the ' Elegy Written in a Country Church @-@ yard , ' mankind has felt itself to be directly addressed by a very sympathetic , human voice . " He later pointed out : " Gray 's ' Elegy ' was universally admired in his lifetime and has remained continuously the most popular of mid @-@ eighteenth @-@ century English poems ; it is , as Gosse has called it , the standard English poem . The reason for this extraordinary unanimity of praise are as varied as the ways in which poetry can appeal . The ' Elegy ' is a beautiful technical accomplishment , as can be seen even in such details as the variation of the vowel sounds or the poet 's rare discretion in the choice of adjectives and adverbs . Its phrasing is both elegant and memorable , as is evident from the incorporation of much of it into the living language . "
Modern critics emphasised the poem 's use of language as a reason for its importance and popularity . In 1995 , Lorna Clymer argued , " The dizzying series of displacements and substitutions of subjects , always considered a crux in Thomas Gray 's " Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard " ( 1751 ) , results from a complex manipulation of epitaphic rhetoric . " Later , Robert Mack , in 2000 , explained that " Gray 's Elegy is numbered high among the very greatest poems in the English tradition precisely because of its simultaneous accessibility and inscrutability . " He went on to claim that the poem " was very soon to transform his life – and to transform or at least profoundly affect the development of lyric poetry in English " . While analyzing the use of " death " in 18th @-@ century poetry , David Morris , in 2001 , declared the poem as " a monument in this ongoing transformation of death " and that " the poem in its quiet portraits of rural life succeeds in drawing the forgotten dead back into the community of the living . "
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= Group 4 element =
Group 4 is a group of elements in the periodic table . It contains the elements titanium ( Ti ) , zirconium ( Zr ) , hafnium ( Hf ) and rutherfordium ( Rf ) . This group lies in the d @-@ block of the periodic table . The group itself has not acquired a trivial name ; it belongs to the broader grouping of the transition metals .
The three Group 4 elements that occur naturally are titanium ( Ti ) , zirconium ( Zr ) and hafnium ( Hf ) . The first three members of the group share similar properties ; all three are hard refractory metals under standard conditions . However , the fourth element rutherfordium ( Rf ) , has been synthesized in the laboratory ; none of its isotopes have been found occurring in nature . All isotopes of rutherfordium are radioactive . So far , no experiments in a supercollider have been conducted to synthesize the next member of the group , unpenthexium ( Uph ) , and it is unlikely that they will be synthesized in the near future .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Chemistry = = =
Like other groups , the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration , especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior :
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group . The chemistry of rutherfordium is not very established and therefore the rest of the section deals only with titanium , zirconium , and hafnium . All the elements of the group are reactive metals with a high melting point ( 1668 ° C , 1855 ° C , 2233 ° C , 2100 ° C ? ) . The reactivity is not always obvious due to the rapid formation of a stable oxide layer , which prevents further reactions . The oxides TiO2 , ZrO2 and HfO2 are white solids with high melting points and unreactive against most acids .
As tetravalent transition metals , all three elements form various inorganic compounds , generally in the oxidation state of + 4 . For the first three metals , it has been shown that they are resistant to concentrated alkalis , but halogens react with them to form tetrahalides . At higher temperatures , all three metals react with oxygen , nitrogen , carbon , boron , sulfur , and silicon . Because of the lanthanide contraction of the elements in the fifth period , zirconium and hafnium have nearly identical ionic radii . The ionic radius of Zr4 + is 79 picometers and that of Hf4 + is 78 pm .
This similarity results in nearly identical chemical behavior and in the formation of similar chemical compounds . The chemistry of hafnium is so similar to that of zirconium that a separation on chemical reactions was not possible ; only the physical properties of the compounds differ . The melting points and boiling points of the compounds and the solubility in solvents are the major differences in the chemistry of these twin elements . Titanium is considerably different from the other two owing to the effects of the lanthanide contraction .
= = = Physical = = =
The table below is a summary of the key physical properties of the group 4 elements . The four question @-@ marked values are extrapolated .
= = History = =
= = = Titanium = = =
William Gregor , Franz Joseph Muller and Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered titanium between 1791 and 1795 . Klaproth named it for the Titans of Greek mythology .
= = = Zirconium = = =
Klaproth also discovered zirconium in the mineral zircon in 1789 and named it after the already known Zirkonerde ( zirconia ) .
= = = Hafnium = = =
Hafnium had been predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869 and Henry Moseley measured in 1914 the effective nuclear charge by X @-@ ray spectroscopy to be 72 , placing it between the already known elements lutetium and tantalum . Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy were the first to search for the new element in zirconium ores . Hafnium was discovered by the two in 1923 in Copenhagen , Denmark , validating the original 1869 prediction of Mendeleev . There has been some controversy surrounding the discovery of hafnium and the extent to which Coster and Hevesy were guided by Bohr 's prediction that hafnium would be a transition metal rather than a rare earth element . While titanium and zirconium , as relatively abundant elements , were discovered in the late 18th century , it took until 1923 for hafnium to be identified . This was only partly due to hafnium 's relative scarcity . The chemical similarity between zirconium and hafnium made a separation difficult and , without knowing what to look for , hafnium was left undiscovered , although all samples of zirconium , and all of its compounds , used by chemists for over two centuries contained significant amounts of hafnium .
= = = Rutherfordium = = =
Rutherfordium was reportedly first detected in 1966 at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research at Dubna ( then in the Soviet Union ) . Researchers there bombarded 242Pu with accelerated 22Ne ions and separated the reaction products by gradient thermochromatography after conversion to chlorides by interaction with ZrCl4 .
242
94Pu + 22
10Ne → 264 − x
104Rf → 264 − x
104RfCl4
= = Production = =
The production of the metals itself is difficult due to their reactivity . The formation of oxides , nitrides and carbides must be avoided to yield workable metals , this is normally achieved by the Kroll process . The oxides ( MO2 ) are reacted with coal and chlorine to form the chlorides ( MCl4 ) .The chlorides of the metals are then reacted with magnesium , yielding magnesium chloride and the metals .
Further purification is done by a chemical transport reaction developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer . In a closed vessel , the metal reacts with iodine at temperatures of above 500 ° C forming metal ( IV ) iodide ; at a tungsten filament of nearly 2000 ° C the reverse reaction happens and the iodine and metal are set free . The metal forms a solid coating at the tungsten filament and the iodine can react with additional metal resulting in a steady turn over .
M + 2 I2 ( low temp . ) → MI4
MI4 ( high temp . ) → M + 2 I2
= = Occurrence = =
If the abundance of elements in Earth 's crust is compared for titanium , zirconium and hafnium , the abundance decreases with increase of atomic mass . Titanium is the seventh most abundant metal in Earth 's crust and has an abundance of 6320 ppm , while zirconium has an abundance of 162 ppm and hafnium has only an abundance of 3 ppm .
All three stable elements occur in heavy mineral sands ore deposits , which are placer deposits formed , most usually in beach environments , by concentration due to the specific gravity of the mineral grains of erosion material from mafic and ultramafic rock . The titanium minerals are mostly anatase and rutile , and zirconium occurs in the mineral zircon . Because of the chemical similarity , up to 5 % of the zirconium in zircon is replaced by hafnium . The largest producers of the group 4 elements are Australia , South Africa and Canada .
= = Applications = =
Titanium metal and its alloys have a wide range of applications , where the corrosion resistance , the heat stability and the low density ( light weight ) are of benefit . The foremost use of corrosion @-@ resistant hafnium and zirconium has been in nuclear reactors . Zirconium has a very low and hafnium has a high thermal neutron @-@ capture cross @-@ section . Therefore , zirconium ( mostly as zircaloy ) is used as cladding of fuel rods in nuclear reactors , while hafnium is used as control rod for nuclear reactors , because each hafnium atom can absorb multiple neutrons .
Smaller amounts of hafnium and zirconium are used in super alloys to improve the properties of those alloys .
= = Biological occurrences = =
The group 4 elements are not known to be involved in the biological chemistry of any living systems . They are hard refractory metals with low aqueous solubility and low availability to the biosphere . Titanium is one of the few first row d @-@ block transition metals with no known biological role . Rutherfordium 's radioactivity would make it toxic to living cells .
= = Precautions = =
Titanium is non @-@ toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body . Zirconium powder can cause irritation , but only contact with the eyes requires medical attention . OSHA recommends for zirconium are 5 mg / m3 time weighted average limit and a 10 mg / m3 short @-@ term exposure limit . Only limited data exists on the toxicology of hafnium .
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= Njai Dasima ( 1932 film ) =
Njai Dasima ( [ ɲˈai daˈsima ] ; Perfected Spelling : Nyai Dasima ) is a 1932 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) which was directed by Bachtiar Effendi for Tan 's Film . It was the second film adapted from G. Francis ' 1896 novel Tjerita Njai Dasima , following a silent version in 1929 . Starring Momo and Oesman , it followed a young Sundanese njai ( concubine ) who is tricked into marrying a man who does not love her and ultimately killed for her money . The film , the first talkie produced by its company , was also the first directed by a native Indonesian . The now @-@ lost work received mixed critical reception .
= = Plot = =
Dasima is a njai ( concubine ) for the Englishman Edward William . Together with their daughter , Nancy , the couple live in a home near Gambir Square in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) . Their happy life is disturbed after the delman driver Samioen falls in love with Dasima , despite already being married to Hajati . He attempts to use magic ( goena @-@ goena ) to win her heart , and asks an egg merchant , Mak Boejoeng , to frighten Dasima by telling the young woman that she has committed the sin of zina ( extramarital sex ) .
Samioen eventually succeeds , and Dasima goes to live with him and Hajati , taking along her gold and jewels . Hajati has agreed to let Samioen take a second wife as she wants Dasima 's money , which she will use for gambling . When Dasima realises that she has been tricked , she begins to keep a close eye on her remaining wealth . So that he can take all of her remaining funds , Samioen calls the thug Poeasa and together they plan to kill Dasima . One night , as Dasima goes to hear a story @-@ telling , the two accost her , kill her , and throw her body off a bridge . Samioen and Poeasa are later caught and sentenced to hang for their crime .
= = Production = =
Njai Dasima was directed by Bachtiar Effendi for Tan 's Film , a production company owned by the Tan brothers . With this he became the first native Indonesian film director in the Indies . It starred Momo and Oesman . The story was adapted from G. Francis ' 1896 novel Tjerita Njai Dasima , which Tan 's had already adapted in 1929 with the same name for their first release . The story was already well known in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) , in part because it was a popular part of stage performers ' repertoires . To ensure the quality of the story , Effendi worked with a scenario and , later , shooting script – two items which had , until then , never been used for a domestic production .
This was the first sound film released by Tan 's , but far from the first in the Indies . The earliest sound films released in the Indies , Fox Movietone Follies of 1929 and The Rainbow Man , were both shown in 1929 . The following year , a domestic part @-@ talkie , G. Krugers ' Karnadi Anemer Bangkong , was also released , becoming the first domestic sound film . Two other directors had followed with full @-@ talkies in 1931 : The Teng Chun with Boenga Roos dari Tjikembang and the Wong brothers with Indonesia Malaise . In order to ensure the quality of the sound , Tan 's hired Krugers and his single @-@ system camera to do the cinematography and sound direction for this black @-@ and @-@ white film .
= = Release and reception = =
Njai Dasima was released by January 1932 and advertised as a " speaking , singing , dancing , and music talkie " . It was open to audiences of all ages , including children . Critical reviews were mixed . One newspaper editorial , noting that the pamphlets described the film as " a hundred times better than [ the contemporary film ] Huwen op Bevel " , was scornful , stating that such a claim had very little validity as " the quality of the native films so far are rubbish " . The review then indicated numerous shortcomings in the selection of music , the cinematography , before concluding that the film did , overall , represent progress , praising the actor who played Puasa and noting a distinct lack of scenes unrelated to the plot . However , Armijn Pane , in a 1950 reflective review , wrote that the quality of the work was overall quite good .
Effendi did not direct another film until 1951 , with Djiwa Pemuda , and the first subsequent native film director , Andjar Asmara , only began his career in 1940 , with Kartinah . Tan 's shut down production soon after Njai Dasima 's release , although it was eventually reestablished in 1938 . After releasing several commercial successes , particularly Fatima ( 1938 ) , it was permanently shut down in 1942 , with the Japanese occupation of the Indies .
The film is likely lost . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Battle of Malvern Hill =
The Battle of Malvern Hill , also known as the Battle of Poindexter 's Farm , was fought on July 1 , 1862 between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia , led by Gen. Robert E. Lee , and the Union Army of the Potomac under Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan . It was the final battle of the Seven Days Battles during the American Civil War , taking place on a 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) elevation of land known as Malvern Hill , near the Confederate capital of Richmond , Virginia and just one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the James River . Including inactive reserves , more than fifty thousand soldiers from each side took part , using more than two hundred pieces of artillery and three warships .
The Seven Days Battles were the climax of the Peninsula Campaign , during which McClellan 's Army of the Potomac sailed around the Confederate lines , landed at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula , southeast of Richmond , and struck inland towards the Confederate capital . Confederate commander @-@ in @-@ chief Joseph E. Johnston fended off McClellan 's repeated attempts to take the city , slowing Union progress on the peninsula to a crawl . When Johnston was wounded , Lee took command and launched a series of counterattacks , collectively called the Seven Days Battles . These attacks culminated in the action on Malvern Hill .
The Union 's V Corps , commanded by Brig. Gen. Fitz John Porter , took up positions on the hill on June 30 . McClellan was not present for the initial exchanges of the battle , having boarded the ironclad USS Galena and sailed down the James River to inspect Harrison 's Landing , where he intended to locate the base for his army . Confederate preparations were hindered by several mishaps . Bad maps and faulty guides caused Confederate Maj. Gen. John Magruder to be late for the battle , an excess of caution delayed Maj. Gen. Benjamin Huger , and Maj. Gen. Stonewall Jackson had problems collecting the Confederate artillery .
The battle occurred in stages : an initial exchange of artillery fire , a minor charge by Confederate Brig. Gen. Lewis Armistead , and three successive waves of Confederate infantry charges triggered by unclear orders from Lee and the actions of Maj. Gens . Magruder and D. H. Hill , respectively . In each phase , the effectiveness of the Federal artillery was the deciding factor , repulsing attack after attack , resulting in a tactical Union victory . After the battle , McClellan and his forces withdrew from Malvern Hill to Harrison 's Landing , where he remained until August 16 . His plan to capture Richmond had been thwarted .
In the course of four hours , a series of blunders in planning and communication had caused Lee 's forces to launch three failed frontal infantry assaults across hundreds of yards of open ground , unsupported by Confederate artillery , charging toward firmly entrenched Union infantry and artillery defenses . These errors provided Union forces with an opportunity to inflict heavy casualties . In the aftermath of the battle , however , the Confederate press heralded Lee as the savior of Richmond . In stark contrast , McClellan was accused of being absent from the battlefield , a harsh criticism that haunted him when he ran for president in 1864 .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
In spring 1862 , Union commander Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan developed an ambitious plan to capture Richmond , the Confederate capital , on the Virginia Peninsula . His 121 @,@ 500 @-@ man Army of the Potomac , along with 14 @,@ 592 animals , 1 @,@ 224 wagons and ambulances , and 44 artillery batteries , would load onto 389 vessels and sail to the tip of the peninsula at Fort Monroe , then move inland and capture the capital . The bold and sweeping landing was executed with few incidents , but the Federals were delayed for about a month in the Siege of Yorktown . When McClellan 's army finally did attack on May 4 , the defensive earthworks around Yorktown were undefended . After some hours , the Army of the Potomac pursued the retreating Confederates . When Union troops encountered the Confederate rearguard at Williamsburg , the two armies fought an inconclusive battle . The Confederates continued their withdrawal that night . To stymie the Southerners ' retreat , McClellan sent Brig. Gen. William F. " Baldy " Smith to Eltham 's Landing by boat , resulting in a battle there on May 7 . When the Union Army tried to attack Richmond by way of the James River , they were turned back at Drewry 's Bluff on May 15 . All the while , McClellan continued his pursuit of Confederate forces , who were withdrawing quickly towards Richmond .
The lack of decisive action on the Virginia Peninsula spurred President Abraham Lincoln to order McClellan 's army to move into positions close to Richmond . By May 30 , McClellan had begun moving troops across the Chickahominy River , the only major natural barrier that separated his army from Richmond . However , heavy rains and thunderstorms on the night of May 30 caused the water level to swell , washing away two bridges and splitting the Federal army in two across the Chickahominy . In the subsequent Battle of Seven Pines , Confederate general @-@ in @-@ chief Joseph E. Johnston sought to capitalize on the bifurcation of McClellan 's army , attacking the half of the Union Army that was stuck south of the river . Johnston 's plan fell apart , and McClellan lost no ground . Late in the battle , Johnston was hit in the right shoulder by a bullet and in the chest by a shell fragment ; his command went to Maj. Gen. Gustavus W. Smith . Smith 's tenure as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia was short . On June 1 , after an unsuccessful attack on Union forces , Jefferson Davis , the President of the Confederacy , appointed Robert E. Lee , his own military adviser , to replace Smith as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Confederate armies .
The subsequent two weeks on the peninsula were mostly quiet . On June 25 , though , a surprise attack by McClellan began a series of six major battles over the next week near Richmond — the Seven Days Battles . On the first day , as Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia toward the Union lines , McClellan preempted him with an attack at Oak Grove . Lee 's men successfully warded off the Union assault , and Lee continued with his plans . The next morning , the Confederates attacked the Army of the Potomac at Mechanicsville . Union forces turned back the Confederate onslaught , inflicting heavy losses . After Mechanicsville , McClellan 's army withdrew to a position behind Boatswain 's Swamp . There , on June 27 , the Union soldiers suffered another Confederate attack , this time at Gaines 's Mill . In the resulting battle , the Confederates launched numerous failed charges , until a final concerted attack broke the Union line , resulting in the only clear Confederate victory during the Seven Days . The action at Garnett 's and Golding 's Farm , fought next , was merely a set of skirmishes . Lee attacked the Union Army at the Battle of Savage 's Station on June 29 and the battles of Glendale and White Oak Swamp June 30 , but all three battles were inconclusive . After this series of conflicts that inflicted thousands of casualties on both armies , McClellan began to position his forces to an imposing natural position atop Malvern Hill .
= = = Geography and location = = =
Malvern Hill , a plateau @-@ like elevation in Henrico County , Virginia , provided an impressive natural military position about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the James River . The hill rose some 130 feet ( 40 m ) to its crest to form a crescent about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) in length and 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) wide . Its slope was about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in length and very gradual , with only one or two notable depressions . Along the western side of the hill ran Malvern Cliffs , a bluff @-@ like formation that overlooked Turkey Run , a tributary of nearby Turkey Island Creek . Western Run was another tributary of Turkey Island Creek , which lay mostly along the eastern side of the hill and slanted slightly into the northern side . One depression dipped some sixty feet ( 18 m ) at the valley of Western Run and slanted upwards to the plateau . Malvern Hill 's center was slightly lower than the flanks . The gentle , bare slant meant that any assailing army could not easily take cover , and artillery would have the benefit of a clear , open field .
Several farms were positioned near Malvern Hill . Roughly 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) north of the hill were the Poindexter and Carter farms . Between the two farms was a swampy and thickly wooded area that made up the course of Western Run . The largest in the area was the Mellert family 's farm , usually called the Crew farm for a former owner , situated at the western side of the hill . About a quarter of a mile due east of Malvern Hill was the West farm . Between these two farms lay the Willis Church Road , which some locals called the Quaker Road . This road also ran past the Malvern house , the hill 's namesake , which was perched atop the southern edge of the plateau . " It was , altogether , an exceedingly formidable position " , wrote historian Douglas Southall Freeman . " Had the Union engineers searched the whole countryside below Richmond , they could not have found ground more ideally set for the slaughter of an attacking army . "
= = Prelude = =
= = = Key participants = = =
= = = McClellan 's forces prepare = = =
A few days prior to the action on Malvern Hill , McClellan incorrectly believed that the Army of the Potomac was vastly outnumbered by its Confederate foe , and his fear of being cut off from his supply depot left him cautious and wary . On the night of June 28 , McClellan told his generals that he intended to move his army to a position on the north bank of the James River called Harrison 's Landing , where they would be protected by Union gunboats . The Army of the Potomac came to Malvern Hill , the army 's final stop before reaching the Landing , with approximately 54 @,@ 000 men .
On the morning of June 30 , 1862 , the Union V Corps under Fitz John Porter , a part of McClellan 's Army of the Potomac , amassed atop Malvern Hill . Col. Henry Hunt , McClellan 's skilled chief of artillery , posted 171 guns on the hill and 91 more in reserve in the south . The artillery line on the hill 's slope consisted of eight batteries of field artillery with 37 guns . Brig. Gen. George Sykes 's division would guard the line . In reserve were additional field artillery and three batteries of heavy artillery , which included five 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 11 cm ) Rodman guns , five 20 @-@ pounder ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) Parrott rifles and six 32 @-@ pounder ( 15 kg ) howitzers . As more of McClellan 's forces arrived at the hill , Porter continued to reinforce the Union line . Brig. Gen. George Morell 's units , stationed between the Crew and West farms , extended the line to the northeastern section . Brig. Gen. Darius Couch 's division of the IV Corps , as yet unbloodied by the skirmishes of the Seven Days , further extended the northeastern line . This left 17 @,@ 800 soldiers from Couch 's and Morell 's divisions at the northern face of the hill , overlooking the Quaker Road , from which the Federals expected Lee 's forces to attack .
Early the next day , Tuesday , July 1 , McClellan , having come from nearby Haxall 's Landing the night before , examined his army 's battle line on Malvern Hill . His inspection left him worried most about the Union Army 's right ( eastern ) flank , which lay behind Western Run . Western Run was an area necessary for McClellan 's plans to relocate to Harrison 's Landing , and he feared an attack might come from there . As a result , he posted the largest portion of his army there : two divisions from Edwin Sumner 's II Corps , two divisions from Brig. Gen. Samuel P. Heintzelman 's III Corps , two divisions from Brig. Gen. William Franklin 's VI Corps and one division from Maj. Gen. Erasmus Keyes 's IV Corps , who were stationed across the James . The division under Brig. Gen. George McCall , badly damaged in the fighting at Glendale with McCall himself wounded and captured , was held in general reserve .
McClellan did not believe his army was ready for a battle , and hoped that Lee would not give them one . Nonetheless , he left his troops at Malvern Hill and traveled downstream aboard the ironclad USS Galena to inspect his army 's future resting place at Harrison 's Landing . McClellan did not delegate an interim commander ; Porter , who was in command during the initial attack , became the de facto leader on the Union side of the battle .
= = = Lee 's forces advance = = =
With around 55 @,@ 000 soldiers , the Army of Northern Virginia was about evenly matched with the Federals , and with Lee at the helm , notably more aggressive . He wanted a final , decisive attack that would effectively scatter the Federals . Several pieces of evidence — abandoned commissary stores , wagons and arms , and the hundreds of Union stragglers and deserters his units had happened upon and captured — led Lee to conclude that the Army of the Potomac was demoralized and retreating . In all the battles up to Malvern Hill , Lee 's plans to destroy the Federal army had failed for one reason or another . Though he was undeterred , his chances for decisive victory were diminishing quickly .
Early on the morning of the battle , Lee met with his lieutenants , including Maj. Gens . James Longstreet , A. P. Hill , Thomas " Stonewall " Jackson , John Magruder and D. H. Hill . D. H. Hill , after talking with a chaplain familiar with the geography of Malvern Hill , cautioned against mounting an attack . " If General McClellan is there in strength , " Hill said , " we had better let him alone . " Longstreet laughed off Hill 's objections , saying " Don 't get so scared , now that we 've got him [ McClellan ] whipped . "
Lee chose the relatively well @-@ rested commands of D. H. Hill , Stonewall Jackson and John Magruder to lead the Confederate offensive , as they had barely participated in the fighting of the day before . Meanwhile , James Longstreet 's First Corps and A. P. Hill 's Light Division , who had fought the majority of the previous day 's hostilities , would be held in reserve . According to Lee 's plan , the Army of Northern Virginia would form a semi @-@ circle enveloping Malvern Hill . D. H. Hill 's five brigades would be placed along the northern face of the hill , forming the center of the Confederate line , and the commands of Stonewall Jackson and John Magruder would take the left and right flanks , respectively . Whiting 's forces would position themselves on the Poindexter farm , with the outfits of Brig. Gen. Charles Sidney Winder and Richard Ewell nearby . The infantry of these three detachments would provide reinforcement for the Confederate line if necessary . Maj. Gen. Theophilus Holmes would take up a position on the extreme Confederate right flank .
= = = Disposition of armies = = =
The Army of the Potomac 's disposition in the lead @-@ up to the battle was more orderly than Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia ; all of McClellan 's forces would be concentrated in one place , save for several divisions from Maj. Gen. Erasmus Keyes 's outfit and Keyes himself , who were posted across the James River at Haxall 's Landing . A Confederate scout observed Union soldiers resting in position , and moving about the hill unworried , whilst the disposition of the cannons around the hill 's slope gave him the impression that the position was " almost impregnable " . McClellan 's army was on the hill in force .
Throughout the Seven Days Battles , Lee 's forces had been separated and scattered due to swamps , narrow roads and other geographic obstacles , and occasionally due to unclear orders . As the days of marching and fighting wore on the number of stragglers swelled to fill narrow roads and significantly deplete the Confederate ranks , presenting a significant additional strain on their combat readiness . These hindrances continued during the Battle of Malvern Hill , with both Magruder and Huger making mistakes in the deployment of their forces .
At first , Magruder 's units were behind Stonewall Jackson 's column while marching down the Long Bridge Road , which led to Malvern Hill . Along this road were several adjoining pathways . One such road , called the Willis Church Road by some locals and the Quaker Road by others , led south from Glendale to Malvern Hill . Lee 's maps labeled this " Quaker Road " . Another of these paths began near a local farm and angled southwest toward an upriver point on the River Road — some locals called this the Quaker Road , including Magruder 's guides , who led Magruder 's army down this road rather than the Quaker Road shown on Lee 's maps . James Longstreet eventually rode after Magruder , and persuaded him to reverse course . This incident delayed Magruder 's arrival to the battlefield for three hours .
Huger , worried about clashing with Union forces while marching towards Malvern Hill , had also failed to manage his division effectively . He deployed two of his brigades , commanded by Brig. Gens . Lewis Armistead and Ambrose Wright , to perform a flanking maneuver around any Federals they found , to avoid the Union threat . Longstreet eventually notified Huger that he would be unobstructed by Federal forces if he marched to Malvern Hill . Huger , however , remained in place until someone from Lee 's headquarters came to guide them to the battlefield .
As noon drew near with no sight of either Huger or Magruder , who were supposed to be manning the Confederate right flank , Lee replaced these two forces with the smaller units of Brig. Gens . Armistead and Wright , two of Huger 's brigades that had reached the battlefield some time earlier . Huger and his other two brigades ( under Brig. Gens . Ransom and Mahone ) were still too far north of the scene . Despite the mishaps and disunity , Malvern Hill would be the first time during the Seven Days Battles that Lee managed to concentrate his force .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Battle = =
= = = Lee orders artillery crossfire = = =
Lee surveyed the left flank himself for possible artillery positions . After a reconnoitering expedition on the right flank , James Longstreet returned to Lee ; the two compared their results and concluded that two grand battery @-@ like positions would be established at the left and right sides of Malvern Hill . The converging artillery fire from the batteries , they reasoned , could weaken the Union line so that a Confederate infantry attack could break through . If this plan did not work out , Lee and Longstreet felt the artillery fire would buy them time to consider other plans .
With a battle plan in order , Lee sent a draft to his lieutenants , written by his chief of staff , Col. Robert Chilton ( see right box ) . The orders were not well @-@ crafted , however , since they designated the yell of a single charging brigade as the only signal of attack for a full fifteen brigades . Amid the tumult and clamor of battle , this was bound to create confusion . Moreover , Chilton 's draft effectively left the attack solely at the discretion of Lewis Armistead , who had never before held command of a brigade during battle . The draft also did not note the time that it had been written , which later caused confusion for Magruder .
= = = Failed Confederate barrage = = =
Beginning around 1 pm , Union artillery fired first , initially upon infantry in the woods , and later upon any Confederate artillery that attempted to move into firing position . On the Confederate left flank , two batteries from Whiting 's division and one from Jackson 's soon began firing from their position upon Darius Couch 's division of the IV Corps , who were near the center of the Union line . This began a fierce firefight , with the Union 's eight batteries and 37 guns concentrated against three Confederate batteries and sixteen guns . The Union fire silenced the Rowan Artillery and made their position untenable . The other two Confederate batteries , placed by Jackson himself , were in somewhat better positions , and managed to keep firing . Over a period of more than three hours , a total of six or eight Confederate batteries engaged the Union Army from the Confederate left flank , but they were usually engaged only one at a time .
On the Confederate right flank a total of six batteries engaged the Federals , but they did so one @-@ by @-@ one instead of in unison , and each was consecutively cut to pieces by concentrated Union artillery fire . Moreover , they engaged the Union artillery later than the guns of the left flank , so the desired crossfire bombardment was never achieved .
In all , the Confederate artillery barrage on both flanks completely failed to achieve its objectives . Confederate fire did manage to kill Capt. John E. Beam of the Union 's 1st New Jersey Artillery , along with a few others , and several Federal batteries ( though none that were actually engaged ) had to move to avoid the fire . Although the barrage by Lee 's forces did claim a few lives , Union forces remained unfazed and continued their fearsome barrage . Indeed , Union Army Lt. Charles B. Haydon supposedly fell asleep during the artillery fight . On both the left and right flanks , several of the batteries that did engage lasted no more than minutes before being rendered incapable of fire . Moreover , in a failure of command that , according to historian Thomas M. Settles , must ultimately be placed on Lee 's shoulders , the movements of the two flanks were never coordinated with one another . D. H. Hill found the failure of the Confederate artillery discouraging and later dismissed the barrage as " most farcical " .
Meanwhile , the Union artillery fire was planned and directed nearly flawlessly . As historian Jennings Cropper Wise notes , Col. Hunt , McClellan 's chief of artillery , continuously refocused Union fire on various fronts , in an " enormous sheaf of fire of more than 50 superior pieces , disabling four of Huger 's and several of Jackson 's batteries almost the instant they came into action " . This severely hampered the Confederates ' ability to respond effectively to the Federal barrage . The Union artillery subdued a number of the Southerners ' batteries ; those few that remained attacked piecemeal , and failed to produce any significant result .
= = = Confederate infantry assaults = = =
Intense Confederate and especially Union artillery fire continued for at least an hour , slackening at about 2 : 30 pm . At about 3 : 30 pm , Lewis Armistead noticed Union skirmishers creeping towards his men where the grand battery on the Confederate right flank was , nearly within rifle range of them . Armistead sent three regiments ( about half of his brigade ) from his command to push back the skirmishers , thus beginning the infantry part of the battle . The skirmishers were repelled quickly , but Armistead 's men found themselves in the midst of an intense Union barrage . The Confederates decided to nestle themselves in a ravine along the hill 's slant . This position protected them from the fire , but pinned them down on the slopes of Malvern Hill , unsupported by either infantry or artillery . They did not have enough men to advance any further and retreating would have put them back into the crossfire .
= = = = Magruder 's charge = = = =
Not long after the advance of Armistead 's regiments , John Magruder and his men arrived near the battlefield , albeit quite late because of the confusion regarding the names of local roads — by this time , it was 4 pm . Magruder was told at that morning 's war council to move to Huger 's right , but he was unaware of Huger 's position , and sent Major Joseph L. Brent to locate Huger 's right flank . Brent found Huger , who said that he had no idea where his brigades were . Huger was noticeably upset that his men had been given orders by someone other than himself ; Lee had told Huger 's two brigades under Armistead and Ambrose Wright to advance to the right part of the Confederate line . Upon hearing of this , Magruder was quite confused . He sent Capt. A. G. Dickinson to find Lee and inform him of the " successful " charge of Armistead 's men and request further orders . Contrary to this message , Armistead was in fact pinned down halfway up Malvern Hill . At the same time , Whiting sent Lee an incorrect report that Union forces were retreating . Whiting had mistaken two events for a Federal withdrawal — the movement of Edwin Sumner 's troops , who were adjusting their position to avoid the Confederate fire , and the relaxing of Union fire on his side , which was actually the Union artillery concentrating their firepower to a different front . Whiting and Magruder 's erroneous reports led Lee to send a draft of orders to Magruder via Dickinson : " General Lee expects you to advance rapidly " , wrote Dickinson . " He says it is reported that the enemy is [ retreating ] . Press forward your whole line and follow up Armistead 's success . " Before Dickinson returned with these orders , Magruder was belatedly handed the order sent out three hours previously ( at 1 : 30 pm ) by Chilton . Since no time was affixed to the text of the orders , Magruder was unaware that these orders had been rendered meaningless by the failure of the Confederate artillery during the past few hours , and believed he had received two successive orders from Lee to attack .
Believing himself bound by Lee 's order to charge , but with his own brigades not yet in attacking position , Magruder mustered some five thousand men from Huger 's brigades , including those of Ambrose Wright and Maj. Gen. William Mahone and half of the men from Armistead 's brigade who were caught in the open battlefield . Magruder had also sent for Brig. Gen. Robert Ransom , Jr . , also under Huger 's command , who noted that he had been given strict instructions to ignore any orders not originating from Huger , and apologetically said he could not help Magruder . Magruder additionally ordered men under his personal command — three regiments of Brig. Gen. Howell Cobb 's brigade , plus Col. William Barksdale 's full brigade — to the attack . Because of the confusion regarding Quaker Road , however , these brigades were not yet near enough to do more than move into supporting position , and Magruder wanted to attack immediately . Despite this , under Magruder 's order at about 5 : 30 pm , Wright 's brigade with Armistead 's , then Mahone 's brigade , started darting out of the woods and towards the Union line . The artillery of the Confederate left flank , under Jackson 's personal command , also renewed their barrage with the late arrival of two batteries of Richard Ewell 's division . The Confederates were initially engaged solely by Union sharpshooters , but the latter quickly fell back to give their own artillery a clear field of fire . Antipersonnel canister shot was employed with deadly effect . Wright 's men were pinned down in a small depression on the rolling hillside , to the right of Armistead 's ; Mahone 's were driven back into retreat in about the same area . At some point during the first wave of assaults , Cobb moved into close supporting position behind Armistead . Barksdale 's men were also supporting , to the left of Armistead .
The firefight also alerted the three Union boats on the James — the ironclad USS Galena , and the gunboats USS Jacob Bell and USS Aroostook — which began lobbing missiles twenty inches ( 510 mm ) in length and eight inches ( 200 mm ) in diameter from their position on the James River onto the battlefield . The explosions and impacts of the gunboat fire impressed the Confederate troops , but the guns ' aim was unreliable , and the large shells did considerably less damage than might have been expected .
= = = = Hill 's charge = = = =
D. H. Hill had been discouraged by the failure of the Confederate artillery , and asked Stonewall Jackson to supplement Chilton 's draft . Jackson 's response was that Hill should obey the original orders : charge with a yell after Armistead 's brigade . No yell was heard for hours , and Hill 's men began building bivouac shelters to sleep in . Around 6 pm , Hill and his five brigade commanders had assumed that the lack of a signal meant that their army would not attempt any assault . They were conferring together about Chilton 's order when they heard yells and the commotion of a charge from their right flank , roughly where Armistead was supposed to be . Hill took the yell as the signal and shouted to his commanders , " That must be the general advance . Bring up your brigades as soon as possible and join in it . " D. H. Hill 's five brigades , with some 8 @,@ 200 men , had to contend with the dense woodlands around the Quaker Road and Western Run , which destroyed any order they may have had . Men advanced out of the woods towards the Union line in five separate , uncoordinated attacks , and each brigade charged up the hill alone : " We crossed one fence , went through another piece of woods , then over another fence [ and ] into an open field on the other side of which was a long line of Yankees " , wrote William Calder of the 2nd Regiment , North Carolina Infantry . " Our men charged gallantly at them . The enemy mowed us down by fifties . " Some brigades in Hill 's division made it close enough to exchange musket fire and engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , but these were driven back . The artillery response on the Federal side to Hill 's charge was particularly withering , and soon , Hill 's men needed support just to hold their ground . In Extraordinary Circumstances : The Seven Days Battles , Brian K. Burton called Hill 's charge " unnecessary and costly . " The successive assaults of Hill 's brigades on the well @-@ entrenched Federals were short @-@ lived , and achieved little .
= = = = Final assaults = = = =
Preceding attacks by Lee 's army had done barely anything to accomplish Confederate objectives , but this did not deter Magruder , who rode back and forth across the battlefield , calling for reinforcements and personally launching unit after unit into a charge of the Union line . At this point , men who had always been directly under Magruder 's command began to join the battle . Magruder first encountered some units of Brig. Gen. Robert Toombs . With Toombs 's brigade widely dispersed , the individual units Magruder found were not with Toombs himself . Magruder personally led the men in a short @-@ lived charge , followed by a disordered retreat . Other units nominally under Toombs 's command appeared , charged and retreated at various times throughout the next few hours , with little or no organization . The brigades of Col. George T. Anderson and Col. William Barksdale emerged from the woods to the right of Toombs , but as they did so , Anderson 's men also became separated , as the left side outpaced the right . This created an advance with two of Anderson 's regiments on the far Confederate left next to Toombs , Barksdale 's men in the middle , and three more Anderson regiments on the far right , near the remnants of Wright and Mahone . Anderson 's right flank charged , but made it no farther than the foot of the hill before breaking and retreating under a hail of antipersonnel artillery . Anderson 's left flank never charged . Barksdale 's brigade charged at roughly the same time , and made it considerably farther up the hill , engaging the Union infantry of Brig. Gen. Daniel Butterfield in a firefight that lasted more than an hour .
Lee received Magruder 's calls for reinforcement and instructed Huger to let Ransom go support the men trapped on the field of battle . He also sent orders to the brigades of Brig. Gens . Joseph B. Kershaw and Paul Jones Semmes , in Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws 's division within Magruder 's command . Robert Ransom 's unit , after they finally showed up with Huger 's permission , first attempted to charge straight up the hill , following the path of other Confederate brigades attempting to aid Magruder . When this proved useless , Ransom ordered them to regroup in the woods to the Confederate right , march double @-@ time a half a mile in a hook to the right around all the other Confederate units and attack the far Union western flank . While Ransom was angling west , Jackson responded to a request for reinforcement from D. H. Hill by sending forward brigades from his own command to move from the east into the area where D. H. Hill had attacked . From his own division Jackson sent Brig. Gens . Alexander Lawton and Charles S. Winder , and from Ewell 's division , Brig. Gen. Isaac R. Trimble and Cols . Leroy A. Stafford and Jubal Early .
Ransom 's men managed to come closer to the Union line than any Confederates that day , guided by the flashing light of the cannons amidst an encroaching darkness ; however , George Sykes 's artillery repelled that attack . The brigades of Kershaw and Semmes , sent earlier by Lee , arrived to the front while Ransom was moving to attack in another position . Semmes and Kershaw were quickly sent in ; they too were repulsed not long after . Semmes was west of the junction of Carter 's Mill Road and Willis Church Road , in the vicinity of Barksdale , Mahone and Wright . Semmes made the final charge of the day west of these roads , and like the charges before , it was to little effect . Kershaw angled east , in the area where Toombs , Anderson and Cobb had attacked . This was an area of great confusion . Kershaw 's troops arrived ahead of all the reinforcements sent by Jackson , and took fire from both friendly and hostile forces : from Confederates behind them firing wildly and Federals in front firing effectively . Kershaw 's men retreated in rout . The brigades behind Kershaw charged incoherently , with some men pushing forward , and others getting separated from their units or confused when they encountered groups of retreating Confederates . Disorganized , retreating soldiers from various units were so numerous that they slowed Jackson 's men to nearly a standstill . Jackson 's unit commanders attempted to organize their various regiments and rally the retreaters to join in , but it was all to very little effect . A few units fought fiercely against Union infantry and artillery . In particular , three regiments of Barlow 's brigade made it close enough to Union lines to engage in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the troops of Brig. Gen. Daniel Sickles before being driven back .
Night was falling , however , and eventually all of these troops were ordered to merely hold their positions without charging . In the end , the charges of Semmes and Kershaw were the last coherent Confederate actions , and neither was successful . Brig. Gen. Porter summed up the Confederate infantry charges at Malvern Hill this way :
As if moved by a reckless disregard of life equal to that displayed at Gaines ' Mill , with a determination to capture our army , or destroy it by driving us into the river , brigade after brigade rushed at our batteries , but the artillery of both Morell and Couch mowed them down with shrapnel , grape , and canister , while our infantry , withholding their fire until the enemy were in short range , scattered the remnants of their columns , sometimes following them up and capturing prisoners and colors .
With the infantry part of the battle over , Union artillery continued to boom across the hill . They stopped firing at 8 : 30 pm , leaving a wreath of smoke upon the crest 's edge , and ending the action on Malvern Hill .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The human toll of the Battle of Malvern Hill and the Seven Days Battles was shown clearly as both capitals , Washington and Richmond , set up numerous provisional hospitals to care for the dead , wounded and missing . Ships sailed from the Peninsula to Washington carrying the wounded . Richmond was nearest to the battlefields of the Seven Days , and the immense number of casualties meant that graves could not be dug quickly enough , overwhelming hospitals and doctors . People from about the Confederacy descended upon Richmond to care for the conflict 's casualties .
The Confederates counted some 5 @,@ 650 casualties . Some 30 @,@ 000 Confederates engaged that day , though several thousand more endured the Union shelling . Whiting 's unit suffered 175 casualties in the Malvern Hill conflict , even though they had limited involvement in the assaults . Charles Winder 's brigade of just over 1 @,@ 000 men suffered 104 casualties in their short involvement in the battle . D. H. Hill spent days removing the wounded , burying the dead and cleaning up the battlefield , with help from Magruder and Huger 's units . One of D. H. Hill 's brigades lost 41 percent of its strength at Malvern Hill alone . He later estimated that more than half of all the Confederate killed and wounded at Malvern Hill were as a result of artillery fire .
= = = Reasons for outcome = = =
The battle on Malvern Hill was a resounding Union tactical victory . The victory was due in no small part to Henry Hunt , the Union chief artillerist , who did proficient work in accumulating and concentrating the Union guns . Troop placement before the battle by the army 's principal topographical engineer , Col. A. A. Humphreys , was also carried out capably . The ground on Malvern Hill was used effectively and the Union line had depth with a healthy amount of rested troops available to defend it . Fitz John Porter , the de facto commander for the day , played an important role in this . He posted his men well on June 30 , and stationed reinforcements near to the Union line . Darius Couch , whose forces comprised half of the Union center , positioned his reinforcements skilfully as well and cooperated with George Morell , whose units formed the other part of the Union middle . The infantrymen performed well also . As Brian K. Burton notes , " [ the infantrymen ] stayed behind the guns most of the time and did not advance too far during countercharges . This behavior allowed the gunners a clear field of fire . " Furthermore , if more of anything was needed , infantry or artillery , it was available . At the forefront of the Union victory , however , was the overwhelming firepower of their artillery , as later accounts by soldiers from both armies repeatedly attested .
A number of shortcomings in planning and execution contributed to the debacle suffered by the Confederates . The Confederate brigade leaders performed well , with the exception of a few minor instances ; Burton surmises that the blame of July 1 must lie with the overall commanders . James Longstreet was overconfident about the artillery strategy , which proved less effective than it could have been largely because both he and Stonewall Jackson had problems gathering the artillery for the assault . The Confederate practice of moving artillery with individual units instead of in one mass and the difficult terrain surrounding Malvern Hill contributed to this issue . A potential solution to this problem lay with Brig. Gen. William N. Pendleton 's fourteen batteries in reserve . However , Lee 's headquarters never contacted Pendleton , who spent July 1 " await [ ing ] events and orders , in readiness for whatever service might be called for . " These orders never came , and Pendleton 's batteries went unused . Magruder might also share in the blame ; his late arrival to the battlefield was caused by bad maps and faulty guides . Since Magruder received Chilton 's draft late in the day , and with no time attached to it , there was no way for him to determine the relevance of the order . Burton suggests that Magruder cannot be reasonably blamed for his attacks on the Union line : he was responding to Lee 's orders and did initially try to form a unified attack on the Union line . Finally , Magruder was riding back and forth across the battlefield , making it difficult for him to be found by junior officers seeking guidance . Several other factors may have played into the Confederate repulse , including Theophilus Holmes 's refusal to participate in the battle , dismissing any notion of actively engaging the enemy .
Lee 's part in the Confederate defeat at Malvern Hill has been criticized by historians . Though he put rested troops on the field and accepted Longstreet 's suggestions , which did not commit him to a charge , Lee himself was not present on the battlefield to observe the fighting . Historian Stephen Sears points out that Lee 's ineffective communication with his generals and apparent failure to write his own communications to his brigadier generals ( instead leaving orders open to interpretation ) may have contributed to the defeat . Lee could also have countermanded Chilton 's orders when it became apparent they were fruitless , or verified the " success " of Armistead . Consequently , Lee must also share some blame in the repeated lack of coordination of attacks throughout the day .
= = = Subsequent events = = =
Despite the strength of Malvern Hill , as demonstrated in the battle , McClellan felt he needed to continue with his planned withdrawal to Harrison 's Landing , to Fitz John Porter 's chagrin . Porter felt that the Army of the Potomac should remain atop the hill or perhaps even continue their advance to Richmond . McClellan however insisted that Confederate troops greatly outnumbered his own , felt he could not protect Harrison 's Landing from his current position at Malvern Hill , and feared being cut off from his supply depot . McClellan 's mentality prevailed . The Union batteries and McClellan 's engineers began moving to Harrison 's Landing soon after the end of the Battle of Malvern Hill . Starting at about 11 p.m. unit after unit began to follow . Within hours , nearly all of McClellan 's Army of the Potomac was marching towards Harrison 's Landing . Once the last of these men had crossed the Turkey Island Bridge , they destroyed the bridge and felled trees over it to stymie any pursuit , leaving the James River between the Union and Confederate armies .
The areas around Malvern Hill hosted much of Lee 's army the night after the battle . Some of the Confederates were close enough to hear the sounds made by the Army of the Potomac retreating under cover of darkness , and see the lanterns of Northerners helping their wounded . The day after the Battle of Malvern Hill , Lee and Stonewall Jackson met President Jefferson Davis at Poindexter farm . They considered immediately pursuing McClellan ; however , in view of the rain and confusion , Davis and Lee deemed large @-@ scale pursuit of McClellan 's army too risky . Jackson disagreed , saying , " They have not all got away if we go immediately after them . " Jackson even had the bodies of the dead moved so that his soldiers had a clear line of attack when pursuing McClellan . However , Davis and Lee thought it necessary to rest the army . They did not completely rule out a pursuit though ; Lee even ordered J. E. B. Stuart to reconnoiter McClellan 's position for future attacks . Lee ordered Theophilus Holmes to move to Drewry 's Bluff , and decided to keep the men on Malvern Hill through July 3 to forestall any potential Union attack against that location .
On July 4 , 1862 , Lee 's men began marching towards Harrison 's Landing . He made his headquarters a few miles north of Evelington Heights , a sixty @-@ foot ( 18 m ) elevation approximately thirteen miles ( 21 km ) from Harrison 's Landing , and stayed nearby with his army for several days , searching for weaknesses in the Union line at the heights that might allow for an attack . No weakness presented itself though , and by the end of July 8 , the entire Army of Northern Virginia , save for cavalry stations and picket forces , was back near Richmond . The Peninsula Campaign was over .
= = = Reactions and effects = = =
Despite the defeat on Malvern Hill , the Seven Days Battles accomplished the original Confederate goal of removing any direct threat to Richmond from the Union Army . The three newspapers in Richmond exulted in this strategic victory and lionized Robert E. Lee as a national hero : " No captain that ever lived , " opined the Richmond Dispatch , " could have planned or executed a better plan . " Similarly , Confederate Navy Secretary Stephen Mallory said , " the Great McClelland [ sic ] the young Napoleon now like a whipped cur lies on the banks of the James River crouched under his Gun Boats . " Throughout Richmond and the once @-@ beleaguered South , there was a triumphant mood , and scant attention was paid to the flaws in Lee 's tactics or execution .
Lee was not exultant , but " deeply , bitterly disappointed " at the result . " Our success has not been as great or complete as we should have desired " , Lee wrote to his wife . In his official report , he wrote , " Under ordinary circumstances , the Federal Army should have been destroyed . " The North Carolinian D. H. Hill shared Lee 's bitterness , and wrote that the " blood of North Carolina poured like water " . In a post @-@ war article he wrote that the battle " was not war ; it was murder . " Lee did not distribute blame for the failure to reach his desired result , but there were repercussions . Several commanders were reassigned , including Theophilus Holmes and John Magruder , and his army was reorganized into two wings , one under Stonewall Jackson and another under James Longstreet . Further , Confederate artillery would now be moved in battalion @-@ sized units , at the head of Confederate columns .
In McClellan 's case , his success on Malvern Hill was overshadowed by his overall defeat in the Seven Days Battles . The Northern public met McClellan 's defeat with despondency , and his reputation was tarnished . Some of McClellan 's soldiers voiced their continued confidence in him . Such opinions were not unanimous , however ; one of McClellan 's engineers , Lt. William Folwell , wondered why " they deify a General whose greatest feat has been a masterly retreat . " A similar opinion was shared by many others in the rank and file of the Union military . Some in politics also abandoned the Democratic McClellan . He was also accused of being on the Galena during the Battle of Malvern Hill , and newspapers and tabloids around the country heaped scorn on him for this , especially when he ran for president in 1864 . President Lincoln was also losing faith in McClellan . On June 26 , the day of Lee 's first offensive during the Seven Days , the Army of Virginia was formed and the command given to Maj. Gen. John Pope . While McClellan was at Harrison 's Landing , parts of his Army of the Potomac were continuously reassigned to Pope . Pope and his Army of Virginia left for Gordonsville , Virginia on July 14 , setting the stage for the subsequent Northern Virginia Campaign .
In his Battle @-@ Pieces publication , Herman Melville penned a poem about the battle , titled with the same name as the hill on which it was fought . In the poem , Melville questions the elms of Malvern Hill of whether they recall " the haggard beards of blood " the day of the battle .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
The battlefield at Malvern Hill is credited by the National Park Service as being " the best preserved Civil War battlefield in central or southern Virginia . " Most recent preservation efforts there have been the consequence of cooperative efforts between Richmond National Battlefield Park and the Civil War Trust . The Trust has purchased 953 acres ( 3 @.@ 86 km2 ) at the heart of the battlefield since 2000 . Its efforts have been bolstered by the Virginia Land Conservation Fund , the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities , and officials from Henrico County . Most of this tract wraps around the intersection of Willis Church Road and Carter 's Mill Road . The land includes the starting point for the Confederate assaults on the day of the battle , the Willis Church Parsonage , the ruins of which remain visible today . Recent preservation efforts include the acquisition of the Crew house in 2013 . Some 1 @,@ 332 @.@ 6 acres ( 5 @.@ 393 km2 ) of land is protected on and around Malvern Hill to preserve the battlefield , according to the National Park Service . Driving and walking tours , among other services , are offered at the site .
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= Marry the Night =
" Marry the Night " is a song by American singer and songwriter Lady Gaga . It was released as the fifth and final single from her second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) . The song was written and produced by Lady Gaga and Fernando Garibay , and was recorded on the tour bus during The Monster Ball Tour with Garibay . Revealed in February 2011 , the song was inspired by the energy of Gaga 's previous song " Dance in the Dark " and the love for her hometown , New York City . The song was released for promotion on Farmville , six days before the release of Born This Way .
" Marry the Night " is a dance @-@ pop and synthpop song influenced by electro rock and house . The track features electronic church bells , a driving electro organ sound , techno beats and a funk rock influenced breakdown . The lyrics are a tribute to Gaga 's love of the nightlife and partying , while serving as a homage to her hometown . " Marry the Night " received mostly positive reviews from critics , who praised its grand and euphoric dance nature . They furthermore found influences of Italian disco music producer Giorgio Moroder and American rock musician Bruce Springsteen in the song . After the release of Born This Way , " Marry the Night " charted in some nations due to digital sales from the parent album .
Gaga directed the music video , which was filmed in New York City . It tells the story of when she was signed by her label Interscope Records after being dropped from her former record label , Def Jam Recordings , with scenes in a clinic , a dance studio , her own New York apartment and on a car 's rooftop at a parking lot . She sports outfits by Calvin Klein Collection , Yves Saint Laurent and Stéphane Rolland . Prior to its release , the music video was teased with video stills and previews . Critics wrote positively on the clip , deeming it creative and ambitious , while lauding its narrative theme . Gaga has performed the song in India 's Formula One , the MTV Europe Music Awards , The X Factor ( UK ) and others . She also recorded an acoustic version for her Thanksgiving Day special , A Very Gaga Thanksgiving .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Marry the Night " was written by Lady Gaga and Fernando Garibay while on the road for The Monster Ball Tour , and was produced by both . It was first mentioned by Gaga as a track from her album , Born This Way , Ryan Seacrest 's radio show , where she described it as one of her favorite songs from the album . Gaga and Garibay had worked previously on the song " Dance in the Dark " ( 2009 ) , from Gaga 's previous release , The Fame Monster . Before starting work on " Marry the Night " , Gaga listened to " Dance in the Dark " and decided she wanted to top that song 's energy with her new collaboration with Garibay . " I remember being backstage and hearing the concert start , so I go out there and hear ' Dance in the Dark ' open up the whole concert , and I wanted to outdo that feeling . I wanted to outdo that moment that opens up the show . I 'm just that way . "
Wanting to have a new style of music , Gaga made it clear she did not want her fans to like the song . She wanted to write a song that could define where she was with Born This Way and her life . In an interview with NME , Gaga explained that the main inspiration behind the song was singer Whitney Houston and also added : " This song is about me going back to New York . I wrote this about the courage it took for me to say ' I hate Hollywood , I just wanna live in Brooklyn and make music ' " .
As Gaga performed on The Monster Ball Tour , Garibay started working on the music of the song . After the show was over , Gaga came back to her studio bus and asked him about the progress . Garibay then explained that he had concocted a different kind of music for the song , and played the church @-@ bell inspired music to Gaga . After first hearing it , the singer said that she started to cry , noticing the vastness of the music , and she started writing the lyrics for " Marry the Night " . " Marry the Night " was originally recorded on the Bus Studio in 2010 , but was later mixed at The Mix Room in Burbank , California by Dave Russell , assisted by Paul Pavao . Gaga described the song as a " massive , gas @-@ station , disco record " , and she recorded it immediately after completing the lyrics . According to Garibay , Gaga meditated for a few minutes and then asked him to hand over a recording microphone to her , completing the process within an hour .
= = Composition = =
" Marry the Night " is a dance @-@ pop and synthpop song with electro rock and house influences . The song starts out with electronic church bells and Gaga softly singing " I 'm gonna marry the night / I won 't give up on my life / I 'm a warrior queen / Live passionately tonight . " Soon the beat changes into a dance one , accompanied with techno beats , handclaps and funk music , and moves to the chorus , where Gaga stutters the line " Ma @-@ ma @-@ ma @-@ marry / Ma @-@ ma @-@ ma @-@ marry / Ma @-@ ma @-@ ma @-@ marry the night " . It was compared by Tim Jonze from The Guardian to the Eurodance song , " It 's My Life " by Dr Alban , while Nicola James from MTV compared the chorus with Jennifer Lopez 's 1999 single " Waiting for Tonight . In a pre @-@ release review of certain album tracks , Peter Robinson from the NME blog wrote that Gaga channels " Whitney Houston @-@ esque pop euphoria " into the song , notably that from the singer 's musical peak .
The chorus is followed by a funk @-@ rock influenced breakdown , where Gaga sings the line : " Nothing 's too cool / To take me from you / New York is not just a tan that you 'll never lose . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Marry the Night " was written in the time signature of common time , with a slow tempo of 64 beats per minute for the intro , followed by a driving pop beat of 132 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A minor with Gaga 's vocal range spanning from G3 to E5 . It follows a basic sequence of Am – Dm / A – F / A – G as its chord progression . The church bells in the song were meant to draw parallels between Gaga 's fans and members of a religion or a cult . The lyrics are about partying and wreaking havoc during the night , and serves as a homage to the New York City downtown music scene . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters described the lyrics as a " ' let 's take the night ' rallying cry . "
= = Release = =
" Marry the Night " was planned to be the lead single from Born This Way , but was cancelled in favor of the title track . " Marry the Night " was then supposed to be the third single , but was cancelled yet again , this time in favor of " The Edge of Glory " . Gaga first premiered " Marry the Night " on the HBO Monster Ball Special , which aired on May 7 , 2011 . While backstage , she sang a cappella : " I 'm gonna marry the night / I won 't give up on my life / I 'm a warrior queen / Live passionately tonight . " During the promotional appearances for Born This Way , Gaga released " Marry the Night " to the online game Farmville on May 17 , 2011 . The song was released on Gagaville , a subdivision of Farmville that Gaga helped design with game promotion company Zynga . Four months since the release of Born This Way , " Marry the Night " was confirmed as the fifth single from the album by Gaga herself . In September 2011 , Interscope Records , Gaga 's label , stated that while " Marry the Night " is sure to be released as the fifth single internationally , they were undecided which song would serve in its place in the US . " Marry the Night " officially impacted Australian radio on October 17 , 2011 . Gaga confirmed the single 's UK release for November 21 , 2011 , which included remixes . The date was pushed back to December 11 , 2011 , however . Gaga 's label later decided to release " Marry the Night " in the United States as well ; it was added to the playlists of rhythmic and mainstream music radio on November 15 , 2011 .
On October 17 , 2011 , Gaga revealed the official artwork for " Marry the Night " via TwitPic , citing the lyrics from the bridge of the song , " New York Is Not Just A Tan That You 'll Never Lose " . The artwork shows her sitting atop a rain @-@ soaked car while another vehicle burns in the background . She is wearing a pair of over @-@ the @-@ knee leather boots , a sculpted top and shorts while shaking her blond hair . AOL 's Contessa Gayles described the artwork as a " mysterious night @-@ crawler . "
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the song a positive review , saying it " glistens with a neon pulse " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine named " Marry the Night " a stand @-@ out track on the album and called it " a worthy successor to ' Dance in the Dark ' " . BBC Music 's Mark Savage called " Marry the Night " as perfect as " a straightforward fist @-@ pumping entry into a colossus can be . " Christian Blauvelt of Entertainment Weekly compared the song with the work of Italian record producer Giorgio Moroder . Caryn Ganz of Spin was impressed with the track , calling it a " four @-@ on @-@ the @-@ floor banger . " Tim Jonze of The Guardian compared the chorus of the song " It 's My Life " by Dr Alban and felt that it was easily forgotten compared to some of the bigger dance songs on the album . Rolling Stone 's was impressed with the fact that " Marry the Night " just seemed to get " bigger , and bigger " to her , while listing pop and glam metal and artists like Pat Benatar , Bonnie Tyler and Bon Jovi as its influences . According to Kitty Empire of The Observer , " ' Marry the Night ' , is a blowsy carpe [ noctem ] affair which draws on hi @-@ NRG club @-@ pop for its modus operandi . "
Evan Sawdey from PopMatters gave the song a negative review , saying " ' Marry the Night ' very much wants to be top @-@ notch Justice knockoff , but by adding a bridge of upbeat platitudes and an utterly pointless instrumental section after the 3 : 30 mark , she ultimately winds up weakening the power of her ' let ’ s take the night ' rallying cry " . Kerri Mason from Billboard found influences of gothic rock in it , but went on to call it an " unapologetic disco @-@ powered pop " that could have been a production number on Gaga 's debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph gave an analogy with rock musician " Meat Loaf going to the disco " , while describing the song . NME 's Dan Martin felt that the song , although impressive , was conservative as the opening song of Born This Way . He further found similarities to the work of Moroder and influences of Bruce Springsteen 's 1975 single , " Born to Run " .
Robert Copsey of the website Digital Spy called the song an " electro @-@ thumping number with euphoric synths and uplifting melody " which according to him further drew comparison to Gaga 's own song " Born This Way " . Copsey further stated that " This is no bad thing , as it 's less in @-@ yer @-@ face , and it 's ' M @-@ m @-@ m @-@ marry the night ' hook is equally as catchy . " Awarding the song with four out of five stars Lewis Corner of the same website wrote : " ' I 'm gonna marry the night / I won 't give up on my life / I 'm a warrior queen , live passionately , tonight , ' GaGa calls out over a suitably grand introduction of deistic bells and rumbling techno synths – the result not to dissimilar , we imagine , to Paul Van Dyk playing an organ at a wedding ceremony . Defiant and epic , the track feeds into Stef 's cult @-@ focused fan base like a prophet calling upon their disciples – and given it 's the single they 've been waiting for , we have no doubt they 'll come in their droves . "
= = Chart performance = =
Following the release of Born This Way on May 23 , 2011 , " Marry the Night " debuted at number 57 on the United States Billboard Hot Digital Songs Chart with sales of 35 @,@ 000 digital downloads , allowing it to enter the Billboard Hot 100 at number 79 . On the issue dated December 3 , 2011 , " Marry the Night " re @-@ entered the chart at number 97 , and moved to number 59 the second week . For the fourth week on the chart , the song moved to number 32 on the Hot 100 . It sold 20 @,@ 000 digital downloads ( up by 163 % ) and garnered 23 million audience impressions as per Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems . The song has peaked at number 29 on the chart , becoming Gaga 's first radio @-@ promoted single not to reach the top ten and ending her streak of eleven consecutive top ten hits .
" Marry the Night " debuted at number 24 on the Pop Songs , which is the third @-@ highest debut on that chart in 2011 , following Gaga 's " Born This Way " ( number 14 ) and Britney Spears ' " Hold It Against Me " ( number 16 ) . The following week , it jumped to number 18 , becoming Gaga 's twelfth consecutive top @-@ twenty on the US pop chart ; it has peaked at 14 on the chart . " Marry the Night " debuted at numbers 37 and 33 on the Adult Pop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and has reached peaks of 27 and the top of the chart respectively . The number @-@ one peak of " Marry the Night " on Hot Dance Club Songs was achieved in five weeks , and was tied with Gaga 's previous single " Telephone " as her second fastest ascent to the top of that chart . The song was Gaga 's twelfth number @-@ one single on Hot Dance Club Songs . In March 2012 , " Marry the Night " was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and as of April 2015 , it has sold 713 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
In Canada , the song entered at number 91 on the Canadian Hot 100 , while debuting on the Canadian Digital Songs chart at number 50 . It has reached a peak of number 11 there . In South Korea , " Marry the Night " reached number eleven on the Gaon International Singles Chart . Its other chart positions included reaching number 38 on the Ultratop 50 chart of Belgium 's Walloon region , and number 16 on the UK Singles Chart . In the United Kingdom , " Marry the Night " had initially entered the chart during the release of Born This Way for one week , but later re @-@ entered after its single release . In Ireland , " Marry the Night " debuted at number 34 on the Irish Singles Chart on November 18 , 2011 , and has reached a peak of number 24 . In Australia , " Marry the Night " debuted at number 88 on the ARIA Singles Chart and peaked at number 80 . In Germany , the song debuted at number 44 on the German Singles Chart on November 23 , 2011 , and has reached a peak of number 17 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
Gaga filmed parts of the music video for " Marry the Night " in Staten Island and Harlem , New York , from October 10 to October 13 , 2011 . On October 17 , Gaga posted on her Twitter account that she had finished filming and could not " wait to unfold all its secrets and share with you moments from my past I have yet to reveal " . Talking about the filming of the video , Lynn Kelly , a CEO of the Snug Harbor Cultural Center , where the video was shot said ,
We found both her and her crew to be easy to work with and low @-@ key . I think we would have expected a lot of drama , and the truth is , she is probably the most down @-@ to @-@ earth person . It was endearing . She was friendly and kind . ... I think , for us , we 're so excited to have someone of her talent , and to have somebody like that shoot here is a sheer honor . What her music does for music is so much more than entertainment . It 's connecting to the arts on a much deeper level , and that 's what I hope we can do here . "
On October 11 , 2011 , several publications announced that Gaga was seen during the filming of the video in Snug Harbor Cultural Center . She was wearing a custom @-@ made double zip lambskin jumpsuit by New York City designer , Asher Levine which was said to go along with the video 's " grungy " and " bloody " theme and with the " nod to New York downtown refinement . " Dancers and extras were spotted dressed in multiple looks : some as ballerinas and others in leopard print while Gaga 's mother was also seen on stage . Later , other photos of the filming were published on several websites and they showed Gaga with blue lipstick and a leather romper with several male dancers , in a long @-@ sleeve red dress with padded shoulders , a big satellite dish and a big black hat . Footage of the video was posted online on October 14 , 2011 . Gaga is seen dancing on the roof of a car as she sings the bridge from the song . She then slides down the car and begins running around the hood as the chorus starts . She 's dressed in black , with a blond bob wig and black heels while rain is visible in the background , but she appears unfazed by the weather . During an interview with NDTV on October 31 , Gaga revealed that she directed the video . She also worked with the director of photography Darius Khondji and art director Gideon Ponte .
= = = Release = = =
Gaga teased on Twitter that the video would be her longest and " the beginning of the story I never told you . " On November 11 , 2011 , she posted a still from the video on Twitter that shows her as she is sent down a hallway on a stretcher by two nurses . The post was accompanied by the message " It 's not that I 've been dishonest , it 's just that I loathe reality . " James Montgomery of MTV News compared the scene — known as " The Prelude Pathétique " — to the 1975 drama film One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest and the 1980 horror film The Shining . Gaga teased a two @-@ minute opening sequence of the music video on November 17 , 2011 , after her performance at Children In Need Rocks Manchester .
On November 20 , Gaga went on Alan Carr : Chatty Man and explained the meaning behind the " Marry the Night " music video . " I know how rejection feels in the business . I got signed , I got dropped , I got signed again . That 's actually what the ' Marry the Night ' video is about . It 's about one of the most horrible days of my life when I got dropped from my first record label and it 's the story of what happened that day . " A second preview of the music video , shot in a dance studio , premiered on November 25 , 2011 . Gaga told Vanity Fair magazine that the video is " autobiographical " and illustrates " the worst day of my life . " The entire video premiered on December 1 , 2011 on E ! Online at 8 @.@ 00 pm EST . However , the video appeared online several hours before its official release . Gaga took her Twitter to express dissatisfaction with the leak of the video , saying that it was " like an old tampon . " The video for the song is 13 minutes long .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The autobiographical story begins as a brunette Gaga is taken through a clinic on a stretcher , while an inner monologue about her past memories is heard . The nurses wear Calvin Klein Collection uniforms and Giuseppe Zanotti shoes . A nurse awakens Gaga and checks her heart rate and blood pressure . The nurse then tells Gaga how beautiful she is and how she looked just like her mother when she delivered the former . Gaga then claims that her mother was a saint , before taking a cigarette out of her bag . The nurse , startled by this , quickly then takes the cigarette out of her mouth and puts it on a table . Gaga cries and tells the nurse that she will become a star . She asks the nurse to play music and the camera zooms out to show viewers several female patients treated and wandering off . A new scene shows Gaga practicing ballet dancing to piano music , and a following one shows her taken back from the hospital to her New York apartment by her best friend Bo . Ludwig van Beethoven 's " Piano Sonata No. 8 " plays . Gaga is undressed from an outfit designed by Stéphane Rolland and taken to bed , but is interrupted by a phone call that notifies her of being dropped from her record label . Frustrated , she makes a mess in her apartment , pours breakfast cereal on herself , and jumps in the bath with her heels on . The piano music ends and Gaga is seen bleaching her hair , bathing in a tub , and humming " Marry the Night " . The monologue continues as Gaga says , " But I still had my bedazzler and I had a lot of patches , shiny ones from M & J Trimmings , so I wreaked havoc on some old denim . And I did what any girl would do — I did it all over again . " According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV News , Gaga resembles pop artist Madonna in the film Desperately Seeking Susan . Gaga 's dancers look down at her from a mezzanine as the clock chimes .
The video later shifts to a night scene on a building rooftop , where half of Gaga 's body is inside a car , while her legs protrude from the window and onto the roof of the car . She has blonde hair and wears a black plastic leather outfit . She gets her full body into the car , kissing a " Marry the Night " tape and inserting it into the audio player . The song begins playing as Gaga smokes on the driver 's seat . As the chorus begins , vehicles in the background explode aflame and Gaga exits the car and dances . In a new dance studio setting as the second verse begins , Gaga enters with her dancers , and warms up to do an intricate choreography during the chorus with her team . During the bridge , she and her dance team take a break and warm up to perform another choreography . The rooftop car parking scene and a bath scene intersperse . Gaga and her dancers repeat the choreography during the final chorus , as one dancers falls and is helped up by Gaga . During the breakdown , Gaga and her team dance on a street while interspersing scenes show her causing chaos , including falling down the stairs , attempting to get into a car with an ridiculously oversized hat and pouring water over herself with a marble plant pot in the bath . She enters a car and reveals " Interscope Records ; Hollywood , CA ; 4 p.m. " written on her palm . The last scene shows Gaga in couture and surrounded by flames . The video ends with Gaga suddenly vanishing .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented that the video " features the pop star at her most gloriously provocative , with extended dance sequences , explosions , nudity , and a violent attack on a box of Honey Nut Cheerios . " Gin Sepre of E ! Online compared the video with the book Girl , Interrupted noting that " with equal parts autobiography and pure spectacle , it truly has something for everyone . " Sepre also praised the fact that the video is " certainly not hurting for a lack of creativity " with the scenes being shown in a " slightly more straightforward , [ and ] less metaphorical way " . Jocelyn Vena from MTV opined that " with references to everything from Fame and Black Swan to The Bell Jar , the video is a sweeping look into Gaga 's psyche . Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky described the video as " quite the trip to Total Crazyville , population : 1 , Lady Gaga ... Leave it to Lady Gaga to unspool a mini @-@ movie video that ’ s half the length of a sitcom episode . " Eleanor Gower from Daily Mail felt that the video was " no less spectacular than her past offerings . " Gilly Ferguson of Daily Mirror noted that the video " still has the shock factor – she 's naked for starters . " Tim Nixon of The Sun noted that Gaga " shocks in [ her ] most graphic video to date . " Sarah Anne Hughes of The Washington Post commented that the video " is slightly NSFW because of one word and some censored skin . " Oscar Moralde of Slant Magazine wrote that the video , " is one of her biggest epics not merely by length ( a weighty 14 minutes ) , but by the breadth of its modes of expression . "
Michael Cragg of The Guardian gave a positive review for the video and wrote : " Superstars are at their best when they 're simultaneously aware and unaware of their own ridiculousness and that 's what Marry the Night delivers for Lady Gaga . " Daily News ' Kathryn Kattalia compared Gaga with Madonna in several scenes in the video . Kattalia further praised the dancing during the video , describing it as " her best " . However , she criticized the scenes of nudity noting : " The rest of the video is pretty tame by Gaga standards . " Spin 's Marc Hogan wrote that " it 's hard to tell where Gaga is winking at us and where she 's simply fallen into a foxhole of unrestrained ego . " Camille Mann of CBS News described the video as a " avant @-@ garde short film " and noted that Gaga was " pushing [ her ] boundaries . " Leah Collins of Dose compared Gaga 's outfits with Christian Louboutin 's designs . She further compared the set in the video to the cover artwork of Born This Way and called it a " very fashionable recreation of Girl , Interrupted . " A writer of CNN commented , " Lady Gaga is known for creating evocative mini @-@ movies to provide the visuals for her singles , and ' Marry the Night ' is no different . " Describing the video as " rough " and " enigmatic " , Liz Raftery of People further commened that it " will certainly leave fans talking , if not scratching their heads . " An editor of ABC News praised Gaga 's " interesting perspective in the video . " NME 's Priya Elan wrote that Gaga sounds like " a lobotomized Carrie Bradshaw " during the introduction . He also commented , " It 's definitely an improvement on ' Judas ' , but could it maybe have been snipped a bit to make it shorter ? "
= = Live performances = =
On October 31 , 2011 , Gaga performed a Bollywood version of " Marry the Night " in India during a Formula One after party in Greater Noida . Before the performance , she announced " I feel like I 've waited a long time to come here . And I feel very grateful . ... For the first time ever , I 'm going to sing ' Marry the Night ' . " She sat on the piano and played a slow version of the song , accompanied by a sitar . At the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards , Gaga gave her first televised performance of " Marry the Night " dressed as a satellite landing on the moon . Wearing a red bikini , and a large red disc around her , Gaga was perched atop a semi @-@ circular replica of the moon which was covered in silver chains . Flames erupted around the stage as Gaga revealed another circular disc covering her face . She sang the song from that vantage point and near the end of the performance , removed the metal disc and performed a choreographed dance routine with her back @-@ up dancers . She also performed the song at the 2011 Bambi Awards in Wiesbaden , Germany , on November 10 . The stage included a vintage convertible with a keyboard built into the side of the door and Gaga also won an award later that night at the gala .
Gaga appeared on the eighth series of The X Factor on November 13 , 2011 , and performed the song . Whilst singing , she emerged from a confessional dressed as a decapitated corpse , carrying her own head . She sang most of the song before returning to the booth and re @-@ appearing in a leotard @-@ like outfit and performed the rest of the song and a dance routine with her dancers . At the Children in Need Rocks Manchester concert on November 17 , 2011 , " Marry the Night " was performed as the final song of her set list , along with " Born This Way " and " The Edge of Glory " . The performance was fast paced and included a dance routine by Gaga with her dancers , for the first time . On the British comedy show , Alan Carr : Chatty Man , Gaga performed a piano version of the song , while decked up in a pink dress and a gigantic bow on her head , which prompted Becky Bain from Idolator website to comment , " It 's been some time since we ’ ve seen Lady Gaga rock a bow on top of her noggin ' , and though the one she wore during her [ performance ] wasn 't her signature hairbow , it still made a big ( as in HUGE ) impression . "
On the ABC special , A Very Gaga Thanksgiving , the singer performed an acoustic version of " Marry the Night " . Her look , consisting of a shoulder @-@ less black dress with matching hand gloves , was compared by James Dinh of MTV News to actress Audrey Hepburn . The performance was shot on top of a balcony , with Gaga giving poses while holding the microphone . On the CBS special titled The Grammy Nominations Concert Live ! – Countdown to Music 's Biggest Night — where the nominations for the 54th Grammy Awards were revealed — Gaga opened the show with " Marry the Night " , performing in a zombie @-@ like costume . Todd Martens from Los Angeles Times described it as a " dance @-@ meets @-@ hair metal mix @-@ up " , while comparing the choreography of the dance to Michael Jackson 's music video for " Thriller " , and complimented Gaga 's vocals . At the 2011 Jingle Ball in Los Angeles , Gaga performed the song in an imitation of the music video , by perching atop a hospital bed and singing from there . She also headlined Z100 's Jingle Ball at Madison Square Garden . Her set included current hits from Born This Way and a hospital gown @-@ clad " Marry the Night " finale that paid tribute to her music video . On December 9 , 2011 she gave a ballet @-@ themed performance of the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . Gaga also performed " Marry the Night " on the 2011 Music Station Super Live in Japan and she performed a medley of " Heavy Metal Lover / Marry the Night / Born This Way " on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest on December 31 , 2011 . The song was performed as the second encore on the Born This Way Ball .
= = Cover versions = =
In 2013 , pop singer Adam Lambert performed a cover version on Glee 's fifth season episode " A Katy or a Gaga " as his character Elliot " Starchild " Gilbert . Lambert 's cover would later chart at number 39 on the US Pop Digital Songs chart .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and management
Recorded at Studio Bus in Europe ( during The Monster Ball Tour )
Mixed at The Mix Room ( Burbank , California )
Mastered at Oasis Mastering ( Burbank , California )
Published by Stefani Germanotta P / K / A Lady Gaga ( BMI ) Sony ATV songs LLC / House of Gaga Publishing Inc . / GloJoe Music Inc . ( BMI ) Sony ATV / Warner @-@ Tamerlane Publishing Corp. ( BMI ) and Garibay Music Publishing ( BMI )
All rights on behalf of itself and Garibay Music Publishing administered by Warner @-@ Tamerlane Publishing Corp.
Personnel
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , producer , background vocals
Fernando Garibay – songwriter , producer , programming , keyboards
DJ White Shadow – drum programming
Dave Russell – recording , audio mixing
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering
Eric Morris – assistant
Paul Pavao – assistant
Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ed Westcott =
James Edward Westcott ( born January 20 , 1922 ) is a photographer who worked for the United States government in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , during the Manhattan Project and the Cold War . As one of the few people permitted to have a camera in the Oak Ridge area during the Manhattan Project , he created the main visual record of the construction and operation of the Oak Ridge production facilities and of civilian life in the enclosed community of Oak Ridge .
= = Early life and career = =
Ed Westcott was born on January 20 , 1922 , in Chattanooga , Tennessee , the son of Jamie and Lucille Westcott , and moved to Nashville with his family as a child . After Ed expressed an interest in photography , his father saved for a year to buy him a Foth Derby camera that cost $ 25 . The gift of that camera in the Depression year of 1934 started young Ed on the path to his future career . During his teenage years , he got into the business of developing film for friends and neighbors and worked in several Nashville portrait studios . In 1941 , he joined the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , as a photographer in the Corps ' Nashville District . His job for the Corps sent him around the region to create photographic documentation of several dams , a site in Tennessee that later became prisoner of war camp , and the airport and other facilities at Fort Campbell on the Tennessee @-@ Kentucky border .
= = Photographer for the Manhattan Project and its aftermath = =
In December 1942 , the Army Corps transferred the 20 @-@ year @-@ old Westcott to the Clinton Engineer Works at the then @-@ secret Oak Ridge site . He later recalled that :
By November 1942 , work was nearing completion on army camps , air bases , dams and enemy internment camps in seven southern states where I photographed many areas for site selection and construction progress reports for the US Corps of Engineers . I was one of the last of the 10 cameramen to leave the Nashville District office of the Corps of Engineers and the only one to accept a transfer with the engineers . Having a choice of a project in Alaska or a new job starting near Knoxville that would take a predicted five years to complete , I selected Knoxville .
Westcott was the 29th employee hired for the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge , where he was to work as an official government photographer from 1942 to 1966 . During much of World War II he was employed by the Roane @-@ Anderson Company , under contract to the Army Corps . As well as photographing the construction and mechanical workings of the X @-@ 10 , K @-@ 25 , Y @-@ 12 , and S @-@ 50 production facilities , he photographed civilian activities in Oak Ridge for the community 's Army @-@ sponsored weekly newspaper , the Oak Ridge Journal . All of Westcott 's wartime photos were produced with either a Speed Graphic or an 8x10 Deardorff view camera .
Some of his images were among the photos that were distributed to news media with the announcement of the first atomic bomb and the secret project that created it . In the weeks before the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 , prints of 18 of his photographs were made in secrecy in preparation for the announcement . The photographs were declassified and distributed as part of the press kit . He also processed film taken by the damage assessment teams in his laboratory in Oak Ridge . It took three days to print them . Armed guards outside the darkroom .
In June 1945 , Westcott became an Army employee again , and in the post @-@ war years he transitioned to employment with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) after its formation in 1946 . In 1966 he was assigned to the AEC headquarters near Washington , DC , in Germantown , Maryland , where he worked for the AEC and its successor agencies ( the Energy Research and Development Administration and Department of Energy ) until retiring in 1977 . He photographed nuclear power stations all over the United States .
During Westcott 's 35 @-@ year professional career , his assignments included creating photographic documentation of many notable people , including Manhattan Project scientists J. Robert Oppenheimer , Arthur Compton , Glenn Seaborg , Vannevar Bush , Ernest O. Lawrence , and James Bryant Conant , U.S. Army Generals Leslie Groves , Maxwell Taylor and Kenneth Nichols , Admiral Hyman Rickover , Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson , U.S. Senators Estes Kefauver and Kenneth McKellar of Tennessee and Robert A. Taft of Ohio , Tennessee Valley Authority director and AEC chairman David Lilienthal , and seven or eight U.S. Presidents .
Westcott 's February 1946 photo portrait of Oppenheimer is highly regarded for depicting the Manhattan Project scientific director as a man weary from the tremendous weight of his experience . When he met with Oppenheimer , Westcott learned that the physicist wanted a cigarette but lacked the change to buy some . After Westcott gave him the money he needed , Oppenheimer bought his cigarettes and lit one . Westcott then captured the image of the physicist sitting next to a fireplace mantel in the Oak Ridge Guest House holding the freshly lighted cigarette in his hand .
In spite of the informality suggested by the cigarette , University of Tennessee photography professor Baldwin Lee points out that the photo was carefully planned and posed . According to Lee , Westcott instructed Oppenheimer to sit " slightly askance " and to lean forward slightly , and then he took the photograph from a low vantage point that " makes the viewer physically look up at the man , " thus enhancing the subject 's perceived importance . Lee 's critique also notes that Oppenheimer 's gaze does not appear to be directed anywhere in the room , but instead is aimed at " something very distant and something only he can see . "
= = Exhibits and publications = =
Much of Ed Westcott 's photographic work was classified when it was first created , and some of it remained classified for many years , but access to his work is now largely unrestricted . About 5 @,@ 000 negatives are archived by the National Archives in Washington , DC . His photographs have been widely reproduced , often without naming him as the photographer , in publications and exhibits about the Manhattan Project .
The first museum exhibition devoted to Westcott 's work was organized by the Children 's Museum of Oak Ridge in 1981 , entitled " Oak Ridge Seen 1943 @-@ 1947 : 20 Photographs by Edward Westcott . " In 2005 , the Ewing Gallery of Art and Architecture at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville mounted an exhibition of his photos , entitled " Through the Lens of Ed Westcott : A Photographic History of World War II 's Secret City " . The American Museum of Science and Energy and the Children 's Museum of Oak Ridge both have exhibits devoted to Westcott and his work , in addition to displaying his photos as part of exhibits on the city 's history . A selection of works from the Ewing Gallery exhibit is now a touring museum exhibit .
A photograph of an Oak Ridge supermarket that Westcott created in 1945 , " Tulip Town Market , Grove Center , " was featured by the National Archives as part of a 2005 @-@ 2006 exhibit named " The Way We Worked . " Collections of Westcott 's Oak Ridge photographs have been published in the catalog to the Ewing Gallery exhibit ( University of Tennessee , 2005 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 9761663 @-@ 1 @-@ 3 ) and in the book Oak Ridge by Ed Westcott ( Arcadia Publishing , 2005 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 7385 @-@ 4170 @-@ 2 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7385 @-@ 4170 @-@ 9 ) . A photo by Westcott of shift change at Y @-@ 12 during the Manhattan Project , blown up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 50 feet ( 15 m ) , is displayed on the wall of the cafeteria at the Y @-@ 12 National Nuclear Security Complex .
= = Personal = =
Westcott resides in Oak Ridge . He was married to Esther Seigenthaler Westcott for 56 years before her death . They had five children . His grandson Phil works as a photographer in Alaska for the National Park Service , documenting the effects of global warming . Westcott suffered a stroke in 2005 that impaired his speech . The Oak Ridge Kroger Marketplace shopping center , which opened in 2014 , is named the " Westcott Center " in his honor .
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= Manoj – Babli honour killing case =
The Manoj – Babli honour killing case was the honour killing of Indian newlyweds Manoj Banwala and Babli in June 2007 and the successive court case which historically convicted defendants for an honour killing . The individuals involved in the murder included relatives of Babli ( Grandfather Gangaraj who is said to have been a Khap leader , Brother , Maternal and Paternal uncle and two cousins ) . Relatives of Manoj , specially his mother defended the relationship .
The killing was ordered by a khap panchayat ( khap ) , a religious caste @-@ based council among Jats , in their Karora village in Kaithal district , Haryana .
The khap passed a decree prohibiting marriage against societal norms . Such caste @-@ based councils are common in the inner regions of several Indian states , including Haryana , Punjab , western Uttar Pradesh , parts of Rajasthan and Bihar , and have been operating with government approval for years . In any event , the state government expressed no concern about the ruling of the khap panchayat .
The Khap panchayat 's ruling was based on the assumption that Manoj and Babli belonged to the Banwala gotra , a Jat community , and were therefore considered to be siblings despite not being directly related and any union between them would be invalid and incestuous . Nevertheless , the couple went ahead with their marriage , following which they were abducted and killed by Babli 's relatives .
In March 2010 a Karnal district court sentenced the five perpetrators to be executed , the first time an Indian court had done so in an honour killing case . The khap head who ordered but did not take part in the killings received a life sentence , and the driver involved in the abduction a seven @-@ year prison term . According to Home Minister P. Chidambaram , the UPA @-@ led central government was to propose an amendment to the Indian Penal Code ( IPC ) in response to the deaths of Manoj and Babli , making honour killings a " distinct offense " .
= = Background = =
Manoj 's and Babli 's families lived in Karoran Village , Kaithal . Manoj 's mother , Chanderpati Berwal , had four children , of which Manoj was the eldest . Chanderpati was widowed at the age of 37 , when Manoj was only 9 . Manoj owned an electronics repair shop at Kaithal and was the only member of his family receiving income . Manoj 's cousin , Narender , lived with the family and worked in Panchkula .
Babli 's mother , Ompati , also had four children , including eldest son , Suresh , and Babli . Like Manoj , Suresh was the only earning member of the family . Babli was still studying in school . Ompati is a widow .
= = Development of the relationship and subsequent marriage = =
In 2005 , Manoj and Babli began to show interest in each other . Manoj was two years older than Babli . All residents of their Karora village belong to the same clan of Banwala , a Jat community , and marrying within the clan is considered incest . Chanderpati recalled , " We knew about Babli long before they decided to marry each other . She would call up often and I would sermonize to her about staying away from Manoj , fearing the fallout of such an alliance . They were , however , unconcerned and chatted for hours together . If I did walk into the room while they were talking , Manoj would quickly disconnect the phone and run off to avoid any questioning . " She continued , " I even went to Babli 's house and told her mother that Manoj and Babli were seeing each other . I asked her to dissuade Babli or quickly marry them before the word spread . "
Two years later , on 5 April 2007 , Chanderpati last saw Manoj . " He ate his food and left to sleep at the shop since he had a class XII compartment exam in English to take the next day . Unlike other days , next morning , he did not show up . " The following day Babli 's uncle arrived to speak with Manoj . According to Chanderpati , " He said he had come to recover some money that Manoj had borrowed , had tea and left when I told him that Manoj was away for an exam . We only discovered late in the evening that Babli , too , was missing and the two had run away . " Manoj had eloped with Babli to Chandigarh and married her on 7 April at a Durga temple , their commitment to one another transcending their willingness to abide by the societal norms .
Furious with the marriage , Babli 's family asked for intervention from the local khap panchayat , which annulled the marriage . The khap also announced a social boycott on Manoj 's family . Anyone who kept ties with them would be fined ₨ 25 @,@ 000 . Ompati tried to persuade her family that Babli did nothing dishonorable and that she and Manoj would move back home soon .
= = Court appearance = =
On 26 April , Babli 's family filed a First Information Report ( FIR ) against Manoj and his family for kidnapping Babli . On 15 June , Manoj went to court with Babli , testifying that they had married in conformity with the law and that he did not kidnap Babli . The judge ordered police protection for the two . Chandrapati did not attend the trial so that Babli 's family would not be aware that Manoj and Babli were in town .
After the trial , Manoj and Babli , accompanied by a team of five police officers assigned to them for protection , left for Chandigarh . The police left them at Pipli and slipped away . Suspecting foul play , Manoj and Babli did not continue toward Chandigarh , instead boarding a bus for Karnal . According to a statement filed by Chanderpati , later that day , around 3 : 40 pm , she received a call from a Pipli telephone booth from Manoj , who said that the police had deserted them , and Babli 's family members were trailing them , so they would try to take a bus to Delhi and call her back later . Babli asked for acceptance from Chanderpati , who replied affirmatively . That was the last time Manoj 's family heard from the couple .
On 20 June , Chanderpati 's complaint regarding the kidnapping was filed as an FIR at the Bhutana police station following media pressure on the police .
= = Kidnapping and murder = =
The couple 's bus left for Delhi , but en route at 4 : 30 pm , Babli 's relatives stopped the bus near Raipur Jatan village , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Pipli . They kidnapped the couple in a Scorpio SUV driven by Mandeep Singh . Kuldip Thekedar , a road contractor , witnessed the kidnapping and filed a complaint at the Butana police station in Karnal district , giving the licence plate number of the Scorpio . Later , Chanderpati ascribed the murder to the unauthorised withdrawal of the couple 's security team ignoring the orders given by the district and sessions judge ( DSJ ) of Kaithal . Upon receiving no further news , Chanderpati 's nephew , Narendra Singh traced the contractor , and after he was shown a photo of the couple , the contractor recognised the couple . The family then understood that Manoj and Babli were the victims of the kidnapping .
After the kidnapping , the couple were beaten . Babli 's brother Suresh forced her to consume pesticide , while four other family members pushed Manoj to the ground , her uncle Rajinder pulling a noose around Manoj 's neck and strangling him in front of Babli . They wrapped the bodies in gunny sacks and dumped them in Barwala Link Canal in Hisar district . On 23 June , nine days later , their mutilated bodies , hands and feet tied , were fished out of the canal by Kheri Chowki police . After autopsy , police preserved Manoj 's shirt and Babli 's anklet and cremated the bodies as unclaimed on 24 June . On 1 July the family identified them by the remnants of their clothing . The accused were subsequently arrested .
Police discovered a number of articles in the Scorpio used to kidnap the couple — parts of Babli 's anklet , two buttons from Manoj 's shirt , and torn photographs of the couple . Manoj 's purse was found on one of the accused .
= = Court judgement = =
No Karnal lawyer would adopt the case , so Manoj 's family had to find lawyers from Hisar . Later on Adv. Sunil Rana from karnal accepted the case , arguing on their behalf public prosecutor Sunil Rana and lawyers Lal Bahadur , Surat Singh , Cornel Omparkash , and Rakesh Manjhu from Hisar , Haryana . Bahadur argued that the couples ' clothes recovered from the canal and photographs from the Scorpio established that day 's happenings . Bahadur also cited the contractor 's statement and the last phone call from Manoj , in which Manoj had related that Babli 's relatives were trailing them . However , the contractor " turned hostile " and withdrew his statement .
Arguing for the defence was lawyer Jagmal Singh . He asserted that there was no evidence against the accused and that it was all contrived by the media , no evidence that the khap panchayat ever met to discuss the fate of the couple , and no evidence indicating that Manoj and Babli were dead . The cremated bodies recovered from the canal were never confirmed to be those of Manoj and Babli .
On 29 March 2010 , after 33 months of 50 hearings with 41 witnesses , the karnal District court found the accused guilty of murder , kidnapping , conspiracy , and destroying evidence under respective sections in the IPC . The next day , 30 March , for the first time in Haryana state history , a death penalty verdict was announced in the double murder case for the five accused . All were related to Babli , and included her brother Suresh , cousins Gurdev and Satish , paternal uncle Rajender , and maternal uncle Baru Ram . The leader of the khap panchayat Ganga Raj ( 52 ) , was given a life sentence for conspiracy , while the driver , Mandeep Singh , held guilty of kidnapping , was given a jail term of seven years . The court asked the Haryana government to provide a compensation of ₨ 100 @,@ 000 to Chanderpati , who had filed the case . Ganga Raj was fined ₨ 16 @,@ 000 , and the other six convicts ₨ 6 @,@ 000 each .
The court also accused six police personnel of dereliction of duty and directed the SSP of Kaithal to take action against them . The personnel included head constable Jayender Singh , sub @-@ inspector Jagbir Singh , and the members of the escort party provided to the couple . They claimed that the couple wanted them to leave . The SSP 's statement was that " [ i ] t is correct that the deceased couple had given in writing not to take police security any further , but Jagbir Singh was well aware that there was a threat to their lives from the relatives of the girl . " The report stated that Jayender informed Gurdev Singh of the location of the police and that of Manoj and Babli over his mobile phone . Jayender was dismissed from the police force , and both he and Jagbir were penalised by a cut of two increments .
In her verdict , district judge Vani Gopal Sharma stated , " This court has gone through sleepless nights and tried to put itself in the shoes of the offenders and think as to what might have prompted them to take such a step . " " Khap panchayats have functioned contrary to the constitution , ridiculed it and have become a law unto themselves . "
Bahadur was satisfied with the decision , " Out of seven accused , five have been given death sentences . This will send a strong message to the public that law is greater than the khap . " However , he was disappointed that " the leader [ Ganga Raj ] got away with death penalty because he intentionally disappeared during the killing . " Narendra said , " We will appeal in High Court for death penalty to the main accused , Ganga Raj . We respect the court 's decision but he should be punished so that the instigators of the crime get the punishment . Also it is important that it is a very clear message so that no khap gives such directions , ever . " Seema seconded Narendra 's concerns , " We would have been happier if the main accused was also given the death sentence . The decision of the panchayat was not justified and people should not to be allowed to misuse their power . We have fought this battle alone when no one was supporting us . " She requested more security for her family , " They tried to bribe us to withdraw the case then they threatened that they would kill us if we didn 't withdraw the FIR . Even after the decision we 're afraid of a backlash from the Khap Panchayat . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Historical significance = = =
The case was the first resulting in the conviction of khap panchayats and the first capital punishment verdict in an honour killing case in India . The Indian media and legal experts hailed it as a " landmark judgement " , a victory over these infamous assemblies , which acted for years with impunity as parallel judicial bodies . Also , few honour killing cases went to court , and this was the first case in which the groom 's family in an honour killing filed the case . In a statement to the press , former Home Minister Chidambaram slammed the khap panchayats , asking tersely , " Who are these khap panchayats ? Who gave them the right to kill in the name of honour ? "
Surat Singh , director of the Haryana Institute of Rural Development , Nilokheri , anticipated that the verdict will end the diktats of khap panchayats . The khaps had never worried before because their " political bosses refrained from acting against them . With this verdict , those who try to impose a medieval order on society will think twice " . Political analyst Ranbir Singh agreed that the judgement will " act as a deterrent " . Additional Advocate General Arun Walia hailed the decision : " before passing ruthless judgments , the members will surely take note of this decision " .
The honour killing inspired Ajay Sinha to produce a film titled Khap — A Story of Honour Killing starring Om Puri , Yuvika Chaudhary , Govind Namdeo , Anuradha Patel , and Mohnish Behl , to raise awareness about the khap 's diktats . It will cost ₨ 25 – 30 million and was expected to enter theatres by late July 2010 . Sinha claimed that the film is based on not one distinct killing but many . He considered the film " a protest against such traditions and practice " . For research , Sinha had visited Haryana and spoken to khap members .
= = = Chanderpati = = =
Days after the verdict , a The Times of India headline hailed Chanderpati , who struggled years for justice , as " Mother Courage " for having done " what even top politicians and bureaucrats have shied away from doing — taken on the dreaded khap panchayats . " Chanderpati now lives with her two daughters and remaining son under the protection of two policemen . She withdrew her daughter Rekha from public school and sent Vinod to a school in another district . Chanderpati also reported threats from villagers , " The villagers have threatened to eliminate us . I am enemy number one and my son is a culprit . We 've been told our ordeal can end if we withdraw the police case but we refused . So , the nightmare continues . "
Chanderpati has stated she intends to continue until Ganga Raj is sentenced to death : " Our fight has not ended here . We will not rest till he [ Ganga Raj ] also gets the death penalty . " The khap panchayats remain defiant even after the verdict . " The verdict has done justice to my son 's death , but it has not changed the way the village works , " Chanderpati said . " I am fighting but my son died only because the girl 's male relatives could kill their own sister . Families allow themselves to be instigated . As long as men can kill their own daughters , what change will there be ? "
= = = Vani Gopal Sharma = = =
Judge Vani Gopal Sharma has supposedly been receiving threats since her verdict in the case . The High Court had directed adequate security to be provided to her , but later she again informed the High Court of the failure to increase security . She sought transfer to Panchkula , a city near Chandigarh . She requested this shortly after her verdict was denounced vehemently by the khap panchayats . The police chief of Karnal district , Rakesh Kumar Arya , claimed that Sharma did not complain about inadequate security . " There is no truth in reports that Karnal 's Additional District Sessions Judge wants to move out of the district on account of inadequate security , " he said . " I don 't know whether any such request was made , but it looks unlikely . "
= = = Khap protests = = =
A maha khap panchayat ( grand caste council ) representing 20 khap panchayats of Haryana , Uttar Pradesh , and Rajasthan held a meeting on 13 April 2010 , in Kurukshetra to challenge the court verdict and support those sentenced to death in the case . They planned to raise money for the families of the convicts to hire top lawyers for the appeal . Each family in Haryana that was part of a khap panchayat was to contribute ₨ 10 . They also demanded that the Hindu Marriage Act be amended to ban same @-@ gotra marriages .
The khaps threatened to boycott any MP and assembly member from Haryana who did not back the khaps request . They also blocked the Kurukshetra @-@ Kaithal highway in protest .
Dissatisfied with the decision at the April meeting , the maha khap panchayat called another meeting on 23 May in Jind to discuss their plans .
= = = Developments in honour killing law = = =
After the court judgement , state authorities began to take on the khap panchayats , and consequently , many village sarpanches ( village heads ) supporting these councils were suspended . Top Jat leader and former minister Shamsher Singh Surjewala said , " The diktats and fatwas issued by so @-@ called gotra khaps on breaking of marriages and other similar issues would lead to ' Talibanisation ' of society as such decisions were illegal and against the constitution . "
On 5 August 2010 , in a Parliament session , Chidambaram proposed a bill that included " public stripping of women and externment of young couples from villages and any ' act which is humiliating will be punished with severity ' " in the definition of honour killing and that would " make khap @-@ dictated honour killings a distinct offence so that all those who participate in the decision are liable to attract the death sentence " . He insinuated that the proposed law would place the " onus of proof on the accused " . A July 2010 The Times of India article anticipated that the bill would not pass in the monsoon session of Parliament in the same year .
= = Appeal = =
The accused appealed to the Punjab and Haryana High Court . Ganga Raj 's appeal for parole was declined . On 13 May 2010 , the court admitted the appeal of him and the other six convicts challenging the court 's verdict . On 11 March , the Punjab and Haryana High Court commuted the death sentence awarded to four convicts – Babli 's brother Suresh , uncles Rajender and Baru Ram and Gurdev in the Manoj – Babli honour killing case to life imprisonment . Ganga Raj , said to be the prime conspirator , and another convict Satish were acquitted . In an interview to Newsclick , Manoj 's relatives – Seema and Chanderpati affirmed that they would challenge Ganga Raj 's and Satish 's acquittal in the Supreme Court .
= = In popular culture = =
The June 3 , 2012 , episode , Intolerance to Love of TV series , Satyamev Jayate , hosted by actor Aamir Khan , featured an interview with Manoj ’ s sister and mother Seema and Chandrapati Banwala . The episode discussed this incident along with other cases in the episode .
In August 2013 , senior journalist Chander Suta Dogra , published a book , Manoj and Babli : A Hate Story ( Penguin ) based on the honour killing case .
In 2015 , a Bollywood Hindi film Guddu Rangeela used Manoj – Babli honour killing case in its storyline .
In 2015 , a Bollwood film called NH10 was released to critical and public acclaim , with a story @-@ line loosely based on this case .
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= The Rape of Nanking ( book ) =
The Rape of Nanking : The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II is a bestselling 1997 non @-@ fiction book written by Iris Chang about the 1937 – 1938 Nanking Massacre , the massacre and atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army after it captured Nanjing , then capital of China , during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . It describes the events leading up to the Nanking Massacre and the atrocities that were committed . The book presents the view that the Japanese government has not done enough to redress the atrocities . It is one of the first major English @-@ language books to introduce the Nanking Massacre to Western and Eastern readers alike , and has been translated into several languages .
The book was a source of fame for Chang but was also controversial ; it was received with both acclaim and criticism by the public and by academics . It has been praised as a work that " shows more clearly than any previous account " the extent and brutality of the episode , while at the same time it was criticized as " seriously flawed " and " full of misinformation and harebrained explanations " . Chang 's research on the book was credited with the finding of the diaries of John Rabe and Minnie Vautrin , both of whom played important roles in the Nanking Safety Zone , a designated area in Nanjing that protected Chinese civilians during the Nanking Massacre .
The book prompted AOL executive Ted Leonsis to fund and produce Nanking , a 2007 documentary film about the Nanking Massacre .
= = Inspiration = =
When Iris Chang was a child , she was told by her parents , who had escaped with their families from China to Taiwan and then to the United States after World War II , that during the Nanking Massacre , the Japanese " sliced babies not just in half but in thirds and fourths . " In the introduction of The Rape of Nanking , she wrote that throughout her childhood , the Nanking Massacre " remained buried in the back of [ her ] mind as a metaphor for unspeakable evil . " When she searched the local public libraries in her school and found nothing , she wondered why no one had written a book about it .
The subject of the Nanking Massacre entered Chang 's life again almost two decades later when she learned of producers who had completed documentary films about it . One of the producers was Shao Tzuping , who helped produce Magee 's Testament , a film that contains footage of the Nanking Massacre itself , shot by the missionary John Magee . The other producer was Nancy Tong , who , together with Christine Choy , produced and co @-@ directed In The Name of the Emperor , a film containing a series of interviews with Chinese , American , and Japanese citizens . Chang began talking to Shao and Tong , and soon she was connected to a network of activists who felt the need to document and publicize the Nanking Massacre .
In December 1994 , she attended a conference on the Nanking Massacre , held in Cupertino , California , and what she saw and heard at the conference motivated her to write The Rape of Nanking . As she wrote in the introduction to the book , while she was at the conference , she was " suddenly in a panic that this terrifying disrespect for death and dying , this reversion in human social evolution , would be reduced to a footnote of history , treated like a harmless glitch in a computer program that might or might not again cause a problem , unless someone forced the world to remember it . "
= = Research = =
Chang spent two years on research for the book . She found source materials in the US , including diaries , films , and photographs of missionaries , journalists , and military officers who were in Nanjing at the time of the massacre . Additionally , she traveled to Nanjing to interview survivors of the Nanking Massacre and to read Chinese accounts and confessions by Japanese army veterans . Chang did not , however , conduct research in Japan , and this left her vulnerable to criticisms on how she portrayed modern Japan in the context of how it deals with its World War II past .
Chang 's research led her to make what one San Francisco Chronicle article called " significant discoveries " on the subject of the Nanking Massacre , in the forms of the diaries of two Westerners who were in Nanjing leading efforts to save lives during the Japanese invasion . One diary was that of John Rabe , a German Nazi Party member who was the leader of the Nanking Safety Zone , a demilitarized zone in Nanjing that Rabe and other Westerners set up to protect Chinese civilians . The other diary belonged to Minnie Vautrin , the American missionary who saved the lives of about 10 @,@ 000 women and children when she provided them with shelter in Ginling College . The diaries documented the events of the Nanking Massacre from the perspectives of their writers , and provided detailed accounts of atrocities that they saw , as well as information surrounding the circumstances of the Nanking Safety Zone . Chang dubbed Rabe the " Oskar Schindler of Nanking " and Vautrin the " Anne Frank of Nanking " . Rabe 's diary is over 800 pages , and contains one of the most detailed accounts of the Nanking Massacre . Translated into English , it was published in 1998 by Random House as The Good Man of Nanking : The Diaries of John Rabe . Vautrin 's diary recounts her personal experience and feelings on the Nanking Massacre ; in it , an entry reads , " There probably is no crime that has not been committed in this city today . " It was used as source material by Hua @-@ ling Hu for a biography of Vautrin and her role during the Nanking Massacre , entitled American Goddess at the Rape of Nanking : The Courage of Minnie Vautrin .
= = The book = =
The Rape of Nanking is structured into three main parts . The first uses a technique that Chang called " the Rashomon perspective " to narrate the events of the Nanking Massacre , from three different perspectives : that of the Japanese military , the Chinese victims , and the Westerners who tried to help Chinese civilians . The second part concerns the postwar reaction to the massacre , especially that of the American and European governments . The third part of the book examines the circumstances that , Chang believed , have kept knowledge of the massacre out of public consciousness decades after the war .
= = = Atrocities = = =
The book depicted in detail the killing , torture , and rape that occurred during the Nanking Massacre . Chang listed and described the kinds of torture that were visited upon the residents , including live burials , mutilation , " death by fire " , " death by ice " , and " death by dogs " . Based on the testimony of a survivor of the massacre , Chang also described a killing contest amongst a group of Japanese soldiers to determine who could kill the fastest . On the rape that occurred during the massacre , Chang wrote that " certainly it was one of the greatest mass rapes in world history . " She estimated that the number of women raped ranged from 20 @,@ 000 to as many as 80 @,@ 000 , and stated that women from all classes were raped , including Buddhist nuns . Furthermore , rape occurred in all locations and at all hours , and both very young and very old women were raped . Not even pregnant women were spared , Chang wrote , and that after gang rape , Japanese soldiers " sometimes slashed open the bellies of pregnant women and ripped out the fetuses for amusement " . Not all rape victims were women , according to the book , Chinese men were sodomized and forced to perform repulsive sexual acts . Some were forced to commit incest — fathers to rape their own daughters , brothers their sisters , sons their mothers .
= = = Death toll = = =
Chang wrote of the death toll estimates given by different sources ; Chinese military specialist Liu Fang @-@ chu proposed a figure of 430 @,@ 000 ; officials at the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall and the procurator of the District Court of Nanjing in 1946 stated at least 300 @,@ 000 were killed ; the International Military Tribunal for the Far East ( IMTFE ) judges concluded that more than 260 @,@ 000 people were killed ; Japanese historian Fujiwara Akira approximated 200 @,@ 000 ; John Rabe , who " never conducted a systematic count and left Nanking in February " , estimated only 50 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 ; and Japanese author Ikuhiko Hata argued the number killed was between 38 @,@ 000 and 42 @,@ 000 .
The book discussed the research of historian Sun Zhaiwei of the Jiangsu Academy of Social Sciences . In his 1990 paper , The Nanking Massacre and the Nanking Population , Sun estimated the total number of people killed at 377 @,@ 400 . Using Chinese burial records , he calculated that the number of dead exceeded the figure of 227 @,@ 400 . He then added estimates totaling 150 @,@ 000 given by Japanese Imperial Army Major Ohta Hisao in a confessional report about the Japanese army 's disposal efforts of dead bodies , arriving at the sum of 377 @,@ 400 dead .
Chang wrote that there is " compelling evidence " that the Japanese themselves , at the time , believed that the death toll may have been as high as 300 @,@ 000 . She cited a message that Japan 's foreign minister Kōki Hirota relayed to his contacts in Washington , DC in the first month of the massacre on January 17 , 1938 . The message acknowledged that " not less than three hundred thousand Chinese civilians [ were ] slaughtered , many cases in cold blood . "
= = Acclaim = =
The Rape of Nanking sold more than half a million copies when it was first published in the U. S. , and according to The New York Times , received general critical acclaim . Iris Chang became an instant celebrity in the U. S. ; she was awarded honorary degrees , invited to give lectures and to discuss the Nanking Massacre on shows such as Good Morning America , Nightline , and The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer , and was profiled by The New York Times and featured on the cover of Reader 's Digest . The book was on the New York Times ' Best Seller list for 10 weeks and sold more than 125 @,@ 000 copies in four months . Hillary Clinton invited her to the White House , U. S. historian Stephen Ambrose described her as " maybe the best young historian we 've got " , and the Organization of Chinese Americans named her National Woman of the Year . The book 's popularity prompted a lengthy book tour , with Chang visiting 65 cities in over a year and a half .
The book received praise from news media . The Wall Street Journal wrote that it was the " first comprehensive examination of the destruction of this Chinese imperial city " , and that Chang " skillfully excavated from oblivion the terrible events that took place " . The Atlantic Monthly described the book as " a crushing indictment of the Japanese army 's behavior " . The Chicago Tribune called it " a powerful new work of history and moral inquiry " and stated that " Chang takes great care to establish an accurate accounting of the dimensions of the violence . " The Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that it was a " compelling account of a horrendous episode that , until recently , has been largely forgotten " , and that " animals do not behave the way the Japanese troops of the Imperial Army behaved . "
According to William C. Kirby , Professor of History at Harvard University , Chang " shows more clearly than any previous account just what [ the Japanese ] did " , and that she " draws connections between the slaughter in Europe and in Asia of millions of innocents during World War II " . Ross Terrill , an associate in research at the Fairbank Center for East Asian Research at Harvard University , wrote that the book is " scholarly , an exciting investigation and a work of passion " . Beatrice S. Bartlett , Emeritus Professor of History at Yale University , wrote , " Iris Chang 's research on the Nanking holocaust yields a new and expanded telling of this World War II atrocity and reflects thorough research . "
= = Criticism = =
Joshua A. Fogel , at York University , argued that the book is " seriously flawed " and " full of misinformation and harebrained explanations . " He suggested that the book " starts to fall apart " when Chang tries to explain why the massacre took place , as she repeatedly comments on " the Japanese psyche " , which she sees as " the historical product of centuries of conditioning that all boil down to mass murder " even though in the introduction , she wrote that she would offer no " commentary on the Japanese character or the genetic makeup of a people who could commit such acts " . Fogel asserted that part of the problem was Chang 's " lack of training as a historian " and another part was " the book 's dual aim as passionate polemic and dispassionate history " . David M. Kennedy , a Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning professor of history at Stanford University , also pointed out that while Chang noted that " this book is not intended as a commentary on the Japanese character , " she then wrote about the " ' Japanese identity ' — a bloody business , in her estimation , replete with martial competitions , samurai ethics , and the fearsome warriors ' code of bushido " , making the inference that " ' the path to Nanking ' runs through the very marrow of Japanese culture . " Kennedy also suggested that " accusation and outrage , rather than analysis and understanding , are this book 's dominant motifs , and although outrage is a morally necessary response to Nanjing , it is an intellectually insufficient one . " Roger B. Jeans , professor of history at Washington and Lee University , referred to Chang 's book as " half @-@ baked history " , and criticized her lack of experience with the subject matter :
In writing about this horrific event , Chang strives to portray it as an unexamined Asian holocaust . Unfortunately , she undermines her argument — she is not a trained historian — by neglecting the wealth of sources in English and Japanese on this event . This leads her into errors such as greatly inflating the population of Nanjing ( Nanking ) at that time and uncritically accepting the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal and contemporary Chinese figures for the numbers of Chinese civilians and soldiers killed . What particularly struck me about her argument was her attempt to charge all Japanese with refusing to accept the fact of the ' Rape of Nanking ' and her condemnation of the ' persistent Japanese refusal to come to terms with its past.'
Jeans continued what he calls " giving the lie to Iris Chang 's generalizations about ' the Japanese ' " by discussing the clashing interest groups within Japanese society over such things as museums , textbooks , and war memory .
Robert Entenmann , professor of history at St. Olaf College , criticized the work on the grounds that the " Japanese historical background Chang presents is clichéd , simplistic , stereotyped , and often inaccurate . " On Chang 's treatment of modern Japanese reaction to the massacre , he writes that Chang seemed " unable to differentiate between some members of the ultranationalist fringe and other Japanese " , and that " her own ethnic prejudice implicitly pervades her book . " Stating that Chang 's description of the massacre is " open to criticism " , Entenmann further commented that Chang " does not adequately explain why the massacre occurred " .
Timothy M. Kelly , professor at Edogawa University , described Chang 's work as exhibiting " simple carelessness , sheer sloppiness , historical inaccuracies , and shameless plagiarism . " Kelly further criticized Chang for her " lack of attention to detail " . Finally , Kelly charged that Chang had plagiarized passages and an illustration from Japan 's Imperial Conspiracy by David Bergamini .
Kennedy criticized Chang 's accusation of " Western indifference " and " Japanese denial " of the massacre as " exaggerated " , commenting that " the Western world in fact neither then nor later ignored the Rape of Nanking " , " nor is Chang entirely correct that Japan has obstinately refused to acknowledge its wartime crimes , let alone express regret for them . " Chang argues that Japan " remains to this day a renegade nation , " having " managed to avoid the moral judgment of the civilized world that the Germans were made to accept for their actions in this nightmare time . " However , according to Kennedy , this accusation has already become a cliché of Western criticism of Japan , most notably exemplified by Ian Buruma 's The Wages of Guilt ( 1994 ) , whose general thesis might be summarized as " Germany remembers too much , Japan too little . " Kennedy pointed out that a vocal Japanese left has long kept the memory of Nanking alive , noting the 1995 resolution of Japan 's House of Councillors that expressed " deep remorse " ( fukai hansei ) for the suffering that Japan inflicted on other peoples during World War II and clear apologies ( owabi ) for Imperial Japan 's offenses against other nations from two Japanese Prime Ministers .
Sonni Efron of the Los Angeles Times warned that the bitter row over Iris Chang 's book may leave Westerners with the " misimpression " that little has been written in Japan about the Nanjing Massacre , when in fact the National Diet Library holds at least 42 books about the Nanjing massacre and Japan 's wartime misdeeds , 21 of which were written by liberals investigating Japan 's wartime atrocities . In addition , Efron noted that geriatric Japanese soldiers have published their memoirs and have been giving speeches and interviews in increasing numbers , recounting the atrocities they committed or witnessed . After years of government @-@ enforced denial , Japanese middle school textbooks now carry accounts of the Nanjing massacre as accepted truth . Fogel also writes : " Dozens of Japanese scholars are now actively engaged in research on every aspect of the war .... Indeed , we know many details of the Nanjing massacre , Japanese sexual exploitation of ' comfort women , ' and biological and chemical warfare used in China because of the trailblazing research " of Japanese scholars .
San Francisco Chronicle staff writer Charles Burress wrote that Chang 's quote of a secret telegram sent by Japan 's foreign minister in 1938 was incorrectly cited as " compelling evidence " that Japanese troops killed at least 300 @,@ 000 Chinese civilians in Nanjing . According to Burress , the figure of 300 @,@ 000 Chinese civilians killed actually came from a message sent by a British reporter , concerning deaths not only in Nanjing but in other places as well . Additionally , Burress questioned Chang 's motivation for writing the book - whether she wrote it as an activist or as a historian , stating that the book " draws its emotional impetus " from her conviction to not let the Nanking Massacre be forgotten by the world . Burress also cited Ikuhiko Hata , a Japanese history professor at Nihon University , who argued that 11 photos in the book were misrepresented or fake . One particular photo shows women and children walking across a bridge with Japanese soldiers , and captioned as " The Japanese rounded up thousands of women . Most were gang @-@ raped or forced into military prostitution . " Hata stated that the photo originally appeared in 1937 in a Japanese newspaper as part of a series of photos that showed peaceful scenes of Chinese villagers under Japanese occupation .
Chang responded to Charles Burress 's criticism in a letter written to the San Francisco Chronicle , but the letter was not published by the newspaper . In the letter , she offered criticism of her own concerning Burress 's article . Chang found a " disturbing tendency " by Burress to quote right @-@ wing Japanese critics " without demanding evidence to back up their allegations " . She argued that Ikuhiko Hata , a source cited by Burress , was not " regarded as a serious scholar " in either Japan or in the U. S. , because he was a regular contributor to " ultra right @-@ wing " Japanese publications . One such publication had published an article from a Holocaust denier that argued that no gas chambers were used in Germany to kill Jews . This caused the parent publisher to shut down the publication . On Burress 's criticism of her inaccurate photo captioning , Chang disputed the contention that the caption was wrong . She wrote that her book dealt with the " horror of the Japanese invasion of China " , and that the caption reading " The Japanese rounded up thousands of women . Most were gang @-@ raped or forced into military prostitution " contained two statements of indisputable fact .
Chang also issued a rejoinder to Burress 's argument that she incorrectly cited a telegram sent by Japan 's foreign minister . She wrote that while the original figure of 300 @,@ 000 Chinese civilian deaths in Nanjing was reported by a British reporter , this figure was cited in a message that Japan 's foreign minister sent to his contacts in Washington , DC . Chang argued that figure 's use by a high @-@ ranking Japanese government official was evidence that the Japanese government recognized 300 @,@ 000 as the number of Chinese civilian deaths . Finally , she criticized Burress for his " nitpick " of small details in order to draw attention away from the scope and magnitude of the Nanking Massacre , writing that such was a " common tactic " of Holocaust deniers .
= = Reaction in Japan = =
The Rape of Nanking has caused controversy in Japan . Los Angeles Times staff writer , Sonni Efron , reported that Chang was also criticized by both Japanese " ultranationalists " , who believe that the massacre in Nanjing never took place , and Japanese liberals , who " insist the massacre happened but allege that Chang 's flawed scholarship damages their cause " . Associate Professor David Askew of Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University stated that Chang 's work dealt a " severe blow " to the " Great Massacre School " of thought , which advocates for the validity of the findings at the Tokyo Trials , the tribunal convened to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for crimes committed during World War II . Askew further argued that " the Great Massacre School has thus been forced into the ( unusual ) position of criticising a work that argues for a larger death toll . "
Following the publication of The Rape of Nanking , Japanese critic Masaaki Tanaka had his 1987 book on Nanking translated into English . Entitled What Really Happened in Nanking : The Refutation of a Common Myth , Tanaka stated in his introduction " I am convinced that [ American researchers ] will arrive at the realization that violations of international law of the magnitude alleged by Iris Chang in The Rape of Nanking ( more than 300 @,@ 000 murders and 80 @,@ 000 rapes ) never took place . "
Chang 's book was not published in a translated Japanese language edition until December 2007 . Problems with translation efforts surfaced immediately after a contract was signed for the Japanese publishing of the book . A Japanese literary agency informed Chang that several Japanese historians declined to review the translation , and that one professor backed out because of pressure placed on his family from " an unknown organization " . According to Japan scholar Ivan P. Hall , revisionist historians in Japan organized a committee of right @-@ wing scholars to condemn the book with repeated appearances at the Foreign Correspondents ' Club in Tokyo and throughout Japan . They prevailed on Kashiwa Shobo , the contracted Japanese publisher of the book , to insist that Chang edit the book for " corrections " they wanted made , to delete photographs and alter maps , and to publish a rebuttal to Chang 's book . Chang disagreed with the changes and , as a result , withdrew the Japanese publishing of the book . The rebuttal piece was nonetheless published as a book by Nobukatsu Fujioka and Shudo Higashinakano entitled A Study of ' The Rape of Nanking ' .
Shudo Higashinakano , a professor of intellectual history at Asia University of Japan , argued in Sankei Shimbun that the book was " pure baloney " , that there was " no witness of illegal executions or murders " , and that " there existed no ' Rape of Nanking ' as alleged by the Tokyo Trial . " He identified 90 historical factual errors in the first 64 pages of the book , some of which were corrected in the 1998 Penguin Books edition .
= = = Chang 's death = = =
The book was the main source of fame for Iris Chang , who was well respected in China for raising awareness of the Nanking Massacre in the Western world . At the same time , Chang received hate mail , primarily from Japanese ultranationalists , threatening notes on her car and believed her phone was tapped . Her mother said the book " made Iris sad " . Suffering from depression , Chang was diagnosed with brief reactive psychosis in August 2004 . She began taking medications to stabilize her mood . She wrote :
I can never shake my belief that I was being recruited , and later persecuted , by forces more powerful than I could have imagined . Whether it was the CIA or some other organization I will never know . As long as I am alive , these forces will never stop hounding me .
Chang committed suicide on November 9 , 2004 . A memorial service was held in China by Nanking Massacre survivors coinciding with her funeral in Los Altos California . The Memorial Hall of the Victims in the Nanjing Massacre , a memorial site in Nanjing built to commemorate the victims of the Nanking Massacre , added a wing dedicated to her in 2005 .
In the U. S. , a Chinese garden in Norfolk , Virginia , which contains a memorial to Minnie Vautrin , added a memorial dedicated to Chang , including her as the latest victim of the Nanking Massacre , and drawing parallels between Chang and Vautrin , who also took her own life . Vautrin exhausted herself trying to protect women and children during the Nanking Massacre and subsequently during the Japanese occupation of Nanjing , finally suffering a nervous breakdown in 1940 . She returned to the US for medical treatment , committing suicide a year later .
= = Editions = =
English : Chang , Iris ( 1997 ) . The Rape of Nanking : The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . Basic Books. p . 290 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 465 @-@ 06835 @-@ 7 .
Chang , Iris ( 1998 ) . The Rape of Nanking : The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II . Penguin USA ( Paper ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 027744 @-@ 9 . Foreword by Harvard professor William C. Kirby .
French : Chang , Iris ( 2010 ) . Le viol de Nankin – 1937 : un des plus grands massacres du XXe siècle . Payot. p . 367 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 228 @-@ 90520 @-@ 6 .
Chinese : 张 , 纯如 ( 2005 ) . 南京大屠杀 . Translated by 马志行 , 田怀滨 , 崔乃颖 . 东方出版社. p . 382 . ISBN 978 @-@ 7 @-@ 5060 @-@ 1052 @-@ 8 .
Japanese : 巫召鴻訳 『 ザ ・ レイプ ・ オブ ・ 南京 — 第二次世界大戦の忘れられたホロコースト 』 （ 同時代社 、 2007年12月 ） ISBN 4 @-@ 88683 @-@ 617 @-@ 8
( Corrected version ) 巫召鴻著 『 「 ザ ・ レイプ ・ オブ ・ 南京 」 を読む 』 （ 同時代社 、 2007年12月 ） ISBN 4 @-@ 88683 @-@ 618 @-@ 6
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= Aniru Conteh =
Aniru Sahib Sahib Conteh ( 6 August 1942 – 4 April 2004 ) was a Sierra Leonean physician and expert on the clinical treatment of Lassa fever , a viral haemorrhagic fever endemic to West Africa caused by the Lassa virus . Conteh studied medicine at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria and taught at Ibadan Teaching Hospital . He later returned to Sierra Leone where he joined the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) Lassa fever program at Nixon Methodist Hospital in Segbwema , first as superintendent and then as clinical director .
After the Sierra Leone Civil War began in 1991 , the CDC closed their program in Segbwema . Conteh and his medical team moved from Segbwema to the Kenema Government Hospital ( KGH ) , where he spent the next two decades running the only dedicated Lassa fever ward in the world . Conteh collaborated with the British charity Merlin to promote public health in Sierra Leone through education and awareness campaigns intended to prevent Lassa fever . With little funding and few supplies , Conteh successfully reduced mortality rates and saved many lives until an accidental needlestick injury led to his own death from the disease in 2004 .
Conteh received renewed public attention in 2009 as the hero of Ross I. Donaldson 's memoir , The Lassa Ward .
= = Early life , education , and teaching = =
Aniru Sahib Sahib Conteh was born on 6 August 1942 , in the town of Jawi Folu , Eastern Province , Sierra Leone , the son of a farmer and chief of the village . He moved to Freetown , the capital of Sierra Leone , after his mother died while he was in his teens . Conteh studied chemistry and biology at Fourah Bay College and began teaching after receiving his BSc . In 1968 , he began studying medicine in Nigeria at the modern University of Ibadan , graduating in 1974 . Conteh spent the next four years employed by the Ibadan Teaching Hospital . He returned home to Sierra Leone in 1979 . Conteh married and raised a family with his wife Sarah , producing several sons and daughters .
= = Medical career = =
Conteh spent his professional career working with patients suffering from Lassa fever , a viral haemorrhagic fever endemic to West Africa . Lassa fever was first brought to the attention of the public in 1969 during an outbreak in Nigeria . Identified in 1972 , the disease is known to spread through its host , the Natal multimammate mouse ( Mastomys natalensis ) , and infects an estimated 300 @,@ 000 people and results in 5000 deaths annually in Sierra Leone , Liberia , and Guinea . In 1976 , a nosocomial outbreak in the Panguma Catholic Hospital attracted attention in the United States . In response , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) established research programs in Segbwema , Kenema , and Panguma to study the disease .
= = = Nixon Methodist Hospital = = =
In 1979 , Conteh began working with the CDC and team leader Joseph B. McCormick at the Nixon Methodist Hospital in Segbwema . Conteh became Medical Superintendent of the hospital in 1980 . The Sierra Leone Civil War broke out in 1991 , forcing the CDC to close their program and move to Guinea . The hospital was destroyed in the conflict and the spread of Lassa fever grew worse . During the civil war , the Natal multimammate mouse infested abandoned houses , increasing the likelihood of infection .
= = = Kenema Government Hospital = = =
Conteh now found himself in the middle of a war zone , starving and homeless . He wandered about for several months and finally came to Kenema where he began treating the sick in the midst of the fighting . Although he had friends overseas , and could have procured a job outside Sierra Leone , he chose to stay and help his people because " they had no one to help them " . Due to the war , most experts familiar with Lassa fever had left the country , and patients suspected of having the disease began to be brought to Conteh for treatment . The Lassa team moved from Segbwema to the Kenema Government Hospital ( KGH ) . In Kenema , Conteh became director of the only Lassa fever isolation ward in the world . Rebels from the Revolutionary United Front took over the town of Kenema in 1997 and 1999 , but Conteh never left his post . It is thought that the rebels spared the hospital from destruction because they were afraid of catching Lassa fever . When the civil war ended in 2002 , the government of Sierra Leone began the process of rebuilding the country .
= = = Contributions to medicine = = =
During the civil war , Conteh was the only clinician in Sierra Leone who had the skills and qualifications to manage patients with Lassa fever . In the absence of the CDC , the Lassa ward was supported by Merlin , a medical relief agency based in the UK . According to Nicholas Mellor , co @-@ founder of Merlin , " Conteh worked with Merlin to get a new laboratory built that would enable collaboration with international research centres with an interest in haemorrhagic diseases . He also worked on training and Lassa fever awareness campaigns . " Conteh 's Lassa fever program " provided the blueprint for many experts " . In 1996 , Daniel Bausch at the Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine began working with Conteh and the CDC on research related to Lassa fever .
In 2000 , Conteh coauthored a study published in the Journal of Clinical Microbiology comparing the efficacy and outcome of diagnosing Lassa fever patients with the indirect fluorescent @-@ antibody ( IFA ) test and the enzyme @-@ linked immunosorbent assay ( ELISA ) . According to Iruka N. Okeke , the study " focused specifically on the development of a diagnostic test for Lassa fever " . In 2001 , Conteh travelled to London , England to attend an international conference on Lassa fever where he presented a paper on managing the disease . Conteh returned to London in September 2003 to receive the " Spirit of Merlin " award for his outstanding role in " saving lives and alleviating suffering " .
= = Death = =
The Lassa ward was short @-@ staffed , and Conteh would often draw blood from patients himself . On 17 March 2004 , Conteh was infected with the Lassa virus when he received a needlestick injury while drawing blood from a young pregnant nurse suffering from the disease . The nurse died the next day , and Conteh himself became ill on 23 March . As his condition worsened , he was treated with intravenous ribavirin . Conteh initially survived the critical stage of Lassa fever , but died on 4 April from renal failure — 18 days after first becoming infected with the Lassa virus . Reporter Sulaiman Momodu described the outpouring of grief in the wake of Conteh 's death :
News of his death spread in Kenema and its environs like a bush fire in the harmattan . Most people were devastated to learn that the only Lassa Fever specialist in Sierra Leone was gone , gone forever . Nurses cried , patients wept . Kenema was thrown into a state of shock and mourning .
Conteh 's funeral was held in the town of Daru .
= = Legacy = =
Conteh 's work in the Lassa ward spanned 25 years and saved thousands of lives . He played a key role in helping Merlin implement a program to support the Lassa ward and fever control measures in Sierra Leone . Because of his skill and dedication , deaths due to cases of suspected Lassa fever declined by 20 % . After Conteh 's death , Merlin and the peacekeepers in the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone ( UNAMSIL ) left Sierra Leone and the Lassa ward in Kenema was barely functioning . In 2004 , Tulane University , in co @-@ ordination with the World Health Organization , began monitoring Lassa fever patients in Sierra Leone , Liberia , and Guinea through the Mano River Union Lassa Fever Network ( MRU @-@ LFN ) . Today , the Lassa Fever Program is fully operational at Kenema Government Hospital , and focuses on " treatment , containment , prevention and research " .
Conteh was the mentor for UCLA medical professor Ross I. Donaldson in the summer of 2003 , and is the hero of Donaldson 's 2009 memoir , The Lassa Ward .
= = Publications = =
" Lassa Video " . Sierra Leone : Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , Special Pathogens Branch . 1989 . Appearance in documentary film .
Bausch , DG ; Rollin , PE ; Demby , AH ; Coulibaly , M ; Kanu , J ; Conteh , AS ; Wagoner , KD ; McMullan , LK ; et al . ( 2000 ) . " Diagnosis and clinical virology of Lassa fever as evaluated by enzyme @-@ linked immunosorbent assay , indirect fluorescent @-@ antibody test , and virus isolation " . Journal of clinical microbiology 38 ( 7 ) : 2670 – 7 . PMC 86994 . PMID 10878062 .
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= Ordinances of 1311 =
The Ordinances of 1311 were a series of regulations imposed upon King Edward II by the peerage and clergy of the Kingdom of England to restrict the power of the king . The twenty @-@ one signatories of the Ordinances are referred to as the Lords Ordainers , or simply the Ordainers . English setbacks in the Scottish war , combined with perceived extortionate royal fiscal policies , set the background for the writing of the Ordinances in which the administrative prerogatives of the king were largely appropriated by a baronial council . The Ordinances reflect the Provisions of Oxford and the Provisions of Westminster from the late 1250s , but unlike the Provisions , the Ordinances featured a new concern with fiscal reform , specifically redirecting revenues from the king 's household to the exchequer .
Just as instrumental to their conception were other issues , particularly discontent with the king 's favourite , Piers Gaveston , whom the barons subsequently banished from the realm . Edward II accepted the Ordinances only under coercion , and a long struggle for their repeal ensued that did not end until Thomas of Lancaster – the leader of the Ordainers – was executed in 1322 .
= = Background = =
= = = Early problems = = =
When Edward II succeeded his father Edward I on 7 July 1307 , the attitude of his subjects was generally one of good will toward their new king . However , discontent was brewing beneath the surface . Some of this was due to existing problems left behind by the late king , while much was due to the new king 's inadequacies . The problems were threefold . First there was discontent with the royal policy for financing wars . To finance the war in Scotland , Edward I had increasingly resorted to so @-@ called prises – or purveyance – to provision the troops with victuals . Though a perfectly legitimate method of raising money , the peers felt that the purveyance had become far too burdensome and compensation was in many cases inadequate or missing entirely . In addition , they did not like the fact that Edward II took prises for his household without continuing the war effort against Scotland , causing the second problem . While Edward I had spent the last decade of his reign relentlessly campaigning against the Scots , his son abandoned the war almost entirely . In this situation , the Scottish king Robert Bruce soon took the opportunity to regain what had been lost . This not only exposed the north of England to Scottish attacks , but also jeopardized the possessions of the English baronage in Scotland .
The third and most serious problem concerned the king ’ s favourite , Piers Gaveston . Gaveston was a Gascon of relatively humble origins , with whom the king had developed a particularly close relationship . Among the honours Edward heaped upon Gaveston was the earldom of Cornwall , a title which had previously only been conferred on members of the royal family . The preferential treatment of an upstart like Gaveston , in combination with his behaviour that was seen as arrogant , led to resentment among the established peers of the realm . This resentment first came to the surface in a declaration written in Boulogne by a group of magnates who were with the king when he was in France for his marriage ceremony to the French king 's daughter . The so @-@ called Boulogne agreement was vague , but it expressed clear concern over the state of the royal court . On 25 February 1308 , the new king was crowned . The oath he was made to take at the coronation differed from that of previous kings in the fourth clause ; here Edward was required to promise to maintain the laws that the community " shall have chosen " ( " aura eslu " ) . Though it is unclear what exactly was meant by this wording at the time , this oath was later used in the struggle between the king and his earls .
= = = Gaveston ’ s exile = = =
In the parliament of April 1308 , it was decided that Gaveston should be banned from the realm upon threat of excommunication . The king had no choice but to comply , and on 24 June , Gaveston left the country on appointment as Lieutenant of Ireland . The king immediately started plotting for his favourite 's return . At the parliament of April 1309 , he suggested a compromise in which certain of the earls ' petitions would be met in exchange for Gaveston 's return . The plan came to nothing , but Edward had strengthened his hand for the Stamford parliament in July later that year by receiving a papal annulment of the threat of excommunication . The king agreed to the so @-@ called " Statute of Stamford " ( which in essence was a reissue of the Articuli super Cartas that his father had signed in 1300 ) , and Gaveston was allowed to return .
The earls who agreed to the compromise were hoping that Gaveston had learned his lesson . Yet upon his return , he behaved worse than ever , conferring insulting nicknames on some of the greater nobles . When the king summoned a great council in October , several of the earls refused to meet due to Gaveston ’ s presence . At the parliament of February in the following year , Gaveston was ordered not to attend . The earls disobeyed a royal order not to carry arms to parliament , and in full military attire presented a demand to the king for the appointment of a commission of reform . On 16 March 1310 , the king agreed to the appointment of Ordainers , who were to be in charge of the reform of the royal household .
= = The Lords Ordainers = =
The Ordainers were elected by an assembly of magnates , without representation from the commons . They were a diverse group , consisting of eight earls , seven bishops and six barons – twenty @-@ one in all . There were faithful royalists represented as well as fierce opponents of the king .
Among the Ordainers considered loyal to Edward II was John of Brittany , Earl of Richmond who was also by this time one of the older remaining earls . John had served Edward I , his uncle , and was Edward II 's first cousin . The natural leader of the group was Henry Lacy , Earl of Lincoln . One of the wealthiest men in the country , he was also the oldest of the earls and had proved his loyalty and ableness through long service to Edward I. Lincoln had a moderating influence on the more extreme members of the group , but with his death in February 1311 , leadership passed to his son @-@ in @-@ law and heir Thomas of Lancaster . Lancaster – the king ’ s cousin – was now in possession of five earldoms which made him by far the wealthiest man in the country , save the king . There is no evidence that Lancaster was in opposition to the king in the early years of the king 's reign , but by the time of the Ordinances it is clear that something had negatively affected his opinion of King Edward .
Lancaster ’ s main ally was Guy Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick . Warwick was the most fervently and consistently antagonistic of the earls , and remained so until his early death in 1315 . Other earls were more amenable . Gilbert de Clare , Earl of Gloucester , was Gaveston ’ s brother @-@ in @-@ law and stayed loyal to the king . Aymer de Valence , Earl of Pembroke , would later be one of the king ’ s most central supporters , yet at this point he found the most prudent course of action was to go along with the reformers . Of the barons , at least Robert Clifford and William Marshall seemed to have royalist leanings .
Among the bishops , only two stood out as significant political figures , the more prominent of whom was Robert Winchelsey , Archbishop of Canterbury . Long a formidable presence in English public life , Winchelsey had led the struggle against Edward I to uphold the autonomy of the church , and for this he had paid with suspension and exile . One of Edward II ’ s first acts as king had been to reinstate Winchelsey , but rather than responding with grateful loyalty , the archbishop soon reassumed a leadership role in the fight against the king . Although he was trying to appease Winchelsey , the king carried an old grudge against another prelate , Walter Langton , Bishop of Lichfield . Edward had Langton dismissed from his position as treasurer of the Exchequer and had his temporal possessions confiscated . Langton had been an opponent of Winchelsey during the previous reign , but Edward II ’ s move against Langton drew the two Ordainers together .
= = The Ordinances = =
Six preliminary ordinances were released immediately upon the appointment of the Ordainers – on 19 March 1310 – but it was not until August 1311 that the committee had finished its work . In the meanwhile Edward had been in Scotland on an aborted campaign , but on 16 August , Parliament met in London , and the king was presented with the Ordinances .
The document containing the Ordinances is dated 5 October , and contains forty @-@ one articles . In the preamble , the Ordainers voiced their concern over what they perceived as the evil councilors of the king , the precariousness of the military situation abroad , and the danger of rebellion at home over the oppressive prises . The articles can be divided into different groups , the largest of which deals with limitations on the powers of the king and his officials , and the substitution of these powers with baronial control . It was ordained that the king should appoint his officers only " by the counsel and assent of the baronage , and that in parliament . " Furthermore , the king could no longer go to war without the consent of the baronage , nor could he make reforms of the coinage . Additionally , it was decided that parliament should be held at least once a year . Parallel to these decisions were reforms of the royal finances . The Ordinances banned what was seen as extortionate prises and customs , and at the same time declared that revenues were to be paid directly into the exchequer . This was a reaction to the rising trend of receiving revenues directly into the royal household ; making all royal finances accountable to the exchequer allowed greater public scrutiny .
Other articles dealt with punishing specific persons , foremost among these , Piers Gaveston . Article 20 describes at length the offenses committed by Gaveston ; he was once more condemned to exile and was to abjure the realm by 1 November . The bankers of the Italian Frescobaldi company were arrested , and their goods seized . It was held that the king ’ s great financial dependence on the Italians was politically unfortunate . The last individuals to be singled out for punishment were Henry de Beaumont and his sister , Isabella de Vescy , two foreigners associated with the king ’ s household . Though it is difficult to say why these two received particular mention , it could be related to the central position of their possessions in the Scottish war .
The Ordainers also took care to confirm and elaborate on existing statutes , and reforms were made to the criminal law . The liberties of the church were confirmed as well . To ensure that none of the Ordainers should be swayed in their decisions by bribes from the king , restrictions were made on what royal gifts and offices they were allowed to receive during their tenure .
= = Aftermath = =
The Ordinances were published widely on 11 October , with the intention of obtaining maximum popular support . The decade following their publication saw a constant struggle over their repeal or continued existence . Although they were not finally repealed until May 1322 , the vigour with which they were enforced depended on who was in control of government .
Before the end of the year , Gaveston had returned to England , and civil war appeared imminent . In May 1312 , Gaveston was taken captive by the Earl of Pembroke , but Warwick and Lancaster had him abducted and executed after a mock trial . This affront to Pembroke ’ s honour drove him irrevocably into the camp of the king , and thereby split the opposition . The brutality of the act initially drove Lancaster and his adherents away from the centre of power , but the Battle of Bannockburn , in June 1314 , returned the initiative . Edward was humiliated by his disastrous defeat , while Lancaster and Warwick had not taken part in the campaign , claiming that it was carried out without the consent of the baronage , and as such in defiance of the Ordinances .
What followed was a period of virtual control of the government by Lancaster , yet increasingly – particularly after the death of Warwick in 1315 – he found himself isolated . In August 1318 , the so @-@ called " treaty of Leake " established a modus vivendi between the parties , whereby the king was restored to power while promising to uphold the Ordinances . Lancaster still had issue with the king though , particularly with the conduct of the new favourite , Hugh Despenser the younger , and his father , Hugh Despenser the elder . In 1322 , full rebellion broke out which ended with Lancaster ’ s defeat and execution at the Battle of Boroughbridge in March . At the parliament of May in the same year , the Ordinances were repealed . However , six clauses were retained that concerned such issues as household jurisdiction and appointment of sheriffs . Any restrictions on royal power were unequivocally annulled .
The Ordinances were never again reissued , and therefore hold no permanent position in the legal history of England in the way that Magna Carta , for instance , does . The criticism has been against the conservative focus of the barons ' role in national politics , ignoring the ascendancy of the commons . Yet the document , and the movement behind it , reflected new political developments in its emphasis on how assent was to be obtained by the barons in parliament . It was only a matter of time before it was generally acknowledged that the Commons were an integral part of that institution .
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= We 're New Here =
We 're New Here is a remix album by American recording artist Gil Scott @-@ Heron and English music producer Jamie xx , released on February 21 , 2011 , by Young Turks and XL Recordings . A longtime fan of Scott @-@ Heron , Jamie xx was approached by XL label head Richard Russell to remix Scott @-@ Heron 's 2010 studio album I 'm New Here . He worked on the album while touring with his band The xx in 2010 and occasionally communicated with Scott @-@ Heron through letters for his approval to rework certain material .
Incorporating dubstep and UK garage styles , Jamie xx applied electronic music techniques in his production to remix Scott @-@ Heron 's vocals from the original album over his own instrumentals . Although it is structured similarly , We 're New Here eschews the original album 's stark style and lo @-@ fi production for bass @-@ driven , musically varied production and sonical illumination of Scott @-@ Heron 's vocals . It has been noted by music writers for recontextualizing Scott @-@ Heron 's narratives in Jamie xx 's own musical influences and tastes .
Although it did not chart in the United States , the album debuted at number 33 on the UK Albums Chart , on which it spent two weeks . It was promoted with a multi @-@ format release , including a limited edition box set , and the release of two singles , " NY Is Killing Me " and " I 'll Take Care of U " . We 're New Here received universal acclaim from critics upon its release .
= = Background = =
Following a period of personal and legal troubles with drug addiction , Gil Scott @-@ Heron recorded and released his first album of original material in sixteen years , I 'm New Here ( 2010 ) , with the assistance of XL Recordings @-@ label head Richard Russell . Produced by Russell , the album served as a departure from Scott @-@ Heron 's earlier work , both musically and thematically , eschewing its soul , jazz , and funk styles and social commentary for more personal , reflective lyrics with ruminations on love , loss , and identity , set to contemporary electronic music . It was well received by fans and music critics , who viewed it as a comeback for Scott @-@ Heron .
Russell , a fan of English indie pop band The xx , proposed the idea of remixing I 'm New Here to the band 's percussionist and producer Jamie xx . Russell 's production on I 'm New Here was heavily influenced by the xx 's self @-@ titled debut album , which showcased Jamie xx 's bassy , beat @-@ oriented and minimalist production . After its success , Jamie xx had occupied himself with solo production work , remixing other artists , and DJing in clubs in the United Kingdom and Europe . He was a longtime fan of Scott @-@ Heron 's music , which had been introduced to him by his parents as a youth . Russell later said of his decision to enlist him , " We didn 't want lots of remixes by different people . That can be confusing . Gil was open to Jamie re @-@ interpreting the whole album " . According to Jamie xx , he himself had no point of reference in remixing another artist 's album , and later said of taking on the project , " It was a bit nerve @-@ wracking because this is the first time I 've ever done an album on my own . But I was really just eager to get at and I knew exactly what I wanted to do " .
= = Production = =
Although Scott @-@ Heron received top @-@ billing for the release , Jamie xx worked solely on the remix project . For We 're New Here , he remixed 13 of the original album 's 15 songs , including its " interlude " cuts , mixing Scott @-@ Heron 's vocal tracks from the original recording sessions over his own beats and instrumentals , rather than the original music . Many of the remixes were created by Jamie xx on his laptop , while on tour with The xx . In a March 2010 interview , he said that the label " gave me the parts and let me do whatever I want , so I 've been doing it on my laptop on tour . [ I 'm ] only using [ Gil 's ] vocals , I 'm not using any of the original music from it , which is very freeing " . On his intentions for the album 's music , he explained in an interview for The Irish Times , " I wanted it to sound like everything I had been listening to in London . I wanted it to sound like something you ’ d hear on pirate radio . You hear so many different genres , and it ’ s all so convoluted and mixed @-@ up , but it makes sense when you turn on the station " .
In addition to vocal tracks from I 'm New Here , Jamie xx mixed vocals from Scott @-@ Heron 's 1970s work . In an interview for Pitchfork Media , he explained his incorporation of these vocals and its meaning to the work as a whole , stating :
Although he was permitted by XL to remix I 'm New Here , Jamie xx wrote longhand letters to Scott @-@ Heron for his approval to rework the other vocal material : " Originally , I sent him the album and there were a couple of tracks he wasn 't sure about . I had to write to him — he does handwritten letters , not e @-@ mail — and explain why I wanted to use some of his older vocal tracks on the album ... So after I wrote him the letter , he said I was free to do whatever because he knew what I was doing " . Scott @-@ Heron was credited as a producer for the album , along with Russell and Malcolm Cecil , a producer and engineer on Scott @-@ Heron 's past work . The original vocals had been produced and engineered at Clinton Studios and Looking Glass Studios in New York . We 're New Here was mixed at London 's XL Studio , where additional recording also took place .
= = Composition = =
Similar to I 'm New Here , We 're New Here features 13 songs that include four interludes and is rhythmically stressed in sound . However , it contrasts the original album 's stark style and lo @-@ fi production with bass @-@ driven , musically varied production and sonical illumination of Scott @-@ Heron 's vocals . We 're New Here is considered a post @-@ dubstep work . In remixing the album , Jamie xx incorporated dubstep tones , dance @-@ influenced tempos , pitch @-@ shifted and sped @-@ up samples , wobble , sub @-@ bass , and drum ' n ' bass beats into the music . We 're New Here also contains elements of trance , house , techno , hip hop breakbeats , and electro music . Dan Hancox of The National noted in its sound " a melange of creaking bass hums , cascading UK garage drums and washes of electronic noise " .
According to Thom Jurek of Allmusic , " Richard Russell 's production on I 'm New Here kept Scott @-@ Heron 's voice front and center ; [ Jamie xx ] displaces it often , all but covering it with effects , beats , and pitched vocals in styles that cross the electronic music gamut " . Tim Noakes of Dazed & Confused describes the album as " [ his ] love letter to sample culture and the history of the UK electronic underground . Against [ Jamie xx ] ' s booming backdrop of sub bass breakdowns , obscure samples and two @-@ step rhythms , Scott @-@ Heron ’ s scarred poetic missives take on a more sinister edge " . Ian Maleney of Slate comments on the album 's music , " The beats and bass are classic dub [ ... ] and the use of stretched and pitched vocal samples cement the albums place in the ever @-@ developing dubstep cannon " . Music critic Max Feldman notes " smothering " bass lines and " robust " beats , and writes that the album performs a " balancing act between the avant @-@ garde end of the dubstep fallout " and " dance @-@ ability " .
The title track incorporates a sped @-@ up sample of Gloria Gaynor 's " Casanova Brown " , with an emphasis on the line " I was lonely and naïve " from the sample . " Running " has Scott @-@ Heron 's spoken word vocals scattered and repeated . " Ur Soul and Mine " samples the vocals from Rui da Silva 's house classic " Touch Me " , distorting the vocals in the song 's verse , but retaining its refrain . The densely produced " Home " features clattering snares , a heavily reverbed keyboard sample , a drum loop , and a vocal sample of Scott @-@ Heron singing the line " home is where the hatred is ... " , taken from the song of the same name from his 1971 album Pieces of a Man . BBC Online 's Ele Beattie said that Jamie xx 's sampling " tunes the listener in and out of his musical predecessors . He rewires a personal musical canon into something utterly contemporary " . Robert Christgau characterizes Scott @-@ Heron 's original narratives as those of " a drug fiend of considerable perversity and tremendous intelligence who 's gonna be dead soon " , and comments that Jamie xx " hears in [ Scott @-@ Heron 's ] last testament an irreversible disintegration that he translates into heavily sampled minimalist electro marked indelibly by Scott @-@ Heron 's weariness , arrogance , and wit . "
= = Release and promotion = =
We 're New Here was released by Young Turks and XL Recordings on February 21 , 2011 , in the United Kingdom , and on February 22 , 2011 , in the United States . It was released on multiple formats , including CD , vinyl LP , vinyl box set , and digital download . Its limited edition box set release was made available via the album 's official website and included the LP on pink heavyweight vinyl , an LP of instrumentals on green heavyweight vinyl , CDs of both the standard and instrumental album , and two photographic prints . Prior to its release , We 're New Here had been made available for streaming via The Guardian website on February 14 .
The album 's first single , " NY Is Killing Me " , was released digitally on November 30 , 2010 , and on January 10 , 2011 , as a limited edition one @-@ sided 12 @-@ inch single . Sean Michaels of The Guardian wrote of the song , " Ghostly samples rise around Scott @-@ Heron 's vocals , combining the poet 's inner @-@ city canvas with [ Jamie xx ] ' s dubstep roots . It 's as good as anything the DJ has produced " . The second single " I 'll Take Care of U " was released on January 6 , 2011 . It features euphoric , house @-@ inspired piano hooks and echoing guitar riffs . A music video for the single was directed by photographer Jamie @-@ James Medina and AG Rojas , and it was released on March 4 , 2011 . Set in New York City , the video 's plot follows a female boxer as she takes care of her child and trains for a fight .
We 're New Here debuted at number 33 on the UK Albums Chart in the week ending March 5 , 2011 . It also entered at number four on the UK Indie Chart and at number 18 on the Digital Chart . The album dropped to number 60 on the UK Albums Chart in its second week , and fell off the chart in its third week of release . We 're New Here did not chart in the United States . In Belgium , the album debuted at number 44 and subsequently spent five weeks on the Ultratop 50 Albums chart .
= = Critical reception = =
We 're New Here received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 83 , based on 28 reviews . AllMusic 's Thom Jurek called it " a mercurial collaboration ... full of nods to other club styles and eras " , and praised Jamie xx for " successfully ( re ) presenting Scott @-@ Heron 's music — integrity intact — in the present tense to a fickle yet discerning groove @-@ centric culture without kitsch or excess " . Chris Martins from The A.V. Club praised " the everlasting gravity of [ Scott @-@ Heron ] ’ s words and wisdom " , writing that " his pained , bluesy musings are as universally human as they are perennially pertinent ... Scott @-@ Heron talks , sings , hums , and pontificates , sometimes over the beat and sometimes from deep within the snowdrift " . Pitchfork Media critic Sean Fennessey commended Jamie xx for being bold rather than respectful of Scott @-@ Heron 's material with a " finicky , hard @-@ charging production [ that ] trumps Scott @-@ Heron 's voice , overpowering it with ideas , if not focus " . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times said that the album is an improvement over " the bummed @-@ out original " with " patience and breadth and almost zero pretension " . Max Feldman from PopMatters commented that " Ultimately , We ’ re New Here succeeds because it manages to seamlessly reconcile the different traditions from which it draws — not just Gil Scott Heron ’ s uttering utterances , but UK Garage , the fibrous gloss of Seventeen Seconds @-@ era The Cure , and R & B futurism " .
In a mixed review for The Observer , Kitty Empire wrote that Jamie xx " tear [ s ] up Russell 's soundbed entirely and showcase [ s ] his own emerging versatility " , but said that while his productions are " consistently excellent , they aren 't really there to augment Scott @-@ Heron 's words " . Andy Gill of The Independent commented that the remixing techniques " only occasionally work in its favour " . Louise Brailey of NME wrote that he " coaxes fresh narratives from the source material " and that it " isn ’ t exactly groundbreaking , but it showcases a producer so in love with the music of now that he not only preserves the power of his source material , but makes it more relevant " . In MSN Music , Christgau called the record " a young man 's bad dream about mortality , and of interest as such " , and wrote of the source material 's importance to Jamie xx 's remix , " the snatches of Scott @-@ Heron 's voice , cracked for sure but deeper than night nonetheless , delivers it from callow generalization and foregone conclusion . " August Brown of the Los Angeles Times felt that " the duo lends each other gravitas and levity on this very curious but ultimately immersive LP " .
At the end of 2011 , , Uncut magazine named We 're New Here the 32nd best album of the year . Christgau ranked it 20th on his list of the year 's best albums for The Barnes & Noble Review .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Sample credits = = =
" I 'm New Here " contains a sample of the recording " Casanova Brown " as performed by Gloria Gaynor .
" I 've Been Me ( Interlude ) " contains a sample of " Boxcar Hobo " by Sassafrass .
" Certain Things ( Interlude ) " contains a sample of the recording " Slaves " as performed by Giuliano Sorgini .
" The Crutch " contains excerpts from " That 's How Heartaches Are Made " as performed by Baby Washington .
" Ur Soul and Mine " contains a sample of " Touch Me " by Rui da Silva .
" Parents ( Interlude ) " contains a sample of " Hap 'nin ' " , written by Bernard Purdie .
" Jazz ( Interlude ) " contains a sample of the recording " Sixty @-@ Eight Ways " .
= = Personnel = =
Malcolm Cecil – engineer , producer , synthesizer programming
Romy Madley Croft – guitar
Jamie xx – additional production , design , musician , remixing
Royce Jeffries – assistant
Phil Lee – design
Rodaidh McDonald – engineer , mixing
Ichiho Nishiki – engineer , mixing
Mandy Parnell – mastering
Mischa Richter – photography
Richard Russell – vocal producer
Gil Scott @-@ Heron – vocal producer , vocals
Lawson White – engineer , mixing
= = Charts = =
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= The Wiz ( film ) =
The Wiz is a 1978 American musical adventure film produced in collaboration between Universal Pictures and Motown Productions , and released by Universal Pictures on October 24 , 1978 . An urban reimagining of L. Frank Baum 's classic 1900 children 's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz featuring an entirely African @-@ American cast , The Wiz was loosely adapted from the 1974 Broadway musical of the same name . The film follows the adventures of Dorothy , a shy twenty @-@ four @-@ year @-@ old Harlem , New York City , schoolteacher who finds herself magically transported to the urban fantasy Land of Oz , which resembles an alternative fantasy version of the Big Apple . Befriended by a Scarecrow , a Tin Man , and a Cowardly Lion , she travels through the city to seek an audience with the mysterious Wiz , who they say is the only one powerful enough to send her home .
Produced by Rob Cohen and directed by Sidney Lumet , The Wiz stars Diana Ross , Michael Jackson , Nipsey Russell , Ted Ross , Mabel King , Theresa Merritt , Thelma Carpenter , Lena Horne , and Richard Pryor . The film 's story was reworked from William F. Brown 's Broadway libretto by Joel Schumacher , and Quincy Jones supervised the adaptation of Charlie Smalls and Luther Vandross 's songs for film . A handful of new songs , written by Jones and the songwriting team of Nickolas Ashford & Valerie Simpson , were added for the film version . Upon its original theatrical release , The Wiz was a critical and commercial failure , and marked the end of the resurgence of African @-@ American films that began with the blaxploitation movement of the early 1970s . Despite its initial failure , the film version of The Wiz became a cult classic , particularly among African @-@ American audiences , Oz enthusiasts , and fans of Michael Jackson . Certain aspects of this film adaptation influenced the The Wiz Live ! , a live television adaptation of the musical .
= = Summary = =
A crowded Thanksgiving dinner brings a host of family together in a small Harlem apartment , where a shy , twenty @-@ four @-@ year @-@ old schoolteacher named Dorothy ( Diana Ross ) lives with her Aunt Em ( Theresa Merritt ) and Uncle Henry ( Stanley Greene ) . Extremely introverted , Dorothy is teased by Aunt Em for never having been south of 125th Street , as she has delayed moving out to start her own , independent life as an adult .
While Dorothy cleans up after the meal , Dorothy 's dog Toto runs out the open kitchen door into a violent snowstorm . She succeeds in retrieving him , but finds herself trapped in the storm . A magical whirlwind made of snow – the work of Glinda , the Good Witch of the South – materializes and transports them to the realm of Oz . Released by the snowstorm , Dorothy smashes through an electric " Oz " sky sign as she descends from the atmosphere , and which falls upon and kills Evermean , the Wicked Witch of the East who rules Munchkinland . As a result , Dorothy frees the Munchkins who populate the playground into which she lands ; they had been transformed by Evermean into graffiti for " tagging " the park walls .
Dorothy soon meets the Munchkins ' main benefactress , Miss One , the Good Witch of the North ( Thelma Carpenter ) , a magical " numbers runner " who gives Evermean 's pretty charmed silver slippers to her by teleporting them on Dorothy 's feet . However , Dorothy declares she doesn 't want the shoes and desperately just wants to get home to Aunt Em . Miss One urges her to follow the yellow brick road to the capital Emerald City and seek the help of the mysterious " Wizard " who she believes holds the power to send Dorothy back to Harlem . After telling her to never take the silver shoes off , the good witch and the Munchkins then disappear and Dorothy is left to search for the road on her own .
The next morning , Dorothy happens upon a Scarecrow ( Michael Jackson ) made of garbage and rags , and saves him from being viciously teased and picked on by a group of humanoid crows and whom she befriends . The two of them discover the yellow brick road and happily begin to follow it together . The Scarecrow hopes the Wizard might be able to give him the one thing he feels that he lacks – a brain . Along the way to the Emerald City , Dorothy , Toto , and the Scarecrow meet the Tin Man ( Nipsey Russell ) , in an abandoned turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century amusement park and the Cowardly Lion ( Ted Ross ) , a vain dandy banished from the jungle who hid inside one of the stone lions in front of the New York Public Library . The Tin Man and Lion join them on their quest to find the Wizard , hoping to gain a heart and courage , respectively . Before the five adventurers reach the Emerald City , they must face obstacles such as a deadly subway where they meet a crazy subway peddler ( a homeless man ) who unleashes evil puppets in his control . They narrowly escape the subway and then encounter the " Poppy " Girls ( a reference to the poppy field from the original story ) , flamboyant prostitutes who attempt to put Dorothy , Toto , and the Lion into an eternal sleep with magic poppy perfume .
Finally reaching the Emerald City ( an analogue of the real @-@ life World Trade Center plaza ) , the quintet gains passage into the city because of Dorothy 's ownership of the silver slippers ; they marvel at the spectacle of the city and its sophisticated , fashion forward dancers . They are granted an audience with the Wiz ( Richard Pryor ) , who lives at the very top of the Towers . He appears to them as a giant fire @-@ breathing metallic head . He will only grant their wishes if they kill the sister of the Wicked Witch of the East , Evillene ( Mabel King ) , the Wicked Witch of the West , who runs a sweatshop in the underground sewers of Oz . Before they can reach her domain , Evillene learns of their quest to kill her and sends out the Flying Monkeys ( a motorcycle gang ) to kidnap them .
After a long chase , the Flying Monkeys succeed in capturing their targets and bring them back to Evillene . Vengeful for Dorothy having killed her sister , she dismembers the Scarecrow , flattens the Tin Man , and tortures the Lion in hopes of making Dorothy give her the silver shoes . When she threatens to throw Toto into a fiery cauldron , Dorothy nearly gives in until the Scarecrow hints to her to activate a fire sprinkler switch , which she does . The sprinklers put out the fire but also melt Evillene . She is flushed down into her throne , the lid of which slams shut like a toilet . With Evillene finally gone , her spells lose their power : the Winkies are freed from their permanent costumes ( revealing attractive humans underneath ) and their sweatshop tools disappear . They rejoice in dance and praise Dorothy as their emancipator . The Flying Monkeys give her and her friends a triumphant ride back to the Emerald City .
Upon arriving , the quartet takes a back door into the Wizard 's quarters and discovers that he is a " phony " . The " great and powerful Oz " is actually Herman Smith , a failed politician from Atlantic City , New Jersey , who was transported to Oz when a balloon he was flying to promote his campaign to become the city dogcatcher was lost in a storm . The Scarecrow , Tin Man , and Lion are distraught that they will never receive their respective brain , heart , and courage , but Dorothy makes them realize that they already have had these things all along . Just as it seems as if she will never be able to get home , Glinda the Good Witch of the South ( Lena Horne ) , appears and implores her to find her way home by searching within and using the magic of the silver slippers by clicking the heels together three times . After thanking Glinda and saying goodbye to her friends , she takes Toto in her arms , thinks of home and the things she loves most about it . When Dorothy clicks her heels , she immediately finds herself back in her neighborhood of Harlem . Now a changed woman , Dorothy carries Toto back to their apartment building ; implying she now has the strength to face her fears and move forward with her life .
= = Cast = =
= = Songs = =
All songs written by Charlie Smalls , unless otherwise noted .
" Overture Part I " ( instrumental )
" Overture Part II " ( instrumental )
" The Feeling That We Had " - Aunt Em and Chorus
" Can I Go On ? " ( Quincy Jones , Nickolas Ashford and Valerie Simpson ) - Dorothy
" Tornado " / " Glinda 's Theme " ( instrumental )
" He 's the Wizard " - Miss One and Chorus
" Soon As I Get Home " / " Home " - Dorothy
" You Can 't Win , You Can 't Break Even " - Scarecrow and The Four Crows
" Ease on Down the Road # 1 " - Dorothy and Scarecrow
" What Would I Do If I Could Feel ? " - Tin Man
" Slide Some Oil to Me " - Tin Man
" Ease on Down the Road # 2 " - Dorothy , Scarecrow , and Tin Man
" I 'm a Mean Ole Lion " - Cowardly Lion
" Ease on Down the Road # 3 " - Dorothy , Scarecrow , Tin Man , and Cowardly Lion
" Poppy Girls Theme " ( Anthony Jackson ) ( instrumental )
" Be a Lion " - Dorothy , Scarecrow , Tin Man , and Cowardly Lion
" End of the Yellow Brick Road " ( instrumental )
" Emerald City Sequence " ( music : Jones , lyrics : Smalls ) - Chorus
" Is This What Feeling Gets ? ( Dorothy 's Theme ) " ( music : Jones , lyrics : Ashford & Simpson ) - Dorothy ( vocal version not used in film )
" Don 't Nobody Bring Me No Bad News " - Evillene and the Winkies
" Everybody Rejoice / A Brand New Day " ( Luther Vandross ) - Dorothy , Scarecrow , Tin Man , Cowardly Lion , and Chorus
" Believe in Yourself ( Dorothy ) " - Dorothy
" The Good Witch Glinda " ( instrumental )
" Believe in Yourself ( Reprise ) " - Glinda the Good Witch
" Home ( Finale ) " - Dorothy
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production and development = = =
The Wiz was the eighth feature film produced by Motown Productions , the film / TV division of Berry Gordy 's Motown Records label . Gordy originally wanted the teenaged future R & B singer Stephanie Mills , who had played the role on Broadway , to be cast as Dorothy . When Motown star Diana Ross asked Gordy if she could be cast as Dorothy , he declined , saying that Ross — then 33 years old — was too old for the role . Ross went around Gordy and convinced executive producer Rob Cohen at Universal Pictures to arrange a deal where he would produce the film if Ross was cast as Dorothy . Gordy and Cohen agreed to the deal . Pauline Kael , a film critic , described Ross 's efforts to get the film into production as " perhaps the strongest example of sheer will in film history . "
After film director John Badham learned that Ross was going to play the part of Dorothy , he decided not to direct the film , and Cohen replaced him with Sidney Lumet . Of his decision not to direct The Wiz , John Badham recalled telling Cohen that he thought Ross was " a wonderful singer . She 's a terrific actress and a great dancer , but she 's not this character . She 's not the little six @-@ year @-@ old girl Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz . " Though 20th Century Fox had financially backed the stage musical , they ended up exercising their first refusal rights to the film production , which gave Universal an opening to finance the film . Initially , Universal was so excited about the film 's prospects that they did not set a budget for production .
Joel Schumacher 's script for The Wiz was influenced by Werner Erhard 's teachings and his Erhard Seminars Training ( " est " ) movement , as both Schumacher and Diana Ross were " very enamored of Werner Erhard " . " Before I knew it , " said Rob Cohen , " the movie was becoming an est @-@ ian fable full of est buzzwords about knowing who you are and sharing and all that . I hated the script a lot . But it was hard to argue with [ Ross ] because she was recognizing in this script all of this stuff that she had worked out in est seminars . " Schumacher spoke positively of the results of the est training , stating that he was " eternally grateful for learning that I was responsible for my life . " However , he also complained that " everybody stayed exactly the way they were and went around spouting all this bull * * * * . " Of est and Erhard references in the film itself , The Grove Book of Hollywood notes that the speech delivered by Glinda the Good Witch at the end of the film was " a litany of est @-@ like platitudes " , and the book also makes est comparisons to the song " Believe in Yourself " . Although Joel Schumacher had seen the Broadway play before writing the script , none of the Broadway play 's writing was incorporated into the film 's .
During production , Lumet felt that the finished film would be " an absolutely unique experience that nobody has ever witnessed before . " When asked about any possible influence from MGM 's popular 1939 film adaptation of The Wizard of Oz , Lumet stated that " there was nothing to be gained from [ the 1939 film ] other than to make certain we didn 't use anything from it . They made a brilliant movie , and even though our concept is different – they 're Kansas , we 're New York ; they 're white , we 're black , and the score and the books are totally different – we wanted to make sure that we never overlapped in any area . "
Michael Jackson , a former Motown star who by the start of development on The Wiz in 1977 , had left Motown for Epic Records with his brothers The Jacksons , was cast as the Scarecrow . Jackson was dedicated to the role , and watched videotapes of gazelles , cheetahs , and panthers in order to learn graceful movements for his part . Ted Ross and Mabel King were brought in to reprise their respective roles from the stage musical , while Nipsey Russell was cast as the Tin Man . Lena Horne , mother @-@ in @-@ law to Sidney Lumet during the time of production , was cast as Glinda the Good Witch , and comedian Richard Pryor portrayed The Wiz .
= = = Principal photography = = =
The Wiz was filmed at Astoria Studios in Queens , New York . The decaying New York State Pavilion from the 1964 New York World 's Fair was used as the set for Munchkinland , Astroland at Coney Island was used for the Tinman scene with The Cyclone as a backdrop , while the World Trade Center served as the Emerald City . The scenes filmed at the Emerald City were elaborate , utilizing 650 dancers , 385 crew members and 1 @,@ 200 costumes . Costume designer Tony Walton enlisted the help of high fashion designers in New York City for the Emerald City sequence , and obtained exotic costumes and fabric from designers such as Oscar de la Renta and Norma Kamali . Albert Whitlock created the film 's visual special effects , while Stan Winston served as the head makeup artist .
Quincy Jones was the musical supervisor and music producer for the film . He later wrote that he initially did not want to work on the film , but did it as a favor to Sidney Lumet . The film production marked Jones ' first time working with Michael Jackson , and Jones would later produce three hit albums for Jackson : Off the Wall , Thriller , and Bad . Jones recalled working with Jackson as one of his favorite experiences from The Wiz , and spoke of Jackson 's dedication to his role , comparing his acting style to Sammy Davis , Jr . Jones had a brief cameo during the " Gold " segment of the Emerald City sequence , playing what looks like a fifty @-@ foot grand piano .
= = Commercial reaction = =
The Wiz proved to be a commercial failure , as the $ 24 million production only earned $ 13 @.@ 6 million at the box office . Though prerelease television broadcast rights had been sold to CBS for over $ 10 million , in the end , the film produced a net loss of $ 10 @.@ 4 million for Motown and Universal . At the time , it was the most expensive film musical ever made . The film 's failure steered Hollywood studios away from producing the all @-@ black film projects that had become popular during the blaxploitation era of the early to mid @-@ 1970s for several years .
The film was released on VHS home video in 1989 by MCA / Universal Home Video ( with a reissue in 1992 ) and was first broadcast on television on CBS on May 5 , 1984 ( edited to 100 minutes ) , to capitalize on Michael Jackson 's massive popularity at the time . It continues to be broadcast periodically on networks such as BET , TVOne , VH1 Soul , and was the inaugural broadcast on the Bounce TV digital broadcast network . The Wiz is often broadcast on Thanksgiving Day ( attributed to the opening scene of Dorothy 's family gathered for a Thanksgiving dinner ) .
The film was released on DVD in 1999 ; a remastered version entitled The Wiz : 30th Anniversary Edition was released in 2008 . Extras on both DVD releases include a 1978 featurette about the film 's production and the original theatrical trailer . A Blu @-@ ray version was released in 2010 .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics panned The Wiz upon its October 1978 release . Many reviewers directed their criticism at Diana Ross , who they believed was far too old to play Dorothy . Most agreed that what had worked so successfully on stage simply did not translate well to the screen . Hischak 's Through the Screen Door : What Happened to the Broadway Musical When It Went to Hollywood criticized " Joel Schumacher 's cockamamy screenplay " , and called " Believe in Yourself " the score 's weakest song . He described Diana Ross 's portrayal of Dorothy as : " cold , neurotic and oddly unattractive " ; and noted that the film was " a critical and box office bust " . In his work History of the American Cinema , Harpole characterized the film as " one of the decade 's biggest failures " , and , " the year 's biggest musical flop " . The Grove Book of Hollywood noted that " the picture finished off Diana Ross 's screen career " , as the film was Ross 's final theatrical feature . In his book Blockbuster , Tom Shone referred to The Wiz as " expensive crud " . In the book Mr. and Mrs. Hollywood , the author criticized the script , noting , " The Wiz was too scary for children , and too silly for adults . " Ray Bolger , who played the Scarecrow in the 1939 The Wizard of Oz film , did not think highly of The Wiz , stating " The Wiz is overblown and will never have the universal appeal that the classic MGM musical has obtained . "
Michael Jackson 's performance as the Scarecrow was one of the only positively reviewed elements of the film , with critics noting that Jackson possessed " genuine acting talent " and " provided the only genuinely memorable moments . " Of the results of the film , Jackson stated : " I don 't think it could have been any better , I really don 't . " In 1980 , Jackson stated that his time working on The Wiz was " my greatest experience so far . . . I 'll never forget that . " The film received a positive critique for its elaborate set design , and the book American Jewish Filmmakers noted that it " features some of the most imaginative adaptations of New York locales since the glory days of the Astaire @-@ Rogers films . " In a 2004 review of the film , Christopher Null wrote positively of Ted Ross and Richard Pryor 's performances . However , Null 's overall review of the film was critical , and he wrote that other than the song " Ease on Down the Road " , " the rest is an acid trip of bad dancing , garish sets , and a Joel Schumacher @-@ scripted mess that runs 135 agonizing minutes . " A 2005 piece by Hank Stuever in The Washington Post described the film as " a rather appreciable delight , even when it 's a mess " , and felt that the singing – especially Diana Ross 's – was " a marvel " .
The New York Times analyzed the film within a discussion of the genre of blaxploitation : " As the audience for blaxploitation dwindled , it seemed as if Car Wash and The Wiz might be the last gasp of what had been a steadily expanding black presence in mainstream filmmaking . " The St. Petersburg Times noted , " Of course , it only took one flop like The Wiz ( 1978 ) to give Hollywood an excuse to retreat to safer ( i.e. , whiter ) creative ground until John Singleton and Spike Lee came along . Yet , without blaxploitation there might not have been another generation of black filmmakers , no Denzel Washington or Angela Bassett , or they might have taken longer to emerge . " The Boston Globe commented , " the term ' black film ' should be struck from the critical vocabulary . To appreciate just how outmoded , deceptive and limiting it is , consider the following , all of which have been described as black films , . . . " and characterized The Wiz in a list which also featured 1970s films Shaft , Blacula , and Super Fly .
Despite its lack of critical or commercial success in its original release , The Wiz became a cult classic , especially because it features Michael Jackson 's only starring theatrical film role .
= = Nominations = =
The Wiz was nominated for four Academy Awards : Best Art Direction ( Tony Walton , Philip Rosenberg , Edward Stewart , Robert Drumheller ) , Best Costume Design , Best Original Music Score and Best Cinematography , but did not win any of them .
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= Rampart Dam =
The Rampart Dam or Rampart Canyon Dam was a project proposed in 1954 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to dam the Yukon River in Alaska for hydroelectric power . The project was planned for Rampart Canyon ( also known as Rampart Gorge ) just 31 miles ( 50 km ) southwest of the village of Rampart , Alaska and about 105 miles ( 169 km ) west @-@ northwest of Fairbanks , Alaska .
The resulting dam would have created a lake roughly the size of Lake Erie , making it the largest man @-@ made reservoir in the world . The plan for the dam itself called for a concrete structure 530 feet ( 162 m ) high with a top length of about 4 @,@ 700 feet ( 1 @,@ 430 m ) . The proposed power facilities would have consistently generated between 3 @.@ 5 and 5 gigawatts of electricity , based on the flow of the river as it differs between winter and summer .
Though supported by many politicians and businesses in Alaska , the project was canceled after objections were raised . Native Alaskans in the area protested the threatened loss of nine villages that would be flooded by the dam . Conservation groups abhorred the threatened flooding of the Yukon Flats , a large area of wetlands that provides a critical breeding ground for millions of waterfowl . Fiscal conservatives opposed the dam on the grounds of its large cost and limited benefit to Americans outside Alaska .
Because of these objections , United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall formally opposed construction of the dam in 1967 , and the project was shelved . The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers nevertheless completed its engineering study of the project in 1971 , and the final report was released to the public in 1979 . In 1980 , U.S. President Jimmy Carter created the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Sanctuary , which formally protected the area from development and disallowed any similar project .
= = Site = =
From its headwaters in the Coast Mountains , the Yukon River flows northwest , across the Yukon – Alaska border , until it intersects the Porcupine River at the settlement of Fort Yukon . At that point , the river turns west and southwest , flowing through the Yukon Flats , a low @-@ lying wetland area containing thousands of ponds , streams , and other small bodies of water . As the river flows southwest , it intersects the Tanana and Koyukuk rivers before looping south , then north into Norton Sound in the Bering Sea .
During the river 's flow through eastern Alaska , and before it intersects the Tanana River , the Yukon flows through the Central Plateau region of Alaska . During the millions of years of its flow , it has cut through ridges , forming canyons in some places near its juncture with the Tanana . One of the deepest of these canyons is known as Rampart Gorge , or Rampart Canyon . The gorge is located 31 miles ( 50 km ) downstream of the village of Rampart , 36 miles ( 58 km ) upstream of the village of Tanana , and immediately downstream from the mouth of Texas Creek . It is named for the nearby village of Rampart , Alaska , a former gold @-@ mining community now home to subsistence fishermen .
At the proposed dam site , the river is 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 396 m ) wide and has an elevation of 183 feet ( 56 m ) above sea level . On the south bank , the land rises sharply to a ridge 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 457 m ) high . North of the river , the bank rises to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 366 m ) before ascending gradually northwest to the Ray Mountains . Below the surface of the ground are patches of permafrost , and the area is seismically active . An earthquake measuring 6 @.@ 8 on the Richter Scale struck the region in 1968 , and a 5 @.@ 0 earthquake hit the area in 2003 . Geologically , igneous rock predominates , and quartz can be seen in places .
Hydrologically , the portion of the river upstream of the proposed dam drains about 200 @,@ 000 square miles ( 517 @,@ 998 km2 ) . On average , the Yukon flows at a rate of 118 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 3 @,@ 341 m3 / s ) through the canyon , with the fastest flow occurring in the later part of May and the first part of June , and the slowest flow occurring after the river has frozen over . This occurs no later than early November and lasts until mid April .
= = Surveying = =
In 1944 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers considered building a bridge across Rampart Gorge as part of a project to extend the Alaska Railroad from Fairbanks to Nome to facilitate Lend @-@ Lease shipments to the Soviet Union during World War II . The war ended before the project got beyond the planning stages , and the bridge idea was scrapped .
As early as 1948 , U.S. Government officials eyed the Rampart site for its hydroelectric potential . A report by Joseph Morgan , chief of the Alaska Investigations Office for the United States Bureau of Reclamation declared , " The demand for electric power supply in the [ Alaska ] Territory is expanding so rapidly that new installations of hydroelectric power plants are needed . " Morgan 's report listed 72 potential hydroelectric power sites in Alaska , but the Rampart site was one of the few to have a potential capacity of more than 200 @,@ 000 kilowatts .
In his report , Morgan addresses the potential of the site :
Reconnaissance topography indicates several potential dam sites in Lower Ramparts , but the best site probably will be found about 31 miles ( 50 km ) downstream from the village of Rampart . ... this site on the Yukon River would easily be one of the major potential hydroelectric power developments in North America .
= = Planning = =
The first serious consideration of a dam project was made in a 1954 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers assessment of the resources of the Yukon and Kuskokwim River basin . Engineers considered Rampart Canyon to be a prime site for a hydroelectric dam . In April 1959 , four months after President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed Alaska 's declaration of statehood , junior U.S. Senator from Alaska Ernest Gruening passed a resolution calling for the Corps of Engineers to begin an official study of the project , and $ 49 @,@ 000 was allocated by the federal government for that purpose . Preliminary estimates said the project would cost $ 900 million ( 1959 dollars ) and generate 4 @.@ 7 million kilowatts of electricity . At the time , the largest hydroelectric project in Alaska was the Eklutna Dam , which produced just 32 @,@ 000 kilowatts .
The project competed with the smaller @-@ scale Susitna Hydroelectric Project proposed by the Federal Bureau of Reclamation for south @-@ central Alaska , but thanks to Gruening 's support and that of other backers , the Rampart project took precedence . The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1960 passed by the U.S. Congress in that year included a $ 2 million appropriation to conduct a full four @-@ year feasibility study of the project , including its economic feasibility and the impact it would have on fish and wildlife . In March 1961 , a team of engineers from the Corps ' Alaska district began drilling operations at the site to determine bedrock depth and gather other data . In order to examine the economic feasibility of the dam , the Corps of Engineers created the Rampart Economic Advisory Board ( REAB ) in February 1961 . The REAB hired David E. Lilienthal 's Development and Resources Corporation in April to complete the study , and a team of Corps engineers and REAB members arrived in the state in June to study the Rampart project first @-@ hand . At that time , Sen. Gruening estimated that the project would cost roughly $ 1 @.@ 2 billion to complete .
As investigation and planning work continued , the Corps of Engineers reached an agreement with the Department of the Interior , the parent agency of the Bureau of Reclamation , in March 1962 . The agreement stated the Corps would have responsibility for design and construction of the project , while the Interior Department would be responsible for running and maintaining the dam after completion . In the planning stages , the Interior Department also would be responsible for examining the economic feasibility of the project and its effect upon natural resources . This agreement negated much of the work of the REAB to that point , as the Interior Department promptly began its own three @-@ year study of the dam 's economic feasibility and environmental impact . The DRC report , though trumped by the Interior Department 's new precedence in such matters , nevertheless released a report in April 1962 , stating that the project was economically feasible and would attract new industries to Alaska . Meanwhile , the Corps of Engineers continued engineering studies .
The interim Corps of Engineers report was released in December 1963 , and reported that building the dam was feasible from an engineering standpoint . President John F. Kennedy supported the project , and lobbied for an appropriation of $ 197 @,@ 000 ( 1963 dollars ) to continue study of the project . The needed money was included in a House appropriations bill , and studies continued . The initial report included some figures about the size of the project . The dam would be a concrete structure 530 feet ( 162 m ) high and about 4 @,@ 700 feet ( 1 @,@ 430 m ) long . It would raise the height of the Yukon River from 215 feet ( 66 m ) above sea level to approximately 445 feet ( 136 m ) . The resulting reservoir would be 400 miles ( 640 km ) long , 80 miles ( 130 km ) wide , and have a surface area greater than that of Lake Erie . The power facilities for the project would produce a maximum of 5 gigawatts of electricity . In total , the proposed reservoir was anticipated to cover an area of 10 @,@ 700 square miles ( 27 @,@ 700 km2 ) and have a capacity of 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @,@ 600 km3 ) .
In April 1964 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) released its report on the project . Though only a part of the larger Department of the Interior study , the FWS report came down strongly opposed to the dam on the grounds that it would irrevocably destroy the Yukon Flats , a critical waterfowl breeding ground . In January 1965 , the Bureau of Land Management set aside almost 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 ha ) of land for construction of the dam and reservoir . It was a typical process that had been done for other dam projects several times before , but the amount of land to be set aside generated several months of hearings before the decision .
In June 1964 the Natural Resources Council asked Stephen H. Spurr , dean of the Graduate School of the University of Michigan and an authority on forestry and forest ecology , to form a group to evaluate the proposed Rampart Dam . The Spurr report determined that the scenarios offered as justification for the project were overly optimistic with respect to Alaska ’ s projected long @-@ term population growth , its per capita use of electricity , and the predicted rate of entry of electroprocess industries like the aluminum industry ( which had substantial power requirements ) into Alaska . Moreover , the proposed dam would have greatly reduced the catch of five species of Pacific salmon , especially the chinook ( king ) , chum ( dog ) and coho ( silver ) salmon . It would also eliminate vast numbers of migratory waterfowl , including an estimated 1 @.@ 5 million ducks and 12 @,@ 500 geese that migrated annually from the Yukon flats . There would also have been a sharp decline in both large mammals - the moose , black and grizzly bear , and caribou - and smaller mammals : muskrats , mink , beavers , and river otters in aquatic habitats , and marten , wolverines , weasels , lynx , snowshoe hares , red fox and red squirrels in terrestrial or upland habitats . Spurr ’ s report noted : " [ It ] is a truism of wildlife ecology that displacement of a population from the area where it normally lives is tantamount to eliminating it completely . Adjoining habitats ordinarily are carrying all the wildlife that the local resources will support . In short , loss of habitat is synonymous with loss of the animal population supported by the inundated habitat . "
In March 1966 Spurr ’ s team issued its final report , finding that the dam was not a cost @-@ effective investment .
In January 1965 , the Department of the Interior completed its three @-@ volume , 1 @,@ 000 @-@ page study of the Rampart project 's feasibility and impact . The Fish and Wildlife study released in 1964 was included , as were studies of the impact on the region 's Alaska Native population . United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall then created a task force to review the findings before he made a final decision . Throughout 1965 and 1966 , opponents and proponents of the project funded studies of their own , aimed either at supporting or rejecting the arguments for the dam .
In June 1967 , the Department of the Interior made its final recommendation and suggested that the dam not be built . Secretary Udall cited the fish and wildlife losses that would result , the availability of less @-@ costly alternatives , and the fact that no recreational benefits would accrue .
= = Final design = =
Despite the Interior Department 's rejection of the overall Rampart Dam project , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers continued its engineering feasibility study on the project . That plan was completed on June 25 , 1971 , and it included most of the previous federal documents pertaining to the project , including the electricity market studies published by the Department of the Interior in 1965 , the Fish and Wildlife study of 1964 , and other studies about the economic feasibility of the project . A detailed description of potential construction methods and the overall plan for the project were included , as were reports about the site 's geography and hydrology . In total , the report encompassed two volumes including more than 480 pages . Because the construction season at the site is only five months , the Corps of Engineers projected that several decades would be needed to build the dam and associated structures .
= = = Preparation = = =
Due to the lack of any land transportation route to the dam site , the first stage of construction would have involved the building of a temporary road from Eureka , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) away , to the dam site . Consideration also was given to the extension of the Alaska Railroad from Fairbanks to the site . A period of about four years would have been required for preconstruction planning , including detailed construction surveying and finalizing the design of the dam , powerhouse , and other structures . Engineers estimated that after the four years of final planning and surveying , three years would be needed to dig river diversion tunnels and construct the cofferdams needed to clear the Yukon River streambed for construction . Housing and construction offices also would have been constructed for workers on the south bank of the site , and the cost for this effort was included in overall cost proposals for the project .
= = = Construction = = =
Site clearing and foundation work would have been scheduled to begin after completion of the diversion work in the seventh year of the project . The first pouring of concrete was scheduled for the project 's eighth year , and work on the powerhouse would have begun in the 11th year . Owing to the large size of the reservoir , engineers estimated that the diversion tunnels would be closed in the 13th year , allowing construction to pace the filling of the new lake . The reservoir would have reached a pool elevation of 550 feet ( 168 m ) in the 21st year , the dam would have been completed to elevation 660 feet ( 201 m ) in the 25th year , and the reservoir would have been filled to the full 640 @-@ foot ( 195 m ) level in the 31st year after the project 's start . The installation of power generators was planned to follow as needed , with the last unit scheduled for installation by the 45th year of the project .
In total , the dam would have consisted of a concrete gravity structure with a structural height of 510 feet ( 155 m ) and a hydraulic height of 430 feet ( 131 m ) . At the elevation of 660 feet ( 201 m ) , the dam would have stretched for 4 @,@ 700 feet ( 1 @,@ 430 m ) from north to south . On the south bank would have been a concrete gravity spillway with a crest at elevation 600 feet ( 183 m ) and a maximum flow of 603 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 17 @,@ 100 m3 / s ) at maximum pool elevation . The power facilities would have consisted of twenty @-@ two 266 @,@ 000 kilowatt units and two 10 @,@ 000 kilowatt service units .
Materially , building the dam would have required 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 11 @,@ 470 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete aggregate , 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 220 @,@ 000 m3 ) of rock fill , and another 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of various other types of fill . Engineers suggested that some of the material could be found at the site , but the remainder would have to be brought from outside sources .
= = = Reservoir = = =
At the projected pool elevation of 645 feet ( 197 m ) , the resulting reservoir would have had a total capacity of 1 @,@ 145 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @,@ 410 km3 ) . The full pool length would have been about 270 miles ( 435 km ) , and the maximum width would have been 80 miles ( 129 km ) . The resulting lake would have had approximately 3 @,@ 600 miles ( 5 @,@ 800 km ) of shoreline and a total surface area of about 9 @,@ 844 square miles ( 25 @,@ 496 km2 ) . Because the Yukon also is a transportation route , transshipment facilities were planned for below and above the dam site and would have been connected by road and rail links . Because of the large size of the proposed reservoir and the need to allow some flow of the Yukon River downstream of the dam site for river navigation and fishing , engineers anticipated that filling the reservoir would take no fewer than 16 years to complete .
= = = Anticipated costs = = =
The Rampart Dam 's large size had a correspondingly large price tag . The Corps of Engineers anticipated spending $ 618 @.@ 4 million ( 1970 dollars ) on construction of the physical dam alone , another $ 492 million for power @-@ generating equipment , and $ 1 @.@ 39 billion in total . That total included $ 15 @.@ 59 million for relocating Alaskans from the area to be flooded , $ 56 million for fish and wildlife facilities to mitigate the anticipated losses , and $ 39 @.@ 7 million for roads and bridges to access the area . After completion of the dam , the Corps of Engineers estimated that operation and maintenance of the project would cost $ 6 @.@ 5 million annually , including $ 570 @,@ 000 for replacement power equipment and $ 2 million for the maintenance of fish and wildlife facilities .
= = Weather effects = =
From the initial planning stages , proponents and opponents speculated that the large size of the reservoir created by the dam could affect the weather in Interior Alaska and the Yukon . Several studies were conducted in regards to these potential changes , and most of the reports hypothesized an effect similar to the weather that occurs around Great Slave Lake and Lake Baikal , both of which were of similar sizes and latitudes to the proposed reservoir . Forecasts predicted the lake would hold in heat longer during the autumn , thus keeping area temperatures slightly warmer than normal . In the spring , however , the area around the lake would have been prone to increased precipitation due to the phenomenon of lake @-@ effect snow . In the summer , the long periods of daylight would have caused the land around the lake to become warmer than the lake itself , also creating the possibility of storms .
= = Supporters = =
Support for the dam project came from a variety of sources , but supporters tended to use three primary arguments in favor of its construction : the electricity generated by the project would be cheap and plentiful , industries would be attracted to Alaska by the cheap electricity , and the dam 's construction would have minimal impact on the environment and human populations .
During the campaign that preceded the 1960 U.S. Presidential election , both candidates — Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy — made campaign stops in Alaska . Both men gave their support to the Rampart Dam project , with Kennedy saying , " I see the greatest dam in the free world at Rampart Canyon , producing twice the power of the Tennessee Valley Authority to light homes and mills and cities and farms all over Alaska . " Nixon , arriving three months after Kennedy , said , " As far as Rampart Canyon Dam is concerned , certainly you can expect progress , more progress , I believe , in our administration than his " .
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers leaders strongly supported the project in its initial phases . In 1960 , Harold Moats of the Corps ' Alaska district said , " Rampart Canyon , the big one , is Alaska 's most valuable resource , and as it is developed , Alaska will take her rightful place in the family of states contributing richly to the economy of the nation and the welfare of the whole free world . "
In early September 1963 , a group of Alaska businesspeople , local government leaders , and industry representatives met at McKinley Park Lodge to organize lobbying efforts in favor of the dam . The resulting organization was called the Yukon Corporation for Power for America , later shortened to Yukon Power for America , Inc . The organization began with a $ 100 @,@ 000 budget , which it used to produce " The Rampart Story " , a color brochure distributed in Alaska and Washington , D.C. to promote the dam project .
Alaska senator Ernest Gruening remained a staunch backer of the project from its inception to its cancellation , and made it a major personal political priority . Gruening led a coalition of Alaska lawmakers that included most of the Alaska Legislature . In the 1962 Alaska state elections , every candidate elected to the state legislature was a supporter of the project . In the years that followed , the Alaska Legislature voted several times to allocate state funding for the project . Politicians at the city level also got into the action , as the city of Anchorage and the Fairbanks Public Utilities Board each voted to contribute $ 10 @,@ 000 to a pro @-@ Rampart organization . Among the group 's members was Ted Stevens , who was appointed in 1968 as one of Alaska 's representatives to the U.S. Senate .
= = = Electrical argument = = =
As planned , the dam would have produced roughly 34 terawatt hours annually , nearly 50 times the total energy use for the entire state of Alaska in 1960 ( 700 gigawatt hours ) . Gruening , in particular , believed that the dam would have an effect similar to that of the Tennessee Valley Authority in the 1930s , with cheap electricity providing the economic basis of the region . Dam proponents also suggested that the electricity might be transmitted to the rest of the United States , lowering utility prices in those states by increasing the amount of available power . Anthony Netboy , a salmon biologist employed by Yukon Power for America , claimed that one day , " a housewife in Phoenix or L.A. will fry her eggs at breakfast with electricity generated on the far @-@ off Yukon . "
= = = Industrial argument = = =
Supporters of the project suggested that the cheap electricity provided by the dam would be a strong enticement for electricity @-@ intensive industries , such as aluminum smelting , to move to Alaska . They were encouraged by a 1962 economic feasibility study by the Development and Resources Corporation , which stated that the electricity generated would attract aluminum , magnesium and titanium industries to the region and help process locally produced minerals . The report also stated that the dam would attract a wood pulp mill on at least a temporary basis to process the hundreds of millions of board feet of timber that would otherwise be lost as the dam 's reservoir flooded . The authors of the DRC report were specific enough to predict that 19 @,@ 746 jobs would be created by the dam 's construction — not including jobs opened during the construction process . Both the 1962 study , and another report by University of Michigan researcher Michael Brewer in 1966 , stated that tens of thousands of jobs would be created by the construction process alone , even if the cheap electricity generated by the dam failed to attract any additional industries to Alaska .
= = = Impact argument = = =
At the time Rampart Dam was being considered , Alaska as a whole , and Interior Alaska in particular , was sparsely settled . The 1960 United States Census recorded just 226 @,@ 127 people as residents of Alaska , making it the least @-@ populated state in the United States at that time . Interior Alaska contained about 28 @,@ 000 residents , and promoters suggested that the dam 's benefits would vastly outweigh the costs to the few residents who would be displaced . An unnamed Gruening staffer once said the area to be flooded by the dam was worthless , containing " not more than ten flush toilets . Search the whole world and it would be difficult to find an equivalent area with so little to be lost through flooding . " In a 1963 letter responding to a Sports Illustrated article about the dam , Gruening wrote ,
As for the 2 @,@ 000 Athabascan Indians , they could not but be better off than they are now . Their villages are flooded intermittently by the Yukon . Their habitations are miserable and their livelihood a bare subsistence supplemented by relief . Construction of the Rampart Dam will give them ample gainful employment , and in their new locations , chosen by them on the lake 's borders , they will have better homes , better community facilities and a permanent income from now nonexistent activities , generated by the lake .
In the same letter , Gruening also promoted the possibility of the dam creating a thriving tourism industry in Interior Alaska , a hypothesis that was raised by other dam supporters as well . Greuning stated that the project would be similar to Lake Powell , in that it would create a range of recreational activities , including water skiing and picnicking .
= = Opposition = =
Opposition to the project was based on three separate objections to its construction : ecological , human , and financial . Conservation groups opposed the dam 's construction because it would flood the Yukon Flats , a large wetland area that provides breeding ground for millions of waterfowl and habitat for game and fur @-@ bearing animals . Alaska Native groups objected to the project 's human cost — the need to relocate more than 1 @,@ 500 people and 9 villages — and Native groups outside the reservoir area objected to the potential devastation of the Yukon River salmon population . The third objection to construction of the dam stemmed from its high cost and the belief that cheap electricity would not be enough to attract industry to Alaska .
= = = Ecological objections = = =
In late 1960 , the Alaska Conservation Society became the first large conservation group to oppose construction of the dam . The organization believed the flooding of the Yukon Flats would cause critical damage to Alaska waterfowl and promoted the alternative Susitna Hydroelectric Project to supply Alaska 's electric needs . This was followed in early 1961 by an Alaska Sportsmen 's Council resolution that criticized the Corps of Engineers for reducing its funding for studies of the impact of the project on fish and game stocks . In April of that year , Alaska Sportsman magazine took a formal stand against the project .
The California Fish and Game Commission was among the first non @-@ Alaska conservation groups to oppose construction of the dam , saying in 1963 that it would inundate the Yukon Flats , an area of wetlands that is among North America 's largest waterfowl breeding grounds . Following that objection , other groups began to organize during the 1963 North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference . Fifteen conservation groups pooled a total of $ 25 @,@ 000 at the meeting to begin an independent scientific study of the project and start an opposition campaign .
In the spring of 1964 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service released a report on the impact of dam construction on the Flats . The report strongly opposed construction of the dam , saying in part , " Nowhere in the history of water development in North America have the fish and wildlife losses anticipated to result from a single project been so overwhelming . " The report also pointed out the threat the dam would pose to the Yukon River 's large salmon population , which swim upstream each year to spawn . Arthur Laing , Canada 's minister of northern affairs and natural resources , also expressed alarm at the potential waterfowl losses and the threat the dam posed to Canada 's portion of the Yukon River salmon population .
A May 1965 article in The Atlantic magazine by author Paul Brooks illustrated the growing protests of conservationists concerned about the project . After traveling the Yukon River , Brooks hypothesized that construction of the dam would be catastrophic from an ecological and human standpoint , would cost an exorbitant amount of money , and that the claims of attracting industry and tourism to Alaska were greatly exaggerated . In real terms , he estimated that construction of the dam would eliminate the habitat for 1 @.@ 5 million ducks , 12 @,@ 500 geese , 10 @,@ 000 cranes , 270 @,@ 000 salmon , 12 @,@ 000 moose , and seven percent of Alaska 's fur @-@ bearing animals . Similar articles appeared in magazines such as Field and Stream , which called the project " a catastrophe of major proportions " , and the Audubon Society Magazine , said the dam " would negate 30 years of endeavor in waterfowl preservation . Even sporting magazine Sports Illustrated got into the act , asking if the cost of so many waterfowl would be worth building the dam .
= = = Human objections = = =
In planning the dam project , engineers anticipated that building the dam would flood nine Alaska Native villages , forcing the relocation of an estimated 1 @,@ 500 people . Although some of the affected villagers felt the increased job opportunities would outweigh the forced move , most objected to the potential loss of the region 's history . Among the affected villages was Fort Yukon , which is the oldest English @-@ speaking settlement in Alaska . In 1964 , several groups of Native dam opponents in the Yukon Flats came together to form an organization called Gwitchya Gwitchin Ginkhye , which lobbied against the project . The Tundra Times , an Alaska newspaper devoted to Native issues , also came out strongly in opposition to the project , saying that all but one village from the head of the proposed reservoir to the mouth of the Yukon River were against the dam . Don Young , Alaska 's representative to the U.S. House of Representatives , was elected to the Alaska Legislature in 1964 from Fort Yukon on a platform of opposition to Rampart Dam .
A survey of the archaeological and paleontological potential of the Yukon Flats , conducted in 1965 , objected to the potential loss of the area . In part , it said , " ... it may be said that relatively speaking , the archaeological potential of the Rampart Impoundment area is great ; the practical difficulties of field work will have to be overcome in order to obviate the possible loss of what may be some of the most important prehistoric records in North America . "
The Canadian government also strongly opposed the Rampart Dam project . According to the Treaty of Washington , signed in 1871 , Canada was allowed free navigation of the Yukon River . It was feared that construction of the dam would block navigation routes and violate the treaty .
= = = Financial objections = = =
Opposition to the dam project also arose in concern of the dam 's cost . Several United States congressmen and fiscal conservatives protested the proposal on the grounds that the money that would be spent on its construction would be better used to support other projects . They pointed to the lack of existing infrastructure in the region and said it was unlikely that enough electricity generated by the dam could be sold at a high enough price to pay for its construction .
In his 1966 analysis of the project 's economic feasibility , Michael Brewer refuted the conclusions of the 1962 federal study , saying that the ability of the dam to pay for itself was " an exercise in speculation " . He also wrote that even if the dam was built and cheap electricity made available , " Alaska did not possess a competitive advantage " . He concluded by saying that the project was " not economically efficient " . Because of arguments like these , the common belief among informed observers outside Alaska was that the project was designed to benefit Alaska alone , and thus could almost be considered " foreign aid . " An editorial in The New York Times summed up non @-@ Alaska opinions when it asked if the dam project was " the world 's biggest boondoggle " .
= = Cancellation = =
Owing to increasing public pressure , in June 1967 , United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall announced he was strongly opposed to the dam , citing economic and biological factors as well as the drastic impact on the area 's native population . Though this effectively ended the project , planning continued to go ahead until the final Army Corps of Engineers report was released in 1971 and recommended the project " not be undertaken at this time " . Alaska governor William Allen Egan protested the statement , saying the report was out of date due to population growth in Alaska and rising demand for electricity .
The report was duly reconsidered , but in 1978 , the Army Corps of Engineers confirmed the project no longer was justified . The audited report was accepted by the U.S. Senate , and no further funding was allocated to study the issue . The final nail in the coffin came on December 1 , 1978 , when President Jimmy Carter authorized the creation of the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Monument , which became the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge in 1980 . The refuge status eliminated any possibility of flooding the Yukon Flats , a process that would have been inevitable with the construction of the dam .
In summer 1985 , the last remnants of the dam project were eliminated when the 8 @.@ 96 million acres ( 36 @,@ 300 km2 ) set aside for development of the dam were released by the Bureau of Land Management for other uses .
= = Legacy = =
The controversy surrounding the Rampart Dam project illustrated the growing shift in the environmental movement during the 1960s . Rather than becoming focused singularly on solely preserving the natural beauty of a particular landscape , as had inspired the creation of the U.S. National Park Service in the United States during the first half of the twentieth century , naturalists and environmentalists began to consider the human cost of development as well . Though opposition to Rampart was founded primarily on economic and natural grounds , it consequences for the Alaska Native population in the region reflected later concerns about industrial development in more urban areas .
Among Alaska Natives , the Rampart Dam project encouraged organization and the creation of communications links between various like @-@ minded communities and tribal groups . When the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline was proposed in the late 1960s and early 1970s , Native organizations that had formed to oppose Rampart Dam were revived in opposition to the pipeline . Only after Native land claims were recognized in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act did the pipeline progress .
= = Further information = =
= = = Articles = = =
Cooke , A. " The Rampart Dam proposal for Yukon River " . Polar Record , December 1964 @.@ pp. 277 – 280 .
Leopold , A. and Leonard , Justin . " The Rampart Project " . Natural History , January 1966 @.@ p . 12
Spurr , Stephen H. " Rampart Dam : A costly gamble " . Audubon , May – June 1966 @.@ pp. 173 – 175
= = = Audio / Visual = = =
Development and Resources Corporation . " Senator Ernest Gruening and Gus Norwood discuss the marketing potential of Rampart Dam " . Alaska Film Archives , University of Alaska Fairbanks . 1961 .
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . " Sen. Ernest Gruening listens to a report from Chief of engineers General Walter Wilson about his recent trip to Alaska " . Alaska Film Archives , University of Alaska Fairbanks . 1961 .
U.S. Senate . " Senator Ernest Gruening and Jim Brooks discuss effects of the proposed Rampart Dam on fish and wildlife " . Alaska Film Archives , University of Alaska Fairbanks . 1961 .
U.S. Senate . " Senator Ernest Gruening and Oscar Chapman discuss power usage of the proposed Rampart Dam " . Alaska Film Archives , University of Alaska Fairbanks . 1961 .
U.S. Senate . " Senator Ernest Gruening and Oscar Chapman discuss weather changes from the proposed Rampart Dam " . Alaska Film Archives , University of Alaska Fairbanks . 1961 .
= = = Books = = =
Ivan Bloch and Associates ( Industrial Consultants ) . Background Facts on Rampart Canyon Project , Yukon River , Alaska . Portland , Oregon . October 1963 .
Naske , Claus M. and Hunt , William R. The Politics of Hydroelectric Power in Alaska : Rampart and Devil Canyon – A case study . Fairbanks , Alaska . University of Alaska , January 1978 .
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= German destroyer Z12 Erich Giese =
Z12 Erich Giese was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was used in the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . In late 1939 the ship made one successful minelaying sortie off the English coast that claimed two merchant ships . While returning from that sortie , she torpedoed a British destroyer without being detected and continued on her way . During the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , Erich Giese fought in both naval Battles of Narvik in mid @-@ April 1940 and was sunk by British destroyers during the Second Battle of Narvik .
= = Design and description = =
Erich Giese had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 190 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 140 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Erich Giese carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Erich Giese carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . ' GHG ' ( German : Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines .
= = Career = =
The ship was ordered on 4 August 1934 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 3 May 1935 as yard number G538 . She was launched on 12 March 1937 and completed on 4 March 1939 . Erich Giese was initially assigned to 8th Destroyer Division ( 8 . Zerstörrer @-@ Division ) part of the 4th Destroyer Flotilla ( 4 . Zerstörrer @-@ Flottille ) under the command of Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Brocksien . Two months later , the ship escorted into Hamburg the convoy returning the German Condor Legion from Spain . When World War II began , Erich Giese was assigned to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . The ship also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods . The ship attempted to lay a minefield off the British coast on the night of 12 / 13 November , but had to turn back to escort her consorts , Theodor Riedel and Hermann Schoemann , back to Germany when they suffered machinery breakdowns . Eight days later , she was one of the destroyers escorting the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst through the North Sea to breakout into the North Atlantic .
Led by Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey in his flagship Hans Lody , Erich Giese and Bernd von Arnim left port on the morning of 6 December to lay a minefield off Cromer . The latter ship had severe boiler problems and was ordered to return to port in the late afternoon while the other two continued their mission . They spotted several darkened ships as they approached their destination , including the destroyers HMS Juno and HMS Jersey , but were not spotted in return . As the two German destroyers withdrew after having laid their mines , they spotted the two British destroyers again at a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) and closed to attack . When the range dropped to 4 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 000 yd ) , Lody fired three torpedoes at Juno , the leading British ship , while Giese fired four at Jersey . None of Lody 's torpedoes struck their target , but one of Giese 's hit Jersey abreast her aft torpedo mount . The torpedo detonated in an oil fuel tank and started a major fire . Neither British ship spotted the German destroyers and they continued on while Juno turned about to help her sister . Two British ships totalling 5 @,@ 286 Gross Register Tons were sunk by this minefield . Giese was refitted at the Germaniawerft shipyard after her return on 8 December .
The ship was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and sailed the next day . Giese fell behind the rest of Group 1 as the result of oil leaks , machinery breakdowns , and contaminated fuel oil . She fell further behind when Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Karl Smidt turned the ship about to recover a soldier who had been washed overboard by the high seas . Giese had little usable fuel left by this time and was forced to continue at a slower speed to conserve fuel . When the ship arrived at her destination on 9 April , she landed her troops in the Herjangsfjord ( a northern branch of the Ofotfjord ) to reinforce the other troops previously landed there in order to capture the Norwegian Army armory at Elvegårdsmoen . Later in the day , Erich Giese moved to Narvik harbor , but was not able to refuel before she was ordered to return to the Herjangsfjord well before dawn together with her sisters Wolfgang Zenker and Erich Koellner .
Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the German ships in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the German 4th Flotilla which had been alerted when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik . Giese and Koellner were very low on fuel and all three were running low on ammunition , so Commander Bey decided not to continue the pursuit of the British ships since they were being engaged by the last two destroyers of Group 1 .
Commander Bey was ordered during the afternoon of 10 April to return to Germany with all seaworthy ships that evening . Only Erich Giese and Wolfgang Zenker were ready for sea and they slipped out of the Ofotfjord and turned south . Visibility was good that night and they spotted the light cruiser HMS Penelope and her two escorting destroyers and Commander Bey decided to turn back even though his ships had not been spotted by the British . Three other destroyers refuelled and completed their repairs on 11 April , but Bey decided against another breakout attempt despite the fog and poor visibility that night . Bey made no attempt to breakout during the night of 12 / 13 April , possibly because two of the destroyers had been damaged earlier in the day when they ran aground .
That night he received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . Erich Giese reported that she was only capable of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) , although her torpedoes had been replenished from the damaged destroyers . The battleship HMS Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , not including Giese , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . The ship did not have enough steam raised to participate and remained in the harbor . She attempted to leave the harbor after the British had driven off the other German ships , but her port engine seized up and left her almost dead in the water at the mouth of the harbor . While attempting to repair her engine , Giese was approached by the destroyers HMS Punjabi and HMS Bedouin which fired five torpedoes at her . All of them missed and Giese 's torpedoes were equally unsuccessful . She did hit Punjabi with six or seven 12 @.@ 7 cm shells which holed the ship several times just above the waterline , wrecked her fire @-@ control system , severed her main steam line and started several fires . Casualties aboard Punjabi were seven killed and 14 wounded . In the meantime , Giese had managed to repair her engine after ten minutes of work and limped forward at her maximum speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) to engage the remaining British destroyers . Bedouin closed to point @-@ blank range and had her forward gun turret knocked out by Giese , but the latter was hit at least 20 times and reduced to a blazing wreck that finally sank shortly before midnight . Eighty @-@ three of her crew were killed outright during the battle , but the destroyer HMS Foxhound did rescue 11 men , although two subsequently died of their wounds . Surviving crew members later testified , that they had been fired upon while drifting in the water . The ship 's remaining crewmen managed to get ashore one way or another .
In 2011 , a 150 kilograms ( 330 lb ) bronze Reichsadler was salvaged from the wreck of Giese , in order to be displayed at the War Museum in Narvik . The ship 's bell from Giese was removed by looters in the 1960s , as were the Reichsadler from the nine other German destroyers sunk at Narvik .
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= Trillium grandiflorum =
Trillium grandiflorum ( common names white trillium , large @-@ flowered trillium , great white trillium , white wake @-@ robin , French trille blanc ) is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae . A monocotyledonous , herbaceous perennial , it is native to eastern North America , from northern Quebec to the southern parts of the United States through the Appalachian Mountains into northernmost Georgia and west to Minnesota . It also thrives on Vancouver Island in British Columbia . There are also several isolated populations , such as in Nova Scotia and Iowa .
Trillium grandiflorum is most common in rich , mixed upland forests . It is easily recognised by its attractive three @-@ petaled white flowers , opening from late spring to early summer , that rise above a whorl of three , leaf @-@ like bracts . It is an example of a spring ephemeral , a plant whose life @-@ cycle is synchronised with that of the deciduous woodland which it favours .
= = Description = =
Trillium grandiflorum is a perennial that grows from a short rhizome and produces a single , showy white flower atop a whorl of three leaves . These leaves are ovate ( i.e. , egg @-@ shaped ) in outline with pointed tips . They lack petioles ( or have extremely short ones ) and measure 12 – 20 cm long by 8 – 15 cm wide ( 5 @-@ 8 in long by 3 – 6 in width ) , with very prominently engraved venation . The leaves and the stem share a dark green color and persist into autumn . Leaves and petals both have somewhat undulate margins , the leaves often much more strongly so . Individuals grow to between about 15 and 30 cm tall ( 6 – 12 inches ) . A single rootstock will often form clonal colonies , which can become very large and dense .
The erect , odorless flowers are large , especially compared to other species of Trillium , with 4 to 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 to 3 in ) long petals , depending on age and vigor . The petals are shaped much like the leaves and curve outward . They have a visible venation , though this is nowhere near as marked as on the leaves . Their overlapping bases and curve give the flower a distinctive funnel shape . Between the veined petals , three acuminate ( ending with a long point ) sepals are visible ; they are usually a paler shade of green than the leaves , and are sometimes streaked with maroon . Flowers are perched on a pedicel ( i.e. , flower stalk ) raising them above the leaf whorl , and grow pinker as they age .
Flowers have six stamens in two whorls of three , which persist after fruiting . The styles are white and very short compared to the 9 – 27 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 06 in ) anthers , which are pale yellow but becomes a brighter shade when liberating pollen due to the latter 's color . The ovary is six @-@ sided with 3 greenish @-@ white stigmas that are at first weakly attached , but fuse higher up . The fruit is a green , mealy and moist orb , and is vaguely six @-@ sided like the ovary .
= = Taxonomy = =
Trillium grandiflorum was originally described as T. rhomboideum var. grandiflorum by André Michaux in his 1803 work Flora Boreali @-@ Americana . T. rhomboideum is now a synonym of the closely related species T. erectum . T. grandiflorum was first treated as a species by Richard Anthony Salisbury only two years later . The species was traditionally placed in the subgenus Trillium , but recent work has shown the phylogeny of this grouping to be paraphyletic . Since then no phylogeny of the genus has garnered much agreement ( The other subgenus , Phyllantherum , includes sessile @-@ flowered species ) . T. grandiflorum is , alongside the western T. ovatum , one of the closer relatives to the subg . Phyllantherum members .
One form of the plant , T. grandiflorum f. roseum , opens with light pink petals instead of the common white . It is generally found very rarely throughout the range , but in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia is can be found somewhat frequently in mixed or sometimes pure colonies . It should be noted that the white flowers of the common pure white variety of T. grandiflorum turn a very distinctive pink and remain so for several days just prior to the wilting of the flowers . Plants bearing these pink flowers are often mistaken for a " pink variety " of trillium .
Many variants of T. grandiflorum have green markings on the petals , as well as anywhere from 4 to 30 extra petals or bracts along with other highly deformed characteristics . Although many of these forms have been given taxonomic names , it has been shown that mycoplasma @-@ like bacteria are responsible for the altered morphology in these individuals and not genetic variation . T. grandiflorum does , however , occasionally produce double @-@ flowered forms such as T. g. f. polymerum . These are almost invariably sterile , but are much sought after for their appearance by trillium growers . It is the species of trillium that produces double flowers most frequently . On the other hand , and unlike other species such as T. erectum which hybridize fairly easily , T. grandiflorum is not known to form hybrids .
= = Ecology = =
Trillium grandiflorum favors well @-@ drained , neutral to slightly acid soils , usually in second- or young @-@ growth forests . In the Northern parts of its range it shows an affinity for maple or beech forests , but has also been known to spread into nearby open areas . Depending on geographical factors , it flowers from late April to early June , just after T. erectum . Like many forest perennials , T. grandiflorum is a slow growing plant . Its seeds require double dormancy , meaning they normally take at least two years to fully germinate . Like most species of Trillium , flowering age is determined largely by the surface of the leaf and volume of the rhizome the plant has reached instead of age alone . Because growth is very slow in nature , T. grandiflorum typically requires seven to ten years in optimal conditions to reach flowering size , which corresponds to a minimum of 36 cm2 ( 5 @.@ 6 sq in ) of leaf surface area and 2 @.@ 5 cm3 ( 0 @.@ 15 cu in ) of rhizome volume . In cultivation , however , wide disparity of flowering ages are observed .
= = = Conservation concerns = = =
Some forms of the species have pink instead of white petals , while others with extra petals , also called " double " forms , are naturally quite common in the species , and these are especially popular with trillium gardeners . In fact , the species is the most popular of its genus in cultivation , which has led to conservation concerns due to the majority of commercially available plants being collected from the wild . A few regional governments in Canada and the United States have declared the plant vulnerable as a result .
Due to the popularity of Trillium grandiflorum as a garden specimen , conservation concerns have been raised as the vast majority of plants sold in commercial nurseries are believed to be collected from the wild . Indeed , there is little indication of any commercial nursery growth . Frederick and Roberta Case , botanists who specialize in trilliums , wrote in 1997 , " to our knowledge , no true commercial quantity ' propagation ' takes place at the present time . " Such heavy collecting , combined with other pressures such as habitat destruction and grazing , may effectively endanger the plants in some areas.Trillium grandiflorum is legally listed as vulnerable in Quebec , primarily due to habitat destruction as the plant is found in forests neighboring the province 's most populous regions . It is listed as exploitably vulnerable in the state of New York , meaning that it might become threatened should certain factors not be mitigated . In Maine , it is listed as endangered , and might have been extirpated entirely .
= = = Pollination and seed dispersal = = =
Trillium grandiflorum has long been thought to self @-@ pollinate based on the fact that pollinators had rarely been observed visiting the plants and because there is low variation in chromosomal banding patterns . This has been strongly challenged , as other studies have shown high pollination rates by bumblebees and very low success of self @-@ pollination in controlled experiments , implying that they are in fact self @-@ incompatible . Several ovules of a given individual often fail to produce seeds . One contributing factor is pollen limitation , and one study showed that open pollinated plants had 56 % of their ovules produce seeds , while in hand pollinated individuals the figure was 66 % . Plants with reduced exposure to pollinators were 33 % to 50 % less likely to produce fruits than those that were , while hand pollinated individuals showed a 100 % fruit set ( though these fruits did not contain a 100 % seed set ) . Plant resources were shown to be a limiting factor in seed production : when pollen was in abundance , larger plants had a significantly greater seed to ovule ratio than smaller ones . The overall suboptimal seed to ovule ratios suggest that Trillium grandiflorum has evolved to maximize reproductive success in the face of highly stochastic pollination , where some plants may only be visited by a single pollinator in a season .
Trillium grandiflorum has been studied extensively by ecologists due to a number of unique features it possesses . It is a representative example of a plant whose seeds are spread through myrmecochory , or ant @-@ mediated dispersal , which is effective in increasing the plant 's ability to outcross , but ineffective in bringing the plant very far . This has led ecologists to question how it and similar plants were able to survive glaciation events during the ice ages . The height of the species has also been shown to be an effective index of how intense foraging by deer is in a particular area .
Fruits are released in the summer , containing about 16 seeds on average . These seeds are most typically dispersed by ants , which is called myrmecochory , but yellow jackets ( Vespula vulgaris ) and harvestmen ( order Opiliones ) have both been observed dispersing the seeds at lower frequencies . Insect dispersal is aided by the presence of a conspicuous elaiosome , an oil @-@ rich body attached to the seed , which is high in both lipids and oleic acid . The oleic acid induces corpse @-@ carrying behavior in ants , causing them to bring the seeds to their nesting sites as if they were food . As ants visit several colonies of the plant , they bring genetically variable seeds back to a single location , which after germination results in a new population with relatively high genetic diversity . This has the ultimate effect of increasing biological fitness .
Although myrmecochory is by far the most common dispersal method , white @-@ tailed deer have also been shown to disperse the seeds on rare occasions by ingestion and defecation . While ants only move seeds up to about 10 meters , deer have been observed to transport the seeds over 1 kilometer . This helps to explain post @-@ agricultural colonization of forest sites by Trillium grandiflorum , as well as long distance gene flow which has been detected in other studies . Furthermore , it helps resolve what has been called " Reid 's paradox " , which states that migration during glaciation events must have been impossible for plants with dispersal rates under several hundred meters per year , such as Trillium grandiflorum . Thus occasional long distance dispersal events , such as by deer , probably helped save this and other species with otherwise short distance dispersal ability from extinction during the glaciations of the ice ages . Furthermore , nested clade analysis of cpDNA haplotypes has shown that Trillium grandiflorum is likely to have persisted through the last glacial period in two sites of refuge in the southeastern United States and that long distance dispersal was responsible for the post @-@ glacial recolonization of northern areas .
In addition to the lateral dispersion ( by invertebrates and deer ) there is also importance in the fact that burial ( vertical dispersion ) by ants ( or other vectors ) increases the survival of new plants by two mechanisms . First , vertical dispersion ensures sufficient depth to preserve the seeds through their dormancy ( Trillium seeds are normally dormant for their first year ) . Second , vertical dispersion ensures adequate anchorage of the rhizomes . This is particularly important for young plants because their small rhizomes , with few & short roots , are easily dislodged ( e.g. frost heaveal and other erosion factors ) and desiccated .
= = = Interaction with deer = = =
Trillium grandiflorum as well as other trilliums are a favored food of white @-@ tailed deer . Indeed , if trilliums are available deer will seek these plants , with a preference for T. grandiflorum , to the exclusion of others . In the course of normal browsing , deer consume larger individuals , leaving shorter ones behind . This information can be used to assess deer density and its effect on understory growth in general .
When foraging intensity increases , individuals become shorter each growing season due to the reduction in energy reserves from less photosynthetic production . One study determined that the ideal deer density in northeastern Illinois , based on T. grandiflorum as an indicator of overall understory health , is 4 to 6 animals per square kilometer . This is based on a 12 to 14 cm stem height as an acceptable healthy height . In practice , deer densities as high as 30 deer per square kilometers are known to occur in restricted or fractured habitat where natural control mechanisms ( that is , predators like wolves ) are lacking . Such densities , if maintained over more than a few years , can be very damaging to the understory and lead to extinction of some local understory plant populations .
= = Cultivation = =
Trillium grandiflorum is one of the most popular trilliums in cultivation , primarily because of the size of its flowers and its relative ease of cultivation . Although not particularly demanding , its cultivation is a slow and rather uncertain process , due to usually slow growth , wide variations in growth speed and sometimes capricious germination rates . As a result , the vast majority of plants and rhizomes in commerce are collected in the wild , and such heavy collecting , combined with other pressures such as habitat destruction and grazing , may effectively endanger the plants in some areas . This also creates tensions between Trillium enthusiasts and conservation proponents . Transplantation ( as with almost all non @-@ weedy wild plants ) is a delicate process , and in many cases results in the death of the plant . In cultivation , T. grandiflorum may flower in as little as 4 to 5 years after germination ( compared to the usual 7 to 10 in the wild ) , but these cases appear to be exceptions rather than the rule . One study revealed 20 or so individuals performing so well out of about 10 @,@ 000 seeds planted , only 20 % of which germinated after a year . However , barring plant destruction , T. grandiflorum can continue flowering every year after it has begun .
This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit .
= = Cultural usage = =
As a particularly conspicuous forest flower , T. grandiflorum was designated the provincial emblem of Ontario in 1937 ( Flora Emblem Act ) , and as the state wild flower of Ohio in 1987 . As a symbol of Ontario , a stylized trillium flower features prominently on the official flag of the province 's French @-@ speaking community . It is also frequently used by the Canadian Heraldic Authority to represent Ontario in grants of arms . Although a network of laws make picking wildflowers illegal in the province on any Crown or provincially owned land , it is not , unlike widely believed , specifically illegal ( or necessarily harmful ) to pick the species in Ontario .
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= Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mask of the Betrayer =
Neverwinter Nights 2 : Mask of the Betrayer is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Atari . It is an expansion pack for Neverwinter Nights 2 . It was released in Autumn 2007 for the PC in North America , Europe , and Australia . Like the first game , Mask of the Betrayer is set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting of the paper and pencil role @-@ playing game Dungeons & Dragons and employs the 3 @.@ 5 edition rules .
Mask of the Betrayer continues the story of Neverwinter Nights 2 by following the fictional main character , the Shard @-@ bearer , who is afflicted by a curse that requires the devouring of spirits ( and occasionally souls ) to survive , and the character 's quest to determine the nature of the curse . The game takes place in two nations of the Forgotten Realms , Rashemen and Thay , which are considered part of Faerûn 's " Unapproachable East . "
The expansion received generally favorable reviews upon its release . New character traits , such as spells and combat abilities , were welcomed by players , as were the storyline and setting . The game 's technical aspects received mixed reception , with some reviewers welcoming the changes and others complaining that the technical glitches present in the original game had still not been addressed . The new " spirit eating " mechanic , which forces players to constantly replenish the main character 's life force by sucking out the force of spirits , undead , and gods was not appreciated by many reviewers .
= = Gameplay = =
Mask of the Betrayer is an expansion pack for Neverwinter Nights 2 and its core gameplay is identical . The game uses the 3 @.@ 5 edition rules of the tabletop role @-@ playing game Dungeons & Dragons . Players can create a character from scratch and make use of Mask of the Betrayer 's new races , classes , and feats , or import an existing character from Neverwinter Nights 2 . Characters must be at level 18 to begin the game . The level cap has been raised from 20 to 30 , allowing for epic level characters and accompanying prestige classes and feats . Mask of the Betrayer features all of the races from Neverwinter Nights 2 , as well as introducing two types of elves ( the wild elf and the half @-@ drow ) , and four types of genasi . It also contains two new base classes , the " favored soul " and " spirit shaman " , and five new prestige classes . The game adds more than 100 new feats and magical spells to the base game .
Like other Dungeons & Dragons games , the player character in Mask of the Betrayer generally relies on combat to progress throughout the game . The hero has different options in combat depending on their choice of class and abilities , including melee or ranged physical attacks and spells . The player character also has the opportunity to solve puzzles occasionally , such as breaking a contract with a devil by searching for loopholes . Certain actions , such as defeating enemies , result in the player character being awarded with experience points which are used to gain levels and become more powerful . Throughout the adventure , the player character is able to recruit followers and create a party . Each follower has their own agenda , and the hero may alienate followers with their actions if they disagree on a course of action .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Like other games in the Neverwinter Nights series , Mask of the Betrayer takes place in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting . The story is a direct sequel to the plot of Neverwinter Nights 2 , set almost immediately following the events at the main game 's end . The main campaign is set in Rashemen near the kingdom of Thay , and the Red Wizards of Thay are a driving force behind the campaign story .
= = = Story = = =
In Act I , the Shard @-@ bearer 's story resumes after the defeat of the King of Shadows . The player awakens alone in an underground barrow in Rashemen , where he meets Safiya , a Red Wizard of Thay . The player follows Safiya to the Veil Theater in the nearby town of Mulsantir , hoping to find Lienna , an acquaintance of Safiya ’ s mother , who is supposed to provide the player with some much @-@ needed answers . Unfortunately , the player finds that the theater has been attacked by Red Wizards , and Lienna has been killed . At the back of the theater , the player finds a portal to the Plane of Shadow , a dark reflection of the Prime Material Plane , where he defeats the Red Wizards who murdered Lienna . Upon returning to the Prime Material Plane , the player finds that the spirit @-@ god Okku has besieged Mulsantir , demanding the player ’ s blood . The player confronts Okku and defeats his spirit army . At the end of the battle , the player learns that he has become a spirit @-@ eater , an accursed being who must feed upon feys and elementals ( and sometimes mortal souls ) in order to survive .
In Act II , the player meets a group of gargoyle @-@ like creatures who reveal that Lienna and her " red twin " ordered them to kidnap the player from the Sword Coast . This plot was allegedly inspired by the Slumbering Coven , a sisterhood of hag oracles who dwell in an ancient flooded city . The player follows this clue to Lake Mulsantir , where he finds another portal to the Plane of Shadow . In this " alternate reality , " the player enters the flooded city and confronts the hags . The Slumbering Coven reveal that Lienna , along with Safiya 's mother Nefris , were responsible for the hero 's current dilemma . They send the player to Nefris 's Academy in Thay to discover her motive .
At the Academy , the player enters a portal to the Astral Plane where they meet Myrkul , the former god of the dead . Myrkul reveals that the spirit @-@ eater “ curse " originated as a punishment for his former servant , Akachi " The Betrayer " , who once led a crusade against the realm of the dead . Akachi ’ s empty and hungering soul now resides in the player ’ s body , and the player ’ s own soul has been displaced to the Wall of the Faithless , in the realm of the dead .
In Act III , the player meets the Founder of the Academy , and Safiya realizes that she , Lienna , and Nefris are all splinters of the Founder ’ s soul , and that the Founder was once Akachi ’ s lover . The Founder explains that , while Lienna and Nefris understood their identities , the truth was hidden from Safiya for her own safety . The Founder also admits that she is responsible for the player 's plight - she wanted to use the player to end the spirit @-@ eater curse ( and Akachi ’ s suffering , as well ) . She returns the silver sword of Gith to the player , which allows him to open the Betrayer 's Gate and travel to the realm of the dead . There the player finds the City of Judgment , ruled by the current God of the Dead , Kelemvor Lyonsbane . As the player arrives , an army is assembling outside the walls , led by Akachi ’ s captains from his First Crusade - Zoab , a fallen solar , Rammaq , a demilich , and Sey 'ryu , a blue dragon . The captains recognize the player as Akachi ’ s heir , and the player must decide whether to lead their crusade against the City of Judgment or to oppose them .
Depending upon his choice , the player character must assault or defend three key positions around the City of Judgment . After the battle , the player learns where his own soul is located and wrests it from the Wall of the Faithless . The player is then pulled into a dreamscape where he must battle Akachi 's avatar , The Faceless Man , for control of his soul . After defeating the Faceless Man , Kelemvor narrates the ending , which varies based on the player 's choices throughout the game .
= = Development = =
Obsidian Entertainment began planning Mask of the Betrayer , codenamed " NX1 " by its developers , before the release of Neverwinter Nights 2 . The game was announced in April 2007 . Obsidian Entertainment 's CEO , Feargus Urquhart , said that Mask of the Betrayer would continue the story of Neverwinter Nights 2 , and improvements would be made in character development and the companion system along the lines of a previous Obsidian game , Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic II . Lead designer Kevin Saunders described the game as " high @-@ level " , and characters would need to be at least level 18 before starting . A character could be imported from the first game , or players could make one from scratch and take advantage of Mask of the Betrayer 's new races , classes , and other features . The races consisted of two new types of elf as well as all four basic types of elemental genasi ; all of which had been commonly requested by the fan community . New base classes include the favored soul and the spirit shaman , both divine in nature . Prestige classes include the Red Wizard of Thay , the first time the class has appeared in a video game , and the Arcane Scholar of Candlekeep , a new class created by the game 's developers . Obsidian stated that the game would also include over 100 new feats and spells , including many epic feats .
A priority for developers was the improvement of the original game 's performance . Saunders said " Throughout the course of the project , we fixed many bugs , optimized performance , made better use of the graphics technology , and in general , tied up loose ends . For example , we revamped the camera and party controls , adding an RTS @-@ like strategy mode that makes combat much more enjoyable . " Neverwinter Nights 2 programmers made improvements to the engine , . such as the addition of a color desaturation filter that turns almost all colors into shades of black and white . The art team developed new environments for the regions of Rashemen and Thay that they felt would be appealing to the game 's modding community , such as snow @-@ covered forests and a magical academy . Mask of the Betrayer is the first time either region has been featured in a Dungeons & Dragons video game ; Obsidian stated that one design goal was " to immerse the player in the land of Rashemen . The art , music and characters were chosen and crafted to convey this very intriguing area of the Forgotten Realms . "
Modifications were also made to the Neverwinter Nights 2 toolset with the intention of giving more options to module creators in the fan community and making it easier for players taking the role of the Dungeon Master . Urquhart said that the additions include " an Appearance editor for humanoids and monsters to make it easier to cloth and color them , the saving and loading of lighting sets , undo functionality for terrain drawing , creating blueprints more easily , adding in more trees to use , [ and ] refining the texture sculpting tools . " Over two dozen monsters were created for Mask of the Betrayer , such as new types of golem , dragons , and hagspawn . New spell effects , character models , and environmental effects were also added ; Saunders stated that the genasi models in particular had been a challenge for artists and he had originally opposed the inclusion of the new races because of this .
The design team was focused on making the companion system deeper and contain a sense of accountability with players . Companions who are treated well and who agree with the protagonist 's actions bestow certain benefits , such as bonuses in combat . Companions who are treated poorly will not cooperate with the hero and may even abandon the hero . The story , revolving around the hole in the player character 's chest and his need to feed on the spirits of others to survive , was described by Obsidian as less all @-@ encompassing than the first game and more personal in nature . Saunders commented " It 's an epic story , but it 's a very personal one . You awaken in a pool of your own blood . Your immediate goal is survival . The shard of the Sword of Gith has been ripped from your chest and in its place is a dark hunger , a craving that threatens to consume you . The early part of the game involves determining the source and implications of this craving . " Saunders also stated that the story , written by creative lead George Ziets , was " very dark " and that the ending would bring some closure to the story of the Shard @-@ Bearer .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews of Mask of the Betrayer were generally favorable . Obsidian Entertainment 's handling of epic levels in the expansion was particularly praised , although some reviewers said that at higher levels the expansion became unbalanced . A number of reviewers mentioned that the expansion allows for more customization of both characters and levels , with Game Informer saying that " Piles of new feats , spells , and classes will give even seasoned D & D vets plenty to explore , either in the official campaign or custom scenarios built by the community . Likewise , builders can benefit from the ever @-@ improving toolset and ( supposedly ) fixed persistent @-@ world implementation . " Eurogamer also described the new classes , prestige classes , and races as " pretty damn neat " . Eurogamer stated that starting Neverwinter Nights 2 over from the beginning after installing Mask of the Betrayer is also interesting because the expansion " integrate [ s ] with the previous game ( i.e. you can select one of the new races and classes and go back and play NWN2 with them ) " .
Reviewers said that the expansion 's single @-@ player game was more difficult than that of Neverwinter Nights 2 ; 1UP.com stated that Obsidian " [ Upped ] the ante with tougher enemies and a more challenging experience altogether " The expansion also has more puzzles which make the player think , rather than somehow being resolvable through combat , with one reviewer noting that the expansion has " genuinely tough logic puzzles ( some frustratingly short on clues ) and a series of side quests that completely vary ( some might not even open up ) depending on your party makeup " . Multiple reviewers mentioned that the expansion is more serious than Neverwinter Nights 2 .
The game ’ s story and writing were praised by many reviewers , with some noting its avoidance of common fantasy clichés . Some reviewers also compared the quality and tone of the writing to Neil Gaiman 's The Sandman series and to Planescape : Torment .
" Planescape : Torment fans will feel right at home , reading the intriguing passages that depict the character ’ s actions and feelings , among other things , while newcomers will probably just skip them ( their loss ) . And even though the amount of text is nowhere near as large as that of PS : T , the quality is right up there with the big boys , with even the most insignificant ally having at least one or two interesting things to say . "
The expansion 's sound was described by GameZone as being " exactly what it needs to [ be ] , in that it supports the story and gameplay . " Its voice work was described as " decent " , although some dialogue is purely text . Graphics were also improved from Neverwinter Nights 2 , with better textures and spell effects , in addition to a new option so that the player can change the game 's level of violence . Reviewers also mentioned that the graphics , especially that of spells such as lightning , could make combat difficult ; GameSpy said ,
" All those high @-@ level spells also throw out a ton of spectacular graphics effects that do wonders to obscure what 's going on during a battle . As beautiful as they are [ ... ] , we 'd trade all the eye candy in the world for the ability to accurately select a target . "
Mask of the Betrayer was nominated for Best RPG of the Year by G4 TV , and it was named Runner @-@ up for RPG of the Year by GameBanshee .
Criticism of the expansion was aimed at its poor camera angles and other technical issues , although the game and updates since Neverwinter Nights 2 's release fixed many bugs of the original . IGN criticized the spirit meter mechanic , a statement echoed by GameSpy , who said ,
" On a purely mechanical level , the spirit meter ends up being more annoyance than fun . [ ... ] from a role @-@ playing / story standpoint it 's actually the reverse of what the mechanic was supposed to accomplish . "
John Walker , for GamesRadar , criticized the companions available :
" NWN2 was immediately joyful , with hilarious characters and dialogue juxtaposing the dark story . MotB is far more serious , and while the companions fulfill the role of representing personality extremes , none of them are particularly entertaining company . There 's no one to compare with Khelgar 's dwarfish temper , nor Neeshka 's impish naughtiness . Most are positively dull . And this isn 't helped by the opening dungeon being tedious beyond belief . " – John Walker , GamesRadar
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= Enterprise ( NX @-@ 01 ) =
Enterprise is a fictional spaceship which appeared in the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It had the in @-@ universe registration of NX @-@ 01 and appeared earlier in the franchise timeline than any other Starfleet ship named Enterprise . The producers of the series had originally intended to use an Akira @-@ class starship as seen in Star Trek : First Contact ( 1996 ) , but production designer Herman Zimmerman talked them into using a design with greater influence from Star Trek : The Original Series . Doug Drexler designed the exterior of the vessel , eventually arriving at the final design after also suggesting a Daedalus @-@ class starship with a sphere @-@ shaped primary hull , and a ship more reminiscent of the USS Enterprise ( NCC @-@ 1701 ) complete with secondary hull .
These ideas were turned down by the producers , who instead pushed for the final version as seen . Drexler also proposed a refit design , which may have been used if the series continued into a fifth season . The interior of the ship was designed by a number of staff members , but primarily by Zimmerman . He took inspiration from the fast attack submarines of the United States Navy as well as considering the previous vessels named Enterprise in the franchise . In the series itself , the ship was first seen in the pilot episode " Broken Bow " and was seen throughout the series undergoing various upgrades . Its missions included an initial period of deep space exploration and a mission into the Delphic Expanse following the Xindi attack on Earth ; it was also instrumental in the formation of the Coalition of Planets with the Vulcans , Andorians and Tellarites .
The final appearance occurred in " These Are The Voyages ... " , where the ship is seen en route to the signing of the Federation charter and the decommissioning of the ship . Enterprise has appeared in several non @-@ canon novels , which describe both its actions in the Romulan War and the vessel 's final fate as a museum ship in orbit of Pluto . A model of the NX @-@ 01 was seen on screen in the 2013 film Star Trek Into Darkness , and it has appeared in the video game Star Trek : Encounters . There was a negative fan reaction to the design , but television critics were mostly positive , calling the design " a sort of retro @-@ futurism " . Several Enterprise toys and models have been released , including versions by Art Asylum , Diamond Select Toys , QMx and Eaglemoss Publications .
= = Background = =
In the original pitch for Star Trek : The Original Series by creator Gene Roddenberry , the vessel that the series was set on was called the SS Yorktown . The starship was subsequently renamed USS Enterprise before the start of the series because of the growing real world fame of the recently launched U.S. Navy aircraft carrier of the same name . The name Enterprise has been linked with Star Trek since . A second Enterprise made its debut in Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home ( 1986 ) , suffixed NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ A. The fourth version was introduced in a third season episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation entitled " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . That series was set on the fifth version of the vessel , prefixed NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ D. The missing third Enterprise , prefixed NCC @-@ 1701 @-@ B , was introduced in Star Trek Generations ( 1994 ) .
Following the end of Star Trek : Voyager , which had been used to launch UPN , they were seeking a new Star Trek series . The network contacted Rick Berman during the fifth season of Star Trek : Voyager , and informed him that if he didn 't develop a new Star Trek show then they would find someone else who would . Berman had previously been an executive producer on Voyager , and other series dating back to The Next Generation . Berman contacted Brannon Braga , and the two became the executive producers on the new show . The new series launched after the end of Voyager , but was set some 150 years before the events seen in The Original Series . The new series was originally called Enterprise , without the Star Trek prefix . UPN president Dean Valentine said that " Paramount felt it was no longer necessary . Enterprise is synonymous with Star Trek " . Berman 's idea was to set it in an earlier time period , with limited technology such as the ship only being able to travel up to warp 5 , as he felt that after three series being set in roughly the same time period it would be exciting for the fans .
= = Concept and design = =
The first season was originally intended to be based around the construction of the ship . However , UPN wanted a more typical ship @-@ based Star Trek series and so the ship was presented as almost finished in the pilot episode , " Broken Bow " . Before the start of the series , the ship was referred to as the SS Enterprise .
An early design was for a version with a secondary hull , but it appeared to be too similar to the ship seen in The Original Series . That design had been partially inspired by Berman viewing the 2002 Ford Thunderbird , and seeing that it was a modern update of the original design . So the designers took the design of the USS Enterprise from The Original Series and updated it , but ultimately it looked like an update to the same vessel .
The second design concept was similar to the Akira @-@ class starship as seen on television in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Voyager era , with the producers initially intending to use that class of vessel for Enterprise before Herman Zimmerman convinced them to go with a design with greater inspiration from The Original Series . The Akira itself had been created by Alex Jaeger for the 1996 film Star Trek : First Contact with influences from the Battlestar Galactica , the Klingon Bird of Prey and the Miranda @-@ class starship originally seen in Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . A similar design was created for Star Trek : The Academy Years , a film proposed by Harve Bennett in 1989 . This featured the primary hull of the Enterprise seen in The Original Series , but without a secondary hull .
= = = Exterior design = = =
The Enterprise NX @-@ 01 was designed by Doug Drexler , and based on the features of the Akira @-@ class . The new class itself was designated as NX by the producers , but Drexler referred to it as the Enterprise class due to the naval tradition of naming the class after the first vessel . Drexler had intended for the ship to be similar in design to the Daedalus @-@ class starship with a sphere @-@ shaped primary hull , but the producers wanted a flat saucer @-@ shaped hull as it was more immediately recognizable as a Star Trek vessel . Drexler deliberately attempted to insert references to The Original Series into the ship . One of these was narrow struts leading from the body of the ship to the warp nacelles – however Dan Curry wanted them made bulkier as seen in ships of later series . Drexler included a leading edge at the front of the nacelles , and later described that the original struts would have been around a third more than those .
Drexler also wanted the bussard collectors at the front of the warp nacelles to be orange like The Original Series , but this was overruled by producers once more , who wanted them red also like the later series . Drexler thought that this was because Rick Berman wasn 't fond of bright colors , and so Star Trek : Enterprise was filmed in greys and dark blues . The rear ends of the nacelles were influenced by the Enterprise from The Original Series , with the spheres that appeared on the 1960s version split in two for the NX @-@ 01 . Direct elements from The Original Series which did make it on to the NX @-@ 01 were the impulse engine cones and the lower sensor dome . The most prominent element from the first television Enterprise was the deflector dish . For the NX @-@ 01 , it was compressed on the vertical axis and placed at the front of the saucer . The process of Drexler getting his designs approved by the producers was later described as " a long hard battle " by production illustrator and creator of the Enterprise @-@ E , John Eaves .
The exterior model was created in CGI rather than as a physical model , with the production done by Pierre Drolet from Foundation Imaging using LightWave 3D . Two versions were created – a high definition version which was created for use in the television series itself and a lower resolution , which was also referred to as the " approved model " . The low @-@ res model was used for promotional purposes while work was conducted on the television model . The exterior of the ship made its debut in a centerfold spread in the July 14 , 2001 edition of TV Guide using the approved model . This version looked smaller as the windows on the ship were larger than used on the television version , and the hull had a bronze tint . Regarding this change in coloration , Drexler later said that he didn 't know when the change was made as both he and Zimmerman approved the prior version .
Following this initial usage , the approved model was only used as a stand @-@ in for the production version in the previews in the fourth season . The drawing of the exterior of Enterprise in the captain 's ready room was created by John Eaves in less than 24 hours alongside four other drawings of earlier incarnations of the name . The shuttlecraft on the show were directly inspired by the Lockheed Martin X @-@ 33 , with Zimmerman saying that the re @-@ entry vehicles used now will be the same technology used in the time of Enterprise because up until then they won 't have had the technological push that comes from developing the advanced technology seen being introduced for the first time on the show . These were referred to as shuttlepods in the show ; Enterprise was equipped with two of them .
= = = = Season 5 = = = =
Doug Drexler had intended for Enterprise to undergo a major refit if a fifth season had been produced , and the series had not been cancelled at the end of the fourth season . This would have seen the addition of a secondary hull , and resulted in the ship taking on an appearance closer to the vessels in The Original Series and later series . The redesign made its debut in the 2011 edition of the official Ships of the Line calendar . It was one of two designs for vessels never seen on screen to appear in that year 's calendar , with Matt Jefferies ' design for the USS Enterprise ( XCV @-@ 330 ) also appearing .
Subsequent Enterprise relaunch novels ( such as Rise of the Federation : A Choice of Futures by Christopher L. Bennett ) have used this new design as part of their plots . Admiral Jonathan Archer asks that the refitted design be named Columbia class , in honor of the NX @-@ 02 Columbia which was lost with all hands .
= = = Interior design = = =
The interior of the vessel was designed by Zimmerman , who visited United States Navy fast @-@ attack submarines for inspiration . He also kept in mind the heritage of the other ships named Enterprise in the history of Star Trek . The designs attempted to allow a greater freedom of filming angles than seen in previous Star Trek series . The bridge stations were originally designed with both angular and tubular elements , but the tubular elements were dropped as they seemed out of place . John Eaves created the designs for the stations , while Mike and Denise Okuda , Jim Van Over and Anthony Fredrickson created the mechanical and detailed elements . Inspiration was taken from United States Navy ships and the Space Shuttle , such as the inclusion of operations manuals on some of the stations such as communications . Other elements which were added included a switch from the touch screen controls seen in series such as The Next Generation to more hands @-@ on dials and buttons as appeared in The Original Series . The set also included what was described as " busy boxes " by the crew , which were parts of the consoles which folded out and were filled with wires - so that background actors could look busy during a shot when the Enterprise was being refitted or when there was battle damage to be seen on screen .
Zimmerman and his team took feedback from the directors of previous Star Trek series to make the new space easier in which to film . Whereas in other series there has been purpose built sets for briefing rooms , following the feedback this area was built into the bridge itself as the directors had stated that it proved difficult to make several people sit around a table seem interesting . The transporter design was intended as a reference to the original series design that was created by Matt Jefferies , with Zimmerman including certain design elements such as the wall patterns around the transporter itself . The design of the engineering deck was overhauled from previous series with the intention for it to look like the engine room of a nuclear submarine . Zimmerman described it saying , " You 're going to see a very powerful engine that looks like a very powerful engine . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Deep space exploration = = =
The ship first appeared in the pilot of Star Trek : Enterprise , " Broken Bow " . The episode showed the maiden voyage of Enterprise , with the crew returning a Klingon named Klang ( Tom Lister , Jr . ) to his homeworld , Qo 'noS . Following that success , the ship and crew are ordered to begin a deep space exploration mission . At launch , the vessel was limited to a maximum speed of warp 5 and was equipped with an experimental transporter . The ship was launched three weeks ahead of schedule on April 16 , 2151 , and several of its weapon systems were not yet online but it was equipped with polarized hull plating as a defensive measure . It was not until the following month while in combat with an unknown foe that its spatial torpedoes were calibrated ; and the phase cannons were installed in the following September .
The exploration mission was temporarily cancelled in the final episode of the first season , " Shockwave " , following the destruction of a colony after a shuttlepod from Enterprise ignited the atmosphere . The ship was recalled to Earth , but after an investigation showed that the Suliban were responsible , the mission resumed . In " Minefield " , Enterprise suffered a hull breach from a Romulan mine , but the crew was informed of a nearby repair facility where the breach was repaired in " Dead Stop " . Following the failure of a plasma injector in the warp drive , the ship had to make a detour to the Kreetassan homeworld in " A Night in Sickbay " .
= = = The Delphic Expanse = = =
In the episode " The Expanse " , the final episode of the second season , Enterprise was recalled once again to Earth following an attack by the Xindi resulting in the deaths of seven million people , mostly in Florida . The ship and crew were given a new mission , to go into the Delphic Expanse and track down the Xindi to prevent the use of a greater weapon which would destroy Earth . Before departure , the ship was equipped with photonic torpedoes , a new command centre and took on board a detachment of Military Assault Command Operations ( MACO ) soldiers . During the year @-@ long mission in the expanse , the ship and its crew searched for the location of the Xindi superweapon . During this time , Enterprise was repeatedly damaged by the spatial anomalies in the area , which appear to be caused by several alien @-@ built moon @-@ sized spheres . The ship suffers a further hull breach and other damage during the events of " Chosen Realm " when the ship and crew are caught up in the Triannon civil war .
While investigating a possible location of the superweapon in " Azati Prime " , Enterprise was severely damaged by several Xindi vessels and its warp coil was destroyed . This necessitates the crew stealing a warp core from an Illyrian vessel in the following episode " Damage " as without it the ship could not travel at warp and intercept the Xindi weapon . Following that acquisition , the ship and crew is approached by a version of Enterprise which had been sent 117 years into the past and has become a generational ship attempting not to disrupt the timeline . The crew of the two versions of Enterprise work together and enable the present @-@ day Enterprise to enter a subspace corridor to allow Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) to meet with the Xindi Council . The whereabouts of the future Enterprise are unknown , but there is speculation as to whether it was destroyed or ceased to exist .
After tracking down the Xindi weapon in " The Council " , the weapon was launched in " Countdown " with Enterprise in pursuit . While Captain Archer leads a boarding party onto the weapon in the final episode of third season , " Zero Hour " , Enterprise is commanded by T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) who directs it to a nearby sphere and Commander Tucker modifies the ship 's deflector dish to use it as a weapon to destroy the sphere . Despite the interference of several Sphere Builders , the modifications destroy the sphere and set off a chain reaction which destroys all the other spheres within the Expanse . Enterprise rendezvous with Archer 's away team and it is revealed to the crew that Archer didn 't make it off the superweapon before it was destroyed . The heavily damaged ship is returned to Earth inside a Xindi @-@ Aquatic vessel . Upon arrival , the crew find that the events of the Temporal Cold War have overtaken them and the vessel is sent back in time to an alternative 20th century where Nazi Germany has successfully invaded the United States . After the crew defeat the alien Vosk ( Jack Gwaltney ) and recover Captain Archer , the ship is returned to its correct time by Temporal Agent Daniels ( Matt Winston ) in " Storm Front " .
= = = The Coalition of Planets and the Romulan War = = =
Following the Xindi mission , Enterprise undergoes a further refit in " Home " . In " Daedalus " , Dr. Emory Erickson ( Bill Cobbs ) , the inventor of the device , performed an upgrade on the transporter . Further upgrades occurred to the plasma injector in the warp drive , allowing Enterprise to reach a cruising speed of warp 5 @.@ 02 and an emergency speed of warp 5 @.@ 2 . While carrying a Tellarite Ambassador to a conference on Babel One , the ship is diverted due to attacks on several nearby vessels . It is discovered to be a Romulan vessel which uses holograms to change its appearance . The attacks are explained in " The Aenar " as being an attempt by the Romulans to provoke a war between the Andorians and the Tellarites , but instead Enterprise is used as the location for peace talks and is also one of a fleet of vessels used to create a sensor grid to track down the Romulan ship . This temporary alliance between the humans , Vulcans , Andorians and Tellerites becomes known as the Coalition of Planets .
Enterprise returns to Earth once more to transport Commander Tucker for his transfer to the USS Columbia in " Affliction " . He moves back once again to Enterprise in the following episode , " Divergence " , after the two vessels undergo a dangerous high warp zip line transfer after Enterprise 's warp drive is sabotaged by Klingons . A Mirror Universe version of Enterprise is seen in the first part of " In a Mirror , Darkly " under the command of Captain Maximilian Forest ( Vaughn Armstrong ) . The ship is destroyed in combat with Tholians shortly after a mutiny by Commander Archer . In " Demons " and " Terra Prime " , Enterprise travels back to Earth to resolve a crisis with a terrorist cell called Terra Prime which seeks to remove all alien influence from Earth .
The Romulan war was not seen on screen , but instead has been described in the non @-@ canon novel The Romulan War : Beneath the Raptor 's Wing by Michael A. Martin , and subsequent follow @-@ up books . The events of the episode " These Are the Voyages ... " on board Enterprise are set six years after those seen in " Terra Prime " in 2161 , but are actually related in the holodeck on board Enterprise @-@ D during the events of the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Pegasus " . Following the Romulan war , Enterprise is diverted en route to Earth where is it due to be present for the signing of the Federation charter . The non @-@ canon Shatnerverse novel Captain 's Glory states that following its decommissioning , Enterprise was placed into the orbit of Pluto as a museum piece .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Enterprise appeared in the video games Star Trek : Encounters and Star Trek : Legacy , both released in 2006 . It is the first vessel that the player controls in each storyline , before moving onto the USS Enterprise seen in The Original Series and later depictions . The most recent appearance of Enterprise was as a model in a collection depicting the history of flight in Fleet Admiral Alexander Marcus ' ( Peter Weller ) office in Star Trek Into Darkness ( 2013 ) . It was placed next to other historical vessels such as the Wright Flyer , the Space Shuttle and the NX @-@ Alpha .
= = Reception and commentary = =
There was a negative fan reaction to the design of Enterprise , and criticism of the efforts of Drexler and the other designers . When questioned about this , Geoffrey Mandall stated in an interview , " Having been around then , I also know that Doug Drexler and John Eaves did EXACTLY what the producers asked them to : Rick and Braga had very strong opinions , and knew exactly what they wanted . "
Allan Johnson , while writing for the Chicago Tribune , said that Enterprise looked " sleeker and less cheesy than the original ' Trek ' . " Johnson added that although it contained technology that wasn 't as advanced as that seen in the earlier Star Trek series set in the 24th century , it " still maintains a techno @-@ savvy , post @-@ 1960s ' Trek ' flair . " David Kronke in the Los Angeles Daily News , said that the sets were " largely gun @-@ metal gray , representing a sort of retro @-@ futurism – sort of what might 've happened if ' 50s sci @-@ fi design cliches had had today 's technology to work with " and that the consoles had a " simpler mechanical feel " . In his review of " Broken Bow " for The Washington Post , David Segal , described Enterprise 's speed of warp 4 as slower than a Hyundai .
= = = Models and toy lines = = =
The initial 7 @-@ inch ( 18 cm ) figure range by Art Asylum each shipped with a Enterprise bridge console . They slotted together to form a bridge diorama . The actual Enterprise was also released by Art Asylum , and debuted at the 2002 New York Toy Fair . Following the acquisition of Art Asylum by Diamond Select Toys in 2007 , the company continued to release Enterprise toys . These included both the main television version and a Mirror Universe configuration as seen in " In A Mirror , Darkly " .
Enterprise has also been released as part of model lines . These include a 350 : 1 scale replica of the CGI model by QMx . It features more than 150 LEDs , sound effects and a signed plaque by Doug Drexler . Each QMx model takes 150 hours to make and was limited to a production run of 1 @,@ 000 units . QMx also produced the models seen in Star Trek Into Darkness , including the one of Enterprise . Enterprise has also been released as a model kit by Round 2 Models as part of their Polar Lights line . These include both the version seen in the television series , and the refit design intended for season five .
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= Germany Schulz =
Adolph George " Germany " Schulz ( April 19 , 1883 – April 14 , 1951 ) was an All @-@ American American football center for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1904 to 1905 and from 1907 to 1908 . While playing at Michigan , Schulz is credited with having invented the spiral snap and with developing the practice of standing behind the defensive line . As the first lineman to play in back of the line on defense , he is credited as football 's first linebacker .
During his time at Michigan , Schulz also became involved in one of college football 's earliest recruiting controversies , as some suggested that he was a " ringer " recruited by Michigan coach Fielding H. Yost . Schulz was 21 years old when he enrolled at Michigan and had worked in an Indiana steel mill and reportedly played for either amateur or professional teams . Michigan was refused re @-@ entry into the Western Conference in 1908 when it insisted on playing the 25 @-@ year @-@ old Schulz for a fourth season in violation of conference eligibility rules .
Despite the controversies , Schulz is remembered both as an innovator and one of the toughest football players in the early days of the game . In 1951 , Schulz was selected as the greatest center in football history in a poll conducted by the National Football Foundation and became one of the initial inductees into the College Football Hall of Fame . He has also been inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame and the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor .
After his days as a collegiate athlete ended , Schulz assumed a variety of assistant coaching , athletic director , and head coaching positions in college football . He eventually entered the insurance industry , where he enjoyed a long career . He died in 1951 , several days after being named the greatest center in football history by the College Football Foundation .
= = Childhood = =
Schulz was born in Fort Wayne , Indiana , the son of German immigrants . His father , Adolph F. Schulz , Sr. , was a doctor who was born in 1854 , and his mother , Sophia , was born in 1850 . The couple emigrated from Germany to the United States in 1880 with their infant daughter Wilhelmina ( born December 1879 ) . Schulz also had two brothers , Fred Schulz and Arthur Schulz , both of whom became doctors . Schulz played football for Fort Wayne High School and was also a member of amateur city teams for several years .
= = Star athlete at the University of Michigan = =
= = = Concerns that Schulz was a ringer = = =
In 1904 , Schulz enrolled at the University of Michigan at age 21 , standing 6 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 88 m ) and weighing 215 pounds ( 98 kg ; 15 st 5 lb ) . In the early 1900s , many decried the increasing recruitment of ringers — older , experienced players whose qualifications as " student athletes " were suspect . Michigan 's coach , Fielding H. Yost , whose teams outscored their opponents 2 @,@ 821 to 42 between 1901 and 1905 , had been accused of using ringers before . When Yost accepted the head coaching job at Michigan , he had recruited his star player , 23 @-@ year @-@ old Willie Heston , to transfer to Michigan from the California State Normal School . When the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Schulz joined the team , there were suggestions that he was Yost 's newest ringer . The suspicions were exacerbated by reports that Schulz was a factory worker in an Indiana steel mill who had played for a half @-@ dozen professional teams before enrolling at Michigan .
Until the time of his death , reports of his having been a ringer angered Schulz . While he did work in a steel mill , Schulz insisted that he did not " come out " of the steel mill to play football . Instead , Schulz said he " went into " the mill to harden himself up for the football season . When asked years later how he got to Michigan , Schulz recalled that , in the summer of 1904 , he was working in the mill and had received several offers to play football . One day , his father called to say that Fielding Yost of Michigan was in his office . Schulz ran down the street and rushed into his father 's office , where he was introduced to Yost . His father promptly told him , " Adolph , this is Mr. Yost . You are to play football for him at Michigan . We have made all the arrangements " .
In September 1904 , on his way to Ann Arbor , Michigan ( the home of the University of Michigan ) , Schulz recalled that he stopped in Chicago , Illinois , where he spent four days drinking beer and generally having a " swell time " . A group of Michigan representatives eventually found him in Chicago and put him on the next train to Ann Arbor . When he arrived in Ann Arbor , Yost was furious and accused Schulz of flirting with Amos Alonzo Stagg , the legendary coach of the University of Chicago . Schulz was immediately taken out to Michigan 's training camp at Whitmore Lake and kept asking Yost when he was going to be allowed to register . Yost told Schulz that he had taken care of it . According to Schulz , he was registered two weeks before he ever saw the campus .
Yost 's account differed dramatically from that of Schulz . Sensitive to allegations that he was recruiting ringers , Yost denied having recruited Schulz and claimed that Schulz was just another student who tried out for the team . According to Yost , the first time he ever saw Schulz was in the fall of 1904 when Schulz was waiting tables at a fraternity house in Ann Arbor and told Yost he would like to play football . Yost went so far as to say that he initially thought the young waiter looked too awkward to be a football player , but " did not want to discourage anybody " .
= = = Freshman year : Michigan 's undefeated season = = =
Schulz was the only freshman to play on Michigan 's 1904 football team . The team featured the school 's all @-@ time scoring leader , Willie Heston , finished with a record of 10 – 0 , and outscored opponents 567 – 22 . Schulz started all ten games for the 1904 team .
Schulz began his playing career at Michigan as a guard , starting five games at that position . However , mid @-@ way through the season , Yost moved Schulz to center , where he started the remaining five games . Schulz 's play at center was reported to have been " gilt @-@ edged " , and his accuracy in snapping the ball was praised by the team 's quarterback , Fred Norcross . Six games into the season , Schulz 's hometown newspaper reported on Schulz 's accomplishments under the headline : " Makes Good at Michigan " . The article noted : " Schulz went to Ann Arbor practically green at the game , but by hard and consistent work he has succeeded in winning a place on the greatest team in America , and is the only freshman out of fifty who was able to do so " .
Schulz was one of the larger football players of his time and was known as a fierce hitter . Schulz liked to tell a story about an incident during Michigan 's 1904 game against Oberlin College . He recalled : " We were playing Oberlin in 1904 . Their regular center was hurt and a little 155 @-@ pound fellow came in . I hit him as hard as I could . Imagine my surprise when he looked up and said , ' please sir , if you are determined to be fierce , let me know and I 'll get out of the way . ' I was no good the rest of the afternoon . Every time I looked at the little fellow , I had to break out laughing " .
= = = 1905 season : Stardom = = =
Before the 1905 season got underway , Schulz contracted malaria in the spring . Newspapers reported it was a " serious attack " and that he " has been quite ill " , but he was able to recuperate before the 1905 football season . In October 1905 , Coach Yost said : " In looking over the whole bunch , I do not see anyone who has improved more than Schulz . He is bigger and stronger than ever , and I do not know a man in the world that has it the least bit over him in the center position . I would not trade him for any other center rush in the country today . He looks good to me for the All @-@ America team right now " . Though he was not selected for the All @-@ America team in 1905 , Schulz did receive All @-@ Western honors .
= = = Innovations : The " spiral snap " and the " roving center " = = =
Schulz is widely credited with two important innovations in the development of the modern game of American football . First , he is credited with having invented the spiral snap . Before Schulz , centers passed the ball to one of the backs in an end @-@ over @-@ end manner .
Second , Schulz is credited with being the first center to step back from the line while playing defense . Prior to Schulz 's innovation , centers played in the line on defense . In 1905 , Schulz began dropping back from the line , enabling him to use his speed to move laterally and giving him greater coverage across the field of play . At the time , the innovation was referred to as a " roving center " , but it was effectively the birth of the linebacker position in American football . Asked how he developed the " roving center " idea , Schulz noted that the backs started from five yards behind the line and concluded , " No back living could move five yards while I was moving four " . He described his thinking to Coach Yost this way : " It 's all very simple , Yost . The ball carrier travels five yards while I travel only four yard to meet him . I know of no back who can beat me in a five @-@ yard race after giving me a one @-@ yard handicap " .
In 1954 , sports columnist Dave Lewis explored the history of the linebacker position , and concluded that Schulz was the " first of the breed " . Lewis wrote : " Schulz revolutionized defensive line play being the first to back up the line " .
Schulz recalled that the first time he stepped back from the line on defense , Coach Yost was horrified . Yost said , " Dutchman , what are you trying to do ? " " Stop ' em " , replied Schulz . " But you 're supposed to play in the line " , Yost insisted . " They 'll run over us . " " Listen Yost " , Schulz claims to have said , " My way is best . If any of ' em gets by me , I 'll move back into the line and stay there " . Yost eventually saw the wisdom in Schulz 's technique , and soon nearly all centers were backing up the line on defense .
= = = Ineligibility for the 1906 season = = =
Schulz 's promising football career took a detour in 1906 . Some sources indicate that Schulz missed the 1906 season for financial reasons . Schulz 's official biography at the College Football Hall of Fame states : " He missed the 1906 season ; he had dropped out of school because of a lack of funds . He worked in a steel mill in Fort Wayne , Indiana , and earned the money to return to college " . In fact , Schulz 's father was a successful doctor , and contemporary reports indicate that Schulz was ineligible to play in 1906 for academic reasons . In February 1906 , one paper reported that Schulz had been " dropped from the rolls on account of poor work during the semester " . Another report in March 1906 indicated that Schulz had left the university " by desire of the faculty " after he fell behind in his studies . In September 1906 , The Washington Post reported that Schulz 's academic problems continued to render him ineligible to play .
= = = All @-@ American in 1907 = = =
When Schulz returned to the team in 1907 , he was the talk of the campus . One newspaper reported that Ann Arbor had " 5 @,@ 000 students continually gossiping about him " , as Schulz 's return was seen as " a gigantic stride in the direction of ( Michigan 's ) winning back her former football prestige " . Coach Yost noted : " We need him not only as a player , but also as a leader . In energy , ability to stand hard knocks , and courage he is a model for the rest of the team to strive after " . With Schulz in the lineup , Michigan won its first five games by a combined score of 107 – 0 . In Michigan 's game against Ohio State , Schulz was reported to have been " a brick wall of defense " and " hard as nails " .
After starting the season 5 – 0 , Michigan closed the 1907 season playing the University of Pennsylvania . For the first time , one of the eastern schools had agreed to play a game at Ferry Field in Ann Arbor . In the buildup to the game , the press focused on Schulz as the key to Michigan 's chances . One writer noted : " There is one man in the Michigan eleven that Pennsylvania fears and will endeavor to stop if possible when the two great teams meet in Ann Arbor November 16 , 1907 . That man is Germany Schulz , Yost 's great center " . Penn even announced that they were moving their star tackle , Draper , to center in an effort to stop Schulz . In the end , Penn beat Michigan , 6 – 0 , marking the first time the Wolverines had ever lost a game at Ferry Field .
Despite the loss , press reports after the game credited Schulz with a great effort . One account noted : " Pennsy is said to have delegated three players to watch him , the heavyweight center played a star game throughout . He broke through the line repeatedly and stopped plays . Then again he would dash out to the end and tackle the man attempting to circle the wing . He was down under punts and in the open play showed as much speed as any player on the field . And he weighs 234 pounds " .
At the end of the season , there was a consensus that " The giant center of Michigan practically stands in a class by himself at the pivot position " . University of Chicago star Walter Eckersall , said : " Schulz , of Michigan , easily outshone his opponents in every game . He is finely built , runs fast , snaps accurately , tackles hard , and is all over the field in every play " . One writer referred to Schulz in 1907 as a " human catapult " and said : " Schulz of Michigan is a very heavy man , weighing over 200 pounds , yet he is strikingly fast on his feet and is unusual on that account . He propels his massive frame at a rate of speed that terrifies opponents . . . . The acknowledged prowess of Schulz makes him an especial object of unfair attack in scrimmages by opponents who hope , by disabling him , to weaken the Michigan team " .
Coach Yost added : " Schultz is without doubt the best center in the country . In fact , Schulz is the best man in the middle of the line I have ever seen in all my football experience " . In naming Schulz to his All @-@ America team , Walter Camp said : " He is well over six feet in height , yet a fast , powerful man who gets well over the field and makes more tackles in a game than any other man on his team . In addition he is an accurate passer and feeds the ball well to his backs either for kicks or runs " .
= = = Controversy over eligibility for 1908 = = =
As the 1907 season ended , a controversy was sparked when the Michigan players unanimously voted Schulz as the captain for the 1908 season . Michigan had been suspended by the Western Conference after the 1906 season , and if it was to seek readmission in 1908 , it was required to comply with Western Conference eligibility rules . Under those rules , a player was limited to three years of play , though Michigan 's rule allowed a player four years of eligibility . Michigan officials contended that Schulz should not be governed by the rule , because he had begun play before the conference 's rule was enacted .
Schulz found himself in the middle of football 's first eligibility controversy . At the same time , David Starr Jordan , the President of Stanford University , made a speech referring to modern college football as " unethical " , " unchristian " , " unsportsmanlike " and " a monstrosity " . Starr noted that " practically all the major universities employ questionable methods in securing athletes " . Jordan heaped particular scorn on Michigan , where he claimed " the alumni and cheap gamblers of the town brought in men who were professionals and paid them salaries to play on Michigan athlete teams " . The New York Times ran a front page story repeating Jordan 's charges .
The Western Conference 's eligibility rules had been at the center of Michigan 's dispute with the conference for more than a year . Unlike the Western Conference , the eastern schools had looser eligibility standards , and it was " generally conceded that playing under [ the Western Conference 's ] strict eligibility rules Michigan is at a big disadvantage in games with eastern colleges , where , to say the least , the lines are not so clearly drawn " .
Schulz complained amid the controversy about inaccurate reporting of his age . " As a rule my age is generally given as twenty @-@ five , when in fact I am but twenty @-@ three . " Schulz would have been 24 at the time of his comments .
Michigan presented its case for Schulz to a meeting of the " Big Nine " in Chicago . One account noted : " The Michigan case will be discussed at the meeting and it is very likely that a vote requesting the Ann Arbor institution to withdraw from the body will be passed . Michigan 's open violation of the conference rules during the last year has aroused a strong hostile spirit , and it is known that a majority of the schools favor dropping the Wolverines from the association " . Manager Charles Baird was given the task of arguing Schulz 's case to the Conference at its January meeting .
The student newspaper , The Michigan Daily , urged the school not to abandon Schulz . It wrote : " Germany Schulz is now recognized as the captain of Michigan 's next football team . . . , and while Michigan students are not averse to going back into active alliance with the western schools , any attempt to debar Schulz from his fairly won honor is sure to cause an uproar , which may upset all of the feeling of compromise which is now evident " . Ultimately , the Western Conference forced Michigan to choose between Schulz or the conference . Michigan chose Schulz , and the Big Nine remained the Big Eight for the 1908 season .
= = = 1908 season and further academic eligibility problems = = =
After a strong show of support from the University , Schulz ran into further academic problems . In February 1908 , the University announced that Schulz was ineligible for the track team ( Schulz competed in the shot put and the discus ) due to his performance on a semester exam in hydraulics . While he would be allowed to get his work straightened out before it came time to compete in football , news accounts noted that " the outlook is rather gloomy at present " .
By the time football season arrived , Schulz 's academic problems had worsened . Contemporary reports indicated that " It is not physical conditions which are keeping the giant player from the game ( as was announced ) , but educational ones " . In early October 1908 , Schulz had " three conditions in the engineering course , more than a player can carry and continue his athletic relations " . Though " every effort " had been made for two weeks to have the conditions removed , those efforts had failed . A meeting of the eligibility board was held , and they concluded that Schulz could not play until he removed at least two of the conditions . While it was possible for Schulz to remove the conditions by the end of October by " burning the midnight oil " , it was reported that " this is an optimistic view of the situation shared by few " .
Schulz ultimately had his eligibility restored in late October and was greeted with " cheers from the bleachers " when he appeared in his first practice on October 22 , 1907 . It appears that Schulz 's academic problems continued , as a 1910 article concerning the post @-@ college success of football players reported that Schulz " didn ’ t finish " his course at Michigan .
= = = 1908 Penn game = = =
In 1908 , Michigan went into its rivalry game against Penn undefeated . Michigan hoped to avenge two straight defeats to the Quakers , and its hopes were based to a large extent on Schulz . Penn announced before the game that it would bring four available centers so there " might be a fresh antagonist facing the Michigan captain throughout the game " . Special trains from all over Michigan poured large crowds into Ann Arbor , and the crowd was said to be " the largest attendance which has been on Ferry Field " . Though Michigan was beaten that day , 29 – 0 , Schulz 's courageous performance , and the pummeling he took from the Penn team , was recounted many times in the following decades . Not all of these accounts are consistent with each other , but the story of the Penn game has become an integral part of the Germany Schulz hagiography .
In one of the few contemporaneous accounts , the Toledo Blade wrote that the Penn players , knowing that Schulz was " the power in the Michigan game " , focused their energy on wearing him down . There were two Penn players who " did nothing but look after Schultz " . And they did more than look : " In every scrimmage , he was bumped as hard as the rules allowed , and maybe a little harder , when nobody was looking . ... Every time Schultz started anywhere he would find a couple of Penn men digging headfirst into his stomach . They would elbow him , jam him with the straight arm , and if he went to the ground in a scrimmage there generally would be a knee grinding him in the wind . Pretty soon Schultz began to show it . ... He limped along pitifully . He couldn 't run . His strength was almost gone . When he did tackle , his groan of pain could almost be heard in the stands " . But the fans continued to urge Schulz with yells of " G @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ r @-@ rah , Schultz ! " Schulz buckled down and continued to play , and the pummeling continued .
At half @-@ time , the trainers found on Schulz " a mass of black and blue spots " . His " face was distorted with bumps " , and there were " welts on his back and groin " . As the second half started , Schulz insisted he felt better and went back into the game . But the attack continued . " Another scrimmage and two more Penn men were after him again . He went into the play and for an instant , his strength came back , but it couldn 't last , and it didn 't . ” Yost finally sent in a substitute , and Schulz limped to the sideline and walked slowly away " with head bowed and hands to his stomach " . And when the " rubbers " removed his togs and examined him , " they marveled that he was able to walk " . In the end , Schulz " didn 't say a word — big tears rolled down as he lay there ; Schultz was thoroughly beaten , but it took the entire Pennsylvania eleven to do it " .
Penn 's captain , Bill Hollenback , said : “ This fellow Schulz is a monster in size and a perfect athlete . He is both wonderfully agile and fast for a man of his size . In our game with Michigan , we had two men instructed to play against Schulz and at times three and four were opposed to him . For some time , he handed out as much as we passed to him in the roughing end of the game . He was here , there and everywhere . He did most of the tackling . He broke up innumerable plays . He was the star of the contest until the continued battering of our men injured him to such an extent that he had to retire . The rest was easy " . Coach Yost said of Schulz 's performance : " He gave the greatest one @-@ man exhibition of courage I ever saw on a football field " .
From the 1920s through the 1950s , the story was told , re @-@ told and likely embellished in columns by Grantland Rice , Art Carlson , Frank Blair and Dave Lewis — more than one of them writing that they had seen the game in person . In Carlson 's 1925 account , " the giant center had been rendered practically useless from the Penn attack " , but refused to leave the game . Carlson recalled Schulz 's removal from the game this way : " It was a scene I shall never forget — the giant Schulz , towering above the rest of the combatants , literally dragged off the field , tears streaming down his mud @-@ spattered cheeks as he frantically protested his removal from the game " .
In 1942 , Grantland Rice wrote that Schulz held the Penn team in check for 50 minutes and that the score was 0 – 0 when Schulz " left the field a battered wreck " . ( In fact , contemporaneous accounts show the score was 6 – 0 at halftime . )
In Frank Blair 's 1951 telling , Schulz played with the " strength of Samson " , and Penn " put five men -- center , both guards and both tackles — on the Wolverine giant " . According to Blair , who claimed to have attended the game as a high school student , Schulz played like a madman , making nearly all the tackles for 50 minutes , and Penn was held scoreless until Schulz was " carried from the field " .
In a 1954 article , sports writer Dave Lewis wrote that Penn assigned five players to the task of mowing down Schulz . Lewis quoted Schulz as having said : " I can still see those five pairs of eyes staring at me every time we lined up . . . ready to tear me apart " . According to Lewis , all five men piled on Schulz every play , and Schulz held Penn scoreless for 50 minutes before they " finally knocked him out " . Lewis concluded : " Never before or since has there been such a one @-@ man show of defensive football as Schulz displayed against Penn " .
A few months before his death , Schulz told Detroit News sports writer H. G. Salsinger that he had only one regret : " I wish I could have lasted 10 minutes longer . That was one game I wanted to finish " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
In January 1910 , Walter Camp published his All @-@ Time All @-@ American list in Century magazine , selecting the best player at each position over the 20 years he had been watching college football . He selected Schulz as his center , the first of many such All @-@ Time All @-@ American selections for Schulz . At the time , Camp said : " Big , strong and fast , he combined all the defensive and offensive qualities of the best line men with the speed , sure tackling and intuition as to what to do on the instant that are winning qualities of the defensive back . In addition , his passing was excellent , as he had plenty of speed for his kicker , steadiness for his quarter , and ability to pass in directions other than in a straight line which made him especially valuable in certain formation plays " .
In 1949 , Grantland Rice chose him as the center for his All @-@ Time All @-@ American team . At the time , Rice said : " Schulz was 6 feet 4 and he weighed 245 pounds . He was as fast as a good halfback . I have never seen a center who was his equal at backing up a line and then protecting both flanks . He was a terrific tackler " .
In 1951 , the College Football Foundation commissioned the Associated Press to conduct a poll of more than 100 sports editors to choose an All @-@ Time All @-@ American team . Those chosen would be the initial inductees into the new College Football Hall of Fame . Schulz won the great majority of the votes at center and thus became one of the initial inductees into the College Football Hall of Fame . In announcing the selection , the Associated Press said : " Schulz was a giant of a man — six feet five and 285 pounds — with tremendous ham @-@ like hands that worked to his advantage in that era of mass formations when ground was gained on brute strength alone " . On being told of his selection , Schulz , who died ten days later , said he was honored and noted : " I haven 't missed one of those teams yet " .
He was inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 1960 . He was also posthumously inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1979 . In 2004 , He was selected as one of the top fifteen football players in U @-@ M history in 2004 by The Michigan Daily .
= = Professional football in the Tri @-@ State league = =
In 1909 and 1910 , Schulz played briefly in the infant Tri @-@ State professional football league operating in Ohio , Illinois and Pennsylvania . He played for the Dayton Oakwoods team . His first game with the Oakwoods was on Thanksgiving 1909 . In that game , the Oakwoods defeated the Pittsburgh Lyceum , which had gone undefeated for three seasons and was considered the top professional team of its era .
At the time of the 1910 United States Census , Schulz was listed as residing with his parents in Fort Wayne , and his occupation was listed as being an engineer with an electric works .
The Oakwoods made Schulz an offer to return in 1910 as the team 's captain , but contemporaneous press accounts indicate he was weighing the remuneration to be paid by the Oakwoods against his steady job at the Fort Wayne Electric works . Though some accounts indicate that he ultimately accepted the Oakwoods ' offer , official records of play have not been located to determine whether Schulz actually played for the Oakwoods in 1910 . In December 1910 , Schulz did play on an all @-@ star team against the All @-@ Harvard club in a game in Memphis , Tennessee , for the benefit of the United Charities association .
= = College football coach and athletic director = =
= = = University of Wisconsin = = =
In 1911 and 1912 , Schulz worked as the line coach for the University of Wisconsin . After two years , he resigned to accept the management of an automobile concern in Fort Wayne .
= = = University of Michigan = = =
Schulz returned to coaching in 1913 as the line coach and chief assistant coach for Fielding H. Yost at Michigan . He held that position for three seasons from 1913 – 1915 . While working as an assistant coach at Michigan , Schulz has been credited with introducing the technique of overshifting a lineman on defense . In 1913 , Schulz developed a new blocking technique by shifting one of the linemen . Coach Yost was unconvinced until Schulz performed a demonstration using Michigan 's left guard Royce Traphagen . Schulz first put Traphagen in the line position designated by Yost , Schulz lined up on the other side of the line and charged , " almost wrecking Traphagen " . Then , Schulz had the groggy Traphagen line up in the spot designated by Schulz , and when Schulz charged he missed . Schulz implemented the overshift technique during the 1913 season .
In late November 1915 , Schulz 's mother , Sophia Schulz , died at age 65 . Two days after her death , Schulz announced that he was withdrawing from the Michigan coaching staff , though it was noted at the time that several Midwestern universities were working to get Schulz as their head coach .
In January 1916 , the Fort Wayne Sentinel reported that Schulz was back to work at his old position in the general testing room at the Fort Wayne Electric works , after an absence of two years .
= = = Kansas State = = =
In September 1916 , Schulz returned to coaching as the assistant athletic director at Kansas State Agricultural College , now known as Kansas State University . Schulz spent four years in Manhattan , Kansas , working as an assistant under head coach Zora G. Clevenger . When Kansas State beat Southwestern 53 – 0 , the Fort Wayne paper ran a story : “ Germany ’ s Team Wins . ” During the first three years under Schulz and Clevenger , the Wildcats went 16 – 4 – 1 and outscored their opponents 464 – 90 . However , in 1919 , Kansas State gave up 109 points ( more than in the three prior seasons combined ) and finished with a 3 – 5 – 1 . Schulz announced his resignation in January 1920 .
In a draft registration card completed in September 1918 , Schulz identified his occupation as an athletic coach for the Kansas Agricultural College at Manhattan , Kansas . During World War I , Schulz also served as the athletic director at Fort Riley in Kansas . He was assigned to direct athletic exercises for the men serving at the camp . At the time of the 1920 United States Census , Schulz was listed as an athletic coach living in Manhattan , Kansas .
= = = Tulane University = = =
In August 1920 , Schulz was hired by Tulane University in New Orleans , Louisiana , as the director of the school 's new " department of physical education " . Reporters took note of Schulz 's size when he arrived in New Orleans : " It is a fortunate thing for all concerned that Schulz has taken up the more peaceful pursuit of physical director . It is a stroke of good fortune for Tulane and her athletes that the athletic council was able to land a big man like Schulz " . Though he served as the school 's athletic director , Schulz also chose to take charge of the linemen during football season , working alongside football coach Clark Shaughnessy . In 1920 , Schulz arranged for the Tulane football team to play Michigan as part of the most extensive trip made to that point by a southern football team . Schulz 's team faced off against Coach Yost and the Wolverines on October 30 , 1920 , and were shut out , 21 – 0 .
= = = University of Detroit = = =
In December 1922 , Schulz was hired as head football coach at the University of Detroit . Shortly after his appointment , Schulz announced that he was looking for " eleven raving maniacs " to fill out his team , a phrase that was picked up in wire service reports around the country . He noted : " You can 't beat eleven raving maniacs with football heads " . In September 1923 , the press reported that Schulz suffered a shoulder injury while demonstrating proper tackling technique on a tackling " dummy " . After going 39 – 7 in the five seasons before Schulz took over , the Detroit team fell to 4 – 3 – 2 in 1923 . In January 1924 , the University announced that it would not renew Schulz 's contract , and Schulz announced his " permanent retirement from football coaching " .
= = Later life = =
Schulz worked in the insurance business , including as a state agent for an insurance company in Michigan , from 1924 until his death in 1951 . After retiring from football in the early 1920s , Schulz led a private life , and little has been written about the last 30 years of his life . At the time of the 1930 United States Census , Schulz was living in Grand Rapids , Michigan , with his wife , Emilie V. Schulz ( age 35 ) , his mother @-@ in @-@ law , Emilie V. Sabovian ( age 82 ) , and his sister @-@ in @-@ law , Louise Sabovian . His occupation was listed in the 1930 Census as an insurance salesman .
Schulz died in 1951 , less than two weeks after being selected as the center on the All @-@ Time All @-@ American Team . Schulz had undergone an operation for a " malignant ulcer of the stomach " in February 1951 and suffered a relapse in April . He died at Detroit 's Henry Ford Hospital at age 67 .
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= ZX81 =
The ZX81 is a home computer produced by Sinclair Research and manufactured in Scotland by Timex Corporation . It was launched in the United Kingdom in March 1981 as the successor to Sinclair 's ZX80 and was designed to be a low @-@ cost introduction to home computing for the general public . It was hugely successful , and more than 1 @.@ 5 million units were sold before it was discontinued . The ZX81 found commercial success in many other countries , notably the United States , where it was initially sold as the ZX @-@ 81 . Timex manufactured and distributed it under licence and enjoyed a substantial but brief boom in sales . Timex later produced its own versions of the ZX81 for the US market – the Timex Sinclair 1000 and Timex Sinclair 1500 . Unauthorised clones of the ZX81 were produced in several countries .
The ZX81 was designed to be small , simple , and above all cheap , using as few components as possible to keep the cost down . Video output was to a television set rather than a dedicated monitor . Programs and data were loaded and saved onto audio tape cassettes . It had only four silicon chips on board and a mere 1 KB of memory . The machine had no power switch or any moving parts ( with the exception of a VHF TV channel selector switch present on early " ZX81 USA " models and the Timex @-@ Sinclair 1000 ) and used a pressure @-@ sensitive membrane keyboard for manual input . The ZX81 's limitations prompted the emergence of a flourishing market in third @-@ party peripherals to improve its capabilities . Such limitations , however , achieved Sinclair 's objective of keeping the cost of the machine as low as possible . Its distinctive design brought its designer , Rick Dickinson , a Design Council award .
The ZX81 could be bought by mail order in kit form or pre @-@ assembled . In what was then a major innovation , it was the first cheap mass @-@ market home computer that could be bought from high street stores , led by W. H. Smith and soon many other retailers . The ZX81 marked the first time that computing in Britain became an activity for the general public , rather than the preserve of businesspeople and electronics hobbyists . It inspired the creation of a huge community of enthusiasts , some of whom founded their own businesses producing software and hardware for the ZX81 . Many went on to play a major role in the British computer industry in later years . The ZX81 's commercial success made Sinclair Research one of Britain 's leading computer manufacturers and earned a fortune and an eventual knighthood for the company 's founder , Sir Clive Sinclair .
= = Features = =
The ZX81 came with 1 KB of on @-@ board memory that could officially be expanded externally to 16 KB . Its single circuit board was housed inside a wedge @-@ shaped plastic case measuring 167 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) deep by 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) high . The memory was provided by either a single 4118 ( 1024 bit × 8 ) or two 2114 ( 1024 bit × 4 ) RAM chips . There were only three other chips on board : a 3 @.@ 5 MHz Z80A 8 @-@ bit microprocessor from NEC , an uncommitted logic array ( ULA ) chip from Ferranti and an 8 KB ROM providing a simple BASIC interpreter . The entire machine weighed just 350 grams ( 12 oz ) . Early versions of the external RAM cartridge contained 15 KB of memory using an assortment of memory chips , while later versions contained 16 KB of chips , but the lowest addressed kilobyte was disabled .
The front part of the case is occupied by an integrated 40 @-@ key membrane keyboard displaying 20 graphic and 54 inverse video characters . Each key has up to five functions , accessed via the SHIFT and FUNCTION keys or depending on context . For example , the P key combined the letter P , the " character and the BASIC commands PRINT and TAB . The ZX81 uses a standard QWERTY keyboard layout . The keyboard is mechanically very simple , consisting of 40 pressure @-@ pad switches and 8 diodes under a plastic overlay , connected in a matrix of 8 rows and 5 columns .
The ZX81 's primary input / output is delivered via four sockets on the left side of the case . The machine uses an ordinary UHF television set to deliver a monochrome picture via a built @-@ in RF modulator . It can display 24 lines of 32 characters each , and by using the selection of 2 × 2 block character graphics from the machine 's character set offered an effective 64 × 44 pixel graphics mode , also directly addressable via BASIC using the PLOT and UNPLOT commands , leaving 2 lines free at the bottom . Two 3 @.@ 5 mm jacks connect the ZX81 to the EAR ( output ) and MIC ( input ) sockets of an audio cassette recorder , enabling data to be saved or loaded at a rate of 50 bauds . This provides a somewhat temperamental storage medium for the machine , which has no built @-@ in storage capabilities . The ZX81 requires 420 mA of power at 7 – 11 V DC , delivered via a custom 9 V Sinclair DC power supply .
The ULA chip , described by the ZX81 manual as the " dogsbody " of the system , has a number of key functions that competing computers shared between multiple chips and integrated circuits . These comprise :
Synchronising the screen display ;
Generating a 6 @.@ 5 MHz clock , from which a 3 @.@ 25 MHz clock is derived for the processor ;
Outputting an audio signal to a cassette recorder in SAVE mode ;
Processing the incoming cassette audio signal in LOAD mode ;
Sensing keystrokes ;
Using memory addresses provided by the CPU to decide when ROM and RAM should be active ;
Controlling general system timing .
The ZX81 's built @-@ in RF modulator can output a video picture to either a UHF 625 @-@ line colour or monochrome television ( used in the UK , Australia , and most western European countries ) . France required a slightly modified version of the machine to match the positive video modulation of SECAM sets , while the USA and Canada required a different ULA chip and modulator to cope with their 525 @-@ line VHF ( NTSC ) television systems . Both the ZX81 and its predecessor , the ZX80 , have a significant drawback in the way that they handle visual output . Neither machine has enough processing power to run at full speed and simultaneously maintain the screen display . On the ZX80 , this means that the screen goes blank every time the machine carries out a computation and causes an irritating flicker whenever a shorter computation – such as processing a keystroke – takes place .
The ZX81 's designers adopted an improved approach , involving the use of two modes called SLOW and FAST respectively . In SLOW mode , also called " compute and display " mode , the ZX81 concentrates on driving the display . It runs the current program for only about a quarter of the time – in effect slowing the machine down fourfold , although in practice the speed difference between FAST and SLOW modes depends on what computation is being done . In FAST mode , processing occurs continuously , but the display is abandoned to its own devices – equivalent to the ZX80 's standard operating mode .
Another hardware quirk produced one of the most distinctive aspects of the ZX81 's screen display – during loading or saving , moving zigzag stripes appear across the screen . The same pin on the ULA is used to handle the video signal and the tape output , producing the stripes as an interference pattern of sorts . The ULA cannot maintain the display during SAVE and LOAD operations , as it has to operate continuously to maintain the correct baud rate for data transfers . The interference produces the zigzag stripes .
The unexpanded ZX81 's tiny memory presented a major challenge to programmers . Simply displaying a full screen takes up to 793 bytes , the system variables take up another 125 bytes , and the program , input buffer and stacks need more memory on top of that . Nonetheless , ingenious programmers were able to achieve a surprising amount with just 1 KB . One notable example was 1K ZX Chess by David Horne , which managed to include most of the rules of chess into only 672 bytes . The ZX81 conserved its memory to a certain extent by representing entire BASIC commands as one @-@ byte tokens , stored as individual " characters " in the upper reaches of the machine 's unique ( non @-@ ASCII ) character set .
The edge connector or external interface at the rear of the ZX81 is an extension of the main printed circuit board . This provides a set of address , control , and data lines that can be used to communicate with external devices . Enthusiasts and a variety of third @-@ party companies made use of this facility to create a wide range of add @-@ ons for the ZX81 .
= = = Comparisons between ZX81 and other computing devices = = =
The following table provides a comparison between the capabilities of the ZX81 and various other competing microcomputers that were already on the market at the time of the ZX81 's launch . The prices given are as of December 1982 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Clive Sinclair 's first company Sinclair Radionics , established in 1962 , made its name producing a wide range of cheap electronics aimed at the hobbyist market . Its products included amplifiers , radios , multimeters and other items generally sold in kit form to hi @-@ fi enthusiasts and other electronics hobbyists . The company entered a new market in 1972 when it launched the first " slimline " pocket calculator , the Sinclair Executive . It was a major success that Radionics followed up by launching a wide range of pocket calculators . The company 's subsequent expansion made it Europe 's biggest calculator manufacturer by 1975 .
By the late 1970s , however , Sinclair Radionics was in serious difficulties . It lost its ability to compete effectively in the calculator market following the launch of a new generation of Japanese @-@ produced calculators with liquid crystal displays , which were much more capable and power @-@ efficient than Sinclair 's LED calculators . Projects to develop a pocket television and digital watch turned out to be expensive flops . The company made losses of over £ 350 @,@ 000 in 1975 – 76 , bringing it to the edge of bankruptcy . In July 1977 Radionics was rescued by a state agency , the National Enterprise Board ( NEB ) , which recapitalised it , provided a loan facility and took effective control of the company by acquiring a 73 % stake .
Clive Sinclair 's relationship with the NEB was fraught due to conflicting notions about which direction the company should go . Radionics had begun a project to develop a home computer but the NEB wanted to concentrate on the instrument side of the business , which was virtually the only area where Radionics was profitable . Sinclair disagreed vehemently with what he characterised as the view " that there was no future in consumer electronics " . This and other disputes led to Sinclair resigning from Radionics in July 1979 .
While he was struggling with the NEB , Clive Sinclair turned to a " corporate lifeboat " in the shape of an existing corporate shell under his exclusive control – a company called Ablesdeal Ltd , which he had established in 1973 and later renamed Science of Cambridge . It became a vehicle through which he could pursue his own projects , free of the interference of the NEB . Despite his later success in the field , Sinclair saw computers as merely a means to an end . As he told the Sunday Times in April 1985 , " We only got involved in computers in order to fund the rest of the business " , specifically the development of the ultimately unsuccessful TV80 pocket television and C5 electric vehicle . In an interview with Practical Computing , Sinclair explained :
I make computers because they are a good market , and they are interesting to design . I don 't feel bad about making them or selling them for money or anything , there is a demand for them and they do no harm ; but I don 't think they are going to save the world .
= = = Precursors : the MK14 and ZX80 = = =
By the late 1970s , American companies were producing simple home computer kits such as the MITS Altair and IMSAI 8080 . This aroused interest among electronics hobbyists in the UK but relatively high prices and lower disposable income reduced the appeal of the American products . New Scientist stated in 1977 that " the price of an American kit in dollars rapidly translates into the same figure in pounds sterling by the time it has reached the shores of Britain " . Off @-@ the @-@ shelf personal computers were also available for the high end of the market but were extremely expensive ; Olivetti 's offering cost £ 2 @,@ 000 , and the Commodore PET , launched in 1979 , sold for £ 700 . There was nothing for the hobbyist at the low end of the market . Sinclair realised that this provided a useful commercial opportunity .
Sinclair 's first home computer was the MK14 , which was launched in kit form in June 1978 . It was a long way from being a mass @-@ market product . Its very name – MK standing for " Microcomputer Kit " – was indicative of its origins as a product developed by , and for , hobbyists . It had no screen but instead used an LED segment display ( though Science of Cambridge did produce an add @-@ on module allowing it to be hooked up to a UHF TV ) ; it had no case , consisting of an exposed circuit board ; it had no built @-@ in storage capabilities and only 256 bytes of memory ; and input was via a 20 @-@ key hexadecimal keyboard . Despite the limitations of the machine it sold a respectable 10 – 15 @,@ 000 units ; by comparison , the much more expensive Apple II had only sold 9 @,@ 000 units in the United States , a much bigger market , in 1978 . This success convinced Clive Sinclair that there was an untapped market for low @-@ cost computers that could profitably be exploited .
Sinclair followed up the MK14 by producing the ZX80 , at the time the world 's smallest and cheapest computer , which was launched in January 1980 costing £ 99 @.@ 95 ( equivalent to £ 319 at 2009 prices . ) The company conducted no market research whatsoever prior to the launch of the ZX80 ; according to Clive Sinclair , he " simply had a hunch " that the general public was sufficiently interested to make such a project feasible and went ahead with ordering 100 @,@ 000 sets of parts so that he could launch at high volume .
The ZX80 's design introduced many key features that were carried over to the ZX81 ; as Sinclair himself later said , " the ZX80 was very much a stepping stone to the ZX81 " . The design was driven entirely by the desired price – the machine had to cost less than £ 100 but still make a healthy profit . Its distinctive wedge @-@ shaped white case concealing the circuitry and the touch @-@ sensitive membrane keyboard were the brainchild of Rick Dickinson , a young British industrial designer who had recently been hired by Sinclair . As he later recalled of Sinclair 's approach , " Everything was cost driven . The design was the face of the machine . " The unconventional keyboard was the outcome of Sinclair 's cost @-@ cutting . It made use of a sheet of plastic , on which the keys were printed , overlaying a metallic circuit that registered when a key was pressed . This avoided the expense of providing a typewriter @-@ style keyboard , though the design had many drawbacks when it came to usability and " feel " .
Inside the case , there were many more similarities with the ZX81 . Like its successor , it used the Z80A microprocessor and had only 1 KB of on @-@ board RAM . It came with a specially written BASIC interpreter on a dedicated ROM chip and could use a television as a display . It relied on an ordinary cassette tape recorder for data storage . The main difference between the two machines lay in the internal software ; when the ZX81 was released , ZX80 owners were able to upgrade by the relatively simple expedient of plugging a new ROM onto the circuit board .
The ZX80 was an immediate success , selling 20 @,@ 000 units over the following nine months . Science of Cambridge was producing ZX80s at the rate of 9 @,@ 000 a month by the end of 1980 and within 18 months of its launch the company had sold 100 @,@ 000 units . The commercial success of the ZX80 made a follow @-@ up product inevitable . The company was renamed Sinclair Computers in November 1980 , reflecting its new focus , and became Sinclair Research in March 1981 .
= = = The BBC Micro affair = = =
The launch of the ZX81 was catalysed in part by the British Broadcasting Corporation 's plan to produce a TV series , to be broadcast in 1982 , aimed at popularising computing and programming . The BBC intended to commission an existing manufacturer to provide it with a BBC @-@ branded home computer to tie in with the series . When Sinclair got wind of the project in December 1980 , he wrote to the BBC informing them that he would be announcing a new version of the ZX80 , to be called the ZX81 , in early 1981 . It would remedy some of the ZX80 's deficiencies and would be both cheaper and more advanced . Sinclair naturally wanted the ZX81 to be a candidate for the BBC contract and lobbied for its adoption . He pointed out that there were already 40 @,@ 000 users of the ZX80 and that by the time the series was broadcast there were likely to be upwards of 100 @,@ 000 ZX81 users ( which turned out to be an underestimate by over 400 @,@ 000 – an indication of how the ZX81 's success exceeded even Sinclair 's expectations ) .
A prototype ZX81 was demonstrated to BBC representatives in January 1981 , while Sinclair 's local rival Acorn Computers put forward their proposed Proton computer , a design – of which a prototype did not yet exist – based on the Acorn Atom . To Sinclair 's dismay , the contract to produce the BBC Microcomputer went to Acorn , which launched the machine in January 1982 . Paul Kriwaczek , the producer of The Computer Programme , explained his reservations in a March 1982 interview with Your Computer :
I would have been very reluctant for the BBC to sell something like the Sinclair [ ZX81 ] because it is so limited . The Sinclair cannot be expanded ; it is fundamentally a throw @-@ away consumer product . Its usefulness lies in learning about programming , but I do not believe that the future of computers lies in everyone learning to program in BASIC .
Sinclair was critical of the BBC 's decision , accusing it of incompetence and arrogance . Shortly after Acorn won the BBC contract the Government issued a recommended list of computers , including the BBC Micro and Research Machines 380Z , that schools could purchase , with the aid of a grant , for half price ; Sinclair 's computers were not included on the list . Sinclair responded by launching his own half @-@ price deal , offering schools the chance to buy a ZX81 and 16 KB RAM pack for £ 60 , plus a ZX Printer at half price , for a total cost of £ 90 . As the cheapest Government @-@ approved system was £ 130 , this was an attractive offer for many schools and about 2 @,@ 300 bought Sinclair 's package .
= = = Development and manufacture = = =
The development of the ZX81 got under way even before the ZX80 had been launched . Sinclair 's chief engineer , Jim Westwood , was given the task of improving the ZX80 's hardware to reduce the number of components and thus bring down the cost . He also sought to fix some of the more annoying problems with the ZX80 . Westwood and his colleagues found that the component count could be reduced greatly by combining eighteen of the ZX80 's chips into a single uncommitted logic array ( ULA ) , a type of general @-@ purpose chip that allowed manufacturers to reprogram it to meet their particular requirements rather than having to develop their own customised chip at greater expense . Ferranti produced the new chip for Sinclair , who hailed Westwood 's design as a triumph of innovation : " The ZX81 had four chips when our nearest competitor in this respect , the TRS @-@ 80 , had 44 . " Only 70 % of the logic gates on the ULA were supposed to be used , but Sinclair decided to obtain maximum benefit by using them all . This resulted in the machine becoming uncomfortably warm during usage . Computing folklore held that the ZX81 had to be refrigerated by balancing a carton of cold milk on top of the case .
The ZX81 's ROM was doubled to 8 KB , from the ZX80 's 4 KB ROM . This enabled a fuller implementation of a version of ANSI Minimal BASIC ( termed Sinclair BASIC by the company ) . Clive Sinclair re @-@ commissioned a company called Nine Tiles , which had produced the ZX80 ROM , to develop the new ROM software for the ZX81 . The code was written by John Grant , the owner of Nine Tiles , and Steve Vickers , who had joined the company in January 1980 . Grant concentrated on the software that drove the ZX81 's hardware , while Vickers developed the new BASIC and the accompanying manual . Sinclair 's brief to the pair was fairly non @-@ specific but primarily concerned remedying a key defect of the ZX80 so that the new machine could be used for practical programming and calculations . Vickers later recalled :
As far as Clive was concerned , it wasn 't a question of what the machine ought to be able to do , but more what could be crammed into the machine given the component budget he 'd set his mind on . The only firm brief for the ' 81 was that the ' 80 's math package must be improved .
The new ROM incorporated trigonometric and floating point functions , which its predecessor had lacked – the ZX80 could only deal with whole numbers . Grant came up with one of the ZX81 's more novel features , a syntax checker that indicated errors in BASIC code as soon as it was entered ( rather than , as was standard at the time , only disclosing coding errors when a program was run ) . Unfortunately for Vickers , he introduced a briefly notorious error – the so @-@ called " square @-@ root bug " that caused the square root of 0 @.@ 25 to be returned erroneously as 1 @.@ 3591409 – as a result of problems with integrating the ZX Printer code into the ROM . Although it was eventually fixed , the bug became the subject of controversy and Sinclair was forced to replace some of the ZX81s sold to early customers . On a more positive note , Vickers ' work on the manual was received favourably , being described in 1983 as " one of the classic texts on BASIC " . Max Phillips commented in a What Micro ? retrospective :
It does a reasonable job and sensibly provides lots for the reader to do . It 's quite honest about the [ ZX81 ] ' s shortcomings and provides hints and tips for ways round them ... Best of all , the manual is complete and comprehensive . There 's some fairly advanced and often undisclosed information in there . The beginner won 't understand it for a long time but if he or she learns some more advanced ideas , the manual is ready for them .
The task of designing the ZX81 's case again fell to Rick Dickinson , who produced an updated version of the ZX80 's wedge @-@ shaped case . This time round , the design team were able to use injection moulding , which enabled them to deliver a higher @-@ quality case . Dickinson originally envisaged the ZX81 as " an expandable range of boxes following a vaguely modular approach with a common width " , though this approach was eventually dropped . From start to finish , the design process took about six months .
The ZX81 was launched on 5 March 1981 in two versions ( though with identical components ) – a pre @-@ assembled machine or a cheaper kit version , which the user could assemble himself . Both versions were manufactured in Dundee , Scotland by Timex Corporation at the company 's Dryburgh factory . Timex had not been an obvious choice of manufacturing subcontractor , as the company had little previous experience in assembling electronics . It was a well @-@ established manufacturer of mechanical watches but was facing a crisis at the beginning of the 1980s . Profits had dwindled to virtually zero as the market for mechanical watches stagnated in the face of competition from the digital and quartz watches . Recognising the trend , Timex 's director , Fred Olsen , determined that the company would diversify into other areas of business .
This shift by Timex came at an ideal time for Sinclair . The ZX80 had proved more popular than expected and Sinclair 's existing manufacturer , a small electronics company in St Ives , lacked the resources to deal with the demand . Timex took over production of the ZX80 late in 1980 . The arrangement worked well for both companies and Timex took on the manufacture of the ZX81 , aided by capital investment in its Dundee plant . Sinclair initially planned to produce 10 @,@ 000 ZX81s a month , rising to 30 @,@ 000 a month within a year . However , Timex initially had significant problems in producing enough ZX81s to satisfy demand . As a consequence , it took up to nine weeks for ZX81s to be delivered by mail order . It was not until September 1981 , five months after the launch of the ZX81 , that the delivery times finally came down to the promised twenty @-@ eight days . Those who already owned or had recently ordered the ZX80 were not excluded ; anyone who had ordered a ZX80 in the two weeks before the ZX81 's launch would receive the newer machine , while existing owners were able to upgrade their ZX80s by plugging an extra £ 20 ROM chip into the circuit board .
The reliability of the ZX81 was controversial . W.H. Smith , one of the machine 's key distributors , had a company policy of ordering a third more ZX81s than were actually required for sale , so that it would have enough replacements for faulty machines . Similar problems were reported in the US market , where contemporary reports suggested that only a third of the ZX81s shipped actually worked . However , figures released by Sinclair claimed that only 2 @.@ 4 per cent of pre @-@ assembled machines were returned , although 13 per cent of kits were returned . Clive Sinclair strongly denied any problem with reliability :
We have a lower rate of failure on our computers than anybody else in the world , and the reason for that is that we do everything to keep the quality right . The ZX81 production line is a miracle of efficiency ; after all , one is made every 10 seconds . They go through the most amazing quality control . Also we have a far lower component count than anyone else . We have only four chips where everyone else has 40 .
Sinclair attributed the higher failure rate of the kits to customers breaking the components by inserting or soldering them the wrong way , though the company admitted that there was a persistent problem with power supplies that affected both kits and pre @-@ assembled ZX81s . The bigger problem was perhaps Sinclair 's lack after @-@ sales service , which Robin Clarke of New Scientist described as " one of the worst after @-@ sales performance records of any company ever established . " The Financial Times observed that " Clive Sinclair 's offices are filled with returned computers which can take months to be repaired . " The company 's slowness in replacing returns and delivering freshly ordered machines meant that Sinclair Research gained a poor reputation for poor customer service .
= = = Marketing = = =
The marketing of the ZX81 was handled by Sinclair 's long @-@ standing marketing agency Primary Contact ( now part of Ogilvy & Mather ) , which had provided marketing services for Sinclair since 1971 and was to continue doing so until 1985 . Sinclair 's entry into the nascent home computing market gave Primary Contact a major challenge – how to market a product simultaneously at hobbyists and at the " man on the street " , who probably had little or no computer literacy . The answer was to pursue what the journalist David O 'Reilly of MicroScope magazine described as a single @-@ minded " user @-@ friendly strategy . " Chris Fawkes , one of Primary Contact 's directors , explained : " We brought personal computers to the mass market by showing that you didn 't have to be a whizzkid to use one . " As Clive Sinclair put it in a 1982 interview with Your Computer ,
There are two big markets . There is the hobbyist and the man in the street . The hobbyist was a dead certainty . We knew we could sell to him because we have so much experience of it and we were offering a better product . The much less certain prospect was the man in the street . There the view was that if we offered him a computer plus a self @-@ training book at a keen enough price he would buy by mail order – which , of course , he has .
According to Ben Rosen , by pricing the ZX81 so low , " Sinclair has opened up a completely new market among people who had never previously considered owning a computer . " Clive Sinclair acknowledged the role that guesswork had played in his decision to launch the ZX81 on such a large scale : " It was a surmise that the man in the street would want such a computer . He does , and our information is that a lot of people are using the machines avidly . " A New Scientist retrospective published in 1986 commented :
Sir Clive 's marketing achievement was to downgrade the " concept " of a computer to the point where he could claim to provide one for less than the magical £ 100 mark . To this end , efficient keyboards and monitors , useful amounts of memory , efficient filing and storage systems and the like were stripped away , to leave an affordable facsimile of a " computer " . The market image was more important than what the computer could do , but the burgeoning industry in computer games provided an application which adolescents – young and old – eagerly seized on as the raison d 'être for their new gadget . In the main , it was ignorance of genuine computer technology that fired the success of the ZX range , despite the availability of accessories that , albeit inefficiently , turned the Z80 processor chip at the heart of these up @-@ market toys into the core of a useful machine .
High @-@ profile advertising was central to the marketing campaign . Although Sinclair Research was a relatively small company , it had a long @-@ standing policy of using large @-@ scale advertisements that stood out in stark contrast to the more muted advertisements of other manufacturers . Superlatives , exhortations , appeals to patriotism , testimonials , eye @-@ catching drawings and photographs on double @-@ page spreads , varying from month to month , were used to drum up mail order business for Sinclair . The launch advertising for the ZX81 illustrates this approach . A photograph of the ZX81 alongside the official Sinclair peripherals dominated the centre of a double @-@ page spread . The value for money of Sinclair 's products was emphasised by the prices being printed in larger type than any other text on the spread . The ZX81 's benefits were promoted with the aspirational slogan " Sinclair ZX81 Personal Computer – the heart of a system that grows with you " . The advertisement highlighted ZX81 BASIC Programming , the manual written by Steve Vickers , as " a complete course in BASIC programming , from first principles to complex programs . " The educational benefits of the ZX81 were stressed ( " it 's still very simple to teach yourself computing " ) and its technical advantages were explained in relatively non @-@ technical terms . For instance , the ZX81 's idiosyncratic method of typing commands with a single keystroke – the result of the memory @-@ saving method of using one @-@ byte tokens to represent keywords – was presented as " eliminat [ ing ] a great deal of tiresome typing " . The ZX81 's British character was emphasised ; it was " designed by Sinclair and custom @-@ built in Britain . " Sinclair 's advertising in the United States provides an illustration of how the company perceived the ZX81 's purpose :
For less than $ 100 , the Sinclair ZX81 will get you started in personal computing right now . Your children will gain an understanding of computers that will benefit them for the rest of their lives . And you will be prepared to make informed decisions about using and buying computers , both in your career and in your home .
This approach to advertising was driven by Sinclair 's reliance on mail @-@ order marketing . It came with a high up @-@ front cost in terms of purchasing space in publications but it had the advantage of ensuring that all sales were firm and pre @-@ paid . A big splash on launch produced a large influx of cash at the outset of a campaign , though it did also depend on the advertiser having enough product to satisfy the initial surge in demand . The advertisements served an additional purpose of priming the market for over @-@ the @-@ counter sales by " getting the story across " , as Clive Sinclair put it : " Not that big a proportion do buy on mail order , but they see the ads , and that helps to prepare them for buying when the item appears in the shops . "
Sinclair himself became a focal point for the marketing campaign , putting a human face on the business , while Sinclair Research was portrayed in the media as a plucky British challenger taking on the technical and marketing might of giant American and Japanese corporations . As David O 'Reilly noted , " by astute use of public relations , particularly playing up his image of a Briton taking on the world , Sinclair has become the best @-@ known name in micros . " The popular press soon latched onto the image . His " Uncle Clive " persona is said to have been created by the gossip columnist for Personal Computer World , while the media praised Sinclair as a visionary genius ( or even , in the words of The Sun , " the most prodigious inventor since Leonardo . " ) As Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy put it , Sinclair outgrew " the role of microcomputer manufacturer and accepted the mantle of pioneering boffin leading Britain into a technological utopia . "
Pricing was central to the marketing strategy , as it had been through Sinclair 's career . The ZX81 had been designed to meet a £ 70 price point and was launched at a price of £ 69 @.@ 95 ( built ) or £ 49 @.@ 95 ( kit ) . One Sinclair brochure presented a side @-@ by @-@ side comparison of the ZX81 with the four machines that Sinclair considered its main rivals – the Acorn Atom , Apple II Plus , Commodore PET and TRS @-@ 80 . The comparison highlighted the vast differences in cost , from £ 630 in the case of the Apple II Plus to just £ 70 for the ZX81 , though even by Sinclair 's own comparison the Apple was by far the more capable machine .
According to Sinclair himself , the £ 69 @.@ 95 price was chosen after applying the " experience curve " developed by the Boston Consulting Group . Sinclair 's prior experience in the calculator market had highlighted the fact that a product will be more profitable selling at ( for instance ) twice the manufactured cost than at three times . He could have launched the ZX81 at a higher price , marketing it in a more traditional way as a premium product , but chose not to . In effect , he used the lower price to establish an unassailable lead before the competition moved in .
An essential part of Sinclair 's marketing strategy was to use regular cost @-@ cutting at strategic intervals to maintain market share . Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy comment that Sinclair 's approach was " to secure and extend [ his ] market lead and panic the competition . While most companies reduce prices when their products are in steep decline , Sinclair tends to discount shortly after sales have peaked . The advantage of his approach is that vacillating customers are drawn into the fold while the product 's promotion retains a commercial urgency , and the costings of the competition are thrown into utter disarray . "
This tactic proved highly successful , with Sinclair announcing by March 1982 that it had sold 250 @,@ 000 ZX81s worldwide . When sales fell in the wake of the launch of its successor , the ZX Spectrum , Sinclair reduced the price of the pre @-@ assembled version to £ 49 @.@ 95 in May 1982 . It was cut by another £ 10 the following April . Despite the increased competition from much more capable computers , the ZX81 was still shipping in excess of 30 @,@ 000 units a month even as late as July 1983 , more than two years after it had been launched . By that time , according to Sinclair Research , over 1 @.@ 5 million ZX81s had been sold .
= = = Distribution = = =
The ZX81 's distribution arrangements were an essential part of its success and marked a watershed in the way that computers were sold in the UK . Sinclair had previously made its name as a mail @-@ order retailer – the ZX81 was initially available only through mail @-@ order – but the only truly effective way to reach the mass market was via high street stores . Fortunately for Sinclair , an opportunity to do just that was provided by W.H. Smith , a venerable book- and magazine @-@ seller and stationery chain . The company had stagnated in the 1970s and was looking for ways to revitalise its image and expand its product range .
Smith 's had begun selling audio and photographic equipment and calculators at the end of the 1970s , with a modest degree of success . In 1980 its marketing development manager , John Rowland , hit upon the idea of creating " Computer Know @-@ How " sections in major branches to sell computer books and magazines . Most of the items on display were imports from the United States but their relatively high cost reduced their attractiveness to the casual buyer . The commercial success and mass market potential of the ZX80 caught Rowland 's interest ; he approached Sinclair , saw a prototype ZX81 and agreed to market the machine through Smith 's on an exclusive basis for the first six months after launch . As Rowland put it , " what we 've done now is bring the computer @-@ orientated publications together with an actual computer , to create the Computer Know @-@ How section of the store " , alongside computer software and blank cassette tapes . The ZX81 would be sold in 112 stores around the UK and would serve as the centrepiece of the " Computer Know @-@ How " sections .
Selling the ZX81 over the counter was seen as something of a gamble and Rowland 's colleagues were initially unenthusiastic about the scheme . Branch buyers thought that the ZX81 was unlikely to sell more than 10 – 15 units per branch at launch . Rowland himself thought that the ZX81 would sell about 10 @,@ 000 units during the first five months of the retail agreement , equivalent to one month 's mail order sales by Sinclair . In the event , the ZX81 was a massive success for Smith 's , it went on sale for £ 99 making it the first home PC in the UK to retail for under £ 100 . The " Computer Know @-@ How " sections were swamped with eager customers , overwhelming the 300 staff who had been trained to demonstrate the machines ; a Financial Times correspondent wrote of being " dazed and bewildered by the crowds of schoolchildren clustered round the ZX81 in your local branch of W.H. Smith . " Within a year , Smith 's had sold 350 @,@ 000 ZX81s , making an estimated net profit of £ 10 million . Sales of peripherals , software , books and magazines netted even more profit .
The British chain stores Boots , John Menzies and Currys began selling the ZX81 as soon as Smith 's exclusive distribution deal expired and a number of companies secured overseas distribution rights for the ZX81 , which was being sold in 18 countries by March 1982 . Sinclair launched the ZX81 in the United States in November 1981 at a price of $ 149 @.@ 95 assembled and $ 99 @.@ 95 in kit form , initially selling directly to the American market by mail order . To be useful the computer needed an extra 16KB RAM pack which cost $ 49 @.@ 95 . Sales reached 15 @,@ 000 a month by January 1982 , while American Express sold thousands more to its own customers . In February 1982 Timex obtained a licence from Sinclair to sell the ZX81 directly through thousands of retail outlets in the US , paying Sinclair Research a 5 per cent royalty on all Sinclair hardware and software sold by Timex . The company was later to produce its own licensed clones and variants of the ZX81 . By August 1982 Sinclair had lowered the American mail @-@ order price of the assembled ZX81 to $ 99 @.@ 95 and kit to $ 79 @.@ 95 , and its advertisements stated that " more than 10 @,@ 000 are sold every week " . In December 1981 Mitsui obtained rights to distribute the ZX81 in Japan , selling it by mail order for ¥ 38 @,@ 700 ( equivalent to £ 83 in 1982 prices ) , and had sold 5 @,@ 000 units by July 1982 . The Japanese market 's favourable reaction to the ZX81 led Mitsui to begin selling the ZX81 over the counter in large bookshops from September 1982 , with annual sales of 20 @,@ 000 units predicted . In the Netherlands , the regular Sinclair ZX81 was for sale as well as a Bang & Olufsen branded version called Beocomp .
The ZX81 was also sold for a while in duty @-@ free shops at UK airports . However , this fell foul of government export restrictions aimed at preventing the Soviet bloc countries from obtaining Western high technology goods . It was not uncommon for visitors from the Soviet Union and other eastern European countries to pick up gadgets in Western countries with the aim of transferring their technology to their own states ' industries . In 1983 the government ordered that the ZX81s were to be withdrawn from sale at airports . There was no such restriction on sales to communist China and in November 1983 Sinclair Research announced that it had signed an agreement to export ZX81 kits to a factory in Guangzhou , where they would be assembled for the Chinese market .
= = Reception = =
Reviews of the ZX81 highlighted the great value for money offered by the machine but noted its technical shortcomings . As Tim Hartnell put it in Your Computer , " the ZX81 is both a delight and a disappointment " . He applauded the improvements that had been made over the ZX80 , such as a much better manual , display and string handling , and called the ZX81 " a very good first computer " that " will open the world of computing to many who would be denied access to it by cost . " However , the built @-@ in memory was so small that use of a memory expansion pack was " mandatory for any worthwhile use " . He also found the ZX81 to be alarmingly unreliable , having to have his first two test machines replaced before getting one that worked properly .
New Scientist 's Malcolm Peltu commented that it was " great technical value for money particularly for computing enthusiasts " but thought that others were " likely to be bored very quickly by the basic system " . He highlighted weaknesses in the manual and Sinclair 's accompanying software , criticising them for " a misconceived design and sloppiness in execution which make the machine seem harder to use and more limited than it should " and questioned whether it might be more worthwhile to save up for a more powerful computer such as Acorn or Commodore 's offerings . Overall , he concluded , the ZX81 might have a limited value in helping to teach BASIC programming and overcoming psychological barriers to computing , but " the Sinclair systems have a long way to go before they raise the quality and level of understanding of the nature and use of computer @-@ based information systems among computer unbelievers . "
While the editor of Personal Computer World was on holiday in May 1981 , his colleagues publicised the magazine 's review of the ZX81 with a cover showing a chimpanzee with the machine above the strapline " Editor benchtests the ZX81 " . ( The chimp returned in later issues to " benchtest " all of Sinclair 's subsequent computers . ) The review , which was written by PCW staffer Dave Tebbutt , acknowledged that the machine had significant shortcomings but nonetheless represented " absolutely amazing value for money " . He described the ZX81 as " a lovely product which will have enormous appeal to people wanting to find out more about computers , but without it costing them an arm and a leg " and concluded : " If you know nothing about computers and you want to enjoy finding out about them , then this machine offers a value for money way of doing just that . Children will love the ZX81 , there can be no question about that , and I suspect that more than a few people who are already familiar with computers will buy one , just to have a bit of fun . "
Paul Taylor of the Financial Times found the ZX81 to be " a powerful and flexible little computer ideally suited as a fun introduction to the mysteries of home computing " but cautioned readers about its limitations . It lacked ready @-@ made software , the keyboard was not easy to use , it did not have sufficiently advanced graphics to be able to replicate arcade @-@ style games and its built @-@ in memory was inadequate . Even so , he suggested , " the ZX81 is a unique British product , part toy , part puzzle , part learning tool and I think that , provided one accepts its limitations and recognises that any computer will only do what it is told to do , it is good value as an introduction to the hobby of home computing . "
The Age described the ZX81 as " not extremely sophisticated , and its memory capability is rather limited . It also has a rather toy @-@ like appearance " . It concluded that the computer was " an ideal toy for youngsters who want to become acquainted with the computer world . It is responsive , cheap , and very easy to use " .
Billy Garrett of Byte , who already owned a ZX80 , complimented the Timex / Sinclair 1000 's manual ( although he regretted the removal of the British original 's humour ) , the " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art circuitry " , and the BASIC for being " remarkably powerful " despite the small ROM size . He concluded that " the major use ... will probably be for learning about BASIC or computers in general . [ It ] has limited expansion capabilities , and the keyboard is too small and cramped for any serious work " .
David Babsky described the ZX81 as " a wonderfully brainy little micro which won 't let you waste your time and make a fool of yourself " . In a comparison between the ZX81 and IBM PC published in Which Micro ? , he commended the ZX81 's user @-@ friendliness and its on @-@ the @-@ fly syntax checking of BASIC programs , which he described as " the feature that I , as a newcomer to computing , want to see incorporated into every micro . "
= = Peripherals and software = =
The success of the ZX81 led almost immediately to enthusiasts producing a huge variety of peripherals and software . Clive Sinclair was " amused and gratified " by the attention the machine received but made little effort to exploit the demand , effectively ceding a very lucrative market to third party suppliers , a decision that undoubtedly forfeited a lot of potential earnings . W.H. Smith , for instance , was able to exploit a peculiarity of the ZX81 ; owners found that technically obsolete low @-@ fidelity mono tape cassette recorders worked better as storage devices than higher @-@ quality music systems . Smith 's purchased cheap " shoebox " cassette recorders in the Far East and sold them with the W.H. Smiths logo as " data recorders " . Over 100 @,@ 000 were sold in 18 months .
Other than what Clarke described as " a few remarkably poor programs on cassette " Sinclair released only two official peripherals for the ZX81 , a 16 KB RAM pack ( actually the same one previously released for the ZX80 , but rebadged ) and the ZX Printer , both of which plugged into the edge connector at the rear of the ZX81 . They retailed at a launch price of £ 49 @.@ 95 each but both had notable flaws . The RAM pack was top @-@ heavy and was supported only by the edge connector . It had a habit of falling out of its socket at crucial points and crashing the ZX81 , losing anything that the user had typed in . Users turned to using sticky lumps of chewing gum , double @-@ sided tape or Blu @-@ Tack to cure what became known as the " RAM pack wobble " problem . The ZX Printer was a tiny spark printer that used two electrically charged styli to burn away the surface of aluminium @-@ coated paper to reveal the black underlay . It worked reasonably well at first but its output deteriorated rapidly after a time .
Many non @-@ Sinclair peripherals aimed to remedy the ZX81 's flaws and provide many new capabilities . These included RAM packs providing up to 64 KB of extra memory and promising to " fit snugly ... giving a firm connection " to the computer , typewriter @-@ style keyboards , more advanced printers and sound generators , and even a hard disk interface , which Clive Sinclair thought was " quite overgilding the lily " . A wide range of software was also published . Within only a year of the ZX81 's launch , around 200 independent companies had been established to manufacture and sell Sinclair @-@ compatible hardware . The people behind the ZX81 cottage industry were very often not computer professionals but were , as the Financial Times noted , " school teachers , civil servants , electrical engineers and technicians [ who ] have set up small operations in their own time " .
The ZX81 's popularity was publicly demonstrated in January 1982 when civil servant Mike Johnstone organised a " ZX Microfair " at Westminster Central Hall . Seventy exhibitors set up stalls with only a few hundred visitors expected in a hall with a capacity of 650 people . More than 12 @,@ 000 people came and the police had to control the crowd . Thousands , many of whom had travelled long distances , queued outside for up to three hours to get into the hall ; Clarke , who was only able to enter after identifying himself as a journalist , wrote that " no one knows how many gave up in despair " . The exhibitors sold thousands of pounds ' worth of software and hardware " as fast as three pairs of hands on each stall could hand them over and stuff the fivers into improvised overflowing cash boxes " , he added . The fair also showed Sinclair Research 's relatively unimportant role in the computer 's success , with only small crowds at its booth compared to the " rugby scrum " elsewhere . By August 1983 seven more ZX Microfairs were held .
Thousands of ZX81 programs were published , either as printed listings that could be typed in or as ready @-@ made applications that could be loaded from cassette tape . Many computer magazines featured ZX81 program listings – some , such as Sinclair Programs , were dedicated entirely to listings – while many individuals became the archetypal " bedroom programmers " , producing games and applications which they produced , marketed , recorded , and sold from their own homes . Some went on to found their own software houses , employing teams of programmers – some of whom were still at school – to produce programs for the ZX81 and other computers . Existing companies also sold software ; Psion produced a series of ZX81 programs in close association with Sinclair , including a flight simulator , while ICL 's range of ZX81 programs sold over 100 @,@ 000 cassettes in less than three months . Psion 's success with the ZX81 had a profound effect on the future of the company . Its work on the ZX81 database program Vu @-@ File led to Psion switching its focus to the development of personal digital assistants , which resulted in the launch in 1984 of the Psion Organiser , the world 's first handheld personal computer . Some of the most popular ZX81 games ( Psion 's Flight Simulation being an example ) were rewritten for the Spectrum to take advantage of the newer machine 's colour and sound capabilities .
Enterprising programmers were able to produce games for the ZX81 using nothing more than text characters and the machine 's limited text semigraphics . Some ZX81 games achieved lasting fame , such as 3D Monster Maze , a tense first @-@ person perspective game that involved the player escaping a labyrinth with a Tyrannosaurus rex in pursuit . Written in a combination of BASIC and machine code , its innovative design led it to be hailed as the first home computer 3D game and a landmark in the history of computer and video games .
One of the more bizarre software products for the ZX81 came about as a result of music companies attempting to capitalise on the popularity of Sinclair 's computers . In 1983 , EMI released a single by Chris Sievey that had a ZX81 program recorded on the B @-@ side . Island Records responded with XL1 by Buzzcocks frontman Pete Shelley , packaged with a program for the ZX Spectrum .
= = Clones and variants = =
Sinclair 's licensing agreement with Timex enabled the American company to produce three clones or offshoots of Sinclair machines for the US market . These were the Timex Sinclair 1000 , Timex Sinclair 1500 ( both variants of the ZX81 ) and the Timex Sinclair 2068 ( a variant of the ZX Spectrum ) . The TS1000 was launched in July 1982 and sparked a massive surge of interest ; at one point , the Timex phoneline was receiving over 5 @,@ 000 calls an hour , 50 @,@ 000 a week , inquiring about the machine or about microcomputers in general . It was virtually identical to the ZX81 save for re @-@ branding and the addition of an extra 1 KB of memory , making for a grand total of 2 KB . In the five months following the TS1000 's launch , the company sold 550 @,@ 000 machines , earning Sinclair over $ 1 @.@ 2 million in royalties .
Timex produced a second version of the ZX81 in the form of the TS1500 , essentially an Americanised ZX81 launched in August 1983 . It dispensed with the membrane keyboard and used a case similar to that of the ZX Spectrum , incorporating 16 KB of on @-@ board memory . It was effectively a stopgap between the ZX81 and Spectrum . However , it was unsuccessful due to increased competition from rival US machines and the after @-@ effects of Timex 's botched marketing of the TS1000 . Although the TS1000 had initially been a great success , Timex failed to provide the essential RAM pack upgrades to the market for two or three months after it launched the TS1000 . Consumers would take the machine home , plug it in and find that it would not do anything useful due to the lack of memory .
In addition , consumers ' attitude in the US was quite different from that in the UK . Clive Sinclair told Informatics magazine in June 1981 that " our competitors thought that consumers didn 't want to learn programming . We [ Sinclair Research ] think they failed because of this and because of price . " Timex evidently shared this belief but events proved it to be a false assumption . The TS1000 / ZX81 's price advantage was erased when its main rivals – the Texas Instruments TI99 / 4A and the Commodore VIC 20 – had their prices cut to below the all @-@ important $ 100 mark . Competitors such as Apple , Atari , Commodore and Texas Instruments promoted their machines as being for business or entertainment rather than education , highlighting the value of computers with ready @-@ made applications and more advanced features such as graphics , colour and sound .
By late 1983 Wayne Green reported a " rising chorus of frustrated Timex users who are telling friends not to waste their money . " " Hard core " early adopters , he wrote , " became discouraged with the quality of the product , with the poverty of software available and with the almost total lack of information on how to cope with it . " Consumers deserted the TS1000 once its novelty value had worn off and , as publishers of programming guides found to their cost , the American public showed little interest in using the machine to learn about computer programming . American retailers were left with large stocks of unsold machines . Burned by this experience , many were unwilling to stock the later Timex Sinclair machines in large numbers and the big chain stores dropped the Timex Sinclair line altogether .
Some companies outside the US and UK produced their own " pirate " versions of the ZX81 and Timex Sinclair computers , aided by weak intellectual property laws in their countries of origin . Several Brazilian companies produced ZX81 clones , notably the TK series ( such as the TK85 ) from Microdigital Eletronica of Brazil ) and Prológica 's CP @-@ 200 . Czerweny Eletronica of Argentina produced the CZ1000 and CZ1500 , clones of the ZX81 and TS1500 respectively . Lambda Electronics of Hong Kong produced the Lambda 3000 , based on the ZX81 , which was itself widely copied by other Chinese manufacturers .
The machines were not all straight copies of the ZX81 ; some , such as the CP @-@ 200 , came with extra memory and a larger case ( often with a chiclet keyboard in place of the original membrane keyboard ) . One clone , the TL801 from TELLAB of Italy , could emulate either the ZX80 or ZX81 and switch between the two machines via a jumper .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The ZX81 had an immediate impact on the fortunes of Sinclair Research and Clive Sinclair himself . The company 's profitability rose enormously , from a pretax profit of £ 818 @,@ 000 on a turnover of £ 4 @.@ 6 million in 1980 – 81 to £ 8 @.@ 55 million on a turnover of £ 27 @.@ 17 million in 1981 – 82 . Clive Sinclair became one of the UK 's highest @-@ profile businessmen and a millionaire , receiving a £ 1 million bonus on top of a salary of £ 13 @,@ 000 . He received a knighthood in the Queen 's Birthday Honours and the Young Businessman of the Year award in 1983 .
The machine also had a widespread and lasting social impact in the United Kingdom . According to Clive Sinclair , purchasers of the ZX81 came from " a reasonably broad spectrum " that ranged from readers of the upmarket Observer and Sunday Times newspapers to the more downmarket but numerous Sun readers . The largest age group was around 30 years old . The Financial Times reported in March 1982 that most Sinclair computers were being bought for educational purposes , both for adults and children , though the children were usually able to learn much more quickly . Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy note that the popularity of the ZX81 was " subtly different from the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill social fad " ; although most enthusiasts were in their teens or early twenties , many were older users – often parents who had become fascinated by the ZX81s that they had bought for their children . However , the ZX81 boom was overwhelmingly male @-@ dominated .
One of the ZX81 's key legacies was that it spurred large numbers of people to try programming for the first time . The ZX81 plays a significant part in the plot of William Gibson 's 2003 novel Pattern Recognition . One character , an artist using old ZX81s as a sculptural medium , explains the cultural and intellectual impact that the machine had on British society :
Walking on , he explains to her that Sinclair , the British inventor , had a way of getting things right , but also exactly wrong . Foreseeing the market for affordable personal computers , Sinclair decided that what people would want to do with them was to learn programming . The ZX81 , marketed in the United States as the Timex 1000 , cost less than the equivalent of a hundred dollars , but required the user to key in programs , tapping away on that little motel keyboard @-@ sticker . This had resulted both in the short market @-@ life of the product and , in Voytek 's opinion , twenty years on , in the relative preponderance of skilled programmers in the United Kingdom . They had their heads turned by these little boxes , he believes , and by the need to program them ...
... " But if Timex sold it in the United States , " she asks him , " why didn 't we get the programmers ? "
" You have programmers , but America is different . America wanted Nintendo . Nintendo gives you no programmers . Also , on launch of product in America , RAM @-@ expansion unit did not ship for three months . People buy computer , take it home , discover it does almost nothing . A disaster . "
Among those whose first experience of home computing was provided by the ZX81 are Terry Pratchett ( who used it for " very primitive word processing " ) , Edward de Bono and – perhaps proving William Gibson 's point – many video game developers including Charles Cecil , Raffaele Cecco , Pete Cooke , David Perry ( whose first published game , a driving game , involved " a black blob avoiding other black blobs " ) , Rhianna Pratchett , and Jon Ritman .
Even 30 years after launch , the ZX81 has a German user forum , and one in English .
New hardware and software continues to be developed for the ZX81 , including :
a ZX81 @-@ based webserver .
the ZXpand , a combined SD card interface , 32K configurable memory expansion , and optional joystick port and AY sound interface .
New games on cassette tape by Revival Studios , such as Avalanche , Mayhem , Down , Stairrunner and more .
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= = = Other sources = = =
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= Moving Mountains ( song ) =
" Moving Mountains " is a song recorded by American R & B singer Usher . It was released on May 23 , 2008 , as the third single from his fifth studio album , Here I Stand . It was written by Usher with Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Kuk Harrell and The @-@ Dream , and was produced by Stewart and The @-@ Dream . " Moving Mountains " is a slow tempo ballad , with lyrics describing a love struggle . The song received mostly positive attention from critics , with comparisons made to 2004 's " Burn " .
The song appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , as well as the single charts of several European countries . It peaked highest in New Zealand , where it reached number six on the singles chart and was certified gold . The music video for " Moving Mountains " was filmed in front of a green screen as a sequel to the video of " Love in This Club " .
= = Background and composition = =
" Moving Mountains " was written by The @-@ Dream , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Kuk Harrell and Usher , and produced by The @-@ Dream and Stewart . Recorded at Triangle Sound Studios and Chalice Recording Studios , it was leaked in February 2008 , before being officially released for sale on May 23 , 2008 .
" Moving Mountains " is a slow jam ballad , and contains synth beats and electronic influences . Portions of the song follow a chord progression used in OneRepublic 's " Apologize " . Partway through the song the beat is adjusted , while the musical instruments are accentuated . Usher 's voice ranges from tenor to falsetto . The song 's lyrics are of a " struggle to get through to his girl " , and contain an extended metaphor , relating his fight for love to that of moving mountains , wishing for the situation to change . Fraser McAlpine from BBC called it " a cold , sad song with cold , sad lyrics " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Moving Mountains " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Leah Greenblatt called it " an easy pick " as a single , while Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine lauded it as " further evidence that Usher always delivers musically " . " Moving Mountains " was dubbed by The Guardian 's Rosie Swash " a marked improvement on the sex @-@ pestery " of " Love in This Club " , and the AbsolutePunk reviewer called it " one of Usher ’ s most impressive efforts to date " , likening the song to Usher 's 2004 single " Burn " . However , while Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy was impressed with the technicalities of Usher 's vocals , he found it " hard to take Usher completely seriously when he insists on wailing each line " , advising Usher to " stick to party bangers in the future " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Moving Mountains " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ two on the chart date June 14 , 2008 . It peaked at number sixty @-@ seven on August 2 , 2008 , falling off the chart two weeks later , after spending a total of nine weeks on the chart . The song is Usher 's lowest @-@ peaking song on the Hot 100 . It fared better on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , where it peaked at number eighteen and spent seventeen weeks on the chart . It placed at number eighty @-@ four on the end @-@ of @-@ year R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Moving Mountains " reached number fifty @-@ six on the Pop 100 .
The song appeared on the UK Singles Chart in July 2008 at number sixty @-@ seven , rising to peak at number twenty @-@ five . After thirteen charting weeks it fell off the chart . " Moving Mountains " was commercially well received in the rest of Europe , reaching the high point of number twenty @-@ two on the European Hot 100 Singles . In individual countries , the song reached the top forty in Austria , Czech Republic , Germany , Ireland , Slovakia and Sweden . It also appeared on the Ultratop charts in both Flanders and Wallonia at number twenty . The song also had chart success in Japan and Australia , reaching the high positions of thirty @-@ three and thirty @-@ six , respectively . " Moving Mountains " had the most impact in New Zealand , where it reached number six on the singles chart , and , on March 29 , 2009 , was certified gold by the RIANZ for over 7 @,@ 500 sales . The song ranked at number forty @-@ seven on the New Zealand 2008 year @-@ end Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video to " Moving Mountains " was released on May 21 , 2008 . Directed by the Brothers Strause , it is a continuation of the video for " Love in This Club " . The video was shot in front of a green screen .
The video begins with Usher exiting the club in which the " Love in This Club " video takes place , then shows a fiery transition into the next scene , showing the burnt @-@ down club . As the song begins , Usher inspects the smoking ruins and imagines a woman in a shard of a broken mirror . He travels through a desert , and takes off his jacket to reveal a tight @-@ fitting t @-@ shirt , and again imagines the woman , this time in a desert pond . Upon reaching a mountain on which his love interest appears , Usher climb the mountain and rain starts to fall . When he reaches the top of the mountain , the rain clears to be replaced by snowfall . Usher finds that the woman is , yet again , merely an illusion . He opens a locket to reveal a portrait of himself and his partner , which freezes over and cracks . As the video ends , Usher kneels , and the mountains breaks around him , leaving a sole pillar for him to stand on .
Idolator noted similarities in some scenery between the music video and Madonna 's " Frozen " video . It was placed at number eight on BET 's Notarized : Top 100 Videos of 2008 list .
= = Personnel = =
Source :
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Hurricane Jimena ( 2003 ) =
Hurricane Jimena was the tenth named storm and second hurricane of the 2003 Pacific hurricane season . Jimena formed on August 28 in the far Eastern Pacific Ocean as a tropical depression and moved westward where it rapidly became a hurricane the following day . The storm moved westward into the Central Pacific Ocean where it became a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After reaching its peak strength as a Category 2 hurricane , the storm began to weaken due to increasing wind shear . Jimena brushed past the Hawaiian Islands before becoming a tropical depression on September 3 . The weakening storm then crossed the international dateline before dissipating on September 5 , becoming one of the few storms to cross both 140ºW and International Date Line .
Jimena was the first Pacific hurricane to threaten Hawaii since Hurricane Daniel of the 2000 Pacific hurricane season . However , the storm weakened as it passed south of the islands and the effects from Jimena were minimal ; there were no reported fatalities or injuries from the storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
An area of disturbed weather formed on August 26 , 2003 and drifted westward . The disturbed weather then began to organize and the system became a tropical depression on August 28 . Moving westward over waters greater than 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) , Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E rapidly strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Jimena by the National Hurricane Center .
Jimena continued to intensify as it moved westward . On August 29 , satellite imagery showed a well defined eye developing in the storm as the storm winds increased to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . Jimena then was upgraded to hurricane status later that day . At 1500 UTC , visible satellite imagery showed the storm having a small cloud filled eye and developing banding features south of the storm 's center as Jimena continued to move west northwest . As the hurricane neared the Central Pacific Basin , it winds reached a peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and the barometric pressure fell to 970 millibars on August 30 . At 0600 UTC , the National Hurricane Center issued its last advisory on Jimena as the storm crossed into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility .
On August 31 , Jimena encountered strong southerly wind shear , causing it to quickly weaken back to a tropical storm by September 1 . Jimena then turned west @-@ southwest where the center of the storm passed 105 miles ( 165 km ) south of Hawaii at 1500 UTC . Jimena continued to weaken as wind shear increased and the storm weakened to a tropical depression on September 3 . After weakening back to a depression , Jimena crossed the International Date Line on September 5 at 0600 UTC , where it became the first storm to exist in all three Pacific basins since 1999 's Hurricane Dora . However , Jimena was only tracked briefly by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , since strong wind shear resulted in the low level circulation to be exposed from the center and at 1727 UTC , the low level had nearly dissipated . At 1800 UTC , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center issued their final advisory on Jimena as the storm dissipated 715 miles ( 1151 km ) southeast of Wake Island .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Forecasters at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center began issuing a Hurricane Watch for the Big Island of Hawaii on August 31 at 0000 UTC ; the following day the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) issued a tropical storm warning at 0300 UTC and a flash flood watch . The watches and warnings prompted residents to board up windows and stock up on emergency supplies . The storm 's approach also closed down beaches and prompted officials to cancel outdoor activates as a precaution and the American Red Cross opened shelters and provided emergency services . The preparations for Hurricane Jimena cost the American Red Cross $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD ) .
As Jimena passed south of Hawaii as a weakening tropical storm , it brought high winds and heavy rainfall to the island . High wind gusts of 53 – 58 mph ( 85 – 93 km / h ) were reported in South Point and Kahoolawe . In Honolulu , a weather station reported winds of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) while a station in Kauai reported winds of 22 mph ( 35 km / h ) . The storm dropped 6 – 10 inches of rain across the Big Island . In Glenwood , Hawaii , the storm dropped 8 @.@ 43 inches ( 214 mm ) of rain . The rainfall from Jimena helped reduce drought conditions across the Big Island . Coastal sections of the Hawaiian Islands reported high surf ranging from 11 to 15 feet ( 3 – 5 meters ) high .
High winds from Jimena knocked down trees and damaged power lines , leaving 1 @,@ 300 residents without electricity . Heavy rainfall from the storm also caused minor flooding on the eastern side of the Big Island . Offshore , high surf and strong currents brought by the storm resulted in 350 swimmers being rescued by the United States Coast Guard , residents , and state and local police and fire departments . Overall there were no fatalities or injuries from Hurricane Jimena . The name Jimena was not retired by the World Meteorological Organization in the spring of 2004 and was used in the 2009 season .
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= U.S. Route 89 in Utah =
In the U.S. state of Utah , U.S. Route 89 ( US @-@ 89 ) is a long north – south state highway spanning more than 502 miles ( 807 @.@ 891 km ) through the central part of the state . Between Provo and Brigham City , US @-@ 89 serves as a local road , paralleling ( and occasionally concurring with ) Interstate 15 , but the portions from Arizona north to Provo and Brigham City northeast to Wyoming serve separate corridors . The former provides access to several national parks and Arizona , and the latter connects I @-@ 15 with Logan , the state 's only Metropolitan Statistical Area not on the Interstate .
When US @-@ 89 was established in the state in 1926 , the road initially extended north to US @-@ 91 in Spanish Fork . Following the extension of the former to the Canada – US border , Interstate 15 was constructed roughly paralleling US @-@ 89 to the west and replacing US @-@ 91 south of Brigham City . During this process , US @-@ 89 was rerouted in southern Utah and northern Arizona with the old roadway becoming US @-@ 89A .
= = Route description = =
= = = Arizona border to I @-@ 70 = = =
US @-@ 89 enters Utah from the south inside the Glen Canyon National Recreation Area , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of the Glen Canyon Dam , where it crosses the Colorado River near Page , Arizona . After leaving the recreation area and passing the small town of Big Water , the highway curves west through the Grand Staircase @-@ Escalante National Monument . US @-@ 89 stays near the monument 's southern boundary , crossing the East Clark Bench and The Cockscomb and passing south of the Vermilion Cliffs of the Grand Staircase . At the city of Kanab , US @-@ 89 meets the north end of US @-@ 89A , an alternate route south into Arizona , and abruptly turns north and begins climbing the staircase . Here the Mount Carmel Scenic Byway begins ; one of the Utah Scenic Byways , it stretches north to SR @-@ 12 at Bryce Canyon Junction . The Vermilion Cliffs are ascended via the canyon carved by Kanab Creek . Near the White Cliffs , US @-@ 89 meets SR @-@ 9 at Mt . Carmel Junction , where travelers can turn to reach Zion National Park . The final " step " is the Pink Cliffs , where the highway follows alongside the Virgin River to the highest point on US @-@ 89 in southern Utah and the east end of SR @-@ 14 , a summit at Long Valley Junction ( elevation 7450 feet / 2300 m ) .
North from Long Valley Junction , US @-@ 89 descends through the valley of the Sevier River , meeting SR @-@ 12 , a scenic highway that leads to Bryce Canyon National Park , at Bryce Canyon Junction , SR @-@ 143 in Panguitch , and SR @-@ 20 at Bear Valley Junction . As the highway continues north , the valley narrows significantly into the Circleville Canyon before opening out near the town of Circleville . In this part of the valley , the Sevier River is dammed to create the Piute Reservoir , and US @-@ 89 meets SR @-@ 62 near Kingston . North of Marysvale , the valley again narrows into the Sevier Canyon , which carries the river to its confluence with Clear Creek and US @-@ 89 to its overlap with Interstate 70 , beginning at Sevier .
= = = I @-@ 70 to the Wasatch Front = = =
Although US @-@ 89 follows the I @-@ 70 freeway from Sevier to Salina , the old alignment can still be driven , and is state @-@ maintained north of Elsinore as SR @-@ 258 , SR @-@ 118 ( which overlaps I @-@ 70 Business through Richfield ) , SR @-@ 24 , and US @-@ 50 . Both highways stay mainly in the west half of the Sevier River 's valley , with the faster I @-@ 70 / US @-@ 89 bypassing the communities that the surface road passes through . Just south of Salina , I @-@ 70 curves to the east , rising alongside Salina Creek , and US @-@ 89 exits into downtown Salina , where it rejoins its pre @-@ freeway alignment . US @-@ 50 overlaps US @-@ 89 between I @-@ 70 and Salina , following I @-@ 70 east and a separate alignment northwest from the area ; the short Interstate 70 Business also uses this roadway as a business spur from I @-@ 70 to the city . North of Salina , US @-@ 89 bypasses Redmond ( SR @-@ 256 follows the former route through the town ) and passes through Centerfield to Gunnison , where it meets SR @-@ 28 and finally turns away from the Sevier River .
At Gunnison , US @-@ 89 turns east before curving northeast into the Sanpete Valley , formed by the San Pitch River , a tributary of the Sevier River . Along US @-@ 89 in this valley are several small cities : Manti , Ephraim , Mount Pleasant , and Fairview . Between Ephraim and Mount Pleasant , US @-@ 89 meets the south end of SR @-@ 132 at Pigeon Hollow Junction . SR @-@ 132 was formerly US @-@ 189 , connecting US @-@ 89 with US @-@ 91 in Nephi . Beyond Fairview , where the scenic SR @-@ 31 turns east , US @-@ 89 climbs out of the valley , reaching a summit at Hill Top ( elevation 6400 feet / 2000 m ) . Thistle Creek parallels the next leg of the highway , descending through a canyon to the junction with US @-@ 6 near the ghost town of Thistle , flooded by a landslide in 1983 . Thistle Creek and Soldier Creek , paralleled by US @-@ 89 and US @-@ 6 , merge near this junction to form Spanish Fork , which the overlapped routes follow northwest through Spanish Fork Canyon into the Utah Valley at Moark Junction . US @-@ 89 splits to the north from US @-@ 6 there , skirts the west edge of Mapleton , and merges with SR @-@ 51 - the old Arrowhead Trail ( US @-@ 91 ) - south of downtown Springville .
= = = Southern Wasatch Front = = =
From Springville north to Salt Lake City , US @-@ 89 parallels — and for a distance overlaps — Interstate 15 , following the old Arrowhead Trail , once the main highway from Salt Lake City to Los Angeles , through a number of downtowns . Numerous state highways connect US @-@ 89 to I @-@ 15 , including SR @-@ 77 in Springville , SR @-@ 114 in Provo , SR @-@ 52 in Orem , SR @-@ 180 and SR @-@ 145 in American Fork , and SR @-@ 73 in Lehi . In Provo , US @-@ 89 meets US @-@ 189 , its only branch , which heads northeast through Provo Canyon to Heber City , connecting to I @-@ 80 and bypassing Salt Lake City . North of Lehi , US @-@ 89 merges with I @-@ 15 ( at exit 282 ) , which has been built on or near the old road through a gap in the Traverse Mountains ( elevation 4800 feet / 1500 m ) into the Salt Lake Valley . The routes split in Draper , formerly with a direct interchange north of SR @-@ 71 , but US @-@ 89 traffic must now exit at SR @-@ 71 ( exit 291 ) , turn east to Factory Outlet Drive , and follow this frontage road to the location of the former split . From here all the way to downtown Salt Lake City , US @-@ 89 is marked along State Street , a major north – south street that ends at the Utah State Capitol . After passing through Sandy , Midvale , Murray , Millcreek Township , and South Salt Lake , State Street enters Salt Lake City at the intersection with SR @-@ 201 ( 2100 South ) .
Until 2007 , US @-@ 89 followed State Street to North Temple ( 100 North ) , two blocks from the capitol , but now it turns at 400 South , following the former alignment of SR @-@ 186 and SR @-@ 176 west and north on 300 West , and rejoining its pre @-@ 2007 route at North Temple . In this area , modern US @-@ 89 runs for one block with the UTA TRAX Red Line in its median before crossing the TRAX line in Main Street 's median , then passing the Frank E. Moss United States Courthouse , Pioneer Park , the historic Warehouse District at Pierpont Avenue , Japantown , EnergySolutions Arena , the Arena TRAX station , the Triad Center , and West High School . As it leaves downtown , 300 West curves northwesterly and becomes Beck Street , meeting the modern terminus of SR @-@ 186 at Victory Road at the back side of Capitol Hill .
= = = Northern Wasatch Front = = =
US @-@ 89 leaves Salt Lake City at exit 312 of I @-@ 15 , where it acts as I @-@ 15 's frontage roads . Just south of I @-@ 15 's junction with I @-@ 215 , US @-@ 89 splits to the northeast , passing through Bountiful and Woods Cross . A northerly curve onto 500 West removes the highway from Bountiful 's Main Street , and it merges with I @-@ 15 at exit 317 to bypass Centerville and Farmington , where the old road ( former US @-@ 91 , but never US @-@ 89 ) is SR @-@ 106 , through the narrow strip of land that separates Farmington Bay from the Wasatch Mountains . US @-@ 89 leaves I @-@ 15 at exit 324 , where the Legacy Parkway also ends , and proceeds north on a freeway . This portion of US @-@ 89 is the only one to include exit numbers based on its own mileage , as opposed to the overlapping I @-@ 15 or I @-@ 70 . The freeway ends after US @-@ 89 crosses SR @-@ 273 , the former surface alignment of US @-@ 91 in both directions , and heads north as a four @-@ lane road along the Wasatch foothills , to the east of Layton and Hill Air Force Base . After crossing I @-@ 84 in Uintah , US @-@ 89 enters Ogden , which it traverses via Washington Boulevard , rejoining old US @-@ 91 ( now SR @-@ 26 ) south of downtown . Beyond Ogden , US @-@ 89 continues in a general northerly direction along the thin strip between Willard Bay and the Wasatch Mountains to Brigham City , where it finally turns east away from the I @-@ 15 corridor .
= = = Wasatch Front to Idaho border = = =
US @-@ 89 meets the current alignment of US @-@ 91 in the southern outskirts of Brigham City , turning east for an overlap on the city 's southeast bypass . ( SR @-@ 13 and SR @-@ 90 are the former alignment through Brigham City . ) The two routes head east up Box Elder Canyon in the southern Wellsville Mountains , finally leaving the valley of the Great Salt Lake into a small valley that contains Mantua Reservoir ( elevation 5200 feet / 1585 m ) . US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 turns north there , bypassing the town of Mantua to the west , and continues to ascend through Dry Canyon to Sardine Summit ( elevation 5900 feet / 1798 m ) . Another small valley leads to Wellsville Canyon , where the four @-@ lane roadway again turns east and descends into the Cache Valley . In that valley , US @-@ 89 / US @-@ 91 heads northeast , bypassing Wellsville to the east , into downtown Logan . US @-@ 91 continues northerly from Logan into Idaho , but US @-@ 89 splits to the east , beginning a long climb of the Bear River Range through Logan Canyon . The Logan Canyon Scenic Byway , a Utah and National Scenic Byway , begins at Logan and follows US @-@ 89 up the canyon , past the access road to the Beaver Mountain ski area , to Garden City and on to the state line . Bear Lake Summit ( elevation 7800 ft / 2377 m ) , at the top of the range , is the highest point on US @-@ 89 in Utah , from which it descends the east slope via horseshoe curves to Garden City on the shore of Bear Lake ( elevation 5900 ft / 1798 m ) . The final segment of US @-@ 89 to the Idaho state line follows the lake 's west shore , its location constrained by the Bear River Range just to the west .
= = History = =
When US @-@ 89 was created in 1926 , it only went as far north as Spanish Fork , where travelers could continue to Salt Lake City via US @-@ 91 . The highway was extended north to the Canada – US border near Glacier National Park in the mid @-@ 1930s , though a dispute between Utah and Idaho on the one side and Wyoming on the other was not settled until 1938 . The American Association of State Highway Officials decided in favor of Utah and Idaho , placing US @-@ 89 on or near US @-@ 91 between Spanish Fork and Logan , where it split northeasterly to Yellowstone National Park . ( US @-@ 89 only left US @-@ 91 twice : between Farmington and Ogden , where it still travels today , and via an all @-@ weather route from Brigham City into the Cache Valley , now SR @-@ 38 and SR @-@ 30 . ) Wyoming 's preferred routing , which left US @-@ 91 at Provo , instead became US @-@ 189 . Beginning in the 1950s , Interstate 15 was constructed , replacing US @-@ 91 for through traffic south of Brigham City , and leading to that route 's truncation there in 1974 . On the other hand , US @-@ 89 follows independent corridors south of Spanish Fork and north of Logan . It has not been truncated , and mostly follows US @-@ 91 's final alignment , except between Farmington and Ogden ( where old US @-@ 91 is now I @-@ 15 , SR @-@ 126 , and SR @-@ 26 ) .
The southern part of US @-@ 89 , running northerly from Kanab , mostly follows a succession of linear valleys . The Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad opened a branch ( later the Marysvale Branch ) from its main line at Thistle to Manti in 1890 , and extended it ( through a subsidiary , the Sevier Railway ) , to Salina in 1891 , Belknap in 1896 , and Marysvale in 1900 . No rail line ever reached farther south , and so residents of towns such as Junction , Panguitch , Alton , Glendale , and Kanab had to travel north to the railhead at Marysvale . The old county road through Circleville Canyon was poorly constructed , with steep grades and a rough surface . The State Road Commission designated the highway from Nephi east through Salt Creek Canyon and then south through these valleys to Kanab as a state road in or soon after 1910 . Initially the route from the summit at Long Valley Junction to Kanab went through Alton and Johnson Canyon , entering Kanab from the east . A more direct route via Long Valley was considered , serving the communities of Glendale , Orderville , and Mt . Carmel , but this would have required difficult construction over a mesa covered in loose sand to reach Kanab . In summer 1912 , the commission added a branch from Long Valley Junction to Mt . Carmel , allowing these communities access to the state road system , along with a connection west from the junction to Cedar City . Several years later , in December 1915 , the commission added the Mt . Carmel @-@ Kanab road over the sand hills to the system , and began construction of a sand @-@ clay road in 1916 . A connection from Pigeon Hollow Junction north to Thistle was also added in 1912 , following the rail line through a canyon and providing another route to Salt Lake City .
In 1919 , the state legislature redefined the state road system to include only a short list given in the law and any federal aid projects . The entire route from Kanab north was kept , including both approaches to Kanab and the two roads to Nephi and Thistle . In addition , a short extension from Kanab south to Arizona was added . An amendment in 1923 removed most of the original route through Johnson Canyon , but added a second route to Alton from the west , effectively forming a large triangular loop through that town . ( The old route from Alton south to Kanab would be re @-@ added to the state road system in 1933 as SR @-@ 136 . ) In the early 1920s , the State Road Commission assigned numbers to several major state roads ; the route from Arizona northerly through Kanab and Richfield to Nephi became State Route 11 . The numbers were officially adopted by the legislature in 1927 , with both the main route and the loop through Alton being defined as SR @-@ 11 ; a new State Route 32 followed the branch to Thistle . The Alton loop was removed from SR @-@ 11 in 1941 , with the south half remaining in the system as part of SR @-@ 136 . Despite these designations , the majority of SR @-@ 11 and all of SR @-@ 32 were instead marked as US @-@ 89 , with the remainder of SR @-@ 11 between Pigeon Hollow Junction and Nephi marked as US @-@ 189 from about 1930 until 1938 .
State Route 1 , which became U.S. Route 91 in 1926 , ran north – south through central and northern Utah in the 1920s . State Route 2 left SR @-@ 1 at Logan and ran east through Logan Canyon to Garden City ; this had been built with federal aid as a forest road in about 1918 . The road north from Garden City to Idaho was added to the system in 1921 , and became part of State Route 3 . In 1927 , the legislature added State Route 49 , an alternate southern entrance to Ogden that left SR @-@ 1 at Farmington and merged with SR @-@ 5 ( US @-@ 30S ) at Uintah . ( Present SR @-@ 60 was numbered as a branch of SR @-@ 49 until 1935 . ) State Route 69 , stretching from US @-@ 191 ( now SR @-@ 13 ) just north of Brigham City north and east to US @-@ 91 in Logan , became a state highway in 1931 . The 1930s extension of US @-@ 89 took it north from Thistle along US @-@ 50 ( SR @-@ 8 ) to Springville , US @-@ 91 ( SR @-@ 1 and SR @-@ 106 , later all SR @-@ 1 ) to Farmington , SR @-@ 49 to Uintah , US @-@ 30S ( SR @-@ 5 ) to Ogden , US @-@ 91 ( SR @-@ 1 ) to Brigham City , SR @-@ 69 to Logan , SR @-@ 2 to Garden City , and SR @-@ 3 to Idaho . US @-@ 89 was removed from SR @-@ 69 and overlapped with US @-@ 91 between Brigham City and Logan in the mid @-@ 1950s .
In 1957 , one year after construction began on the Glen Canyon Dam , the legislature designated a new State Route 259 , heading east and southeast from SR @-@ 11 in Kanab to Arizona en route to the dam and adjacent bridge . This replaced about eight miles ( 13 km ) of SR @-@ 136 ( the original state highway from the 1910s ) at its south end , but the remainder was a new roadway , through an area not previously served by improved roads . The route past the dam was initially designated as an alternate route of US @-@ 89 , but when completed on February 20 , 1959 it instead became US @-@ 89 's mainline , as it was a better route during all weather , and the old route ( SR @-@ 11 south of Kanab ) became U.S. Route 89 Alternate .
Major numbering changes were made in Utah 's state highway system in the 1960s and 1970s , beginning with the construction of Interstate Highways and culminating in the 1977 renumbering , where state route numbers concurrent with other types were dropped entirely . However , the majority of these changes were not visible to the public , as signs continued to display US @-@ 89 and other U.S. Routes and Interstates . The following changes were made to state routes related to US @-@ 89 :
In particular , SR @-@ 11 was cut back to only the roadway south from Kanab , which had become US @-@ 89A in 1959 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Drayson Bowman =
Drayson Jack Bowman ( born March 8 , 1989 ) is an American professional ice hockey center . He is currently playing with Düsseldorfer EG of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) , after previously playing for the Montreal Canadiens and Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Bowman was selected 72nd overall by the Hurricanes in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft .
Bowman spent four years at the major junior level with the Spokane Chiefs of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He won a Memorial Cup with the Chiefs in 2008 and was named a WHL West Second Team All @-@ Star in 2009 . He turned professional in 2009 – 10 and has spent the majority of his tenure with the Hurricanes in the team 's farm system with the Albany River Rats and Charlotte Checkers of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . Internationally , Bowman has competed for the United States at the 2009 IIHF World U20 Championships .
= = Early life = =
Bowman was born in Grand Rapids , Michigan , and was raised in Littleton , Colorado , after his family moved in the early 1990s . His father , Mark Bowman , owns a financial consulting company in Colorado . His younger brother , Collin , is also a hockey player and went on to also compete in the Western Hockey League with the Kelowna Rockets , Moose Jaw Warriors and Calgary Hitmen . While in Littleton , Bowman attended Deer Creek Middle School . As a Colorado Avalanche fan , he has listed Joe Sakic as a player he looked up to . In 2003 , he and his family moved once more to Vancouver , British Columbia to better his opportunities in hockey . He attended Vancouver Christian School while playing at the bantam level for the North Vancouver Winter Hawks .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Bowman was selected eighth overall by the Spokane Chiefs in the 2004 WHL Bantam Draft . He debuted in four games with the Chiefs in 2004 – 05 , a season he spent primarily at the Junior B level with the Kimberley Dynamiters of the Kootenay International Junior Hockey League ( KIJHL ) . He recorded 29 goals and 59 points over 47 games with the Dynamiters to be named the Eddie Mountain Division 's rookie of the year . Bowman joined the Chiefs full @-@ time in 2005 – 06 and notched 17 goals and 34 points over 72 games ( 17th in WHL rookie scoring ) to be named the team 's rookie of the year . On a team basis , the Chiefs finished last in the Western Conference and failed to qualify for the playoffs .
Bowman entered the 2006 – 07 season listed as the ninth @-@ best WHL prospect in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ( CSB ) ' s preliminary rankings of draft @-@ eligible players . He was invited to play in the CHL Top Prospects Game and was subsequently listed in the CSB 's midterm rankings as 44th among North American skaters . Bowman finished the season with an improved 24 goals and 43 points in 61 games . He played in his first WHL playoffs after the Chiefs ranked fourth in the U.S. Division . Playing in six post @-@ season games , Bowman recorded a team @-@ leading seven points ( two goals and five assists ) . The Chiefs were eliminated in the first round by the Everett Silvertips . Entering the 2007 NHL Entry Draft in the off @-@ season , he moved up to 36th among North American skaters in the NHL CSB 's final rankings . Bowman was selected 72nd overall by the Carolina Hurricanes .
Following his draft , Bowman participated in his first NHL training camp in September 2007 before being returned to Spokane to continue playing at the junior level . Playing in his third full WHL season , Bowman recorded a team @-@ leading 82 points in 66 games . His 42 goals tied for fourth in the league . Bowman added a team @-@ leading 20 points in 21 playoff games as the Chiefs captured the Ed Chynoweth Cup as WHL champions . The league title earned the Chiefs a berth in the 2008 Memorial Cup in Kitchener , Ontario . Bowman notched a hat trick in the opening game of the tournament , including the game @-@ tying goal late in the third period of a 5 – 4 overtime win over the Belleville Bulls . He went on to score in all four games of the tournament , including game @-@ winners against the Kitchener Rangers in the round @-@ robin and final . The Chiefs went undefeated in the tournament to capture the Memorial Cup as Canadian major junior champions , beating the Kitchener Rangers 4 – 1 in the final . With a team @-@ high eight points ( third in tournament scoring behind Justin Azevedo and Matt Halischuk of the Rangers ) , including a tournament @-@ leading six goals , in four games , Bowman was named to the Memorial Cup All @-@ Star Team .
Following his Memorial Cup performance , the Hurricanes signed him to a three @-@ year , US $ 2 @.@ 06 million contract on July 31 , 2008 . Playing in his final season with the Chiefs in 2008 – 09 , Drayson was named an alternate captain to Justin McCrae along with Seth Compton and Jared Spurgeon . He was named WHL and CHL Player of the Week after recording 12 points in 3 games for the week ending on February 1 , 2009 . The next month , he earned his second WHL and CHL Player of the Week distinctions with an eight @-@ point effort in two games for the week ending on March 15 , 2009 . He finished the season with 47 goals , fourth in the league , and a junior career @-@ high 83 points to lead his team in scoring for the second consecutive year . He was named to the WHL West Second All @-@ Star Team along with goaltending teammate Dustin Tokarski . Bowman and the Chiefs were not able to defend their WHL or CHL titles as they were eliminated in seven games in the second round of the WHL playoffs by the Vancouver Giants . Spokane 's elimination marked the end of Bowman 's junior career . He left the Chiefs fifth on the team 's all @-@ time goals scored list with 136 , 10 behind leader Pat Falloon . He had 114 assists for 250 points total over 269 games .
= = = Professional = = =
Upon the completion of Bowman 's final WHL season , he was called up by the Hurricanes to travel and practice with the team during their 2009 playoff season . Carolina advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals , where they were eliminated by the Pittsburgh Penguins in four games . The following season , he was assigned to the Hurricanes ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Albany River Rats . He scored his first professional goal in his AHL debut with Albany on October 3 , 2009 , in a 6 – 3 loss to the Manchester Monarchs . Midway through the season , he was called up by the Hurricanes and made his NHL debut on January 16 , 2010 . Bowman recorded one shot on goal in 10 minutes of ice time in a 5 – 3 loss to the Atlanta Thrashers . After being sent back down to Albany , he received another call @-@ up on March 24 in light of an injury to forward Tuomo Ruutu . During that call @-@ up , he scored his first and second career NHL goals against goaltender Antero Niittymaki in the first period of an 8 – 5 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning on April 6 . The milestone occurred in his seventh NHL game . Bowman completed the 2009 – 10 NHL season with two goals in nine games , while averaging 12 minutes of ice time . Hurricanes head coach Paul Maurice heralded him as a player with " a good set of hands and a really good hockey IQ " during his first stint in the NHL . As Carolina failed to qualify for the 2010 playoffs , ranking 11th in the East , Bowman was reassigned to the River Rats for their 2010 playoff season . In the AHL , he finished the regular season with 32 points ( 17 goals and 15 assists ) over 56 games , tying for 31st among league rookies and 10th among River Rats players . Bowman added nine points ( three goals and six assists ) over eight games in the playoffs ( ranking fifth among rookies and tying for first in team scoring ) as the River Rats were eliminated in the second round by the Hershey Bears .
Bowman made the Hurricanes ' roster out of training camp in 2010 – 11 , but was returned to the AHL within a month . With the Hurricanes having changed their minor league affiliate , he joined a new team , the Charlotte Checkers . After recording 30 points ( 12 goals and 18 assists ) over 51 games with the Checkers ( 10th in team scoring ) , he was recalled on March 10 , 2011 . Spending the remainder of the season with the Hurricanes , he finished 2010 – 11 with one assist over 23 games , while averaging 10 minutes of ice time . Carolina failed to qualify for the playoffs , coming within three points of the eighth and final seed in the Eastern Conference . With his NHL season over , the Hurricanes returned him to the AHL , where the Checkers had qualified for the 2011 Calder Cup Playoffs . Bowman contributed 8 points ( 2 goals and 6 assists ) over 15 games as the Checkers were eliminated in the Conference Finals by the Binghamton Senators .
Bowman remained with Charlotte for the beginning of the 2011 – 12 season , failing to make the Hurricanes ' roster out of training camp . In November 2011 , he received a call @-@ up to Carolina that lasted five days . The following month , he was recalled again and recorded a two @-@ goal game against the Vancouver Canucks on December 15 , 2011 . The goals were his first in the NHL in over a year and eight months . After being reassigned , he received two more call ups before the end of the season . Bowman finished the season with 13 points over 37 NHL games in Carolina and 26 points over 42 AHL games in Charlotte . In the off @-@ season , he was tendered a qualifying offer from the Hurricanes in order to retain his restricted free agent status .
A free agent following his first full season in the NHL with the Hurricanes in the 2013 – 14 season , Bowman agreed to attend the Montreal Canadiens training camp on a try @-@ out contract on September 2 , 2014 . On October 2 Bowman agreed to a one @-@ year two way contract with the Montreal Canadiens .
Bowman was not re @-@ signed by the Canadiens and on October 12 , 2015 , without any NHL interest , Bowman signed a one year deal with the Colorado Eagles of the ECHL . After registering 3 assists in 3 games with the Eagles to start the 2015 – 16 season , Bowman was loaned to former club , the Charlotte Checkers of the AHL on October 22 , 2015 . Bowman played a further 16 games with the Checkers before he left the club to pursue an European career in agreeing to a contract for the remainder of the season in Germany with Düsseldorfer EG of the DEL on December 21 , 2015 .
= = International play = =
Bowman was named to the United States ' under @-@ 20 team for the 2009 World Junior Championships in Ottawa , Ontario . He was joined on the national team by Spokane Chiefs teammates Tyler Johnson and Mitchell Wahl . Playing against Germany in the first game of preliminaries , he scored twice and was named player of the game . Over six games at the tournament , Bowman totalled three goals and one assist , tying for fifth in team point @-@ scoring . After losing to Slovakia 5 – 3 in the quarterfinal , the United States beat the Czech Republic 3 – 2 in overtime of their placement game to rank fifth in the tournament .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
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= The Nice =
The Nice were an English progressive rock band active in the late 1960s . They blended rock , jazz and classical music and were keyboardist Keith Emerson 's first commercially successful band .
The group was formed in 1967 by Emerson , Lee Jackson , David O 'List and Ian Hague to back soul singer P. P. Arnold . After replacing Hague with Brian Davison , the group set out on their own , quickly developing a strong live following . The group 's sound was centred on Emerson 's Hammond organ showmanship and abuse of the instrument , and their radical rearrangements of classical music themes and Bob Dylan songs .
The band achieved commercial success with an instrumental rearrangement of Leonard Bernstein 's " America " , following which O 'List left the group . The remaining members carried on as a trio , releasing several albums , before Emerson decided to split the band in early 1970 to form Emerson , Lake & Palmer . The group briefly reformed in 2002 for a series of concerts .
= = History = =
= = = Early career = = =
The Nice evolved from Gary Farr and the T @-@ Bones , which keyboardist Keith Emerson and bassist Keith " Lee " Jackson were both members of before the band dissolved in early 1967 . Emerson then briefly played with the VIPs , who toured the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , and his playing style became influenced by the organist Don Shinn , including standing up to play the instrument and rocking it on stage . Meanwhile , P. P. Arnold , a performer who reached a higher level of popularity in the UK than her native US , was unhappy with her backing band , The Blue Jays , and wanted a replacement . Her driver suggested Emerson would be able to put together such a group . Emerson agreed , but only on the condition the band could perform on their own as a warm @-@ up act . Since it effectively meant getting two bands for the price of one , manager Andrew Loog Oldham readily agreed . Emerson recruited Jackson , drummer Ian Hague former Chris Farlowe & The Thunderbirds as well as a Mark Leeman Five member , and finally ex @-@ the Attack guitarist David O 'List , the latter by recommendation from journalist Chris Welch . The name came from Arnold saying , " Here comes the Naz " , which the group misheard as " the Nice " .
The band played its first gig in May 1967 , and had its first major break at the 7th National Jazz and Blues Festival in Windsor on 13 August . Oldham had managed to secure a separate set for the group in a side tent away from also accompanying Arnold on the main stage , where they gained attention . The next week , Welch wrote in the Melody Maker that " it was the first time I had seen a group actually in the act of winning its first following in quite dramatic circumstances . " When Arnold went back to her family in the US shortly afterwards , Oldham offered the group a contract of their own . Hague was not interested in the " progressive " direction the group wanted to go in , so he was replaced by former Mark Leeman Five and Habits drummer Brian Davison .
Now a band in their own right , the Nice expanded their gear , recruiting roadies Bazz Ward and Lemmy , the latter of whom provided Emerson with a Hitler Youth ceremonial dagger to stick into the keys on his Hammond organ . They spent the end of 1967 on a package tour with Jimi Hendrix , Pink Floyd , the Move and Amen Corner . The Floyd 's then leader , Syd Barrett , missed several gigs and O 'List had to stand in for him . The group 's first album was recorded throughout the autumn of 1967 , and in October of that year they recorded their first session for John Peel 's Top Gear . The album included classical and jazz influences including extracts from Leoš Janáček 's Sinfonietta and a rearrangement of Dave Brubeck 's " Blue Rondo a la Turk " renamed as " Rondo " , changing the time signature from the original 9 / 8 to 4 / 4 in the process . The group clashed with producer Oldham in the studio over the length of the track , but eventually won the argument and the full eight minute piece was included on the album . After the album was released , the group realised they had a conflict of interest with Oldham as manager and record company owner , so recruited sports journalist Tony Stratton @-@ Smith to take over management duties .
For their second single , the Nice created an arrangement of Leonard Bernstein 's " America " which Emerson described as the first ever instrumental protest song . The track used the main theme of the Bernstein piece ( from West Side Story ) but also included fragments of Dvořák 's New World Symphony . The single concludes with Arnold 's three @-@ year @-@ old son speaking the lines " America is pregnant with promise and anticipation , but is murdered by the hand of the inevitable . " The new arrangement was released under the title " America ( Second Amendment ) " as a pointed reference to the US Bill of Rights provision for the right to bear arms . In July 1968 , Immediate publicised the single with a controversial poster picturing the group members with small boys on their knees , with superimposed images of the faces of John F. Kennedy , Robert F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King on the children 's heads . A spokesman for the band said " Several record stores have refused to stock our current single .... the Nice feel if the posters are issued in United States they will do considerable harm " . During the tour that followed the release of their second album in July , the group spawned controversy when Emerson burned an American flag onstage during a performance of " America " at a charity event , Come Back Africa in London 's Royal Albert Hall . The group were subsequently banned from ever playing the venue again .
By summer 1968 , the group had become concerned about O 'List 's reliability and matters came to a head following a gig in Croydon 's Fairfield Hall in September . According to Ward , O 'List had an altercation with him in mid @-@ performance . Emerson subsequently called a band meeting with Jackson and Davison and stated flatly that O 'List should be sacked . They agreed , and immediately after their performance at The Ritz , Bournemouth in October , he was fired by Stratton @-@ Smith with the rest of the band present . O 'List , however , claims that he left the band voluntarily because he was upset at Stratton @-@ Smith 's decision to make Emerson the front man , saying " I left the band and waited for Keith to get in contact ... I should have gone straight to Keith , but I didn 't . "
= = = Reduction to a three piece = = =
The Nice briefly considered looking for a replacement , with Steve Howe trying out at an audition . Howe got on well with the rest of the band , but a week later had second thoughts and decided not to join . Emerson tried to learn guitar so he could cover some of O 'List 's old parts , but gave up after one gig .
The band 's second LP Ars Longa Vita Brevis featured an arrangement of the Intermezzo from the Karelia Suite by Jean Sibelius , which the band 's friend Roy Harper had recommended they covered , and the album 's second side was a suite which included an arrangement of a movement from J.S. Bach 's Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 . The group used an orchestra for the first time on some parts of the suite . The band were on the bill at the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival and briefly toured Ireland with Yes and the Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band , which by all accounts was fraught with logistical problems .
The third album , titled Nice in the UK and Everything As Nice As Mother Makes It in the US , featured one side recorded live on their American tour and one side of studio material . As with previous albums , it included arrangements of classical material , in this case the Third Movement of Tchaikovsky 's Sixth Symphony ( Pathetique ) , and rearrangements of Bob Dylan 's " She Belongs to Me " and Tim Hardin 's " Hang on to a Dream " .
In 1969 , the band found time to contribute to other projects . Emerson performed as a session player for Rod Stewart and the Faces , while the whole group provided instrumental backing for the track " Hell 's Angels " on Harper 's 1970 album Flat Baroque and Berserk . Mid @-@ year , tour promoter Michael Emmerson asked the Nice to write some music for the Newcastle upon Tyne Arts Festival . The result was the Five Bridges suite . The group premièred the piece on 10 October 1969 at Newcastle City Hall . A complete version with an orchestra was performed at the Fairfield Hall , Croydon on 17 October , which was recorded for the album of the same name . The title refers to the city 's five bridges spanning the River Tyne , and Jackson 's lyrics refer to his Newcastle childhood and the St James ' Park football ground .
By late 1969 , Emerson thought the Nice had progressed as far as it could musically , and was particularly dissatisfied with Jackson 's limited vocal style . He asked Jack Bruce and Yes ' Chris Squire about forming a new band , but both turned Emerson down . While on tour in the US with King Crimson , Emerson held a meeting with Stratton @-@ Smith and declared " the Nice had outlived its usefulness " . By the end of the year , Emerson and Crimson 's Greg Lake had decided to form a band together . The group carried on touring into 1970 , but sometime early in the year , Emerson told Jackson that he would be leaving the band . Matters were not helped by Immediate Records filing for bankruptcy ; the band later said they received no royalties from the label while an active group .
In February 1970 , the group collaborated with the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra , led by Zubin Mehta . This was broadcast in the following month as part of the " Switched @-@ On Symphony " program . Following standard television procedure of the day , the Nice 's contribution ( a version of " America " ) was recorded ahead of time and the band mimed for the cameras .
By March , the group had confirmed they would split , and a report on the band 's decision was printed in Melody Maker . The group played their last British concert on 22 March at the Fairfield Hall , Croydon , and after a short German tour the band broke up , playing their last gig on 30 March at the Berlin Sportpalast .
= = = Post @-@ Nice and reunion = = =
Emerson and Lake recruited Carl Palmer from Atomic Rooster and formed Emerson Lake & Palmer ( ELP ) . In 1971 , the posthumous Nice album Elegy was released . It included different versions of previously released tracks , two being studio versions and two live from the 1969 US tour . Emerson had no involvement with compiling the album , which was done by Jackson , Davison and Charisma Records . The album reached No. 5 in the UK .
Jackson formed Jackson Heights which released five albums between 1970 and 1973 . Emerson supported the band and became a fan . Davison formed " Every Which Way " which released an album in 1970 . Both Jackson and Davison formed Refugee with keyboardist Patrick Moraz in 1974 , but Moraz left the group after one album to replace Rick Wakeman in Yes .
After over three decades of inactivity , the Nice reformed in 2002 for a series of concerts . A three @-@ CD set Vivacitas was released , with the third CD being an interview with Emerson , Jackson and Davison . Dave Kilminster guested on guitar at the concerts . Davison died on 15 April 2008 aged 65 in Horns Cross , Devon , from a brain tumour . Emerson died on 11 March 2016 in Santa Monica , California , of an apparently self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound to the head .
= = Musical style = =
The Nice were primarily a live band . Their stage performances were bold and violent , with Emerson incorporating feedback and distortion . He manhandled his Hammond L @-@ 100 organ , wrestling it and attacking it with daggers ( which he used to hold down keys and sustain notes during these escapades ) . Emerson 's playing was inspired by Jimi Hendrix , Billy Ritchie of Clouds , and Don Shinn as well as earlier figures such as pianist Jerry Lee Lewis .
The group 's early sound was geared more towards psychedelic rock with only occasional classical influences . Following O 'List 's departure , Emerson 's control over the band 's direction became greater , resulting in more complex music . The absence of a guitar in the band and Emerson 's redefining of the role of keyboard instruments in rock set the Nice apart from many of its contemporaries . He used a combination of Marshall Amplification and Leslie speakers in order to project a full sound to compensate for the lack of a guitarist .
Jackson never considered himself a great singer , partly because the group chose poor keys for his vocal range , but his bass playing , with heavy use of a plectrum , was a distinctive part of the band 's overall sound . He was influenced by Bob Dylan , whose songs were common currency at the time ; the Nice interpreted several of them , typically reducing them to three or four verses and featuring a long improvised middle section , such as " She Belongs to Me " .
= = Legacy = =
The Nice were one of the pioneering progressive rock bands and their fusion of styles strongly influenced the movement into the 1970s . Their commercial success on Charisma Records was key to establishing the label , which went on to include several other progressive acts , including Genesis and Van der Graaf Generator . Genesis were fans of the Nice and " The Knife " from their album Trespass was directly inspired by the band . Though the Nice were not the first to combine a rock band and orchestra , they did inspire similar attempts by other groups , such as Pink Floyd 's Atom Heart Mother .
The group have often been compared to ELP , but there were important differences between them . Emerson 's showmanship was more important in the Nice , and he mostly used just Hammond organ live as opposed to a wider range of keyboards , including the Moog synthesizer , in ELP . John Peel , an early champion of the Nice , infamously called ELP " a waste of talent and electricity " .
= = Members = =
Keith Emerson – organ , piano , vocals ( 1967 – 1970 , 2002 ; born 2 November 1944 , Todmorden , Yorkshire – died 10 March 2016 )
Keith " Lee " Jackson – bass , guitar , vocals ( 1967 – 1970 , 2002 ; born 8 January 1943 , Newcastle upon Tyne )
David " Davy " O 'List – guitar , vocals ( 1967 – 1968 ; born 13 December 1948 , Chiswick , London )
Ian Hague – drums , percussion ( 1967 )
Brian " Blinky " Davison – drums , percussion ( 1967 – 1970 , 2002 ; born 25 May 1942 , Leicester , Leicestershire – died 15 April 2008 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
The Thoughts of Emerlist Davjack ( Immediate , 1967 )
Ars Longa Vita Brevis ( Immediate , 1968 )
Nice ( aka Everything As Nice As Mother Makes It ) ( Immediate , 1969 ) UK no . 3
Five Bridges ( Charisma , 1970 ) UK no . 2 , US no . 197
= = = Live albums = = =
Elegy ( Charisma , 1971 ) UK no . 5
America – The BBC Sessions ( Receiver , 1996 )
The Swedish Radio Sessions ( late 1967 ) ( Sanctuary , 2001 )
BBC Sessions ( Sanctuary , 2002 )
Vivacitas ( Sanctuary , 2003 )
Live at the Fillmore East December 1969 ( Virgin , 2009 )
= = = Compilation albums = = =
Autumn ' 67 – Spring ' 68 ( Charisma , 1972 , UK ) , released as Autumn to Spring ( Charisma , 1973 , USA )
Keith Emerson with The Nice ( Mercury / Polygram 1970 ) , material from Five Bridges and Elegy
Nice Hits Nice Bits ( BMG Fabricated , 1999 )
= = = Singles = = =
" The Thoughts of Emerlist Davjack " / " Azrial ( Angel of Death ) " ( Immediate IM 059 , November 1967 )
" America " / " The Diamond Hard Blue Apples of the Moon " ( Immediate IM 068 , 21 June 1968 ; in India issued by Stateside ESS . 82 )
" Brandenburger " / " Happy Freuds " ( Immediate IM 072 , 8 November 1968 )
" Diary of an Empty Day " / " Hang on to a Dream " ( Immediate , 1969 )
" Country Pie " / " One of Those People " ( Charisma , 1969 )
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= New Jersey Route 17 =
Route 17 is a state highway in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States , that provides a major route from the George Washington Bridge , Lincoln Tunnel and other northeast New Jersey points to the New York State Thruway at Suffern , New York . It runs 27 @.@ 20 mi ( 43 @.@ 77 km ) from Route 7 / County Route 507 in North Arlington north to the New York border along Interstate 287 in Mahwah , where New York State Route 17 continues into New York . Between Route 7 and Route 3 in Rutherford , Route 17 serves as a local road . From Route 3 north to the junction with U.S. Route 46 in Hasbrouck Heights , the road is a suburban arterial with jughandles . The portion of Route 17 , from US 46 to Interstate 287 near the state line in Mahwah , is a limited @-@ access road with all cross traffic handled by interchanges , and many driveways and side streets accessed from right @-@ in / right @-@ out ramps from the right lane . For three miles ( 5 km ) north of Route 4 , well over a hundred retail stores and several large shopping malls line the route in the borough of Paramus . The remainder of this portion of Route 17 features lighter suburban development . The northernmost portion of Route 17 in Mahwah runs concurrent with Interstate 287 to the New York border .
Prior to 1927 , the route was designated as Route 17N , which was to run from Newark to the New York state line . This route had followed various local streets , including the Franklin Turnpike north of Hackensack . In 1927 , Route 17N became Route 2 , which was designated along the portion of Route 17N between Route 7 in North Arlington to the New York border near Suffern , New York . This route was moved to a multilane divided highway alignment north of Rutherford by 1937 . Route 2 became Route 17 in 1942 to match the designation of New York State Route 17 for defense purposes during World War II . The entire Route 17 corridor was once planned to be a freeway until the 1960s and later plans to extend the route south of Route 3 to Interstate 280 in 1972 and to the New Jersey Turnpike in 1987 both failed . Over the years , the portion of Route 17 north of Route 3 has seen many improvements , including the widening of much of the road to six lanes and the removal of most at @-@ grade intersections in the 1950s as well as more recent improvements to the interchanges with Route 4 in Paramus in 1999 and Essex Street on the Lodi / Maywood border in 2008 . The route is currently undergoing improvements between Route 3 and U.S. Route 46 and is expected to see improvements from Williams Avenue in Hasbrouck Heights to south of Route 4 in Paramus .
= = Route description = =
Route 17 begins at an intersection with Route 7 and County Route 507 ( Belleville Turnpike ) on the border of Kearny , Hudson County and North Arlington , Bergen County . It heads north through North Arlington on Ridge Road , a two @-@ lane local street with speed limits of 25 to 35 mph ( 40 to 56 km / h ) that passes by businesses and the Holy Cross Cemetery on the east side of the road . It intersects County Route 26 ( Jauncey Avenue ) and crosses into Lyndhurst at the Lincoln Avenue intersection . In Lyndhurst , Route 17 intersects County Route 28 ( Kingsland Avenue ) . At the intersection of County Route 30 ( Rutherford Avenue ) , which runs along the border of Lyndhurst and Rutherford , the route turns east onto 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) Rutherford Avenue to parallel the Route 3 freeway to the south and head for the edge of the New Jersey Meadowlands , widening to a four @-@ lane road at the intersection with Orient Way . Route 17 makes a curve to the south , crossing entirely into Lyndhurst , and makes a hairpin turn to the north , widening to a divided highway . The road then crosses into Rutherford and comes to the Route 3 interchange .
Past the Route 3 interchange , Route 17 continues north as a six @-@ lane divided highway with a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) speed limit and intersections featuring jughandles . It passes through residential and commercial areas of Rutherford , intersecting County Route 32 ( Meadow Road ) before crossing into East Rutherford , where it intersects County Route S32 ( Union Avenue ) before interchanging with State Route 120 and County Route 120 ( Paterson Plank Road ) . The route runs through Carlstadt , where it crosses into Wood @-@ Ridge . Route 17 comes to an interchange with County Route 36 ( Moonachie Road ) before entering Hasbrouck Heights . With the exception of a short stretch in Rutherford with a median strip , this section of Route 17 is divided by a Jersey barrier .
In Hasbrouck Heights , the lanes split with the Bendix Diner located between the traffic lanes at the intersection of County Route 40 ( Williams Avenue ) , the last traffic light on Route 17 before the New York state line . At the interchange with U.S. Route 46 , which only features access to the eastbound direction of U.S. Route 46 , Route 17 drops to two lanes in each direction and continues north with the lanes merging back together as the road interchanges with County Route 55 ( Terrace Avenue ) at an interchange . The road enters Hackensack with the lanes splitting again for the long interchange with Interstate 80 . Along this strip , the road is again three lanes in each direction and includes an interchange with County Route 57 ( Summit Avenue ) , crossing into Lodi . The lanes rejoin upon splitting from Interstate 80 with a lane dropping in each direction at the County Route 56 ( Essex Street ) interchange on the Maywood border . Route 17 continues north as a congested road through commercial areas , crossing into Rochelle Park where the route interchanges with County Route 62 ( Passaic Street ) at mile marker 11 @.@ 46 before entering Paramus .
At the County Route 61 ( Farview Avenue ) interchange , the road regains a third lane in each direction . Route 17 passes by Westfield Garden State Plaza on the west side of the road before coming to an interchange with Route 4 . Route 17 is flanked by businesses and shopping malls for most of its length in Paramus . Following Route 4 , the road interchanges with Century Road . Route 17 comes to a partial interchange with the Garden State Parkway ( exit 163 ) , with access limited to northbound @-@ to @-@ northbound and southbound @-@ to @-@ southbound movements between the two roads . North of the Garden State Parkway , Route 17 features interchanges for Midland Avenue , the Paramus Park shopping mall and an industrial park , and County Route 80 ( Ridgewood Avenue ) just north of the Fashion Center shopping mall .
Route 17 crosses into Ridgewood and interchanges with County Route 110 ( Linwood Avenue ) , where the penetration of businesses along the side of the road lessens dramatically . North of this point , the speed limit is 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . In Ridgewood , the road interchanges with County Route 62 ( Paramus Road ) , crosses the Saddle River , and intersects a separate segment of County Route 62 ( Franklin Turnpike ) and West Saddle River Road . This intersection , along with other at @-@ grade intersections along this portion of Route 17 , is a right @-@ in / right @-@ out ( RIRO ) intersection with cross traffic blocked by a Jersey barrier . There is another RIRO intersection for County Route 112 ( Race Track Road ) on the Ho @-@ Ho @-@ Kus border . Upon crossing into Ho @-@ Ho @-@ Kus , the businesses stop along Route 17 and it comes to an interchange with County Route 502 ( Hollywood Avenue ) . The route enters Waldwick and interchanges with County Route 77 ( Sheridan Avenue ) . It enters Saddle River , continuing north to an interchange with County Route 90 ( Allendale Avenue ) .
Route 17 enters Allendale , with businesses resuming along the road . It enters Upper Saddle River before running through Ramsey , where the road crosses back into Upper Saddle River . The route comes to an interchange with County Route 81 ( Lake Street / Crescent Avenue ) , where it crosses back into Ramsey . In Ramsey , Route 17 turns to the northwest and features a RIRO for County Route 83 ( Airmount Avenue ) , an interchange with County Route 507 ( Franklin Turnpike ) , and an interchange for Island Avenue / Spring Street . The route passes over New Jersey Transit ’ s Bergen County Line / Main Line near the Ramsey Route 17 train station and enters Mahwah . In Mahwah , Route 17 interchanges with County Route 85 ( Island Road ) and County Route 100 ( Ramapo Avenue ) . North of Ramapo Avenue , Route 17 features an interchange with U.S. Route 202 and crosses the Ramapo River . Route 17 interchanges with Stag Hill Road just before merging with six @-@ lane Interstate 287 , which it follows to the New York border , where the road continues into Hillburn , Rockland County as Interstate 287 and New York State Route 17 , intersecting Interstate 87 ( the New York State Thruway ) shortly after the state line .
= = History = =
Route 17N was defined in 1923 to run " from Newark , by way of Kearny , Rutherford , Hackensack , Ridgewood and Ramsey to the New York State Line " . However , only the road north of Route 10 ( Essex Street ) in Hackensack was shown on the 1925 New Jersey State Highway Department Official State Map , running north along existing roads - First Street and the Franklin Turnpike ( now partly called Passaic Street and Paramus Road ) - to the state line . The 1927 Tydol Trails Map shows the route running south to Newark , continuing south across Essex Street on Polifly Road , Terrace Avenue and Hackensack Street to East Rutherford , where it followed Meadow Road , Rutherford Avenue , Ridge Road , Kearny Avenue , 4th Street , and the Newark Turnpike to Newark . In 1924 , New York had numbered its state routes , and the extension of Route 17N north and west to Westfield , New York was numbered as New York State Route 17 , as shown in part on the Tydol Trails Map .
In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 17N received the Route 2 designation , and was defined to run from Route 7 in North Arlington to the New York border near Suffern , New York . By 1937 , the whole old road north of Rutherford was bypassed by a new four @-@ lane divided highway with the exception of the 1927 bridge over the Saddle River in Ridgewood , north of the Paramus Road interchange . This old alignment joins at Paramus Road and leaves just north of the bridge at Franklin Turnpike , which only has access to the southbound lanes through a RIRO intersection . A short @-@ lived spur of Route 2 , Route 2N , was defined in 1938 to run from Route 2 ( Ridge Road ) in Lyndhurst west along Kingsland Avenue and over the Passaic River on the Park Avenue Bridge into Nutley , where it would end at Union Avenue ( west of Route 7 ) . In 1930 , New York had renumbered its state routes ; the extension of Route 2 north and west into New York had remained New York State Route 17 . New Jersey had not assigned a Route 17 in the 1927 renumbering , and so in March 1942 , Route 2 was numbered Route 17 to match and provide a single number for military caravans during World War II .
Since at least 1936 , Route 17 ( then Route 2 ) was planned for upgrading to a freeway , not only north of U.S. Route 46 , but also south to the Newark area . The first plan for a freeway along the length of the route was halted due to World War II , and the second plan for a freeway in the 1960s was cancelled due to the disruption it was projected to cause to businesses and residents along its path . In 1972 , there were plans to extend Route 17 past Route 3 to Interstate 280 in Harrison . The plans for this five @-@ mile ( eight kilometer ) , $ 50 million extension were cancelled due to the defeat of a transportation bond that would have funded the proposed freeway . The interchange at Route 3 was built to allow for this southern extension . Another extension of Route 17 to the New Jersey Turnpike was brought up in 1987 , but was ultimately scrapped .
The road north of Route 3 was gradually rebuilt to higher standards between 1953 and 1960 ; most of this portion of Route 17 was upgraded to six lanes and most at @-@ grade intersections were removed north of Interstate 80 in Lodi . The northern 0 @.@ 39 mi ( 0 @.@ 63 km ) of Route 17 in Mahwah was incorporated into Interstate 287 in 1994 . The Route 4 interchange in Paramus was rebuilt at a cost of $ 120 million in 1999 , replacing the 1932 cloverleaf interchange by adding several flyover ramps . In 2008 , construction was completed at the interchange with Essex Street on the Lodi / Maywood border , which involved replacing the Essex Street bridge over Route 17 and improving the interchange ramps , at a cost of $ 68 million . On January 14 , 2008 , Governor Jon Corzine announced plans to reduce congestion and improve safety along the portion of Route 17 between Williams Avenue in Hasbrouck Heights to south of Route 4 in Paramus by making it a consistent six lanes . Also , a $ 14 @.@ 7 million effort , begun in September 2008 , is currently being undertaken to improve safety and reduce bottlenecks along the section of Route 17 between Route 3 and U.S. Route 46 .
Route 17 has been the object of several studies exploring a Bergen BRT , a bus rapid transit system that would potentially alleviate some traffic congestion and decrease automobile dependency . While funding has not been identified , the potential routes of the system have centered around the vicinity radiating from the malls of Paramus .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bergen County . All exits are unnumbered .
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= Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories =
Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories is a picture book collection by Theodor Seuss Geisel , published under his more commonly known pseudonym of Dr. Seuss . It was first released by Random House Books on April 12 , 1958 , and is written in Seuss 's trademark style , using a type of meter called anapestic tetrameter . Though it contains three short stories , it is mostly known for its first story , " Yertle the Turtle " , in which the eponymous Yertle , king of the pond , stands on his subjects in an attempt to reach higher than the moon — until the bottom turtle burps and he falls into the mud , ending his rule .
Though the book included " burp " , a word then considered to be relatively rude , it was a success upon publication , and has since sold over a million copies . In 2001 , it was listed at 125 on the Publishers Weekly list of the best @-@ selling children 's books of all time .
= = Plot overview = =
= = = “ Yertle the Turtle ” = = =
The eponymous story revolves around Yertle the Turtle , the king of the pond . Dissatisfied with the stone that serves as his throne , he commands the other turtles to stack themselves beneath him so that he can see farther and expand his kingdom . However , the stacked turtles are in pain and Mack , the turtle at the very bottom of the pile , is suffering the most . Mack asks Yertle for a respite , but Yertle just tells him to be quiet . Then Yertle decides to expand his kingdom and commands more and more turtles to add to his throne . Mack makes a second request for a respite because the increased weight is now causing extreme pain to the turtles at the bottom of the pile , as well as hunger . Again , Yertle yells at Mack to be quiet . Then Yertle notices the moon rising above him as the night approaches . Furious that something " dares to be higher than Yertle the King " , he decides to call for even more turtles in an attempt to rise above it . However , before he can give the command , Mack decides he has had enough . He burps , which takes away Yertle 's throne and tosses the turtle king off the turtle stack and into the mud , leaving him " King of the Mud " and freeing the others .
= = = “ Gertrude McFuzz ” = = =
The second story recounts the tale of the " girl @-@ bird " Gertrude McFuzz , who has one small , plain tail feather and envies Lolla Lee Lou , who has two feathers . She goes to her uncle , Doctor Dake , for something to make her tail grow . He tries to tell her that her tail is just right for her species , but she throws a tantrum . He gives in and he tells her where she can find berries that will make her tail grow . The first berry makes her tail exactly like Lolla Lee Lou 's , but greed overtakes her . Now wanting to surpass Lolla Lee Lou , she eats the entire vine , causing her tail to grow to an enormous size . However , the added weight of too many feathers does not allow her to fly , run or even walk . She panics by yelping repeatedly , while being stuck on the hill . Her uncle , who hears her painful yelps , sends for the rescue , and many other birds are forced to carry her home and pluck out her tail feathers , which takes a few weeks , causing her to be sore . Though she has only one feather left — as before — she now has " enough , because now she is smarter . "
= = = “ The Big Brag ” = = =
The third and final story tells of a rabbit and a bear , who both boast that they are the " best of the beasts " , because of the range of their hearing and smelling abilities , respectively . However , they are humbled by a worm who claims he can see all around the world — right back to his own hill , where he sees the rabbit and bear , whom he calls " the two biggest fools that have ever been seen " .
= = Publication history = =
A stack of turtles drawn similarly to those featured in " Yertle the Turtle " first appeared on March 20 , 1942 , in a cartoon for the New York City newspaper PM , where Seuss worked as an editorial cartoonist . The illustration shows two stacks of turtles forming the letter " V " on top of a large turtle labelled " Dawdling Producers " , with a caption reading " You Can 't Build A Substantial V Out of Turtles ! "
Seuss has stated that the titular character Yertle represented Adolf Hitler , with Yertle 's despotic rule of the pond and takeover of the surrounding area parallel to Hitler 's regime in Germany and invasion of various parts of Europe . Though Seuss made a point of not beginning the writing of his stories with a moral in mind , stating that " kids can see a moral coming a mile off " , he was not against writing about issues ; he said " there 's an inherent moral in any story " and remarked that he was " subversive as hell " . " Yertle the Turtle " has variously been described as " autocratic rule overturned " , " a reaction against the fascism of World War II " , and " subversive of authoritarian rule " .
In 2003 , reporter John J. Miller also compared Yertle to the former Iraqi president Saddam Hussein , saying that " [ i ] ts final lines apply as much to Saddam Hussein as they once did to the European fascists " .
The last lines of " Yertle the Turtle " read : " And turtles , of course ... all the turtles are free / As turtles , and maybe , all creatures should be . " When questioned about why he wrote " maybe " rather than " surely " , Seuss replied that he didn 't want to sound " didactic or like a preacher on a platform " , and that he wanted the reader " to say ' surely ' in their minds instead of my having to say it . "
The use of the word " burp " — " plain little Mack did a plain little thing . He burped ! " — was also an issue before publication . According to Seuss , the publishers at Random House , including the president , had to meet to decide whether or not they could use " burp " because " nobody had ever burped before on the pages of a children 's book " . However , despite the publishers ' initial worries , it eventually proved to be a hit — in 2001 , Publishers Weekly reported that it was 125th on the list of best @-@ selling hardcover children 's books in the United States , at just over one million copies .
The book is dedicated to the Sagmaster family as a tribute to Joseph Sagmaster , who had introduced Seuss to his first wife , Helen Palmer , when they were both attending Oxford University . Sagmaster is quoted as saying that bringing the two together was " the happiest inspiration I 've ever had " .
= = Adaptations = =
Although Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories has not been directly adapted , several characters from the book have appeared in other media . Yertle is a character in the 1996 – 1997 television series The Wubbulous World of Dr. Seuss , and in Stephen Flaherty 's Broadway musical Seussical , Yertle serves as a judge and Gertrude McFuzz acts as Horton 's love interest . The story was also turned into a dance number in the 1994 film In Search of Dr. Seuss .
Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories is a 1992 animation directed by Ray Messecar and narrated by John Lithgow ( later released and cropped to widescreen format on Blu @-@ Ray part of Who 's Who in the Dr. Seuss ? ) .
The Red Hot Chili Peppers adapted the story in the song " Yertle the Turtle " on their second album , Freaky Styley , released in 1985 .
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= Kepler @-@ 6 =
Kepler @-@ 6 is a yellow giant situated in the constellation Cygnus . The star lies within the field of view of the Kepler Mission , which discovered it as part of a NASA @-@ led mission to discover Earth @-@ like planets . The star , which is slightly larger , more metal @-@ rich , slightly cooler , and more massive than the Sun , is orbited by at least one extrasolar planet , a Jupiter @-@ sized planet named Kepler @-@ 6b that orbits closely to its star .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 6 was named for the Kepler Mission , a NASA project launched in 2009 that aims to discover Earth @-@ like planets that transit , or cross in front of , their home stars with respect to Earth . Unlike stars like the Sun or Sirius , Kepler @-@ 6 does not have a common and colloquial name . The discovery of Kepler @-@ 6b was announced by the Kepler team on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society along with planets around Kepler @-@ 4 , Kepler @-@ 5 , Kepler @-@ 7 , and Kepler @-@ 8 . It was the third planet to be discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets to be verified by data from Kepler had been previously discovered . These three planets were used to test the accuracy of Kepler 's measurements .
The discovery of Kepler @-@ 6 was confirmed by follow @-@ up observations made using the Hobby Eberly and Smith telescopes in Texas ; the Keck 1 telescope in Hawaii ; the Hale and Shane telescopes in southern California ; the WIYN , MMT , and Tillinghast telescopes in Arizona ; and the Nordic Optical Telescope in the Canary Islands .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 6 is a star that is approximately 1 @.@ 209 Msun , or some five @-@ fourths the mass of the Sun . It is also wider than the sun , with a radius of 1 @.@ 391 Rsun , or seven @-@ fifths of that of the Sun . The star is approximately 3 @.@ 8 billion years old , and has an effective temperature of 5647 K ( 9 @,@ 705 ° F ) . In comparison , the Sun has a slightly warmer temperature of 5778 K. Kepler @-@ 6 has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = + 0 @.@ 34 , making it 2 @.@ 2 times more metallic than the Sun . On average , metal @-@ rich stars tend to be more likely to have planets and planetary systems .
The star , as seen from Earth , has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 8 . It is not visible with the naked eye . In comparison , Pluto 's apparent magnitude at its brightest is slightly brighter , at 13 @.@ 65 .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 6 has one confirmed extrasolar planet ; it is a gas giant named Kepler @-@ 6b . The planet is approximately .669 MJ , or some two @-@ thirds the mass of planet Jupiter . It is also slightly more diffuse than Jupiter , with a radius of approximately 1 @.@ 323 RJ . Kepler @-@ 6b orbits at an average distance of .0456 AU from its star , and completes an orbit every 3 @.@ 234 days . The eccentricity of the planet 's orbit is assumed to be 0 , which is that of a circular orbit .
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= 300 ( film ) =
300 is a 2006 American epic fantasy war film based on the 1998 comic series of the same name by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley . Both are fictionalized retellings of the Battle of Thermopylae within the Persian Wars . The film was directed by Zack Snyder , while Miller served as executive producer and consultant . It was filmed mostly with a super @-@ imposition chroma key technique , to help replicate the imagery of the original comic book .
The plot revolves around King Leonidas ( Gerard Butler ) , who leads 300 Spartans into battle against the Persian " god @-@ King " Xerxes ( Rodrigo Santoro ) and his invading army of more than 300 @,@ 000 soldiers . As the battle rages , Queen Gorgo ( Lena Headey ) attempts to rally support in Sparta for her husband . The story is framed by a voice @-@ over narrative by the Spartan soldier Dilios ( David Wenham ) . Through this narrative technique , various fantastical creatures are introduced , placing 300 within the genre of historical fantasy .
300 was released in both conventional and IMAX theaters in the United States on March 9 , 2007 , and on DVD , Blu @-@ ray Disc , and HD DVD on July 31 , 2007 . The film received mixed reviews , receiving acclaim for its original visuals and style , but criticism for favoring visuals over characterization and its depiction of the ancient Persians in Iran , a characterization which some had deemed racist ; however , the film was a box office success , grossing over $ 450 million , with the film 's opening being the 24th largest in box office history at the time . A sequel , 300 : Rise of an Empire , which is based on Miller 's unpublished graphic novel prequel Xerxes , was released on March 7 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
In 479 BC , one year after the famed Battle of Thermopylae , Dilios , a hoplite in the Spartan Army , begins his story by depicting the life of Leonidas I from childhood to kingship via Spartan doctrine . Dilios 's story continues and Persian messengers arrive at the gates of Sparta demanding " earth and water " as a token of submission to King Xerxes ; the Spartans reply by killing and kicking the messengers into a well . Leonidas then visits the Ephors , proposing a strategy to drive back the numerically superior Persians through the Hot Gates ; his plan involves building a wall in order to funnel the Persians into a narrow pass between the rocks and the sea . The Ephors consult the Oracle , who decrees that Sparta will not go to war during the Carneia . As Leonidas angrily departs , a messenger from Xerxes appears , rewarding the Ephors for their covert support .
Although the Ephors have denied him permission to mobilize Sparta 's army , Leonidas gathers three hundred of his best soldiers in the guise of his personal bodyguard ; they are joined along the way by Arcadians . At Thermopylae , they construct the wall made up of stones and slain Persian scouts as mortar , angering the Persian Emissary . Stelios , an elite Spartan soldier , orders him to go back to the Persian lines and warn Xerxes after cutting off his whipping arm . Meanwhile , Leonidas encounters Ephialtes , a deformed Spartan whose parents fled Sparta to spare him certain infanticide . Ephialtes asks to redeem his father 's name by joining Leonidas ' army , warning him of a secret ( goat ) path the Persians could use to outflank and surround the Spartans . Though sympathetic , Leonidas rejects him since his deformity physically prevents him from holding his shield high enough ; potentially compromising the phalanx formation , and Ephialtes is enraged .
The battle begins soon after the Spartans ' refusal to lay down their weapons . Using the Hot Gates to their advantage , plus their superior fighting skills , the Spartans repel wave upon wave of the advancing Persian army . During a lull in the battle , Xerxes personally approaches Leonidas to persuade him to surrender , offering him wealth and power in exchange for his allegiance ; Leonidas declines and mocks Xerxes for the inferior quality of his fanatical warriors . In response , Xerxes sends in his elite guard , the Immortals , later that night . Despite some Spartans being killed , they heroically defeat the Immortals ( with slight help from the Arcadians ) . On the second day , Xerxes sends in new waves of armies from Asia and other Persian city @-@ states , including war elephants , to crush the Spartans once and for all , but to no avail . Meanwhile , Ephialtes defects to Xerxes to whom he reveals the secret path in exchange for wealth , luxury , and ( especially ) a uniform . The Arcadians retreat upon learning of Ephialtes ' betrayal , but the Spartans stay . Leonidas orders an injured but reluctant Dilios to return to Sparta and tell them of what has happened , a " tale of victory " .
In Sparta , Queen Gorgo tries to persuade the Spartan Council to send reinforcements to aid the 300 . Theron , a corrupt politician , claims that he " owns " the Council and threatens the Queen , who reluctantly submits to his sexual demands in return for his help . When Theron disgraces her in front of the Council , Gorgo kills him out of rage , revealing within his robe a bag of Xerxes ' gold . Marking his betrayal , the Council unanimously agrees to send reinforcements . On the third day , the Persians , led by Ephialtes , traverse the secret path , encircling the Spartans . Xerxes ' general again demands their surrender . Leonidas seemingly kneels in submission , allowing Stelios to leap over him and kill the general . A furious Xerxes orders his troops to attack . Leonidas rises and throws his spear at Xerxes ; barely missing him , the spear cuts across and wounds his face , proving the God @-@ King 's mortality . Leonidas and the remaining Spartans fight to the last man until they finally succumb to an arrow barrage .
Dilios , now back at Sparta , concludes his tale before the Council . Inspired by their King 's sacrifice , the Persians will now face a larger Greek army 40 @,@ 000 strong , led by 10 @,@ 000 Spartans . After one final speech commemorating the 300 , Dilios , now head of the Spartan Army , leads them into battle against the Persians across the fields of Plataea , ending the film .
= = Cast = =
Gerard Butler as Leonidas , King of Sparta .
David Wenham as Dilios , narrator and Spartan soldier .
Lena Headey as Queen Gorgo , Queen of Sparta ( Gorgo has a larger role in the film than she does in the comic book , where she only appears in the beginning ) .
Giovanni Cimmino as Pleistarchus , son of Leonidas and Gorgo ( Pleistarchus does not feature in the comic book ) .
Dominic West as Theron , a fictional corrupt Spartan politician ( Theron is not featured in the comic book ) .
Vincent Regan as Captain Artemis , Leonidas ' loyal captain and friend .
Tom Wisdom as Astinos , Captain Artemis ' eldest son . In the film Astinos has a constant presence until he dies . In the comic book Astinos is only mentioned when he dies .
Andrew Pleavin as Daxos , an Arcadian leader who joins forces with Leonidas .
Andrew Tiernan as Ephialtes , a deformed Spartan outcast and traitor .
Rodrigo Santoro as King Xerxes , King of Persia .
Stephen McHattie as The Loyalist , a loyal Spartan politician .
Michael Fassbender as Stelios , a young , spirited and highly skilled Spartan soldier .
Peter Mensah as a Persian messenger who gets kicked into the well by Leonidas .
Kelly Craig as Pythia , an Oracle to the Ephors .
Tyler Neitzel as young Leonidas .
Robert Maillet as Über Immortal ( giant ) , a muscular and deranged Immortal who battles Leonidas during the Immortal fight .
Patrick Sabongui as the Persian General who tries to get Leonidas to comply at the end of the battle .
Leon Laderach as Executioner , a hulking , clawed man who executes men who have displeased Xerxes .
Tyrone Benskin as the whip @-@ wielding Persian Emissary .
= = Production = =
Producer Gianni Nunnari was not the only person planning a film about the Battle of Thermopylae ; director Michael Mann already planned a film of the battle based on the book Gates of Fire . Nunnari discovered Frank Miller 's graphic novel 300 , which impressed him enough to acquire the film rights . 300 was jointly produced by Nunnari and Mark Canton , and Michael B. Gordon wrote the script . Director Zack Snyder was hired in June 2004 as he had attempted to make a film based on Miller 's novel before making his debut with the remake of Dawn of the Dead . Snyder then had screenwriter Kurt Johnstad rewrite Gordon 's script for production and Frank Miller was retained as consultant and executive producer .
The film is a shot @-@ for @-@ shot adaptation of the comic book , similar to the film adaptation of Sin City . Snyder photocopied panels from the comic book , from which he planned the preceding and succeeding shots . " It was a fun process for me ... to have a frame as a goal to get to , " he said . Like the comic book , the adaptation also used the character Dilios as a narrator . Snyder used this narrative technique to show the audience that the surreal " Frank Miller world " of 300 was told from a subjective perspective . By using Dilios ' gift of storytelling , he was able to introduce fantasy elements into the film , explaining that " Dilios is a guy who knows how not to wreck a good story with truth . " Snyder also added the sub @-@ plot in which Queen Gorgo attempts to rally support for her husband .
Two months of pre @-@ production were required to create hundreds of shields , spears , and swords , some of which were recycled from Troy and Alexander . Creatures were designed by Jordu Schell , and an animatronic wolf and thirteen animatronic horses were created . The actors trained alongside the stuntmen , and even Snyder joined in . Upwards of 600 costumes were created for the film , as well as extensive prosthetics for various characters and the corpses of Persian soldiers . Shaun Smith and Mark Rappaport worked hand in hand with Snyder in pre @-@ production to design the look of the individual characters , and to produce the prosthetic makeup effects , props , weapons and dummy bodies required for the production .
300 entered active production on October 17 , 2005 , in Montreal , and was shot over the course of sixty days in chronological order with a budget of $ 60 million . Employing the digital backlot technique , Snyder shot at the now @-@ defunct Icestorm Studios in Montreal using bluescreens . Butler said that while he did not feel constrained by Snyder 's direction , fidelity to the comic imposed certain limitations on his performance . Wenham said there were times when Snyder wanted to precisely capture iconic moments from the comic book , and other times when he gave actors freedom " to explore within the world and the confines that had been set . " Headey said of her experience with the bluescreens , " It 's very odd , and emotionally , there 's nothing to connect to apart from another actor . " Only one scene , in which horses travel across the countryside , was shot outdoors . The film was an intensely physical production , and Butler pulled an arm tendon and developed foot drop .
Post @-@ production was handled by Montreal 's Meteor Studios and Hybride Technologies filled in the bluescreen footage with more than 1 @,@ 500 visual effects shots . Visual effects supervisor Chris Watts and production designer Jim Bissell created a process dubbed " The Crush , " which allowed the Meteor artists to manipulate the colors by increasing the contrast of light and dark . Certain sequences were desaturated and tinted to establish different moods . Ghislain St @-@ Pierre , who led the team of artists , described the effect : " Everything looks realistic , but it has a kind of a gritty illustrative feel . " Various computer programs , including Maya , RenderMan and RealFlow , were used to create the " spraying blood . " The post @-@ production lasted for a year and was handled by a total of ten special effects companies .
= = Soundtrack = =
In July 2005 , composer Tyler Bates begun work on the film , describing the score as having " beautiful themes on the top and large choir , " but " tempered with some extreme heaviness . " The composer had scored for a test scene that the director wanted to show to Warner Bros. to illustrate the path of the project . Bates said that the score had " a lot of weight and intensity in the low end of the percussion " that Snyder found agreeable to the film . The score was recorded at Abbey Road Studios and features the vocals of Azam Ali . A standard edition and a special edition of the soundtrack containing 25 tracks was released on March 6 , 2007 , with the special edition containing a 16 @-@ page booklet and three two @-@ sided trading cards .
The score has caused some controversy in the film composer community , garnering criticism for its striking similarity to several other recent soundtracks , including James Horner and Gabriel Yared 's work for the film Troy . The heaviest borrowings are said to be from Elliot Goldenthal 's 1999 score for Titus . " Remember Us , " from 300 , is identical in parts to the " Finale " from Titus , and " Returns a King " is similar to the cue " Victorius Titus . " ( see copyright issues . ) On August 3 , 2007 , Warner Bros. Pictures acknowledged in an official statement :
... a number of the music cues for the score of 300 were , without our knowledge or participation , derived from music composed by Academy Award winning composer Elliot Goldenthal for the motion picture Titus . Warner Bros. Pictures has great respect for Elliot , our longtime collaborator , and is pleased to have amicably resolved this matter .
= = Promotion and release = =
The official 300 website was launched by Warner Bros. in December 2005 . The " conceptual art " and Zack Snyder 's production blog were the initial attractions of the site . Later , the website added video journals describing production details , including comic @-@ to @-@ screen shots and the creatures of 300 . In January 2007 , the studio launched a MySpace page for the film . The Art Institutes created a micro @-@ site to promote the film .
At Comic @-@ Con International in July 2006 , the 300 panel aired a promotional teaser of the film , which was positively received . Despite stringent security , the trailer was subsequently leaked on the Internet . Warner Bros. released the official trailer for 300 on October 4 , 2006 , and later on it made its debut on Apple.com where it received considerable exposure . The background music used in the trailers was " Just Like You Imagined " by Nine Inch Nails . A second 300 trailer , which was attached to Apocalypto , was released in theaters on December 8 , 2006 , and online the day before . On January 22 , 2007 , an exclusive trailer for the film was broadcast during prime time television . The trailers have been credited with igniting interest in the film and contributing to its box @-@ office success .
In April 2006 , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment announced its intention to make a PlayStation Portable game , 300 : March to Glory , based on the film . Collision Studios worked with Warner Bros. to capture the style of the film in the video game , which was released simultaneously with the film in the United States . The National Entertainment Collectibles Association produced a series of action figures based on the film , as well as replicas of weapons and armor .
Warner Bros. promoted 300 by sponsoring the Ultimate Fighting Championship 's light heavyweight champion Chuck Liddell , who made personal appearances and participated in other promotional activities . The studio also joined with the National Hockey League to produce a 30 @-@ second TV spot promoting the film in tandem with the Stanley Cup playoffs .
In August 2006 , Warner Bros. announced 300 's release date as March 16 , 2007 , but in October the release was moved forward to March 9 , 2007 . 300 was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray Disc , and HD DVD on July 31 , 2007 , in Region 1 territories , in single @-@ disc and two @-@ disc editions . 300 was released in single @-@ disc and steelcase two @-@ disc editions on DVD , BD and HD DVD in Region 2 territories beginning August 2007 . On July 21 , 2009 , Warner Bros. released a new Blu @-@ ray Disc entitled 300 : The Complete Experience to coincide with the Blu @-@ ray Disc release of Watchmen . This new Blu @-@ ray Disc is encased in a 40 @-@ page Digibook and includes all the extras from the original release as well as some new ones . These features include a Picture @-@ in @-@ Picture feature entitled The Complete 300 : A Comprehensive Immersion , which enables the viewer to view the film in three different perspectives . This release also includes a digital copy .
On July 9 , 2007 , the American cable channel TNT bought the rights to broadcast the film from Warner Bros. TNT started airing the film in September 2009 . Sources say that the network paid between $ 17 million and just under $ 20 million for the broadcasting rights . TNT agreed to a three @-@ year deal instead of the more typical five @-@ year deal .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
300 was released in North America on March 9 , 2007 , in both conventional and IMAX theaters . It grossed $ 28 @,@ 106 @,@ 731 on its opening day and ended its North American opening weekend with $ 70 @,@ 885 @,@ 301 , breaking the record held by Ice Age : The Meltdown for the biggest opening weekend in the month of March and for a Spring release . Since then 300 's Spring release record was broken by Fast and Furious and 300 's March record was broken by Tim Burton 's Alice in Wonderland . 300 's opening weekend gross is the 24th highest in box office history , coming slightly below The Lost World : Jurassic Park but higher than Transformers . It was the third biggest opening for an R @-@ rated film ever , behind The Matrix Reloaded ( $ 91 @.@ 8 million ) and The Passion of the Christ ( $ 83 @.@ 8 million ) . The film also set a record for IMAX cinemas with a $ 3 @.@ 6 million opening weekend . The film grossed $ 456 @,@ 068 @,@ 181 worldwide .
300 opened two days earlier , on March 7 , 2007 , in Sparta , and across Greece on March 8 . Studio executives were surprised by the showing , which was twice what they had expected . They credited the film 's stylized violence , the strong female role of Queen Gorgo which attracted a large number of women , and a MySpace advertising blitz . Producer Mark Canton said , " MySpace had an enormous impact but it has transcended the limitations of the Internet or the graphic novel . Once you make a great movie , word can spread very quickly . "
= = = Reviews = = =
= = = = Critical reception = = = =
Since its world premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 14 , 2007 , in front of 1 @,@ 700 audience members , 300 has received generally mixed reviews . While it received a standing ovation at the public premiere , it was panned at a press screening hours earlier , where many attendees left during the showing and those who remained booed at the end . Critics are divided on the film . Rotten Tomatoes reports that 60 % of critics gave the film a positive review , based upon a sample of 225 , with an average score of 6 @.@ 1 out of 10 . Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , gave the film an average score of 52 based on 42 reviews .
Some of the most unfavorable reviews came from major American newspapers . A.O. Scott of The New York Times describes 300 as " about as violent as Apocalypto and twice as stupid , " while criticizing its color scheme and suggesting that its plot includes racist undertones ; Scott also poked fun at the buffed bodies of the actors portraying the Spartans , declaring that the Persian characters are " pioneers in the art of face @-@ piercing " , but that the Spartans had access to " superior health clubs and electrolysis facilities " . Kenneth Turan writes in the Los Angeles Times that " unless you love violence as much as a Spartan , Quentin Tarantino or a video @-@ game @-@ playing teenage boy , you will not be endlessly fascinated . " Roger Ebert , in his review , gave the film a two @-@ star rating , writing , " 300 has one @-@ dimensional caricatures who talk like professional wrestlers plugging their next feud . " Some critics employed at Greek newspapers have been particularly critical , such as film critic Robby Eksiel , who said that moviegoers would be dazzled by the " digital action " but irritated by the " pompous interpretations and one @-@ dimensional characters . "
Variety 's Todd McCarthy describes the film as " visually arresting " although " bombastic " while Kirk Honeycutt , writing in The Hollywood Reporter , praises the " beauty of its topography , colors and forms . " Writing in the Chicago Sun Times , Richard Roeper acclaims 300 as " the Citizen Kane of cinematic graphic novels . " Empire gave the film 3 / 5 having a verdict of " Visually stunning , thoroughly belligerent and as shallow as a pygmy 's paddling pool , this is a whole heap of style tinged with just a smidgen of substance . " 300 was also warmly received by websites focusing on comics and video games . Comic Book Resources ' Mark Cronan found the film compelling , leaving him " with a feeling of power , from having been witness to something grand . " IGN 's Todd Gilchrist acclaimed Zack Snyder as a cinematic visionary and " a possible redeemer of modern moviemaking . "
= = = Accolades = = =
At the MTV Movie Awards 2007 , 300 was nominated for Best Movie , Best Performance for Gerard Butler , Best Breakthrough Performance for Lena Headey , Best Villain for Rodrigo Santoro , and Best Fight for Leonidas battling " the Über Immortal " , but only won the award for Best Fight . 300 won both the Best Dramatic Film and Best Action Film honors in the 2006 – 2007 Golden Icon Awards presented by Travolta Family Entertainment . In December 2007 , 300 won IGN 's Movie of the Year 2007 , along with Best Comic Book Adaptation and King Leonidas as Favorite Character . The movie received 10 nominations for the 2008 Saturn Awards , winning the awards for Best Director and Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film . In 2009 , National Review magazine ranked 300 number 5 on its 25 Best Conservative Movies of the Last 25 Years list .
= = = Historical accuracy = = =
Since few records about the actual martial arts used by the Spartans survive aside from accounts of formations and tactics , the fight choreography led by stunt coordinator and fight choreographer Damon Caro , was a synthesis of different weapon arts with Filipino martial arts as the base . This can be seen in the blade work and the signature use of the off hand by Arnis / Kali / Eskrima in the offensive use of the shields . The Spartans ' use of the narrow terrain , in those particular circumstances , is a military tactic known as " defeat in detail " .
Paul Cartledge , Professor of Greek History at Cambridge University , advised the filmmakers on the pronunciation of Greek names , and said they " made good use " of his published work on Sparta . He praises the film for its portrayal of " the Spartans ' heroic code " , and of " the key role played by women in backing up , indeed reinforcing , the male martial code of heroic honour " , while expressing reservations about its " ' West ' ( goodies ) vs ' East ' ( baddies ) polarization " . Cartledge writes that he enjoyed the film , although he found Leonidas ' description of the Athenians as " boy lovers " ironic , since the Spartans themselves incorporated institutional pederasty into their educational system .
Ephraim Lytle , assistant professor of Hellenistic History at the University of Toronto , said 300 selectively idealizes Spartan society in a " problematic and disturbing " fashion , as well as portraying the " hundred nations of the Persians " as monsters and non @-@ Spartan Greeks as weak . He suggests that the film 's moral universe would have seemed " as bizarre to ancient Greeks as it does to modern historians " .
Victor Davis Hanson , National Review columnist and former professor of Classical history at California State University , Fresno , who wrote the foreword to a 2007 re @-@ issue of the graphic novel , said the film demonstrates a specific affinity with the original material of Herodotus in that it captures the martial ethos of ancient Sparta and represents Thermopylae as a " clash of civilizations " . He remarks that Simonides , Aeschylus , and Herodotus viewed Thermopylae as a battle against " Eastern centralism and collective serfdom " , which opposed " the idea of the free citizen of an autonomous polis " . He also said the film portrays the battle in a " surreal " manner , and that the intent was to " entertain and shock first , and instruct second " .
Touraj Daryaee , now Baskerville Professor of Iranian History and the Persian World at the University of California , Irvine , criticized the film 's use of classical sources , writing :
Some passages from the Classical authors Aeschylus , Diodorus , Herodotus and Plutarch are split over the movie to give it an authentic flavor . Aeschylus becomes a major source when the battle with the " monstrous human herd " of the Persians is narrated in the film . Diodorus ' statement about Greek valor to preserve their liberty is inserted in the film , but his mention of Persian valor is omitted . Herodotus ' fanciful numbers are used to populate the Persian army , and Plutarch 's discussion of Greek women , specifically Spartan women , is inserted wrongly in the dialogue between the " misogynist " Persian ambassador and the Spartan king . Classical sources are certainly used , but exactly in all the wrong places , or quite naively . The Athenians were fighting a sea battle during this .
Robert McHenry , former editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Encyclopædia Britannica and author of How to Know said the film " is an almost ineffably silly movie . Stills from the film could easily be used to promote Buns of Steel , or AbMaster , or ThighMaster . It 's about the romanticizing of the Spartan ' ideal ' , a process that began even in ancient times , was promoted by the Romans , and has survived over time while less and less resembling the actual historical Sparta . "
The director of 300 , Zack Snyder , stated in an MTV interview that " the events are 90 percent accurate . It 's just in the visualization that it 's crazy .... I 've shown this movie to world @-@ class historians who have said it 's amazing . They can 't believe it 's as accurate as it is . " Nevertheless , he also said the film is " an opera , not a documentary . That 's what I say when people say it 's historically inaccurate " . He was also quoted in a BBC News story as saying that the film is , at its core " a fantasy film " . He also describes the film 's narrator , Dilios , as " a guy who knows how not to wreck a good story with truth " .
In an interview 300 writer Frank Miller said , " The inaccuracies , almost all of them , are intentional . I took those chest plates and leather skirts off of them for a reason . I wanted these guys to move and I wanted ' em to look good . I knocked their helmets off a fair amount , partly so you can recognize who the characters are . Spartans , in full regalia , were almost indistinguishable except at a very close angle . Another liberty I took was , they all had plumes , but I only gave a plume to Leonidas , to make him stand out and identify him as a king . I was looking for more an evocation than a history lesson . The best result I can hope for is that if the movie excites someone , they 'll go explore the histories themselves . Because the histories are endlessly fascinating . "
Dr. Kaveh Farrokh in a paper entitled " The 300 Movie : Separating Fact from Fiction " notes that the film falsely portrays " the Greco @-@ Persian Wars in binary terms : the democratic , good , rational ' Us ' versus the tyrannical , evil and irrational , ' other ' of the ever @-@ nebulous ( if not exotic ) ' Persia ' " . He reminds the reader about three commonly accepted historical pieces of evidence that demonstrate the fundamental and essential contribution of the Achaemenid Empire to the creation of democracy and human rights . " The founder of the Achaemenid Empire , Cyrus the Great , was the world 's first world emperor to openly declare and guarantee the sanctity of human rights and individual freedom " , " Cyrus was a follower of the teachings of Zoroaster , the founder of one of the world 's oldest monotheistic religions " , and to put his own words in action " When Cyrus defeated King Nabonidus of Babylon , he officially declared the freedom of the Jews from their Babylonian captivity . This was the first time in history that a world power had guaranteed the survival of the Jewish people , religion , customs and culture . "
= = = Controversy = = =
Before the release of 300 , Warner Bros. expressed concerns about the political aspects of the film 's theme . Snyder relates that there was " a huge sensitivity about East versus West with the studio . " Media speculation about a possible parallel between the Greco @-@ Persian conflict and current events began in an interview with Snyder that was conducted before the Berlin Film Festival . The interviewer remarked that " everyone is sure to be translating this [ film ] into contemporary politics . " Snyder replied that , while he was aware that people would read the film through the lens of current events , no parallels between the film and the modern world were intended .
Outside the current political parallels , some critics have raised more general questions about the film 's ideological orientation . The New York Post 's Kyle Smith wrote that the film would have pleased " Adolf 's boys , " and Slate 's Dana Stevens compares the film to The Eternal Jew , " as a textbook example of how race @-@ baiting fantasy and nationalist myth can serve as an incitement to total war . " Roger Moore , a critic for the Orlando Sentinel , relates 300 to Susan Sontag 's definition of " fascist art . " Alleanza Nazionale , an Italian neoconservative political party formed from the collapse of the neo @-@ fascist party MSI , has used imagery from the work within candidate propaganda posters titled : " Defend your values , your civilization , your district " .
Newsday critic Gene Seymour , on the other hand , stated that such reactions are misguided , writing that " the movie 's just too darned silly to withstand any ideological theorizing . " Snyder himself dismissed ideological readings , suggesting that reviewers who critique " a graphic novel movie about a bunch of guys ... stomping the snot out of each other " using words like " ' neocon , ' ' homophobic , ' ' homoerotic ' or ' racist ' " are " missing the point . " Snyder , however , also admitted to fashioning an effeminate villain specifically to play into the homophobia of young straight males . Slovenian critic Slavoj Žižek pointed out that the story represents " a poor , small country ( Greece ) invaded by the army of a much large [ r ] state ( Persia ) , " suggesting that the identification of the Spartans with a modern superpower is flawed .
The 300 writer Frank Miller said : " The Spartans were a paradoxical people . They were the biggest slave owners in Greece . But at the same time , Spartan women had an unusual level of rights . It 's a paradox that they were a bunch of people who in many ways were fascist , but they were the bulwark against the fall of democracy . The closest comparison you can draw in terms of our own military today is to think of the red @-@ caped Spartans as being like our special @-@ ops forces . They 're these almost superhuman characters with a tremendous warrior ethic , who were unquestionably the best fighters in Greece . I didn 't want to render Sparta in overly accurate terms , because ultimately I do want you to root for the Spartans . I couldn 't show them being quite as cruel as they were . I made them as cruel as I thought a modern audience could stand . "
= = = = Eugenics = = = =
Ephraim Lytle , assistant professor of Hellenistic history at the University of Toronto , commented : " Ephialtes , who betrays the Greeks , is likewise changed from a local Malian of sound body into a Spartan outcast , a grotesquely disfigured troll who by Spartan custom should have been left exposed as an infant to die . Leonidas points out that his hunched back means Ephialtes cannot lift his shield high enough to fight in the phalanx . This is a transparent defence of Spartan eugenics , and convenient given that infanticide could as easily have been precipitated by an ill @-@ omened birthmark . "
Michael M. Chemers , author of " ' With Your Shield , or on It ' : Disability Representation in 300 " in the Disability Studies Quarterly , said that the film 's portrayal of the hunchback and his story " is not mere ableism : this is anti @-@ disability . "
Frank Miller – commenting on areas where he lessened the Spartan cruelty for narrative purposes – said : " I have King Leonidas very gently tell Ephialtes , the hunchback , that they can 't use him [ as a soldier ] , because of his deformity . It would be much more classically Spartan if Leonidas laughed and kicked him off the cliff . "
= = Depictions of Persians and Iran 's reaction = =
From its opening , 300 also attracted controversy over its portrayal of Persians . Officials of the Iranian government denounced the film . Some scenes in the film portray demon @-@ like and other fictional creatures as part of the Persian army , and the fictionalized portrayal of Persian King Xerxes I has been criticized as effeminate . Critics suggested that this was meant to stand in stark contrast to the sheer masculinity of the Spartan army . Steven Rea argued that the film 's Persians were a vehicle for an anachronistic cross @-@ section of Western stereotypes of Asian and African cultures .
The film 's portrayal of ancient Persians caused a particularly strong reaction in Iran . Azadeh Moaveni of Time reported that Tehran was " outraged " following the film 's release . Moaveni identified two factors which may have contributed to the intense reaction : its release on the eve of Nowruz , the Persian New Year , and the common Iranian view of the Achaemenid Empire as " a particularly noble page in their history . " Various Iranian officials condemned the film . The Iranian Academy of the Arts submitted a formal complaint against the film to UNESCO , labelling it an attack on the historical identity of Iran . The Iranian mission to the U.N. protested the film in a press release , and Iranian embassies protested its screening in France , Thailand , Turkey , and Uzbekistan . The film was banned within Iran as " hurtful American propaganda " . Reviewers in the United States and elsewhere " noted the political overtones of the West @-@ against @-@ Iran story line and the way Persians are depicted as decadent , sexually flamboyant and evil in contrast to the noble Greeks " . With bootleg versions of the film already available in Tehran with the film 's international release and news of the film 's surprising success at the U.S. box office , it prompted widespread anger in Iran . Azadeh Moaveni of Time reported , " All of Tehran was outraged . Everywhere I went yesterday , the talk vibrated with indignation over the film " . Newspapers in Iran featured headlines such as " Hollywood declares war on Iranians " and " 300 AGAINST 70 MILLION " ( Iran 's population ) . Ayende @-@ No , an independent Iranian newspaper , said that " [ t ] he film depicts Iranians as demons , without culture , feeling or humanity , who think of nothing except attacking other nations and killing people " . Four Iranian Members of Parliament have called for Muslim countries to ban the film , and a group of Iranian film makers submitted a letter of protest to UNESCO regarding the film 's alleged misrepresentation of Iranian history and culture . Iran 's cultural advisor to president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has called the film an " American attempt for psychological warfare against Iran " .
Moaveni identified two factors which may have contributed to the intensity of Iranian indignation over the film . First , she describes the timing of the film 's release , on the eve of Norouz , the Persian New Year , as " inauspicious . " Second , Iranians tend to view the era depicted in the film as " a particularly noble page in their history " . Moaveni also suggests that " the box office success of 300 , compared with the relative flop of Alexander ( another spurious period epic dealing with Persians ) , is cause for considerable alarm , signaling ominous U.S. intentions " .
According to The Guardian , Iranian critics of 300 , ranging from bloggers to government officials , have described the movie " as a calculated attempt to demonise Iran at a time of intensifying U.S. pressure over the country 's nuclear programme " . An Iranian government spokesman described the film as " hostile behavior which is the result of cultural and psychological warfare " . Moaveni reported that the Iranians she interacted with were " adamant that the movie was secretly funded by the U.S. government to prepare Americans for going to war against Iran " .
Dana Stevens of Slate states , " If 300 , the new battle epic based on the graphic novel by Frank Miller and Lynn Varley , had been made in Germany in the mid @-@ 1930s , it would be studied today alongside The Eternal Jew as a textbook example of how race @-@ baiting fantasy and nationalist myth can serve as an incitement to total war . Since it 's a product of the post @-@ ideological , post @-@ Xbox 21st century , 300 will instead be talked about as a technical achievement , the next blip on the increasingly blurry line between movies and video games .
= = In popular culture = =
300 has been spoofed in film , television , and other media , and spawned the " This is Sparta ! " internet meme . Skits based upon the film have appeared on Saturday Night Live and Robot Chicken , the latter of which mimicked the visual style of 300 in a parody set during the American Revolutionary War , titled " 1776 " . Other parodies include an episode of South Park named " D @-@ Yikes ! " , and " BOO ! " by Mad magazine in its September 2007 issue # 481 , written by Desmond Devlin and illustrated by Mort Drucker . 20th Century Fox released Meet the Spartans , a spoof directed by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer . Universal Pictures was planning a similar parody , titled National Lampoon 's 301 : The Legend of Awesomest Maximus Wallace Leonidas .
300 , particularly its pithy quotations , has been " adopted " by the student body of Michigan State University ( whose nickname is the Spartans ) , with chants of " Spartans , what is your profession ? " becoming common at sporting events starting after the film 's release , and Michigan State basketball head coach Tom Izzo dressed as Leonidas at one student event . Nate Ebner , a football player with the New England Patriots in the National Football League and formerly with the Ohio State Buckeyes , was nicknamed " Leonidas , " after the Greek warrior @-@ king hero of Sparta acted by Gerard Butler in the movie 300 , because of his intense workout regimen , and his beard .
= = Background = =
Frank Miller 's original graphic novel 300 was inspired by the film The 300 Spartans , which Frank Miller first saw at age 6 .
= = Sequel = =
In June 2008 , producers Mark Canton , Gianni Nunnari and Bernie Goldmann revealed that work had begun on a sequel to 300 , 300 : Rise of an Empire . Legendary Pictures had announced that Frank Miller started writing the follow @-@ up graphic novel , and Zack Snyder was interested in directing the adaptation , but moved on to develop and direct the Superman reboot Man of Steel . Noam Murro directed instead , while Zack Snyder produced . The film focused on the Athenian admiral , Themistocles , as portrayed by Australian actor Sullivan Stapleton . The sequel , 300 : Rise of an Empire , was released on March 7 , 2014 .
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= Space Seed =
" Space Seed " is an episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek . It is the 22nd episode of the first season and was first broadcast by NBC on February 16 , 1967 . " Space Seed " was written by Gene L. Coon and Carey Wilber and directed by Marc Daniels . Set in the 23rd century , the series follows the adventures of Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) and his crew aboard the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise . In this episode , the Enterprise crew encounter a sleeper ship holding selectively bred superpeople from Earth 's past . Their leader , Khan Noonien Singh ( Ricardo Montalbán ) , attempts to take control of Enterprise . The episode also guest stars Madlyn Rhue as Lt. Marla McGivers , who becomes romantically involved with Khan .
Wilber conceived the general plot for a different series , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , which featured humans from Ancient Greece who were preserved in cryogenic suspension and revived . The script changed numerous times during preproduction as producer Bob Justman felt that it would be too expensive to film . Eventually Gene L. Coon and series creator Gene Roddenberry also made alterations . These revisions include the marooning of the criminals at the end of the episode , and the change of the primary villain from a Nordic character to a Sikh . Roddenberry attempted to claim the primary writing credit for " Space Seed " , a request turned down by the Writers Guild of America .
Montalbán was the casting director 's first choice for Khan and described the role as " wonderful " . Despite being planned as an inexpensive bottle episode , the special sets and shots using starship miniatures caused the episode to go over budget . On first broadcast , the episode held second place in the ratings for the first half @-@ hour with 13 @.@ 12 million viewers , but during the second half it was pushed into third place . " Space Seed " has been named one of the best episodes of the series by Cinefantastique , IGN , and other publications . The 1982 film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan serves as a sequel to this episode . Plot elements of the episode and The Wrath of Khan were also used in the 2013 film Star Trek Into Darkness , and references to it appear in episodes of Star Trek : Enterprise .
= = Plot = =
On stardate 3141 @.@ 9 , the Federation starship USS Enterprise finds the derelict SS Botany Bay floating in space . Botany Bay was launched from Earth in the 1990s . A landing party comprising Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) , Doctor Leonard McCoy ( DeForest Kelley ) , Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) , and historian Lieutenant Marla McGivers ( Madlyn Rhue ) beams over to the freighter . The landing party finds a cargo of 84 humans , 72 of whom are alive in suspended animation after nearly 200 years . McGivers identifies the group 's leader . The occupant begins to revive , but Kirk brings him to Enterprise for a medical examination when his chamber fails .
Kirk has Botany Bay taken in tow by a tractor beam , and Enterprise sets course for Starbase 12 . In sickbay , the group 's leader awakens and attacks McCoy but , impressed by McCoy 's bravery , releases the doctor and introduces himself as " Khan " ( Ricardo Montalbán ) . Lt. McGivers marvels over Khan , a living relic from the 20th century , her field of interest . First Officer Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) discovers that their guest is Khan Noonien Singh who , along with his people , are products of 20th @-@ century selective breeding designed to create perfect humans . The genetic superhumans instead became warlords and conquered more than a third of the planet , sparking the Eugenics Wars , Earth 's last major global conflict . Between eighty and ninety of the superhumans were unaccounted for at the end of the war ; Khan is listed as the most dangerous .
Khan is placed under guard in quarters . McGivers is sent to brief him on current events . Taking advantage of McGivers ' attraction towards him , Khan tells her he means to rule mankind again and needs her help to take over Enterprise . Reluctantly , she agrees , beaming Khan to Botany Bay , where he revives the rest of his superpeople . They return to Enterprise and assume control of the ship . Khan throws Kirk into a decompression tank , and threatens to slowly suffocate him unless Kirk 's command crew agree to follow Khan . Having a change of heart , McGivers frees Kirk from the chamber . Kirk and Spock vent anesthetic gas throughout the entire ship to disable Khan and his cohorts . Khan escapes the gas and heads to Engineering , where he attempts to destroy Enterprise , but Kirk confronts him and a brawl ensues . Though outmatched by Khan 's superior strength , Kirk uses a tool as a club to knock the superman unconscious .
Kirk holds a hearing to decide the fate of Khan and his followers . The captain decides that they should be exiled to Ceti Alpha V , a harsh world that Kirk believes would be a perfect place for Khan to start his kingdom . Khan claims he is up to the challenge of taming the world and accepts Kirk 's offer . Instead of a court @-@ martial for Lt. McGivers , Kirk allows her to go into exile with Khan . Spock notes that it would be interesting to see what Khan makes of Ceti Alpha V in 100 years .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Carey Wilber was hired to write a script for an episode of Star Trek . His idea was based on an episode he wrote for the television series Captain Video and His Video Rangers ( 1949 – 1955 ) . His work on that show featured Ancient @-@ Greek @-@ era humans transported in suspended animation through space , with the people of the future finding that they have mythological powers . For " Space Seed " , Wilber replaced these mythological powers with abilities that were enhanced due to genetic engineering . Wilber had briefly worked with Gene Roddenberry on the television series Harbormaster . His science fiction extended beyond Star Trek : he also wrote scripts for Lost in Space and The Time Tunnel around the same time .
In Wilber 's first proposal for the story that became " Space Seed " , dated August 29 , 1966 — shortly before the first episode of Star Trek aired — the villain was Harold Erickson , an ordinary criminal exiled into space . He sought to free his gang from Botany Bay , seize Enterprise , and become a pirate . Parts of the story were inspired by the use of penal colonies in the 18th century , and characterizations were based on descriptions from the series ' writer 's bible . As a result , several elements of the draft proposal differed from how the characters behaved in the actual series — for example , the draft includes a scene where Spock defeats Kirk at chess by cheating . Producer Gene L. Coon told Wilber that his work was the best outline he had seen during his time on Star Trek . Fellow producer Bob Justman was less enthusiastic ; he compared it negatively to Flash Gordon and Buck Rogers , and felt the concept would be too expensive to film . There were also concerns that an unsolicited script submitted by science fiction author Philip José Farmer resembled the proposed plot which , as Roddenberry had corresponded with Farmer , might lead to litigation .
NBC executives reviewed the plot for " Space Seed " and approved it , but Justman reassessed the outline , saying that it needed to be heavily revised . In September , Wilber was given a list of suggested changes including asking him to remove any mention of the setting , as the producers did not want to say how far in the future Star Trek was set , and to remove the chess scene . Wilber submitted a second draft , but Roddenberry still had problems with basic elements of the script . He did not believe common criminals would be fired into space as a solution and strongly disliked the notion of space pirates . The second draft introduced the idea that Kirk marooned Erickson and his crew on a new planet ; this remained in the final version . Wilber was not asked for a third draft ; Coon was tasked with the re @-@ write ; he submitted it on December 7 and updated it twice over the following five days . Wilber accepted Coon 's re @-@ writes , and left the staff after the submission of his second draft as his contractual obligations were complete .
Coon proposed that Erickson should be a rival to Kirk , a genetic superman who had once ruled part of Earth . Roddenberry and Justman were still unhappy with the script , and Roddenberry revised it once more a week before filming was due to begin , after Montalbán had been cast . In this draft the blond Nordic character of Erickson became closer to the version seen on screen . In Roddenberry and Coon 's script , the character was renamed Sibahl Khan Noonien . The name Govin Bahadur Singh was suggested by the DeForest Research company , who checked scripts for potential errors on behalf of the production company ; the Singh name was suggested in part because it was closer to actual Sikh names . Coon and Roddenberry settled on Khan Noonien Singh ; Roddenberry had an old Chinese friend named Noonien Wang that he had lost touch with , and hoped that Wang would see the episode and contact him . In the final draft , Roddenberry listed himself as the primary writer , Coon as co @-@ writer and Wilber was absent , but the Writers Guild of America turned down Roddenberry 's request to be credited ; Coon received the main credit ; Wilber was given co @-@ writer and " story @-@ by " credits . Wilber did not often watch his own work , and nearly thirty years later had never seen " Space Seed " . Coon was later credited as Lee Cronin for his part in production of the script .
= = = Casting = = =
Mexican actor Ricardo Montalbán was cast as the genetic superman Khan Noonian Singh , having been the first choice for the role . He had been suggested by casting director Joseph D 'Agosta , who was not looking to cast an actor of a particular ethnic background due to Roddenberry 's vision for the series ; Roddenberry wanted to show his perceived 23rd century values by not requiring any specific ethnicities when casting actors in guest roles . Montalbán had previously appeared in a television movie created by Roddenberry , The Secret Weapon of 117 ( also referred to as The Secret Defense of 117 ) , which was the writer 's first attempt to create science fiction on television and aired more than ten years before Star Trek . Montalbán called his role as Khan " wonderful " , saying that " it was well @-@ written , it had an interesting concept and I was delighted it was offered to me " . The main cast were enthusiastic about working with Montalbán ; DeForest Kelley later said " I enjoyed working with Ricardo the best . I was privileged . He is a marvelous actor . "
Madlyn Rhue , who portrayed Lt. Marla McGivers , had previously worked with Montalbán in an episode of Bonanza in 1960 as his on @-@ screen wife ; she later appeared with him in a 1982 episode of Fantasy Island . Montalbán and Rhue also appeared in separate episodes of Roddenberry 's previous NBC television series , The Lieutenant ( 1963 – 1964 ) . Main cast member George Takei did not appear in " Space Seed " ; the character of Hikaru Sulu was replaced by Blaisdell Makee as Lt. Spinelli . It was the first of two appearances in Star Trek for Makee , who would return in the episode " The Changeling " as Lt. Singh . John Winston appeared for the second time as Lt. Kyle , and would go on to make nine further episodic appearances in that role . Following positive feedback from the producers and the network regarding James Doohan , " Space Seed " was the first episode to feature a more prominent role for his character , Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott .
= = = Filming , costumes and post production = = =
Filming of " Space Seed " began December 15 , 1966 , and concluded on December 22 after six days of shooting . Roddenberry , Coon and Wilber 's rewrites resulted in a shooting script of nearly 60 pages and 120 scenes . Marc Daniels was hired to direct the episode ; he had previously worked on The Lieutenant . The first day 's filming coincided with the airing of the episode " Balance of Terror " , and Daniels allowed the cast and crew to go home early to watch it . The other five days ran to schedule , to the extent that there was an early finish on the final day of filming , allowing cast and crew time to return home to watch a repeat of the episode " What Are Little Girls Made Of ? " which had replaced " Arena " on that evening 's schedule . A scene filmed but later cut from the episode depicted a discussion between McGivers and Angela Martine ( Barbara Baldavin ) , intended to show that McGivers was looking for a forceful man . Further scenes were trimmed after filming following input from NBC . For example , scenes shot on the Botany Bay were cut as executives felt the costumes worn by the newly awakened crew were too revealing .
The character of Khan required five costumes , more than any other guest star in the entire series . This meant that the staff working on costumes had less time to devote to any one costume . Montalbán 's athletic physique was such that when his measurements were passed to them , staff thought there had been a mistake . Costume designer William Ware Theiss found it challenging to produce the outfits in the time allotted , to make the materials seem suitably futuristic and to fit his own preferences in design . Two of Khan 's outfits re @-@ used previous costumes , while three were specifically created for Montalbán . The production built two new sets for the episode : the decompression chamber in sickbay , and the set on board Botany Bay . A doorframe from that set was later reused as an overhead unit in McCoy 's research lab , which appeared later in the series .
Post production on " Space Seed " began on December 23 , 1966 , and ran through February 5 the following year . The Westheimer Company produced the majority of effects in the episode , but the scenes of Enterprise and Botany Bay in space were produced by Film Effects of Hollywood who were not credited on screen for their work . Botany Bay utilized a design Matt Jefferies created prior to the USS Enterprise . It had been previously labeled " antique space freighter " , and was built by Film Effects of Hollywood . The creation of the ship miniature caused the episode to go over budget by more than $ 12 @,@ 000 ; " Space Seed " actually cost a total of $ 197 @,@ 262 against a budget of $ 180 @,@ 000 . By this point , the series was nearly $ 80 @,@ 000 over budget in total . The Botany Bay model was later re @-@ purposed as a freighter for the episode " The Ultimate Computer " .
The sound effects team borrowed effects and manipulated them in order to achieve the " painted sound " effect sought by Roddenberry . Although a number of sources were used , they attempted to avoid most science fiction television series as they wanted an authentic sound . The sound archive of the United States Air Force was used , although the photon torpedo sound was created from the 1953 film The War of the Worlds . " Space Seed " was awarded the Golden Reel for sound editing on television by the Motion Picture Sound Editors society .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" Space Seed " was first broadcast in the United States on February 16 , 1967 , on NBC . A 12 @-@ city overnight Trendex report compiled by Nielsen ratings showed that during the first half @-@ hour , it held second place in the ratings behind Bewitched on ABC with 13 @.@ 12 million viewers compared to Bewitched 's 14 @.@ 44 million . The episode beat My Three Sons on CBS . During the second half @-@ hour it was pushed into third place in the ratings by the start of the Thursday Night Movie on CBS , the Western film One @-@ Eyed Jacks starring Marlon Brando , which received 35 @.@ 5 percent of the audience share compared to 28 percent for " Space Seed " .
A High Definition remastering of " Space Seed " , which introduced new special effects and starship exteriors as well as enhanced music and audio , was shown for the first time on November 18 , 2006 , in broadcast syndication . It was the eleventh remastered episode to be shown . This meant that the episode was made available to over 200 local stations across the United States with the rights to broadcast Star Trek , and depending on the station it was broadcast either on November 18 or 19 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
In 1967 , The Indiana Gazette described " Space Seed " as " a good piece of science fiction " . The Kokomo Tribune called it " imaginative " , and also said that the episode was " particularly interesting " for " its commentary on the scientific know @-@ how of the late 1990s " .
Later reviewers watched the episodes several decades after broadcast . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an ' A ' rating , noting its strong characters and the interplay between Kirk and Spock that emphasizes their friendship . Michelle Erica Green called the episode " legendary " in her review for TrekNation . She thought that Khan made the " perfect foil " for the trio of Kirk , Spock and McCoy and said that the episode was not dulled by later episodes and films based on " Space Seed " . In Mark Pickavance 's review at Den of Geek , he said that it remained an " obvious choice of great source material " to be followed up in a film .
The review by Eugene Myers and Torrie Atkinson on Tor.com criticized the attraction between McGivers and Khan , saying that it was " really uncomfortable to watch her immediate attraction to him and her easy acceptance of his abusive and controlling behaviour " . However , both praised the episode , Myers giving it a five out of six , and Atkinson a six out of six rating . Also at Tor.com , in Ryan Britt and Emily Asher @-@ Perrin 's list of the ten most under @-@ appreciated elements of Star Trek , they placed " Space Seed " at number three saying that " As an introductory story to what old school Star Trek was all about , ' Space Seed ' is perfect . It presents an original science fiction concept , grapples with notions of human technology and ingenuity creating a monster , and features Captain Kirk beating the crap out of someone with a piece of Styrofoam . What more could you want ? "
Entertainment Weekly named the episode the second best of the series , while IGN ranked " Space Seed " as the fourth best , praising the fist fight between Kirk and Khan . It appeared in the top ten episodes listed by Cinefantastique and was also included in a list of ten " must see " episodes on The A.V. Club . Reviewer Zack Handlen said that it " features a terrific performance from guest star Montalban , gives the franchise one of its greatest villains , and sets the stage for one of best science @-@ fiction adventure movies ever made . "
= = Home media release and other adaptations = =
The first adaptation of " Space Seed " was as a re @-@ working into a short story by author James Blish as part of the novelization Star Trek 2 . This book contained seven short stories , each based on an episode of The Original Series and was published in 1968 . The adaptation of " Space Seed " appeared as the final story in the book . The first home media release of " Space Seed " was on a single @-@ episode VHS cassette in 1982 by Paramount Home Video . It was one of the episodes of The Original Series published on Capacitance Electronic Disc , alongside " The Changeling " , released on November 1 , 1982 . A LaserDisc of the episode , alongside " Return of the Archons " was released in 1985 . Further releases of all episodes of the series were made on VHS and Betamax . These releases reverted to a single episode tape as in the original 1982 version .
The episode was released on DVD paired with " A Taste of Armageddon " as part of the general release of the series in 2000 . There were no additional extras added to that entire series of releases , except the DVD containing " Turnabout Intruder " . " Space Seed " was later released within a DVD box set of the first season in 2004 ; all three seasons of The Original Series were released as full @-@ season box sets that year . The episode was included in the remastered season one release on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in 2009 . This release featured CGI remodels of Enterprise and other space scenes , including the Botany Bay . The most recent release is as part of the Star Trek : Origins collection on Blu @-@ ray , which was released in 2013 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Khan = = =
The events of " Space Seed " are followed up in the 1982 film Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . Harve Bennett was hired to produce a sequel to Star Trek : The Motion Picture having never seen the television series ; he therefore watched every episode in preparation and latched onto Khan from " Space Seed " as the compelling villain he considered to be lacking from the first film . In resuming the role of Khan , Montalbán worried that fans would see him only as Mr. Roarke from Fantasy Island but felt that he managed to recapture the character after re @-@ watching " Space Seed " . The film set a record for the opening weekend gross of $ 14 @.@ 3 million , and went on to take $ 78 @.@ 9 million domestically within the United States , making it the sixth best @-@ selling film of the year .
The movie features errors in continuity when compared to " Space Seed " . Because of re @-@ casting , Khan 's followers appear not to have aged from their appearance in the episode and Khan recognises Pavel Chekov — the character did not join Star Trek until season two , after this episode took place . This latter error was described in Deborah Cartmell and Imelda Whelehan 's book Adaptations : From Text to Screen , Screen to Text as the " gaff notorious throughout Star Trek fandom " . An explanation was presented in the novelization of The Wrath of Khan , which stated that Chekov was working on the night shift at the time .
A non @-@ canon novelization by Greg Cox was later released in 2005 to fill in the timeframe between " Space Seed " and the film , titled To Reign in Hell : The Exile of Khan Noonien Singh . This book expanded on Khan 's romance with McGivers , and the author wanted to " give her a spine " as he felt that she was not " the pride of Starfleet , and even less of a feminist role @-@ model " in her appearance in " Space Seed " .
Events of both " Space Seed " and The Wrath of Khan were also directly referenced in 2013 's Star Trek Into Darkness , in which Benedict Cumberbatch portrayed Khan . The film took $ 70 @.@ 1 million on the opening weekend , and $ 467 @.@ 3 million internationally throughout the cinematic release . As part of their line of licensed Star Trek comic books , IDW Publishing launched a five part mini @-@ series titled Star Trek : Khan which described the early part of Khan 's life and how the events in Star Trek Into Darkness diverged from those seen in " Space Seed " . One of the writers of the film , Roberto Orci , was the story consultant on the comic series . This series also explained how Khan changed physically in order to be represented by Cumberbatch in the film . A retro @-@ style film poster for " Space Seed " was created by Juan Ortiz in 2013 , released around the same as Star Trek Into Darkness .
The television series Star Trek : Enterprise makes several further references to the events first described in " Space Seed " . In " Twilight " , the survivors of the Xindi attack on Earth eventually resettle on Ceti Alpha – V. The development of Khan and his followers were said to have been through selective breeding in " Space Seed " . American sociologist William Sims Bainbridge said that this method would have been unable to create genetic supermen in such a short space of time and that today the less implausible method of genetic engineering ( directly changing the DNA code ) would be used . In fact , subsequent references to the creation of Khan and the other supermen , such as in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Doctor Bashir , I Presume " , substituted genetic engineering .
= = = The Eugenics Wars = = =
The Eugenics Wars , first mentioned in " Space Seed " , are stated in the Star Trek Chronology by Michael and Denise Okuda as taking place between 1992 and 1996 . They considered it fortunate that these events did not come to pass in the real world , and noted that the development of the Botany Bay in 1996 as an instance of where " Star Trek 's technological predictions have missed by a significant margin . " The war itself has been referenced elsewhere in the Star Trek franchise . The first mention of the wars following " Space Seed " was in the Star Trek : The Animated Series episode " The Infinite Vulcan " , in which a cloned version of Dr. Stavos Keniclius , a scientist from that era , clones Spock . Later , during the production of " Doctor Bashir , I Presume ? " , writer René Echevarria , seeking a secret past for Doctor Julian Bashir , noted that coverage of the issue of eugenics in Star Trek had been limited to Khan and his followers . Fellow writer Ronald D. Moore decided to link the background of Bashir to genetic engineering . However , " Encounter at Farpoint " and Star Trek First Contact confused matters by saying WWIII ( aka The Eugenics Wars ) had occurred in the 2050s . Furthermore , when Echevarria wrote that the Eugenics Wars took place 200 years before the Deep Space Nine episode " Doctor Bashir , I Presume ? " , he took the time interval directly from The Wrath of Khan , failing to factor in the additional century between the events of the The Original Series ( and its associated films ) .
Novelist Gary Cox first mentioned the events of the Eugenics Wars in his non @-@ canon novel Assignment : Eternity , which followed up on the events of the episode " Assignment : Earth " and included the characters of Gary Seven and Roberta Lincoln . In it , he mentioned that Seven and Lincoln were involved in overthrowing Khan during the Eugenics Wars . He had not intended to explore this any further , but he was prompted to do so by his editor at Pocket Books . He wrote a story , split into two books , about the specific events of the Eugenics Wars , entitled Star Trek : The Eugenics Wars : The Rise and Fall of Khan Noonien Singh . As the Eugeneics Wars were already meant to have taken place , he decided to describe them as being a massive conspiracy that was not discovered until generations had passed . He also felt that this approach would make the books consistent with the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Future 's End " in which the crewmembers travel in time to the same period of Earth 's history as the Eugenics Wars , but find no such wars taking place . A further version of the Eugenics Wars was presented in the Star Trek : Khan comic book mini @-@ series .
The Enterprise season four episodes " Borderland " , " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " showed a further group of genetic superpeople produced from embryos produced in the same era as Khan and his crew . This was a deliberate link by the producers of Enterprise to both " Space Seed " and The Wrath of Khan , and was one of several plots during the fourth season of the show to include elements of Star Trek : The Original Series in the hope that this would boost ratings .
= = Annotations = =
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= Henry Wadsworth Longfellow =
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ( February 27 , 1807 – March 24 , 1882 ) was an American poet and educator whose works include " Paul Revere 's Ride " , The Song of Hiawatha , and Evangeline . He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy , and was one of the five Fireside Poets .
Longfellow was born in Portland , Maine , which was then a part of Massachusetts . He studied at Bowdoin College . After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and , later , at Harvard College . His first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night ( 1839 ) and Ballads and Other Poems ( 1841 ) . Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854 , to focus on his writing , living the remainder of his life in Cambridge , Massachusetts , in a former Revolutionary War headquarters of George Washington . His first wife Mary Potter died in 1835 , after a miscarriage . His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861 , after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire . After her death , Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on translating works from foreign languages . He died in 1882 .
Longfellow wrote many lyric poems known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and legend . He became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas . He has been criticized , however , for imitating European styles and writing specifically for the masses .
= = Life and work = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Longfellow was born on February 27 , 1807 , to Stephen Longfellow and Zilpah ( Wadsworth ) Longfellow in Portland , Maine , then a district of Massachusetts , and he grew up in what is now known as the Wadsworth @-@ Longfellow House . His father was a lawyer , and his maternal grandfather , Peleg Wadsworth , was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress . He was named after his mother 's brother Henry Wadsworth , a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli . Longfellow was the second of eight children ; his siblings were Stephen ( 1805 ) , Elizabeth ( 1808 ) , Anne ( 1810 ) , Alexander ( 1814 ) , Mary ( 1816 ) , Ellen ( 1818 ) and Samuel ( 1819 ) . Longfellow was of entirely English ancestry , all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s .
Longfellow attended a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy . In his years there he earned a reputation as being very studious and became fluent in Latin . His mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning , introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote . He published his first poem , a patriotic and historical four @-@ stanza poem called " The Battle of Lovell 's Pond " , in the Portland Gazette on November 17 , 1820 . He stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen . He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Peleg 's farm in the western Maine town of Hiram .
In the fall of 1822 , the 15 @-@ year @-@ old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick , Maine , along with his brother Stephen . His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee . There Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne , who would later become his lifelong friend . He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming on the third floor of what is now Maine Hall in 1823 . He joined the Peucinian Society , a group of students with Federalist leanings . In his senior year , Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations :
I will not disguise it in the least ... the fact is , I most eagerly aspire after future eminence in literature , my whole soul burns most ardently after it , and every earthly thought centres in it ... I am almost confident in believing , that if I can ever rise in the world it must be by the exercise of my talents in the wide field of literature .
He pursued his literary goals by submitting poetry and prose to various newspapers and magazines , partly due to encouragement from Professor Thomas Cogswell Upham . Between January 1824 and his graduation in 1825 , he published nearly 40 minor poems . About 24 of them appeared in the short @-@ lived Boston periodical The United States Literary Gazette . When Longfellow graduated from Bowdoin , he was ranked fourth in the class , and had been elected to Phi Beta Kappa . He gave the student commencement address .
= = = European tours and professorships = = =
After graduating in 1825 , he was offered a job as professor of modern languages at his alma mater . The story , possibly apocryphal , is that an influential trustee , Benjamin Orr , had been so impressed by Longfellow 's translation of Horace that he was hired under the condition that he travel to Europe to study French , Spanish , and Italian . Whatever the motivation , he began his tour of Europe in May 1826 aboard the ship Cadmus . His time abroad would last three years and cost his father $ 2 @,@ 604 @.@ 24 . He traveled to France , Spain , Italy , Germany , back to France , then England before returning to the United States in mid @-@ August 1829 . While overseas , he learned French , Spanish , Portuguese , and German , mostly without formal instruction . In Madrid , he spent time with Washington Irving and was particularly impressed by the author 's work ethic . Irving encouraged the young Longfellow to pursue writing . While in Spain , Longfellow was saddened to learn that his favorite sister , Elizabeth , had died of tuberculosis at the age of 20 that May while he was abroad .
On August 27 , 1829 , he wrote to the president of Bowdoin that he was turning down the professorship because he considered the $ 600 salary " disproportionate to the duties required " . The trustees raised his salary to $ 800 with an additional $ 100 to serve as the college 's librarian , a post which required one hour of work per day . During his years teaching at the college , he translated textbooks in French , Italian and Spanish ; his first published book was in 1833 , a translation of the poetry of medieval Spanish poet Jorge Manrique . He also published a travel book , Outre @-@ Mer : A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea , first published in serial form before a book edition was released in 1835 . Shortly after the book 's publication , Longfellow attempted to join the literary circle in New York and asked George Pope Morris for an editorial role at one of Morris 's publications . Longfellow considered moving to New York after New York University considered offering him a newly created professorship of modern languages , though there would be no salary . The professorship was not created and Longfellow agreed to continue teaching at Bowdoin . It may have been joyless work . He wrote , " I hate the sight of pen , ink , and paper ... I do not believe that I was born for such a lot . I have aimed higher than this " .
On September 14 , 1831 , Longfellow married Mary Storer Potter , a childhood friend from Portland . The couple settled in Brunswick , though the two were not happy there . Longfellow published several nonfiction and fiction prose pieces inspired by Irving , including " The Indian Summer " and " The Bald Eagle " in 1833 .
In December 1834 , Longfellow received a letter from Josiah Quincy III , president of Harvard College , offering him the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages with the stipulation that he spend a year or so abroad . There , he further studied German as well as Dutch , Danish , Swedish , Finnish , and Icelandic . In October 1835 , during the trip , his wife Mary had a miscarriage about six months into her pregnancy . She did not recover and died after several weeks of illness at the age of 22 on November 29 , 1835 . Longfellow had her body embalmed immediately and placed in a lead coffin inside an oak coffin which was then shipped to Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston . He was deeply saddened by her death , writing " One thought occupies me night and day ... She is dead — She is dead ! All day I am weary and sad " . Three years later , he was inspired to write the poem " Footsteps of Angels " about her . Several years later , he wrote the poem " Mezzo Cammin , " which expressed his personal struggles in his middle years .
When he returned to the United States in 1836 , Longfellow took up the professorship at Harvard . He was required to live in Cambridge to be close to the campus and , therefore , rented rooms at the Craigie House in the spring of 1837 , now preserved as the Longfellow House – Washington 's Headquarters National Historic Site . The home , built in 1759 , had once been the headquarters of George Washington during the Siege of Boston beginning in July 1775 . Elizabeth Craigie , widow of Andrew Craigie , owned the home and rented rooms on the second floor . Previous boarders also included Jared Sparks , Edward Everett , and Joseph Emerson Worcester . Longfellow began publishing his poetry , including the collection Voices of the Night in 1839 . The bulk of Voices of the Night , Longfellow 's debut book of poetry , was translations though he also included nine original poems and seven poems he had written as a teenager . Ballads and Other Poems was published shortly thereafter in 1841 and included " The Village Blacksmith " and " The Wreck of the Hesperus " , which were instantly popular . Longfellow also became part of the local social scene , creating a group of friends who called themselves the Five of Clubs . Members included Cornelius Conway Felton , George Stillman Hillard , and Charles Sumner , the latter of whom would become Longfellow 's closest friend over the next 30 years . As a professor , Longfellow was well liked , though he disliked being " constantly a playmate for boys " rather than " stretching out and grappling with men 's minds . "
= = = Courtship of Frances Appleton = = =
Longfellow met Boston industrialist Nathan Appleton and his family , including his son Thomas Gold Appleton , in the town of Thun , Switzerland . There , he began courting Appleton 's daughter , Frances " Fanny " Appleton . At first , the independent @-@ minded Appleton was not interested in marriage but Longfellow was determined . In July 1839 , he wrote to a friend : " [ V ] ictory hangs doubtful . The lady says she will not ! I say she shall ! It is not pride , but the madness of passion " . His friend George Stillman Hillard encouraged Longfellow in the pursuit : " I delight to see you keeping up so stout a heart for the resolve to conquer is half the battle in love as well as war " . During the courtship , Longfellow frequently walked from Cambridge to the Appleton home in Beacon Hill in Boston by crossing the Boston Bridge . That bridge was replaced in 1906 by a new bridge which was later renamed the Longfellow Bridge .
In late 1839 , Longfellow published Hyperion , a book in prose inspired by his trips abroad and his unsuccessful courtship of Fanny Appleton . Amidst this , Longfellow fell into " periods of neurotic depression with moments of panic " and took a six @-@ month leave of absence from Harvard to attend a health spa in the former Marienberg Benedictine Convent at Boppard in Germany . After returning , Longfellow published a play in 1842 , The Spanish Student , reflecting his memories from his time in Spain in the 1820s . There was some confusion over its original manuscript . After being printed in Graham 's Magazine , its editor Rufus Wilmot Griswold saved the manuscript from the trash . Longfellow was surprised to hear that it had been saved , unusual for a printing office , and asked to borrow it so that he could revise it , forgetting to return it to Griswold . The often vindictive Griswold wrote an angry letter in response .
A small collection , Poems on Slavery , was published in 1842 as Longfellow 's first public support of abolitionism . However , as Longfellow himself wrote , the poems were " so mild that even a Slaveholder might read them without losing his appetite for breakfast " . A critic for The Dial agreed , calling it " the thinnest of all Mr. Longfellow 's thin books ; spirited and polished like its forerunners ; but the topic would warrant a deeper tone " . The New England Anti @-@ Slavery Association , however , was satisfied with the collection enough to reprint it for further distribution .
On May 10 , 1843 , after seven years , Longfellow received a letter from Fanny Appleton agreeing to marry him and , too restless to take a carriage , walked 90 minutes to meet her at her house . They were soon married . Nathan Appleton bought the Craigie House as a wedding present to the pair . Longfellow lived there for the rest of his life . His love for Fanny is evident in the following lines from Longfellow 's only love poem , the sonnet " The Evening Star " , which he wrote in October 1845 : " O my beloved , my sweet Hesperus ! My morning and my evening star of love ! " He once attended a ball without her and noted , " The lights seemed dimmer , the music sadder , the flowers fewer , and the women less fair . "
He and Fanny had six children : Charles Appleton ( 1844 – 1893 ) , Ernest Wadsworth ( 1845 – 1921 ) , Fanny ( 1847 – 1848 ) , Alice Mary ( 1850 – 1928 ) , Edith ( 1853 – 1915 ) , and Anne Allegra ( 1855 – 1934 ) . Their second @-@ youngest daughter , Edith , married Richard Henry Dana III , son of the popular writer Richard Henry Dana , Jr . , author of Two Years Before the Mast . When the younger Fanny was born on April 7 , 1847 , Dr. Nathan Cooley Keep administered ether as the first obstetric anesthetic in the United States to Fanny Longfellow . A few months later , on November 1 , 1847 , the poem Evangeline was published for the first time . His literary income was increasing considerably : in 1840 , he had made $ 219 from his work but the year 1850 brought him $ 1 @,@ 900 .
On June 14 , 1853 , Longfellow held a farewell dinner party at his Cambridge home for his friend Nathaniel Hawthorne , who was preparing to move overseas . In 1854 , Longfellow retired from Harvard , devoting himself entirely to writing . He was awarded an honorary doctorate of laws from Harvard in 1859 .
= = = Death of Frances = = =
On July 9 , 1861 , a hot day , Fanny was putting locks of her children 's hair into an envelope and attempting to seal it with hot sealing wax while Longfellow took a nap . Her dress suddenly caught fire , though it is unclear exactly how ; it may have been burning wax or a lighted candle that fell on her dress . Longfellow , awakened from his nap , rushed to help her and threw a rug over her , though it was too small . He stifled the flames with his body as best he could , but she was already badly burned . Over a half a century later , Longfellow 's youngest daughter Annie explained the story differently , claiming that there had been no candle or wax but that the fire had started from a self @-@ lighting match that had fallen on the floor . In both versions of the story , however , Fanny was taken to her room to recover and a doctor was called . She was in and out of consciousness throughout the night and was administered ether . The next morning , July 10 , 1861 , she died shortly after 10 o 'clock after requesting a cup of coffee . Longfellow , in trying to save her , had burned himself badly enough for him to be unable to attend her funeral . His facial injuries led him to stop shaving , thereafter wearing the beard which became his trademark .
Devastated by her death , he never fully recovered and occasionally resorted to laudanum and ether to deal with it . He worried he would go insane and begged " not to be sent to an asylum " and noted that he was " inwardly bleeding to death " . He expressed his grief in the sonnet " The Cross of Snow " ( 1879 ) , which he wrote eighteen years later to commemorate her death :
Such is the cross I wear upon my breast
These eighteen years , through all the changing scenes
And seasons , changeless since the day she died .
= = = Later life and death = = =
Longfellow spent several years translating Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy . To aid him in perfecting the translation and reviewing proofs , he invited friends to weekly meetings every Wednesday starting in 1864 . The " Dante Club " , as it was called , regularly included William Dean Howells , James Russell Lowell , Charles Eliot Norton and other occasional guests . The full three @-@ volume translation was published in the spring of 1867 , though Longfellow would continue to revise it , and went through four printings in its first year . By 1868 , Longfellow 's annual income was over $ 48 @,@ 000 . In 1874 , Samuel Cutler Ward helped him sell the poem " The Hanging of the Crane " to the New York Ledger for $ 3 @,@ 000 ; it was the highest price ever paid for a poem .
During the 1860s , Longfellow supported abolitionism and especially hoped for reconciliation between the northern and southern states after the American Civil War . When his son was injured during the war , he wrote the poem " Christmas Bells " , later the basis of the carol I Heard the Bells on Christmas Day . He wrote in his journal in 1878 : " I have only one desire ; and that is for harmony , and a frank and honest understanding between North and South " . Longfellow , despite his aversion to public speaking , accepted an offer from Joshua Chamberlain to speak at his fiftieth reunion at Bowdoin College ; he read the poem " Morituri Salutamus " so quietly that few could hear him . The next year , 1876 , he declined an offer to be nominated for the Board of Overseers at Harvard " for reasons very conclusive to my own mind " .
On August 22 , 1879 , a female admirer traveled to Longfellow 's house in Cambridge and , unaware to whom she was speaking , asked Longfellow : " Is this the house where Longfellow was born ? " Longfellow told her it was not . The visitor then asked if he had died here . " Not yet " , he replied . In March 1882 , Longfellow went to bed with severe stomach pain . He endured the pain for several days with the help of opium before he died surrounded by family on Friday , March 24 , 1882 . He had been suffering from peritonitis . At the time of his death , his estate was worth an estimated $ 356 @,@ 320 . He is buried with both of his wives at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge , Massachusetts . His last few years were spent translating the poetry of Michelangelo ; though Longfellow never considered it complete enough to be published during his lifetime , a posthumous edition was collected in 1883 . Scholars generally regard the work as autobiographical , reflecting the translator as an aging artist facing his impending death .
= = Writing = =
= = = Style = = =
Though much of his work is categorized as lyric poetry , Longfellow experimented with many forms , including hexameter and free verse . His published poetry shows great versatility , using anapestic and trochaic forms , blank verse , heroic couplets , ballads and sonnets . Typically , Longfellow would carefully consider the subject of his poetic ideas for a long time before deciding on the right metrical form for it . Much of his work is recognized for its melody @-@ like musicality . As he says , " what a writer asks of his reader is not so much to like as to listen " .
As a very private man , Longfellow did not often add autobiographical elements to his poetry . Two notable exceptions are dedicated to the death of members of his family . " Resignation " , written as a response to the death of his daughter Fanny in 1848 , does not use first @-@ person pronouns and is instead a generalized poem of mourning . The death of his second wife Frances , as biographer Charles Calhoun wrote , deeply affected Longfellow personally but " seemed not to touch his poetry , at least directly " . His memorial poem to her , a sonnet called " The Cross of Snow " , was not published in his lifetime .
Longfellow often used didacticism in his poetry , though he focused on it less in his later years . Much of his poetry imparts cultural and moral values , particularly focused on promoting life as being more than material pursuits . Longfellow also often used allegory in his work . In " Nature " , for example , death is depicted as bedtime for a cranky child . Many of the metaphors he used in his poetry as well as subject matter came from legends , mythology , and literature . He was inspired , for example , by Norse mythology for " The Skeleton in Armor " and by Finnish legends for The Song of Hiawatha . In fact , Longfellow rarely wrote on current subjects and seemed detached from contemporary American concerns . Even so , Longfellow , like many during this period , called for the development of high quality American literature . In Kavanagh , a character says :
We want a national literature commensurate with our mountains and rivers ... We want a national epic that shall correspond to the size of the country ... We want a national drama in which scope shall be given to our gigantic ideas and to the unparalleled activity of our people ... In a word , we want a national literature altogether shaggy and unshorn , that shall shake the earth , like a herd of buffaloes thundering over the prairies .
He was also important as a translator ; his translation of Dante became a required possession for those who wanted to be a part of high culture . He also encouraged and supported other translators . In 1845 , he published The Poets and Poetry of Europe , an 800 @-@ page compilation of translations made by other writers , including many by his friend and colleague Cornelius Conway Felton . Longfellow intended the anthology " to bring together , into a compact and convenient form , as large an amount as possible of those English translations which are scattered through many volumes , and are not accessible to the general reader " . In honor of Longfellow 's role with translations , Harvard established the Longfellow Institute in 1994 , dedicated to literature written in the United States in languages other than English .
In 1874 , Longfellow oversaw a 31 @-@ volume anthology called Poems of Places , which collected poems representing several geographical locations , including European , Asian , and Arabian countries . Emerson was disappointed and reportedly told Longfellow : " The world is expecting better things of you than this ... You are wasting time that should be bestowed upon original production " . In preparing the volume , Longfellow hired Katherine Sherwood Bonner as an amanuensis .
= = = Critical response = = =
Longfellow 's early collections , Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems , made him instantly popular . The New @-@ Yorker called him " one of the very few in our time who has successfully aimed in putting poetry to its best and sweetest uses " . The Southern Literary Messenger immediately put Longfellow " among the first of our American poets " . Poet John Greenleaf Whittier said that Longfellow 's poetry illustrated " the careful moulding by which art attains the graceful ease and chaste simplicity of nature " . Longfellow 's friend Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. wrote of him as " our chief singer " and one who " wins and warms ... kindles , softens , cheers [ and ] calms the wildest woe and stays the bitterest tears ! "
The rapidity with which American readers embraced Longfellow was unparalleled in publishing history in the United States ; by 1874 , he was earning $ 3 @,@ 000 per poem . His popularity spread throughout Europe as well and his poetry was translated during his lifetime into Italian , French , German , and other languages . As scholar Bliss Perry later wrote , Longfellow was so highly praised that criticizing him was a criminal act like " carrying a rifle into a national park " . In the last two decades of his life , he often received requests for autographs from strangers , which he always sent . John Greenleaf Whittier suggested it was this massive correspondence that led to Longfellow 's death , writing : " My friend Longfellow was driven to death by these incessant demands " .
Contemporary writer Edgar Allan Poe wrote to Longfellow in May 1841 of his " fervent admiration which [ your ] genius has inspired in me " and later called him " unquestionably the best poet in America " . However , after Poe 's reputation as a critic increased , he publicly accused Longfellow of plagiarism in what has been since termed by Poe biographers as " The Longfellow War " . His assessment was that Longfellow was " a determined imitator and a dextrous adapter of the ideas of other people " , specifically Alfred , Lord Tennyson . His accusations may have been a publicity stunt to boost readership of the Broadway Journal , for which he was the editor at the time . Longfellow did not respond publicly , but , after Poe 's death , he wrote : " The harshness of his criticisms I have never attributed to anything but the irritation of a sensitive nature chafed by some indefinite sense of wrong " .
Margaret Fuller judged him " artificial and imitative " and lacking force . Poet Walt Whitman also considered Longfellow an imitator of European forms , though he praised his ability to reach a popular audience as " the expressor of common themes – of the little songs of the masses " . He added , " Longfellow was no revolutionarie : never traveled new paths : of course never broke new paths . " Lewis Mumford said that Longfellow could be completely removed from the history of literature without much effect . Towards the end of his life , contemporaries considered him more of a children 's poet as many of his readers were children . A contemporary reviewer noted in 1848 that Longfellow was creating a " Goody two @-@ shoes kind of literature ... slipshod , sentimental stories told in the style of the nursery , beginning in nothing and ending in nothing " . A more modern critic said , " Who , except wretched schoolchildren , now reads Longfellow ? " A London critic in the London Quarterly Review , however , condemned all American poetry , saying , " with two or three exceptions , there is not a poet of mark in the whole union " but singled out Longfellow as one of those exceptions . As an editor of the Boston Evening Transcript wrote in 1846 , " Whatever the miserable envy of trashy criticism may write against Longfellow , one thing is most certain , no American poet is more read " .
= = Legacy = =
Longfellow was the most popular poet of his day . As a friend once wrote to him , " no other poet was so fully recognized in his lifetime " . Many of his works helped shape the American character and its legacy , particularly with the poem " Paul Revere 's Ride " . He was such an admired figure in the United States during his life that his 70th birthday in 1877 took on the air of a national holiday , with parades , speeches , and the reading of his poetry .
Over the years , Longfellow 's personality has become part of his reputation . He has been presented as a gentle , placid , poetic soul : an image perpetuated by his brother Samuel Longfellow , who wrote an early biography which specifically emphasized these points . As James Russell Lowell said , Longfellow had an " absolute sweetness , simplicity , and modesty " . At Longfellow 's funeral , his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson called him " a sweet and beautiful soul " . In reality , Longfellow 's life was much more difficult than was assumed . He suffered from neuralgia , which caused him constant pain , and he also had poor eyesight . He wrote to friend Charles Sumner : " I do not believe anyone can be perfectly well , who has a brain and a heart " . He had difficulty coping with the death of his second wife . Longfellow was very quiet , reserved , and private ; in later years , he was known for being unsocial and avoided leaving home . He had become one of the first American celebrities and was also popular in Europe . It was reported that 10 @,@ 000 copies of The Courtship of Miles Standish sold in London in a single day . Children adored him and , when the " spreading chestnut @-@ tree " mentioned in the poem " The Village Blacksmith " was cut down , the children of Cambridge had the tree converted into an armchair which they presented to the poet . In 1884 , Longfellow became the first non @-@ British writer for whom a commemorative sculpted bust was placed in Poet 's Corner of Westminster Abbey in London ; he remains the only American poet represented with a bust . In 1909 , a seated statue of Longfellow sculpted by William Couper was unveiled in Washington , D. C.
More recently , he was honored in March 2007 when the United States Postal Service issued a stamp commemorating him . A number of schools are named after him in various states as well . Neil Diamond 's 1974 hit song , " Longfellow Serenade " , is a reference to the poet . He is a protagonist in Matthew Pearl 's murder mystery The Dante Club ( 2003 ) .
Longfellow 's popularity rapidly declined , beginning shortly after his death and into the twentieth century as academics began to appreciate poets like Walt Whitman , Edwin Arlington Robinson , and Robert Frost . In the twentieth century , literary scholar Kermit Vanderbilt noted , " Increasingly rare is the scholar who braves ridicule to justify the art of Longfellow 's popular rhymings . " 20th @-@ century poet Lewis Putnam Turco concluded " Longfellow was minor and derivative in every way throughout his career ... nothing more than a hack imitator of the English Romantics . "
= = List of works = =
Outre @-@ Mer : A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea ( Travelogue ) ( 1835 )
Hyperion , a Romance ( 1839 )
The Spanish Student . A Play in Three Acts ( 1843 )
Evangeline : A Tale of Acadie ( epic poem ) ( 1847 )
Kavanagh ( 1849 )
The Golden Legend ( poem ) ( 1851 )
The Song of Hiawatha ( epic poem ) ( 1855 )
The New England Tragedies ( 1868 )
The Divine Tragedy ( 1871 )
Christus : A Mystery ( 1872 )
Aftermath ( poem ) ( 1873 )
The Arrow and the Song ( poem )
Poetry collections
Voices of the Night ( 1839 )
Ballads and Other Poems ( 1841 )
Poems on Slavery ( 1842 )
The Belfry of Bruges and Other Poems ( 1845 )
The Seaside and the Fireside ( 1850 )
The Poetical Works of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ( London , 1852 ) , with illustrations by John Gilbert
The Courtship of Miles Standish and Other Poems ( 1858 )
Tales of a Wayside Inn ( 1863 )
Also included Birds of Passage ( 1863 )
Household Poems ( 1865 )
Flower @-@ de @-@ Luce ( 1867 )
Three Books of Song ( 1872 )
The Masque of Pandora and Other Poems ( 1875 )
Kéramos and Other Poems ( 1878 )
Ultima Thule ( 1880 )
In the Harbor ( 1882 )
Michel Angelo : A Fragment ( incomplete ; published posthumously )
Translations
Coplas de Don Jorge Manrique ( Translation from Spanish ) ( 1833 )
Dante 's Divine Comedy ( Translation ) ( 1867 )
Anthologies
Poets and Poetry of Europe ( Translations ) ( 1844 )
The Waif ( 1845 )
Poems of Places ( 1874 )
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= Kid Klown in Crazy Chase =
Kid Klown in Crazy Chase ( キッドクラウンのクレイジーチェイス , Kiddo Kuraun no Kureijī Cheisu ) is a platform video game developed and published by Kemco for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . It was released in North America in September 1994 , Japan on October 21 , 1994 and in Europe in 1994 . The game features the Kid Klown , the player character who is tasked with rescuing the Princess Honey from the villain Black Jack . Players view gameplay from an isometric perspective as Kid Klown pursues a lit fuse in order to stop it from reaching a spade bomb . The game was re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance and features 11 new levels , four mini @-@ games , and a multi @-@ player mode . The re @-@ release was released in Europe and North America in October 2002 , while a release in Japan was planned but ultimately canceled . It was met with mixed reception from critics , who found it to be inferior to other games of its type .
= = Gameplay = =
Players control the player character Kid Klown as he attempts to rescue Princess Honey from the villain Black Jack . The game 's graphics are presented in an isometric view as Kid Klown automatically moves down a path to thwart Black Jack 's plans of blowing up one of his spade bombs in each level . Various obstacles cause Kid Klown to slow down if they collide with him ; if Kid Klown does not make it to the bomb in time or if he is hit too many times , the level is lost . The game consists of 5 stages . In each stage , Kid Klown must find all 4 card suit orbs and stop the bomb to complete the level . At the end of each stage Kid Klown gets a key which in turn at the ending could be of use to unlock Honey 's cage. if the player gets all 4 orbs in the very first turn , Kid Klown also gets a Honey heart . After the fifth stage Kid Klown must find the correct lock out of the 10 locks to unlock Honey 's Cage .
There are 3 endings to the game :
Good Ending : The player has collected all five Honey hearts and saved Honey from the cage .
Average Ending : The player saved Honey , but did not get all five Honey hearts .
Bad Ending : The player failed to save Honey .
In the Game Boy Advance re @-@ release , the developers added 11 new levels and four unlockable mini @-@ games , as well as a multi @-@ player mode .
= = Development and release = =
Kid Klown in Crazy Chase was developed and published by Kemco for the Super NES and Game Boy Advance platforms . While the Super NES version was first released in Europe in 1994 , in North America in September 1994 , and in Japan on October 21 , 1994 , the Game Boy Advance re @-@ release was released in October 21 and 23 , 2002 in Europe and North America , respectively . The Game Boy Advance version was first revealed at E3 2001 , where Kemco commented that the current build was 60 % complete and would be released in Summer 2001 for Japan and November 2001 for North America . Both releases were delayed several times and the Japanese version ultimately canceled . Before release , it was featured at both E3 2002 and the 2002 Tokyo Game Show .
= = Reception = =
Kid Klown in Krazy Chase received mixed reception . It holds an aggregate score of 64 @.@ 17 % on Game Rankings based on three reviews . Author Andy Slaven wrote that the only problem with the game was its " strange " three @-@ quarter perspective . Nintendo Power gave it a 3 @.@ 375 out of 5 . Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it a 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 , summarizing that " this one requires a lot of skill and technique , but the various antics and animations ( especially on Kidd 's enemy ) are incredibly lifelike and make this one of the better games around . " IGN called the Super NES version overlooked and described it as a " zany " game that " boasts stellar colors and some really frantic animation " . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell described the video game J.J. & Jeff as a " poor man 's Plok / Kid Klown in Crazy Chase / Putty Quest / etc " . Edge compared Let 's Tap to Kid Klown due to the similar challenges found in Let 's Tap 's multi @-@ player mode . Nintendo Life 's Andrew Donaldson commented that while not a bad game , there 's no reason to play it due to a lack of levels and an abundance of games that do what it does better .
The Game Boy Advance version was met with similar reception . Nintendo Power gave it a 3 @.@ 2 out of 5 , lower than the Super NES version 's score . IGN noted that the Game Boy Advance version " gave both good and bad impressions about Kemco 's abilities to port SNES to the handheld " and that the multi @-@ player mode will get it its " dues " . They gave specific criticism to the early build of Crazy Chase due to the stiff controls and delayed jump . They also criticized the animation for being less fluid than the Super NES version 's . GamePro 's Fennec Fox called the Super NES game " semi @-@ obscure " , while fellow GamePro writer DJ Dinobot criticized the Game Boy Advance 's preview build for Crazy Chase for its controls were " harder to steer than a 1976 Pinto with a flat tire " .
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= Checkers speech =
The Checkers speech or Fund speech was an address made on September 23 , 1952 , by the Republican candidate for vice president of the United States , California Senator Richard Nixon . Nixon had been accused of improprieties relating to a fund established by his backers to reimburse him for his political expenses . With his place on the Republican ticket in doubt , he flew to Los Angeles and delivered a half @-@ hour television address in which he defended himself , attacked his opponents , and urged the audience to contact the Republican National Committee ( RNC ) to tell it whether he should remain on the ticket . During the speech , he stated that regardless of what anyone said , he intended to keep one gift : a black @-@ and @-@ white dog who had been named Checkers by the Nixon children , thus giving the address its popular name .
Nixon , as he related in his address , came from a family of moderate means , and had spent much of his time after law school either in the military , campaigning for office , or serving in Congress . After his successful 1950 Senate campaign , Nixon 's backers continued to raise money to finance his political activities . These contributions went to reimburse him for travel costs , postage for political mailings which he did not have franked , and similar expenses . Such a fund was not illegal at the time , but as Nixon had made a point of attacking government corruption , it exposed him to charges he might be giving special favors to the contributors .
The press became aware of the fund in September 1952 , two months after Nixon 's selection as General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's running mate . Within a few days , the story grew until the controversy threatened Nixon 's place on the ticket . In an attempt to turn the tide of public opinion , Nixon broke off a whistle @-@ stop tour of the West Coast to fly to Los Angeles to make a television and radio broadcast to the nation ; the $ 75 @,@ 000 to buy the television time was raised by the RNC . The idea for the Checkers reference came from Franklin Roosevelt 's Fala speech — given eight years to the day before Nixon 's address — in which Roosevelt mocked Republican claims that he had sent a destroyer to fetch his dog , Fala , when the dog was supposedly left behind in the Aleutian Islands .
Nixon 's speech was seen or heard by about 60 million Americans , including the largest television audience to that time , and led to an outpouring of public support . A huge majority of the millions of telegrams and phone calls received by the RNC and other political offices supported Nixon . He was retained on the ticket , which then swept to victory weeks later in November 1952 . The Checkers speech was an early example of a politician using television to appeal directly to the electorate , but has since sometimes been mocked or denigrated . Checkers speech has come more generally to mean any emotional speech by a politician .
= = Background = =
In 1950 , California Congressman Richard Nixon was elected to the Senate , defeating Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas . With the six @-@ year term secured , Nixon campaign officials discussed how to further his career . Campaign manager Murray Chotiner and campaign chairman Bernie Brennan proposed a year @-@ round campaign for the next six years , leading up to a re @-@ election bid in 1956 . Nixon 's Southern California campaign treasurer Dana Smith suggested what became known as " the Fund " , to be administered by himself , which would pay for Nixon 's political expenses .
As Smith wrote to one potential contributor , money donated to the Fund was to be used for :
Transportation and hotel expenses to cover trips to California more frequently than his mileage allowance permits . Payment of airmail and long @-@ distance phone charges above his allowance ... Preparation of material ... to send out to the people ... who have supported him ... Defraying expenses of his Christmas cards to the people who worked in his campaign or contributed financially ... paying for getting out material for radio broadcasts and television programs . ... and various other similar items .
As a senator , Nixon received an annual salary of $ 12 @,@ 500 ( about $ 150 @,@ 000 in 2009 dollars ) . While he received an expense allowance of over $ 75 @,@ 000 , an amount larger than that of most senators since California was one of the most populous states , the money went to pay his staff of 12 and to cover the cost of stationery , telephone service , telegrams , and other office expenses . It also paid for the one set of round @-@ trip airline tickets between Washington , D.C. , and California that Nixon was allowed to buy for himself and his family at taxpayer expense each Congressional session .
Nixon later characterized the attitude of his backers and aides as , " We want you to start campaigning right now for 1956 , and we think the way to do it is to have available the funds to make speeches , make trips to California , and so forth . " Contributors were drawn only from his early supporters , and contributions were limited to $ 1 @,@ 000 . Nixon was not to be informed of the names of contributors ; however , the fundraising letter stated that Nixon " will of course be very appreciative of your continuing interest " . By October 30 , 1951 , some $ 16 @,@ 000 had been raised , of which Nixon had spent approximately $ 12 @,@ 000 , principally from contributors in the Los Angeles area . The senator 's Christmas card expense for 1950 and 1951 totaled $ 4 @,@ 237 @.@ 54 . Despite the initial fundraising success , only $ 2 @,@ 200 could be raised from November 1951 to July 1952 , and an engraving bill was unpaid pending a hoped @-@ for contribution of $ 500 .
= = Fund crisis = =
In 1952 , the Republicans chose Dwight D. Eisenhower as their presidential candidate , who then selected Nixon as his running mate , while the Democrats nominated Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson for president and Alabama Senator John Sparkman for vice president . The California delegation to the 1952 Republican National Convention , including Nixon , had been pledged to the state 's " favorite son " candidate , Governor Earl Warren , who hoped to gain the presidential nomination in a brokered convention . Warren failed in his attempt to gain the nomination , and his supporters alleged that Nixon had worked behind the scenes to nominate Eisenhower despite his pledge to support Warren , and accused him of political opportunism for accepting the vice presidential nomination . A disgruntled Warren supporter from Pasadena leaked the Fund story to several reporters .
Nixon had campaigned for public integrity in his time in the Senate , even calling for the resignation of his own party chairman , Guy Gabrielson , when the latter was implicated in a loan scandal . By using such " indignant rhetoric " , Nixon had " weakened his own position " when the Fund crisis erupted .
= = = Development of the story = = =
On September 14 , Nixon was asked about the Fund by reporter Peter Edson of the Newspaper Enterprise Association after the senator completed an appearance on Meet the Press . The candidate told Edson that the Fund was set up by his supporters to pay political expenses , explained that he had made no effort to find out the names of the donors , and referred Edson to Smith for further information . Edson , and other reporters , did contact Smith , who answered questions about the Fund . Three days later , Nixon 's campaign train , the " Dick Nixon Special " , left Pomona , California , on a whistle @-@ stop campaign tour of the West Coast and Rocky Mountain states .
Edson 's column on the 18th , which included lengthy quotes by Smith on the supposed safeguards in the Fund , was later called by Nixon , " fair and objective " . However , Leo Katcher of the New York Post interviewed Smith and wrote a story under the headline " Secret Rich Men 's Trust Fund Keeps Nixon in Style Far Beyond His Salary " and referred to the Fund donors as a " millionaires ' club " . Nixon later praised Katcher 's younger brother Edward , also a reporter , for his objectivity , but told him , " your brother Leo is a son of a bitch " .
When the Dick Nixon Special arrived in Bakersfield , California , that day , the candidate , still oblivious to the developing furor , made a speech promoting the Republican ticket , and backing local congressman Thomas H. Werdel . After the speech , Republican activist Keith McCormac showed Nixon the Post story , which had been picked up by United Press under the headline " Nixon Scandal Fund " . According to McCormac , the senator collapsed into his seat in shock , and needed the help of Murray Chotiner , who was again Nixon 's campaign manager , and Congressman Patrick J. Hillings ( a Nixon confidant who had succeeded him in the House of Representatives ) to return to his compartment .
Democratic National Committee Chairman Stephen A. Mitchell called for Nixon 's resignation from the ticket , saying that " Senator Nixon knows that [ the Fund ] is morally wrong . General Eisenhower knows that it is morally wrong . The American people know that it is morally wrong . " On the other hand , Republican Senator Karl Mundt called the story " a filthy maneuver by left @-@ wingers , fellow travelers , and former communists " . Nixon issued a written statement explaining that the fund was to pay political expenses , in lieu of charging them to the taxpayer . Newspapers printed increasingly lurid accounts of the Fund and its beneficiary . The Sacramento Bee termed Nixon " the pet protégé of a special interest group of rich southern Californians ... their front man , if not , indeed , their lobbyist . " The Pasadena Star @-@ News , meanwhile , reported that one contributor had been appealed to on the grounds that the Nixon family needed a larger home and could not afford a maid .
The train reached Marysville , California , on the morning of September 19 , and Nixon gave a speech from the rear platform . As the train pulled out , while he remained on the rear platform , someone in the crowd yelled , " What about the $ 16 @,@ 000 ? " ( the amount then thought to have been contributed to the Fund ) . The candidate had the train stopped , and responded that he had been told that if he continued on his political course , " crooks and communists " would smear him . He told the crowd that the Fund had saved the taxpayer money , since it paid for matters that could have been paid for through his Senate expense allowance . He promised to throw the " crooks and communists " out of Washington .
Eisenhower was on his own train , the Look Ahead , Neighbor , stumping through Missouri , and on the morning of the 19th , his campaign staff made him aware of the gathering storm . Eisenhower publicly called upon Nixon to release all documents relating to the Fund , somewhat to the dismay of Chotiner , who wondered , " What more does the general require than the senator 's word ? " Eisenhower aides contacted the senior Republican senator from California , William Knowland , and persuaded him to fly from Hawaii to join the Eisenhower train and be available as a potential replacement running mate .
By this time , Nixon campaign headquarters was receiving a flood of messages , calling on the senator to resign from the ticket . When Eisenhower 's train stopped for the candidate to make speeches , he faced protesters with signs reading " Donate Here to Help Poor Richard Nixon " . The influential Washington Post and New York Herald @-@ Tribune both called for Nixon to leave the ticket , facts which Chotiner did not tell his candidate ; Nixon learned them from a questioning reporter . Over 100 newspapers would editorialize about the Fund on the morning of September 20 , opinion running two to one against Nixon . As his train stopped in Eugene , Oregon , Nixon was met with protestors signs referencing his wife : " Pat , What Are You Going to Do With the Bribe Money ? " and " No Mink Coats for Nixon — Just Cold Cash " . He angrily responded with a phrase which would be echoed in the Checkers speech . After stating that there were no mink coats for the Nixons , the candidate said that he was " proud of the fact that Pat Nixon wears a good Republican cloth coat , and she 's going to continue to . "
Politicians from both parties opined on the propriety of the Fund and on what Nixon should do , most in accord with their political affiliation . Democratic presidential candidate Stevenson , though , publicly reserved judgment , leading Chotiner to suspect " that Stevenson is afraid of something here . I bet he has something to hide . "
= = = Idea for a speech = = =
On September 20 , Republican National Committee official Bob Humphreys first suggested that Nixon give a televised speech to the nation to explain his position . RNC chairman and future Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield thought well of the idea , but was concerned about the expense . That evening , Nixon conferred with his aides , who unanimously urged him not to resign from the ticket . Humphreys called Chotiner at Nixon 's hotel in Portland , Oregon that evening , and the campaign manager realized that the broadcast was the best opportunity for the candidate to make his case . Humphreys suggested Nixon appear on Meet the Press , but Chotiner rejected the suggestion , insisting that his candidate have complete control of the broadcast " without interruption by possibly unfriendly press questions " . Humphreys mentioned that Summerfield was concerned about the cost of a television broadcast , but Chotiner noted that the cost of reprinting all campaign materials to reflect a change on the ticket would be far more than that of a telecast .
The avalanche of editorial opinion continued the following day , Sunday , September 21 , but Eisenhower continued to withhold judgment . The general considered asking retired Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts to evaluate the legality of the Fund , but time constraints ruled him out . Eisenhower decided to ask the Los Angeles law firm Gibson , Dunn & Crutcher for a legal opinion , while asking the accounting firm Price Waterhouse to audit the Fund 's records . Nixon , meanwhile , was encouraged by a supportive telegram from his mother and discouraged by one from former Minnesota governor Harold Stassen urging him to resign from the ticket . New York Governor Thomas E. Dewey , a Nixon supporter , called to tell the senator that most Eisenhower aides favored his removal , and that if Nixon made the telecast , he should call for people to write to express their opinions . Dewey added that if the response was not strongly pro @-@ Nixon , the senator should leave the ticket .
Nixon finally got a call from Eisenhower at 10 pm , Pacific time , Sunday night . Eisenhower expressed a reluctance to see him leave the ticket , and felt that he should have a chance to make his case to the American people . Nixon enquired if the general would be able to make a decision on whether to keep him as the running mate immediately after the broadcast , and when Eisenhower equivocated , he angrily burst out : " General , there comes a time in matters like this when you 've either got to shit or get off the pot . " Eisenhower replied that it might take three or four days to gauge public reaction .
= = = Preparation and setting = = =
Through the night to the morning of September 22 , Eisenhower and Nixon aides arranged the speech . The RNC worked to raise the $ 75 @,@ 000 needed to buy the half hour of television time , while the Eisenhower staff secured sixty NBC stations to telecast the speech , with radio coverage from CBS and Mutual . The Nixon staff initially advocated a half hour that evening , Monday , September 22 , to follow the immensely popular I Love Lucy show , but when the candidate indicated he could not be ready that soon , settled for 6 : 30 pm Tuesday night , 9 : 30 pm in the East , following the almost equally popular Texaco Star Theater , starring Milton Berle . The campaign arranged to use the El Capitan Theatre , in Hollywood , where several variety shows were then filmed , since its lighting was superior to that of NBC Studios . Nixon told the press that he would be addressing the nation on television , but refused to take any questions about what he might say .
On Monday morning , Nixon flew to Los Angeles , making notes for his speech aboard the plane . He jotted down the line he had said in Eugene regarding his wife 's coat . He made notes concerning the family finances , upsetting Pat Nixon , who asked why people had to know their financial details . The senator responded that people in politics live in a fishbowl . He recalled the Fala speech , in which Franklin Roosevelt had sarcastically responded to Republican claims he had sent a destroyer to fetch his dog , Fala , and remembered the dog his children had recently received : A Texas traveling salesman named Lou Carrol had read a report that Pat Nixon said her children Tricia and Julie " longed " for a dog , and his own dog , an American Cocker Spaniel , had just had a litter . After a telegram exchange , he crated the puppy and shipped it by rail to the Nixons , and six @-@ year @-@ old Tricia Nixon named the dog " Checkers " . Nixon decided that including the anecdote evoking FDR would needle his enemies and delight his friends .
When the plane reached Los Angeles , Nixon secluded himself in a suite in The Ambassador Hotel , letting no one except his wife , Chotiner , and attorney and adviser William P. Rogers have any hint what he was planning . He called two professors he knew at his alma mater , Whittier College , seeking appropriate Abraham Lincoln quotes . They called back with two suggestions , one of which he used . Unwilling to have his message filtered , the candidate adamantly refused to provide the media with any advance text of his speech , convinced that it would reduce the size of his audience . Without any hard information on what would be said during the speech , rumors flew through the media . UPI reported that Nixon would resign from the ticket well before the scheduled time for the speech . On the evening of the 22nd , the media broke the story that Democratic nominee Adlai Stevenson had a similar fund , as Chotiner had predicted . The Stevenson information had been leaked by Bob Humphreys at the RNC , but as he later ruefully noted , " Nobody paid much attention to it . "
The morning of the 23rd , the day of the speech , brought the reports from the lawyers , who opined that it was legal for a senator to accept expense reimbursements , and from the accountants , who stated that there was no evidence of misappropriation of money . The Fund was to be dissolved , and gifts accepted since Nixon 's nomination were to be accounted for as campaign contributions . Despite the reports , Eisenhower had second thoughts about relying on the success of the speech . He told an aide to call Governor Dewey , who was to call Nixon and instruct him to close his speech with his resignation from the ticket . Believing they had resolved the situation at last , Eisenhower and his staff had a relaxed dinner and began to prepare for his own speech that evening , before 15 @,@ 000 Republican supporters in Cleveland .
At 4 : 30 pm Pacific Time , Nixon , Chotiner , and Rogers were discussing where the public should be told to send their responses to the speech , when a Dewey aide telephoned for Nixon . Reluctantly , suspecting the reason for the call , Chotiner brought Nixon to the phone to speak with the New York governor . Dewey told Nixon that Eisenhower 's aides were unanimous that Nixon resign , though Dewey did not agree , and that Nixon was to so state at the end of his telecast . Nixon asked what the general wanted him to do . Dewey hedged , stating that he had not spoken with the presidential candidate himself , but that the word had come from such close aides to Eisenhower that the demand had to represent the general 's view . The candidate replied that it was very late for him to change his remarks ; Dewey assured him he need not do so , but simply add at the end his resignation from the ticket and his insistence that Eisenhower accept it . The governor suggested he even announce his resignation from the Senate and his intent to run in the special election which would follow — the two @-@ time losing presidential candidate was sure Nixon would be returned with a huge majority , thus vindicating him . Nixon remained silent for some time , and when Dewey asked him what he would do , the senator told him that he did not know , and if Eisenhower 's aides wanted to find out , they could watch just like everyone else . Before slamming down the receiver , Nixon added , " And tell them I know something about politics , too ! "
Nixon , somewhat dazed by the conversation with Dewey , dressed for the speech and reviewed his notes . Chotiner came into the senator 's room , and told him that if he was forced off the ticket , Chotiner would call a huge press conference and reveal all the maneuvering that had led to Nixon 's departure ; Chotiner added that the resulting furor would mean nothing to either of the two men , since they would be through with politics anyway . Nixon later stated that Chotiner 's promise broke the tension and gave him a needed lift . Senator and Mrs. Nixon and his staff journeyed to the El Capitan , where they were met by a cheering group of Young Republicans on the sidewalk outside , including future White House Chief of Staff H.R. Haldeman . In Cleveland , General and Mamie Eisenhower , with the general 's aides , prepared to watch the speech on television in the manager 's office above the Cleveland Public Auditorium , where the presidential candidate was to speak .
= = Delivering the address = =
The El Capitan Theatre , at Nixon 's insistence , was entirely deserted . Press members were confined to a nearby room , where they could watch on television ; stenographers were standing by at the Ambassador to ensure an accurate transcript of Nixon 's remarks for the press , who would be facing deadlines in the East . Chotiner and Rogers would watch from behind a screen in the theatre ; Pat Nixon , wearing a dress knitted by supporters , would sit on stage a few feet from her husband . The chosen set was a " GI bedroom den " with a desk , two chairs , and bookshelves . The senator usually preferred to work from a memorized text , but would work from notes for this speech to make the talk sound more spontaneous . Nixon spent some time practicing movements for the cameramen and finally went into the dressing room with his wife for a few minutes of solitude . He told her that he did not think he could go through with it , but she reassured him .
= = = Introduction and office expenses = = =
The speech opened with Nixon sitting at the desk . He began , " My fellow Americans , I come before you tonight as a candidate for the Vice Presidency , and as a man whose honesty and integrity has ( sic ) been questioned . " The senator indicated that he would not follow the example of the Truman Administration and ignore charges , and that the best response to a smear " is to tell the truth " .
The candidate mentioned the $ 18 @,@ 000 Fund , and that he was accused of taking money from a group of his supporters . After stating that the Fund was wrong if he had profited from it , if it had been conducted in secret , or if the contributors received special favors , the senator continued ,
Not one cent of the $ 18 @,@ 000 or any other money of that type ever went to me for my personal use . Every penny of it was used to pay for political expenses that I did not think should be charged to the taxpayers of the United States . It was not a secret fund . As a matter of fact , when I was on Meet the Press , some of you may have seen it last Sunday — Peter Edson came up to me after the program and he said , " Dick , what about this fund we hear about ? " And I said , " Well , there 's no secret about it . Go out and see Dana Smith , who was the administrator of the fund . "
Nixon stated that no contributor to the fund got any service that an ordinary constituent would not have received , and then anticipated the skeptical questions , " Well , what did you use the fund for , Senator ? Why did you have to have it ? " In response to his rhetorical question , he explained salary and office allowances for senators . He went through different ways that political expenses could be met . One way was to be rich , but the senator stated that he was not rich . Another way was to put one 's spouse on the Congressional office payroll , as , he stated , his Democratic rival , Senator John Sparkman , had done . Nixon did not feel comfortable doing that himself with so many deserving stenographers in Washington needing work , though Pat Nixon was a " wonderful stenographer " and sometimes helped out in the office as a volunteer . At this point , the camera turned from Nixon for the first time to reveal Pat Nixon sitting alongside the desk . The senator indicated he could not continue his law practice , as some Congressmen did , due to the distance to California , and in any event he felt that practicing law while a lawmaker was a conflict of interest . Thus , he indicated , he had found that the best way to pay for political expenses not within his means was to allow contributors to do so . Nixon proffered the legal and accounting opinions as proof of his statements .
= = = Family finances , coat and dog = = =
Nixon , continuing to ask skeptical rhetorical questions , indicated that some might feel that even with the opinions , he might have found some way to personally benefit . In response to his own question , the senator detailed his background and financial situation , beginning with his birth in Yorba Linda , and the family grocery store in which the Nixon boys helped out . He alluded to his work in college and law school , his service record , and stated that at the end of the war , he and Pat Nixon had $ 10 @,@ 000 in savings , all of it patriotically in government bonds . The candidate gave the dollar amounts of small inheritances that the Nixons had received from relatives , before turning to their life in Washington :
We lived rather modestly . For four years we lived in an apartment in Parkfairfax , in Alexandria , Virginia . The rent was $ 80 a month . And we saved for the time that we could buy a house . Now , that was what we took in . What did we do with this money ? What do we have today to show for it ? This will surprise you , because it is so little , I suppose , as standards generally go , of people in public life .
As the senator discussed their finances , the telecast again showed Pat Nixon , fixedly watching her husband . Pat Nixon later stated that her rapt gaze was because she did not know exactly what he would say , and wanted to hear . Nixon detailed their assets and liabilities : the mortgaged home in Washington ; the similarly mortgaged home in California , then occupied by his parents . The loans from his parents and from Riggs Bank . The borrowed @-@ against life insurance policy on the senator ; no insurance on his wife or children . The two @-@ year @-@ old Oldsmobile and the family furniture , and that he and his wife owned no stocks or bonds .
Well , that 's about it . That 's what we have and that 's what we owe . It isn 't very much but Pat and I have the satisfaction that every dime that we 've got is honestly ours . I should say this — that Pat doesn 't have a mink coat . But she does have a respectable Republican cloth coat . And I always tell her that she 'd look good in anything .
While the senator made these points , Murray Chotiner " let out shouts of glee " in his screened booth . As Chotiner exulted , Nixon moved ahead with the lines " that would give the speech its name , make it famous , and notorious " :
One other thing I probably should tell you because if we don 't they 'll probably be saying this about me too , we did get something — a gift — after the election . A man down in Texas heard Pat on the radio mention the fact that our two youngsters would like to have a dog . And , believe it or not , the day before we left on this campaign trip we got a message from Union Station in Baltimore saying they had a package for us . We went down to get it . You know what it was ?
It was a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate that he 'd sent all the way from Texas . Black and white spotted . And our little girl — Tricia , the 6 @-@ year @-@ old — named it Checkers . And you know , the kids , like all kids , love the dog and I just want to say this right now , that regardless of what they say about it , we 're gonna keep it .
Nixon expressed pleasure that Stevenson , whom he termed a man who inherited wealth from his father , could run for president . But people " of modest means " must also get a chance , and the candidate recited the quotation attributed to Lincoln : " Remember Abraham Lincoln , you remember what he said : ' God must have loved the common people — He made so many of them . ' "
= = = Attack on Democrats ; request for public to write = = =
Nixon then called for Stevenson to give a full accounting of his own fund , and a full list of the donors . He also called for Senator Sparkman , who , as Nixon repeated , had put his wife on the payroll , to state fully any outside income he might have had . " Because , folks , remember , a man that 's to be President of the United States , a man that 's to be Vice President of the United States must have the confidence of all the people . And that 's why I 'm doing what I 'm doing , and that 's why I suggest that Mr. Stevenson and Mr. Sparkman since they are under attack should do what I am doing . " As the senator made this point , Eisenhower , sitting in the Cleveland office , slammed his pencil down , realizing that he would not be allowed to be the only major party candidate whose finances would evade scrutiny . Eisenhower had benefited from a favorable Act of Congress allowing the income from his bestselling memoirs to be considered capital gains .
Nixon warned that other smears would be made against him , and many of the same commentators who were attacking him now had also attacked him for his role in the Alger Hiss case , for which he made no apologies . He then rose to his feet , came out from behind the desk , and continued :
And as far as this is concerned , I intend to continue the fight . Why do I feel so deeply ? Why do I feel that in spite of the smears , the misunderstandings , the necessity for a man to come up here and bare his soul as I have ? Why is it necessary for me to continue this fight ? And I want to tell you why . Because , you see , I love my country . And I think my country is in danger . And I think that the only man that can save America at this time is the man that 's running for President on my ticket — Dwight Eisenhower .
You say , " Why do I think it 's in danger ? " and I say look at the record . Seven years of the Truman @-@ Acheson Administration and what 's happened ? Six hundred million people lost to the Communists , and a war in Korea in which we have lost 117 @,@ 000 American casualties .
The senator alleged that Stevenson had downplayed the threat of communism , and was thus unfit to be president . He affirmed that Eisenhower was the only man fit to lead the country in ridding the government of corruption and communism . Reading parts of a letter from the wife of a serviceman fighting in Korea , who , despite her financial woes , had scraped together $ 10 to donate to the campaign , Nixon promised that he would never cash that check .
With less than three minutes left in the allotted time , Nixon finally addressed the question : Would he stay or would he go ? He indicated that he did not think he should go . " Let me say this : I don 't believe that I ought to quit because I 'm not a quitter . And , incidentally , Pat 's not a quitter . After all , her name was Patricia Ryan and she was born on St. Patrick 's Day , and you know the Irish never quit . "
Seizing on the fact that the Republican National Convention had routinely given the RNC the power to fill vacancies on the ticket , Nixon evaded Eisenhower 's power as the general again slammed his pencil down , this time breaking it :
I am submitting to the Republican National Committee tonight through this television broadcast the decision which it is theirs to make . Let them decide whether my position on the ticket will help or hurt . And I am going to ask you to help them decide . Wire and write the Republican National Committee whether you think I should stay on or whether I should get off . And whatever their decision is , I will abide by it .
But just let me say this last word . Regardless of what happens I 'm going to continue this fight . I 'm going to campaign up and down America until we drive the crooks and the Communists and those that defend them out of Washington .
Advancing towards the camera , the candidate completed the speech by praising Eisenhower , " He 's a great man . And a vote for Eisenhower is a vote for what 's good for America . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Candidates and public = = =
Nixon was initially convinced that the speech was a failure . Despite the congratulations of Rogers and Chotiner , and the fact that one of the cameramen had tears running down his face , he reproved himself for not mentioning the address of the Republican National Committee . Though the Young Republicans continued their applause as the Nixon party left the theatre , the candidate fixed on an Irish setter running alongside his car as it pulled away from the curb . " Well , we made a hit in the dog world anyway . " Despite the senator 's despair , his wife was convinced that her husband had vindicated himself . Over sixty million Americans had watched or listened to the speech , including the largest television audience up to that point .
Nixon had left the Ambassador with the lobby quiet ; he returned to a mob scene , and the candidate was soon surrounded by well @-@ wishers congratulating him . The party was able to get through to his suite , and after a few minutes of tense quiet , calls and telegrams began to pour in " from everywhere " praising the speech and urging him to remain on the ticket — but no word came from Eisenhower in Cleveland .
In Cleveland , as the speech concluded , General Eisenhower turned to RNC Chairman Summerfield , " Well , Arthur , you sure got your money 's worth . " Mamie Eisenhower was in tears , and the general told her that Nixon was a completely honest man . The 15 @,@ 000 supporters waiting for Eisenhower to speak had heard the Checkers speech over the hall 's public address system , and when Congressman George H. Bender took the microphone and asked the crowd , " Are you in favor of Nixon ? " , pandemonium ensued . As the crowd below chanted , " We want Nixon ! " , Eisenhower quickly revised his speech .
Both Eisenhower 's speech to the excited crowd and telegram to his running mate were noncommittal . The general applauded his running mate for his speech , but stated that the two had to meet face to face before a final decision could be made . While Eisenhower affirmed that the RNC had the power to elect a replacement candidate , Eisenhower indicated that the committee would , most likely , be guided by his wishes . Eisenhower asked Nixon to meet with him in person in Wheeling , West Virginia , where the general 's campaign was next scheduled to go . Eisenhower 's telegram was delayed in transmission and lost among the flood being sent to Nixon 's suite , and the latter learned of his running mate 's position from a wire service report .
When he heard of Eisenhower 's posture , Nixon 's happiness at what he had finally been convinced was a tour de force turned to fury , and he stated that if the speech did not satisfy the general , nothing he could do would . He called in his secretary , Rose Mary Woods , and dictated a telegram to the RNC resigning from the ticket . As Woods left the room with her notes , Chotiner stopped her , took the sheet , and ripped it up . While Chotiner understood Nixon 's rage , he felt that the resignation was premature . The campaign manager urged Nixon simply to allow the public wave of support to pressure Eisenhower . He suggested that instead of going to Wheeling as Eisenhower had requested , that they resume the train tour in Missoula , Montana . Nixon sent Eisenhower a curt acknowledgment of his telegram , and a suggestion that they meet the following week in Washington , D.C. Chotiner then called Summerfield , telling him that Nixon felt he had been abused enough , and would not meet with Eisenhower until Summerfield was able to promise , on his word of honor , that the senator would be confirmed as nominee at that meeting . " Dick is not going to be placed in the position of a little boy going somewhere to beg for forgiveness . "
Just before the Nixon party left for the airport , Nixon friend and journalist Bert Andrews managed to reach him by phone . Andrews told the senator that he should go to Wheeling ; that public reaction had already foreordained the outcome . He advised Nixon that he should accede to Eisenhower 's desire to make the inevitable decision in his own way , advice Nixon acknowledged " had the ring of truth " . Nonetheless , the Nixon party flew to Missoula .
By this time , the first wave of what would eventually be more than four million letters , telegrams , postcards , and phone calls had flooded into RNC headquarters and other political offices . While a later study found that only about 7 percent of these communications addressed any substantive issue , they still ran 75 to one in favor of Nixon . Nixon skeptics joined in ; both Stassen and Dewey sent congratulatory telegrams . Many letters included contributions to help pay for the cost of the broadcast ; the RNC eventually recouped four @-@ fifths of the $ 75 @,@ 000 cost . Newspaper switchboards were jammed with calls from people seeking the RNC 's address , while Western Union was caught off guard by Nixon 's request that listeners wire the RNC , and had no extra help on hand . Checkers herself received enough dog food to last a year , and hundreds of collars , leashes , and toys .
Politicians generally reacted along party lines , with Senator Mundt stating , " Nixon 's speech is complete vindication against one of the most vicious smears in American history . " Democratic Senator Clinton Anderson of New Mexico stated , " I wish he had talked about the 18 @,@ 000 bucks — not the puppy dog ... Suppose someone sets up a fund to buy my meals . I could say I didn 't get one red cent of the money . "
On the morning of September 24 , Summerfield and Humphreys called Nixon at his Missoula hotel . After securing his agreement to fly to Wheeling if Eisenhower agreed to Chotiner 's terms , the two reached Eisenhower and campaign leader New Hampshire Governor Sherman Adams in Portsmouth , Ohio , en route to Wheeling , and briefed them on the conversation with Nixon and on the flood of communications from the public . The general and governor agreed that Nixon could come to Wheeling with the assurance he would remain on the ticket . After making speeches in Missoula and at a stop in Denver , and after Eisenhower made his own speech announcing that his running mate had been the victim of an " attempted smear " , Nixon arrived in Wheeling late in the day on the 24th . Eisenhower came to the airport to meet the plane , and hurried up the steps to greet the Nixons when the door was opened .
The candidates waved at the crowd of 3 @,@ 000 which had come to meet the plane , and rode together , with Nixon in place of honor , to a rally at City Island Stadium as Eisenhower chatted to Nixon as if the crisis had never occurred . At the stadium , Eisenhower introduced Nixon as a " colleague " who had been subject to " a vicious and unprincipled attack " but who had " vindicated himself " and who " stood higher than ever before " . The presidential candidate finished by reading two telegrams , one from Nixon 's mother assuring the general of her son 's integrity , and the second from Summerfield stating that the RNC had voted unanimously to retain Nixon on the ticket . Nixon then spoke , telling the crowd that this was one of two moments when he was most proud to be an American ; the other had been at the victory parade in New York in 1945 , when he had seen General Eisenhower go by . He called the Wheeling rally " the greatest moment of my life " .
= = = Media reaction = = =
Editorial reaction to the address was divided . The New York Times , which had criticized Nixon , and had even run stories with claims that he was under criminal investigation for the Fund , praised Nixon 's " composure and assurance " . The New York Journal American gushed , " He was in our opinion , simply magnificent . We know of no other way to say it . " The Pittsburgh Press called the address " an extraordinary speech " . The Mobile Register stated that the Fund crisis " confronted [ Nixon ] with an unsought opportunity which he made the most of . "
However , some newspapers disagreed . The Baltimore Sun noted that Nixon " did not deal in any way with the underlying question of propriety " , while the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch called the address " a carefully contrived soap opera " . Columnist Walter Lippmann called the wave of support for Nixon " disturbing ... with all the magnification of modern electronics , simply mob law " ; discussing the speech with a dinner guest , he said , " That must be the most demeaning experience my country has ever had to bear . " Columnist Thomas Stokes criticized Eisenhower for equivocating on the question of his running mate until " the young man himself — the accused — had to step in and take over . And how he took over ! " Through his presidency , Eisenhower would continue to be accused of being indecisive .
Nixon refused to answer further questions about the Fund , and attention turned to Stevenson 's fund , especially as its details became clear . Governor Stevenson 's fund , which proved to total $ 146 @,@ 000 , had been used for such expenditures as Christmas gifts to reporters , dues for private clubs , and to hire an orchestra for a dance his son was hosting . Taking a leaf from Nixon 's book , the Democrats refused to answer questions about the governor 's fund . Both parties were eager to bury the matter , and the story died .
= = Legacy = =
With The New York Times finding that Nixon 's performance had given the Republican ticket " a shot in the arm " , Eisenhower and Nixon swept to victory in November , with the Republicans narrowly taking both Houses of Congress . According to Nixon biographer Conrad Black , the speech earned Nixon supporters throughout Middle America which he would keep through the rest of his life , and who would continue to defend him after his death . Critics , however , would later see the address as the " ultimate expression " of the controversial politician 's " phoniness . " Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose stated that part of the audience considered the address " one of the most sickening , disgusting , maudlin performances ever experienced . " In their analysis of the speech published just before Nixon 's election as president in 1968 , Robert S. Cathcart and Edward A. Schwarz suggested that while Nixon " met the accusation head @-@ on and accomplished his immediate goals successfully , he ultimately created an image which led to a decline in his political career . "
The address was an unprecedented demonstration of the power of television to galvanize large segments of the American people to act in a political campaign . However , the onslaught of negative media attention leading up to the address " left its scars " on Nixon , and the future president never returned to the easy relationship with the press that he had enjoyed during his congressional career . His oft @-@ stated view that the media was the enemy came to play a part in his downfall .
Nixon celebrated the anniversary of the speech each year . The future president disliked the fact that the address soon became popularly known as the " Checkers speech . " In his 1962 book , Six Crises ( the Fund crisis being one of the six ) , he would object to the term , " as though the mention of my dog was the only thing that saved my political career . " Nixon preferred to call the address " the Fund speech , " and made it required reading for his speechwriters . As time passed , the Checkers speech became denigrated , and Nixon biographer Earl Mazo suggested that much of the attitude of " I don 't like Nixon , but I don 't know why , " which contributed to the failure of his 1960 presidential run , can be traced to the Checkers speech . Other commentators suggested that had he not made the Checkers speech , Nixon might have won in 1960 . Nixon retorted that without the Checkers speech , he would not have been around to run in 1960 .
Checkers died in 1964 and was buried in Wantagh , New York , at Long Island 's Bide @-@ A @-@ Wee Pet Cemetery . William Safire has described the adoption of " Checkers speech " as an idiom , used to refer to any emotionally charged speech by a politician .
Despite the many criticisms of the speech in later years , Hal Bochin ( who wrote a book about Nixon 's rhetoric ) suggests that Nixon succeeded at the time because of his use of narrative , spinning a story which resonated with the public :
[ The American people ] could identify with the materials of the story — the low @-@ cost apartment , the struggle with the mortgage payment , the parental loans , the lack of life insurance on the wife and children , and even the wife 's cloth coat . By reputation , Nixon was a political fighter and also a family man , and the public admired the father who would not give back the family dog " regardless of what they said about it . "
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= SMS Mainz =
SMS Mainz was a Kolberg class light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) during the First World War . She had three sister ships , SMS Kolberg , Cöln , and Augsburg . She was built by the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin ; her hull was laid down in 1908 and she was launched in January 1909 . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in October 1909 . She was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 25 @.@ 5 kn ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) .
After her commissioning , she served with the II Scouting Group , part of the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . She was assigned to patrols off the island of Heligoland at the outbreak of World War I in early August 1914 . At the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 , the German patrol forces were attacked by superior British forces , including five battlecruisers and several light cruisers . Mainz was initially stationed in support of the forces on the patrol line . She attempted to reinforce the beleaguered German forces , and encountered a much stronger force of British cruisers and destroyers . They scored several damaging hits with gunfire and a torpedo that disabled Mainz and prompted her commander to abandon ship . The British rescued 348 men from the crew before the ship rolled over and sank . Eighty @-@ nine men were killed in the battle , including her commanding officer .
= = Design = =
Mainz was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Jagd and was laid down in 1907 at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin . She was launched on 23 January 1909 and christened by the mayor of Mainz , Karl Emil Göttelmann , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 October 1909 . The ship was 130 @.@ 5 meters ( 428 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 14 m ( 46 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 58 m ( 18 @.@ 3 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 915 t ( 4 @,@ 837 long tons ; 5 @,@ 418 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Curtiss steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 45 @-@ meter ( 11 @.@ 3 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 19 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 14 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by fifteen coal @-@ fired Marine water @-@ tube boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) . Mainz carried 1 @,@ 010 t ( 990 long tons ; 1 @,@ 110 short tons ) of coal that gave her a range of approximately 3 @,@ 630 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 720 km ; 4 @,@ 180 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . Mainz had a crew of eighteen officers and 349 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . She also carried four 5 @.@ 2 cm SK L / 55 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She could also carry 100 mines . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in 1909 , Mainz served with the reconnaissance forces of the German fleet . Her first commander was Fregattenkapitän ( commander ) Friedrich Tiesmeyer , the uncle of Ernst Lindemann ; he held the command until January 1910 . She was assigned to the II Scouting Group , which screened for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group . After the outbreak of World War I at the beginning of August 1914 , she and several other cruisers were tasked with patrol duties in the Heligoland Bight . The cruisers were divided with the torpedo boat flotillas , and assigned to rotate through nightly patrols into the North Sea . As part of this operation , Mainz conducted a patrol on the night of 16 August with the VIII Torpedo @-@ boat Flotilla , without incident .
At the same time , British submarines began reconnoitering the German patrol lines . On 23 August , several British commanders submitted a plan to attack the patrol line with the light cruisers and destroyers of the Harwich Force , commanded by Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt . These ships would be supported by submarines and Vice Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers and associated light forces . The plan was approved and set for 28 August . The British forces began to leave port on the evening of 26 August , beginning with the submarines assigned to the operation . Most of the surface forces went to sea early on the following morning ; the 7th Cruiser Squadron , which had been added to provide further support to the Harwich Force , left port later in the day .
On the morning of 28 August , Mainz was at anchor in the mouth of the Ems ; her sister Cöln , the flagship of Rear Admiral Leberecht Maass was re @-@ coaling in Wilhelmshaven , Ariadne lay in the entrance to the Weser . These three cruisers were assigned to support the cruisers Stettin and Frauenlob , and the aviso Hela , which were stationed on the patrol line that morning . At 07 : 57 , the Harwich Force encountered the outer German torpedo boats , which fled back to the German cruisers . In the ensuing Battle of Heligoland Bight , Stettin engaged the British force first , and was quickly reinforced by Frauenlob . At 09 : 47 , Mainz was ordered to steam out behind the British to cut off their line of retreat . She got under way by 10 : 00 , and operated in conjunction with a floatplane used for reconnaissance .
At around 12 : 30 , Mainz encountered the British cruiser Arethusa and several destroyers . The ships engaged each other for the next forty @-@ five minutes . Fifteen minutes into the engagement , three British cruisers appeared ; Mainz broke off the engagement and attempted to escape from the superior British forces . The pursuing British cruisers scored several hits , but by 12 : 55 , Mainz had escaped under cover of a dense smoke screen . Another British cruiser , Fearless , and six destroyers , appeared on Mainz 's port side , however , and attacked the fleeing German ship . Mainz quickly scored hits on the destroyers Laurel , Liberty and Laertes ; Laurel was damaged and forced to withdraw and Laertes was disabled by a salvo that hit her engine room .
A shell from one of the British cruisers hit Mainz at around 13 : 00 , which jammed her rudder at ten degrees to starboard . Her crew shut off the port engine in an attempt to correct the ship 's course , but she continued to turn to starboard . By 13 : 20 , the majority of the ship 's guns had been disabled and the ship 's superstructure had been shot to pieces . Her center and aft funnel collapsed after suffering several hits . A torpedo from the destroyer Lydiard then hit the ship on her port side , amidships ; this prompted the ship 's commander to order the crew to abandon the stricken cruiser . He then left the conning tower with the navigation officer , both of whom were immediately killed by a shell hit . The ship 's communication system was out of service , and so the order to abandon ship did not reach the entire crew . The ship 's executive officer then reached the bridge , and reiterated the order to abandon the crippled ship at 13 : 35 .
Mainz was by now completely disabled . Her engines were stopped and her guns had ceased firing . Shortly before 14 : 00 , Lurcher came alongside and took off the wounded German sailors . At 14 : 10 , Mainz rolled over to port and quickly sank at the position 53 ° 58 ' N and 6 ° 42 ' E ; the survivors now in the water gave three cheers for their ship . The British rescued 348 survivors ; 89 men , including the ship 's commander , were killed in the battle . Among the survivors was Oberleutnant zur See ( Sub @-@ Lieutenant ) Wolfgang von Tirpitz , the son of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the German fleet . Winston Churchill , then the First Lord of the Admiralty , informed Tirpitz via the US embassy in Berlin that his son survived the battle . In the course of the engagement , the British sank two more German cruisers : Mainz 's sister Cöln and Ariadne , with minimal losses to themselves .
= = Wreck = =
In August 2015 , members of the Dutch sport @-@ diving club Duikteam Zeester dove on the wreck of the Mainz and retrieved a variety of prosaic artifacts , including a sextant and the engine telegraph . Their actions provoked criticism from German sources , who noted that the wreck was a war grave containing the remains of 89 crew members and thus should not be disturbed . The German Federal Police were investigating the incident .
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= Zero Escape : Virtue 's Last Reward =
Zero Escape : Virtue 's Last Reward is a visual novel adventure game developed by Chunsoft . Released in 2012 for the Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita , it is the second installment in the Zero Escape series , and the sequel to the 2009 game Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors .
The story follows the player character Sigma , a man who is abducted and forced along with eight other individuals to play the Nonary Game , which puts its participants in a life @-@ or @-@ death situation . As the story progresses , the characters begin to unravel the secrets behind the Nonary Game , as well as its true purpose . The gameplay alternates between two types of sections : Escape sections , where the player completes puzzles in escape @-@ the @-@ room scenarios ; and Novel sections , where the player reads the game 's narrative and makes decisions that influence the story , making it branch into twenty @-@ four different endings .
Development for the game began as a result of Nine Hours , Nine Person , Nine Doors 's unexpected commercial success in North America . Game director Kotaro Uchikoshi wrote the script , which was then localized by Aksys Games and Rising Star Games for North America and Europe respectively . It received positive reviews from critics , who praised the story and characters , but were divided in their opinions of the Escape sections . Virtue 's Last Reward was a commerical failure in Japan , where it sold less than 16 @,@ 000 copies by year 's end ; this led to the temporary cancellation of its sequel . Development on the sequel was eventually resumed , and Zero Time Dilemma was released in 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Virtue 's Last Reward is a visual novel adventure game in which the player assumes the role of a man named Sigma . The gameplay is divided into two types of sections : Novel and Escape . In Novel sections , the player progresses through the storyline and converses with non @-@ playable characters . These sections require little interaction from the player other than reading the dialogue and other text that appears on the screen . During Novel sections , the player will sometimes be presented with decision options that affect the course of the game . One recurring decision option is a prisoner 's dilemma type of choice where the player must choose to " ally " or " betray " the character or pair of characters they are pitted against , with different results depending on what choices the two parties picked .
In between Novel sections are Escape sections , which occur when the player finds themselves in a room from which they need to find a means of escape . These are presented from a first @-@ person perspective , with the player being able to move between different predetermined positions in each room . To escape , the player is tasked with finding various items and solving puzzles , reminiscent of escape @-@ the @-@ room games . At some points , the player may need to combine objects with each other to create the necessary tool to complete a puzzle . The puzzles include various brain teasers , such as Lights Out and sliding puzzles . In each Escape room , a safe can be found , which can be opened with two passwords . One of these passwords gives the player the key needed to escape from the room , while the other grants access to a hidden folder that provides the player with additional backstory or other supplementary information . The player receives hints to the puzzle solutions from the game 's characters ; additional and more direct hints are received if the player sets the puzzle 's difficulty level from " hard " to " easy " .
The player is given access to a flowchart that allows them to immediately revisit or " jump " to any previously completed Novel or Escape section without replaying the game from the beginning . This allows the player to transition to an earlier branching point in the story and choose a different option that causes the story to progress in another direction . For example , the player can jump to a previous decision and ally with their opponent instead of betraying them , and vice versa . While there are 24 endings available , many endings are inaccessible initially and must be unlocked by experiencing events or learning information in other plotlines . For example , if a particular plotline cannot progress because a required password is unknown , the player must jump to other plotlines and find it before returning to the original one . The player is thus required to jump often between the alternate plotlines in order to advance the game towards the ultimate ending .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters and setting = = =
Similar to its predecessor , Virtue 's Last Reward features nine main characters who are kidnapped by an unknown individual called Zero . The player @-@ controlled Sigma is joined by Phi , a girl with a " no @-@ nonsense attitude " ; Dio , a rude and insensitive man ; Tenmyouji , an elderly man ; Quark , an energetic child ; Luna , a kind and quiet woman ; Clover , an unpredictable girl who also appeared in Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors ; Alice , a powerful and focused woman ; and K , a man who wears an irremovable , full @-@ body suit of armor . Along with the nine participants , Zero III , an artificial intelligence who appears in the form of a CGI rabbit , controls the Nonary Game . Zero III is nicknamed " Zero Jr . " by the participants to distinguish the entity from the human Zero , who is in turn nicknamed " Zero Sr. " Aside from Sigma , each character is fully voice acted in both Japanese and English .
The game is set in an abandoned warehouse @-@ like facility , containing a number of different rooms filled with puzzles , where Zero forces the characters to participate in the Nonary Game . The characters are affixed with bracelets that display a point value that is initially set at three . During the game they participate in rounds of the Ambidex Game , in which they have to choose to " ally " or " betray " the other characters . The choices made affect the players ' bracelet points : if two opponents both choose " ally " , each individual gains two points ; if the two opponents both choose " betray " , no change occurs ; and if one opponent chooses " betray " while the other chooses " ally " , the opponent who chose " betray " gains three points while the other opponent loses two points . Participants who gain at least nine points are able to escape , while those who reach zero points are executed .
= = = Story = = =
In 2028 , Sigma is abducted and placed inside an elevator with Phi . Zero III appears on a monitor and informs them that they are participating in the Nonary Game and that they must escape the elevator before it falls . Upon escaping , they find themselves in a warehouse @-@ like facility with Dio , Quark , Tenmyouji , Luna , Alice , K , and Clover . Zero III informs the group that nine individual bracelet points are necessary to escape the facility , and points can only be earned by participating in the Ambidex Game .
At this point , the story begins branching into different timelines that can be experienced in any order , depending on the choices made by the player . While completing the first set of puzzle rooms , the participants learn of a pandemic caused by Radical @-@ 6 , a virus that slows down its victims ' cognition and drives them to suicide . Although dependent on a given timeline , the characters either discover the murdered body of an old woman or antimatter bombs . Additionally , the pasts of the other players are explored : Luna is a humanoid robot , tasked with maintaining the Nonary Game ; Tenmyouji willingly joined the game , together with his adopted grandson Quark , after being promised a chance to find a certain woman ; Alice and Clover are Department of Defense secret agents tasked with stopping the religious cult Free the Soul ; and Dio is a member of Free the Soul . Dio had murdered the old woman and took her place in the game so as to plant the bombs . In the timeline leading to the game 's ultimate ending , Sigma defuses the bombs , while Dio is restrained and incapacitated .
The remaining participants proceed to the next set of puzzle rooms . As Sigma , Phi , and Tenmyouji complete their room , they uncover a holographic message of the old woman , the same woman Tenmyouji has been looking for , Akane Kurashiki . Akane and Zero Sr. had developed the AB project , a project that encompassed the Nonary Game and the Ambidex Game , to train Sigma and Phi to transport their consciousnesses through time . This occurs shortly thereafter , and this time , they subdue Dio before he can kill Akane . Akane explains that the game 's dangerous elements were necessary to speed up one 's brain to transport one 's consciousness through time , and each participant was infected with Radical @-@ 6 to amplify this increase . The Nonary Game was designed so Sigma and Phi could experience multiple timelines and retain what they learn in each one . Sigma and Phi 's consciousnesses are then returned to the present , where they find everyone has cooperated to acquire enough points to escape .
The group leaves the facility and emerges in a desert landscape on the Moon . The year is 2074 and most of humanity was killed by Radical @-@ 6 after it was unleashed by Free the Soul from a Mars mission test site in 2028 . They re @-@ enter the facility and discover a cold sleep pod . K explains that he grew up in the facility with Zero Sr. and Akane , and each person was brought to the facility to recreate the events that the two had previously experienced . Clover , Alice , and Phi were abducted in 2028 and placed in cold sleep until the Nonary Game began . The pod opens to reveal a clone of Sigma , and then K reveals he is actually Akane in disguise . Depending on whether or not Dio murdered Akane in a given timeline , either Sigma 's clone or Akane was occupying K 's armor , a quantum superposition .
Akane explains that Sigma , after his abduction in 2028 , had his consciousness transported into his elder self 's body in 2074 , while his elder self 's consciousness was transported into the younger Sigma 's body in 2028 . This was the goal of the AB project , to make it possible for the elder Sigma to prevent the Radical @-@ 6 outbreak in 2028 with his future knowledge ; Dio sought to prevent this goal . Akane makes Phi and Sigma 's consciousnesses jump to 2029 , after the outbreak . Sigma , as Zero Sr. , spends the next 45 years developing the AB project together with Akane , while Phi is kept in cold sleep . Sigma also creates a clone of himself as a spare , in case his own body gets damaged . When they again arrive at 2074 , Sigma and Phi jump back to 2028 to infiltrate the Mars mission test site .
= = Development = =
Virtue 's Last Reward was developed by Chunsoft and directed by Kotaro Uchikoshi , who had previously led the production of Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors . While his original intention was to make Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors a stand @-@ alone title , its unexpected commercial success in North America prompted him to continue the series . In order to cut down on costs , Uchikoshi asked Chunsoft if he could develop Virtue 's Last Reward and its eventual sequel simultaneously , as both games would use the same engine and digital assets ; Chunsoft agreed to his proposal , and green @-@ lit production .
Development of Virtue 's Last Reward began on the Nintendo DS ; however , during the early stages of production , the Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita were announced . The development team at Chunsoft wanted to utilize the three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) features of the newer systems , and thus , moved production of the game to the Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita . As neither system had been released yet , the team was under the assumption that the 3D features would require 3D character models . Uchikoshi remarked that designing 3D character models proved to be a challenge for Chunsoft due to company 's inexperience with 3D effects .
= = = Story and themes = = =
Virtue 's Last Reward marked a tonal shift from the suspense present within Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors , to a more relaxed and exploration @-@ heavy atmosphere . Uchikoshi stated that the results of a Japanese survey indicated that players who did not purchase Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors thought it looked scary ; he " didn 't have a choice but to tone it down " for Virtue 's Last Reward as directed by Chunsoft . Uchikoshi worked alongside a sub @-@ writer , who helped to identify problems present within the story .
When writing the script , Uchikoshi began by writing a basic story . One of the new additions to the story was the Ambidex Game , which was intended to have philosophical significance , as the logical decision made in it hurts the characters both on a group level and on a personal one . He then designed the characters he felt were necessary to the story . He aimed to create a balanced cast of supporting characters , in terms of genders , personalities , and ages represented . While designing the characters ' personalities , he used the Enneagram of Personality as a reference . It was important to him to create a mystery behind them , to make players curious about who the characters are and what their pasts were like . Another important element was the use of misdirection : By deliberately making certain characters seem like bad people , he would get players to focus on them more , making it more difficult for them to see who the " real bad guy " is . He decided to not give Sigma a strong personality , in order to make it easier for players to empathize with him . Because the Moon was one of the game 's major themes , the character Zero III appears as a rabbit - a reference to the moon rabbit in Japanese folklore .
Some changes were made to the initial plot of Virtue 's Last Reward . During one scene , Dio handcuffs Clover and Tenmyouji to a sink , which prevents them from participation in the Nonary Game ( the punishment for not participating is death ) . Originally , Dio was meant to " do something even more messed up " to Clover , but the president of Chunsoft opposed this scene for " ethical reasons " , after which it was changed . In addition , the game originally ended with humanity dying out , at which point a character would go back in time and change the past so that the future would be saved . Uchikoshi later felt this ending was inappropriate following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , so it was changed to be more positive . Uchikoshi also considered including several scientific and philosophical theories / experiments that eventually were left out . These scrapped ideas included Monty Hall problem ( a brain teaser based on probability ) and Capgras delusion ( a mental disorder in which someone believes that a person they know has been replaced with an identical @-@ looking impostor ) .
= = = Localization = = =
As with Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors , Aksys Games localized Virtue 's Last Reward for its North American release . Nobara Nakayama translated the game 's text from Japanese to English , which was then localized by editor Ben Bateman . Bateman later stated that overcoming various translation issues was one of the hardest aspects of editing Virtue 's Last Reward . Although Uchikoshi had written the game with the English language audience in mind , which avoided several plot @-@ related translation problems , a few jokes did not translate properly and had to be changed during localization . Additionally , there were two characters who " talked like animals " in the Japanese version of the game : Zero III , who added " -usa " to the end of its sentences , which is the first half of usagi ( the Japanese word for " rabbit " ) ; and Sigma , who added " -nya " ( the Japanese onomatopoeia for the sound cats make ) to the end of his sentences whenever he talked about cats . Bateman solved this by writing rabbit and cat themed puns . Another challenge for Bateman was keeping track of the story moments from each branching path . It was important to know whether information regarding each character had been revealed yet to the player , as this would ultimately affect the word choice and attitude of each line of dialogue .
For voice casting , the localization team was sent a list of people who might fit the roles , along with short reels for each actor . Once the actors had been chosen , Bateman wrote the voice direction , which were short blurbs the voice actors saw next to the line they were supposed to say , so they would know how to perform it . While the North American version of the game allows the user to select either Japanese or English audio tracks , the European version , which was released by Rising Star Games , only features the Japanese audio track .
= = Release = =
To promote the game , Chunsoft released an original video animation in December 2011 , which Aksys Games later dubbed in English . It was created by the Japanese animation studio Gonzo , and serves as an introduction to the game , showcasing the characters as well as the basic Ambidex Game rules . In addition to the video animation , a Flash game was produced and made available on the official Japanese Virtue 's Last Reward website . The gameplay of the untitled Flash game has the player attempt to open a metal door by quickly clicking on it . As the door begins to open , Clover is revealed on the other side , and the player begins clicking on her breasts . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku was perplexed by the Flash game , stating that : " as it is pretty much the antithesis of everything presented in Virtue 's Last Reward , I truly wonder how this flash game is supposed to convince anyone to play the full title . Perhaps it 's just due to a [ public relations ] department following the old adage : ' sex sells ' . "
Virtue 's Last Reward was released in Japan on February 16 , 2012 . In its first week of release , the Nintendo 3DS version sold 9 @,@ 307 copies while the PlayStation Vita version sold 6 @,@ 538 copies . The game was then released in North America on October 23 , 2012 , and in Europe on November 23 , 2012 ; this was the first Zero Escape game to be released in Europe . People who pre @-@ ordered the North American version of the game through Amazon.com received a replica of the bracelet that the characters wear ; a similar pre @-@ order bonus had been given out for Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors . The bracelets could later be purchased through the Aksys Games store , with all proceeds going to the American Red Cross and Hurricane Sandy relief . In July 2016 , Aksys Games announced that ports for other platforms were in progress .
Shortly after the game 's release , players discovered a game @-@ breaking glitch in the North American Nintendo 3DS version : saving the game in specific Escape sections would corrupt the saved game 's data , forcing the player to restart the game from the beginning . In response , Aksys Games recommended that players avoid saving during Escape sections . By 2013 , Aksys Games announced that the glitch had been patched in the Nintendo eShop version ; some players , however , continued to report that the glitch still existed .
= = Reception = =
Virtue 's Last Reward received positive reviews from critics . The aggregate @-@ review website Metacritic rated the Nintendo 3DS version 88 / 100 , and the PlayStation Vita version 84 / 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Heidi Kemps of GameSpot praised the story , stating that the plot expertly mixed elements of horror , drama , and science fiction . Edge described the story as " a page @-@ turner with flashes of real intelligence " , but noted that it lacked the shock value of Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors . Kimberly Wallace of Game Informer thought that the plot twists came at the perfect moments . Tony Ponce of Destructoid echoed these remarks , but felt that the ending featured too many plot twists , and the revelations were more confusing than suprising . John McCarroll of RPGFan thought that dialogue was humorous , saddening , and harrowing all at the same time . In contrast , Austin Boosinger of Adventure Gamers was heavily critical of the dialogue , calling it one of the slowest and most overwritten adventure games ever made .
Bob Mackey of 1UP.com wrote that Virtue 's Last Reward did not have to work hard to make the player care about the characters . Martin Robinson of Eurogamer appreciated that the cast was believable and taht each character was powered by real emotion . Boosinger commented that the characters were not well written , and that there was little reason to care about them until their backstories were revealed . Lucas M. Thomas of IGN stated that the English voice acting was " among the best performances I 've ever heard in any game , period " . Kemps commended the voice acting for being a pleasure to listen to even after playing the game for thirty hours . Mike Manson of Nintendo Life similarly praised the Japanese voice acting .
Edge felt that the Escape sections were satisfying to solve , and that they did not impede on the story progression for too long . Wallace thought that solving the puzzles provided a sense of accomplishment that few games could replicate . Kemps commented that the user interface was improved from Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors . Boosinger thought the puzzles were dull and uninspired in their variety , but appreciated their connections to the scientific and mathematical themes presented in the game . Robison felt that puzzles were not fun to solve , and that the menus were cumbersome to navigate . Molie L. Patterson of Electronic Gaming Monthly was disappointed by the limited camera movement in the Escape sections . Several reviewers noted that the controls for both the Nintendo 3DS and the PlayStation Vita were awkward and oversensitive .
Many reviewers praised the flowchart for not forcing the player to replay previously completed sections or restart the game from the beginning . Bob Mackey of 1UP.com thought that the flowchart was also useful for keeping track of important story moments from each timeline . However , Boosinger and Edge both criticized the flowchart , as they felt it removed the tension of making the wrong decision . McCarroll felt that many of the environments looked similar , and that they were often colorless . Thomas thought that the 3D visuals were " beautifully " rendered , and that they were much better than those of its predecessor . Patterson remarked that while she was initially skeptical of the visuals from gameplay screenshots , her opinion changed after playing the game . Manson thought that the character models fit well with the realistic environments , but noted that there was a limited amount of character animations .
= = = Accolades = = =
Virtue 's Last Reward received some awards from gaming publications , including : Handheld Game of the Year from GameSpot , Best 3DS / DS Story from IGN , Best Handheld Exclusive from Game Informer , as well as Best Story and Best Graphic Adventure from RPGFan . The game also received nominations for : Best Narrative at the 13th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards , and Game of the Year from Kotaku , Pocket Gamer , and GameSpot . Gamasutra , Game Developer , 1UP.com , and Amazon.com placed Virtue 's Last Reward within their non @-@ ranked lists of the Best Games of 2012 , while RPGFan listed it as one of the thirty essential role @-@ playing video games from the years 2010 to 2015 .
= = Sequel = =
In December 2012 , Uchikoshi mentioned details of a third Zero Escape game , and by June 2013 , he had finished planning the story . However , less than a year later , it was announced that the project was put on hold indefinitely in response to the series ' poor commercial reception in Japan . Uchikoshi examined the possibility of financing the development through the use of crowdfunding on a website like Kickstarter , but felt that the idea would not be persuasive enough for it to meet the goal ; he also sought out opportunities with executives and investors . The series ' fandom created Operation Bluebird , an online campaign to raise awareness of the series and support the game 's development , in response to its hiatus .
In March 2015 , Aksys Games launched the website 4infinity.co , which only consisted of a countdown timer . Fans of the series began speculating that the number fonts on the countdown timer resembled the fonts from Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors 's cover art , which led some to believe that the countdown timer would end with an announcement regarding the third Zero Escape game . The countdown ended in July , which coincided with the 2015 Anime Expo . During the Expo , Aksys Games held a panel at which they announced the continued development of the game . It was released in June 2016 , under the new name Zero Time Dilemma .
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= Family Guy =
Family Guy is an American adult animated sitcom created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company . The series centers on the Griffins , a family consisting of parents Peter and Lois ; their children Meg , Chris , and Stewie ; and their anthropomorphic pet dog Brian . The show is set in the fictional city of Quahog , Rhode Island , and exhibits much of its humor in the form of cutaway gags that often lampoon American culture .
The family was conceived by MacFarlane after developing two animated films , The Life of Larry and Larry & Steve . MacFarlane redesigned the films ' protagonist , Larry , and his dog , Steve , and renamed them Peter and Brian , respectively . MacFarlane pitched a seven @-@ minute pilot to Fox in 1998 , and the show was greenlit and began production . Shortly after the third season of Family Guy had aired in 2002 , Fox canceled the series , with one episode left unaired . Adult Swim burned off the episode in 2003 , finishing the series ' original run . However , favorable DVD sales and high ratings for syndicated reruns on Adult Swim convinced the network to renew the show in 2004 for a fourth season , which began airing on May 1 , 2005 .
Family Guy has been nominated for 12 Primetime Emmy Awards and 11 Annie Awards , and has won three of each . In 2009 , it was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series , the first time an animated series was nominated for the award since The Flintstones in 1961 . Family Guy has also received criticism , including unfavorable comparisons to The Simpsons .
Many tie @-@ in media have been released , including Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story , a straight @-@ to @-@ DVD special released in 2005 ; Family Guy : Live in Vegas , a soundtrack @-@ DVD combo released in 2005 , featuring music from the show as well as original music created by MacFarlane and Walter Murphy ; a video game and pinball machine , released in 2006 and 2007 , respectively ; since 2005 , six books published by Harper Adult based on the Family Guy universe ; and Laugh It Up , Fuzzball : The Family Guy Trilogy ( 2010 ) , a series of parodies of the original Star Wars trilogy . In 2008 , MacFarlane confirmed that the cast was interested in producing a feature film and that he was working on a story for a film adaptation .
A spin @-@ off series , The Cleveland Show , featuring Cleveland Brown , aired from September 27 , 2009 , to May 19 , 2013 . " The Simpsons Guy " , a crossover episode with The Simpsons , aired on September 28 , 2014 . Family Guy is a joint production by Fuzzy Door Productions and 20th Century Fox Television and syndicated by 20th Television . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked Family Guy the ninth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time .
As of May 15 , 2016 , Family Guy was renewed for a fifteenth season .
= = Premise = =
= = = Characters = = =
The show revolves around the adventures of the Griffin family , consisting of father Peter Griffin , a bumbling yet well @-@ intentioned blue @-@ collar worker ; Lois , a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother and piano teacher who is a member of the wealthy Pewterschmidt family ; Meg , their awkward teenage daughter who is constantly ridiculed and ignored by the family ; Chris , their teenage son , who is overweight , unintelligent and a younger version of his father in many respects ; and Stewie , their diabolical infant son of ambiguous sexual orientation who has adult mannerisms and uses stereotypical archvillain phrases . Living with the family is their witty , smoking , martini @-@ swilling , sarcastic , English @-@ speaking anthropomorphic dog Brian , though he is still considered a pet in many respects .
Recurring characters appear alongside the Griffin family . These include the family 's neighbors : sex @-@ crazed airline pilot bachelor Quagmire ; African American deli owner Cleveland and his wife Loretta ( later Donna ) ; paraplegic police officer Joe , his wife Bonnie and their baby daughter Susie ; neurotic Jewish pharmacist Mort , his wife Muriel , and their geeky and annoying son Neil ; and elderly child molester Herbert . TV news anchors Tom Tucker and Diane Simmons , Asian reporter Tricia Takanawa , and Blaccu @-@ Weather meteorologist Ollie Williams also make frequent appearances . Actors Adam West and James Woods guest star as themselves in various episodes .
= = = Setting = = =
The primary setting of Family Guy is Quahog ( / ˈkoʊhɒɡ / [ pron. ko @-@ hog or kwo @-@ hog ] ) , a fictional district of Providence , Rhode Island that was founded by Peter 's ancestor Griffin Peterson . MacFarlane resided in Providence during his time as a student at Rhode Island School of Design , and the show contains distinct Rhode Island landmarks similar to real @-@ world locations . MacFarlane often borrows the names of Rhode Island locations and icons such as Pawtucket and Buddy Cianci for use in the show . MacFarlane , in an interview with a news program on WNAC @-@ TV , Channel 64 in Providence , stated that the town is modeled after Cranston , Rhode Island .
= = Development = =
MacFarlane initially conceived Family Guy in 1995 while studying animation at the Rhode Island School of Design ( RISD ) . During college , he created his thesis film entitled The Life of Larry , which was submitted by his professor at RISD to Hanna @-@ Barbera . MacFarlane was hired by the company . In 1996 MacFarlane created a sequel to The Life of Larry entitled Larry and Steve , which featured a middle @-@ aged character named Larry and an intellectual dog , Steve ; the short was broadcast in 1997 as one of Cartoon Network 's World Premiere Toons .
Executives at Fox saw the Larry shorts and contracted MacFarlane to create a series , entitled Family Guy , based on the characters . Fox proposed MacFarlane complete a 15 @-@ minute short , and gave him a budget of $ 50 @,@ 000 . Several aspects of Family Guy were inspired by the Larry shorts . While working on the series , the characters of Larry and his dog Steve slowly evolved into Peter and Brian . MacFarlane stated that the difference between The Life of Larry and Family Guy was that " Life of Larry was shown primarily in my dorm room and Family Guy was shown after the Super Bowl . " After the pilot aired , the series was given the green light . MacFarlane drew inspiration from several sitcoms such as The Simpsons and All in the Family . Premises were drawn from several 1980s Saturday morning cartoons he watched as a child , such as The Fonz and the Happy Days Gang and Rubik , the Amazing Cube .
The Griffin family first appeared on the demo that MacFarlane pitched to Fox on May 15 , 1998 . Family Guy was originally planned to start out as short movies for the sketch show MADtv , but the plan changed because MADtv 's budget was not large enough to support animation production . MacFarlane noted that he then wanted to pitch it to Fox , as he thought that that was the place to create a prime @-@ time animation show . Family Guy was originally pitched to Fox in the same year as King of the Hill , but the show was not bought until years later , when King of the Hill became successful . Fox ordered 13 episodes of Family Guy to air in midseason after MacFarlane impressed executives with a seven @-@ minute demo .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production = =
= = = Executive producers = = =
MacFarlane has served as an executive producer during the show 's entire history , and also functions as a creative consultant . The first executive producers were David Zuckerman , Lolee Aries , David Pritchard , and Mike Wolf . Family Guy has had many executive producers in its history , including Daniel Palladino , Kara Vallow , and Danny Smith . David A. Goodman joined the show as a co @-@ executive producer in season three , and eventually became an executive producer . Alex Borstein , who voices Lois , worked as an executive and supervising producer for the fourth and fifth seasons . A more involved position on the show is the show runner , who acts as head writer and manages the show 's production for an entire season .
= = = Writing = = =
The first team of writers assembled for the show consisted of Chris Sheridan , Danny Smith , Gary Janetti , Ricky Blitt , Neil Goldman , Garrett Donovan , Matt Weitzman , and Mike Barker . The writing process of Family Guy generally starts with 14 writers that take turns writing the scripts ; when a script is finished it is given to the rest of the writers to read . These scripts generally include cutaway gags . Various gags are pitched to MacFarlane and the rest of the staff , and those deemed funniest are included in the episode . MacFarlane has explained that normally it takes 10 months to produce an episode because the show uses hand @-@ drawn animation . The show rarely comments on current events for this reason . The show 's initial writers had never written for an animated show ; and most came from live @-@ action sitcoms .
MacFarlane explains that he is a fan of 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology " Suspense " , which led him to give early episodes ominous titles like " Death Has a Shadow " and " Mind Over Murder " . MacFarlane explained that the team dropped the naming convention after individual episodes became hard to identify , and the novelty wore off . For the first few months of production , the writers shared one office , lent to them by the King of the Hill production crew .
Credited with 18 episodes , Steve Callaghan is the most prolific writer on Family Guy staff . Many of the writers that have left the show have gone on to create or produce other successful series . Neil Goldman and Garrett Donovan co @-@ wrote 13 episodes for the NBC sitcom Scrubs during their eight @-@ year run on the show , while also serving as co @-@ producers and working their way up to executive producers . Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman left the show and went on to create the long @-@ running and still ongoing adult animated series American Dad ! MacFarlane is also a co @-@ creator of American Dad ! On November 4 , 2013 , it was announced that Barker had departed American Dad ! during its run as well , after 10 seasons of serving as producer and co @-@ showrunner over the series .
During the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , official production of the show halted for most of December 2007 and for various periods afterward . Fox continued producing episodes without MacFarlane 's final approval , which he termed " a colossal dick move " in an interview with Variety . Though MacFarlane refused to work on the show , his contract under Fox required him to contribute to any episodes it would subsequently produce . Production officially resumed after the end of the strike , with regularly airing episodes recommencing on February 17 , 2008 . According to MacFarlane , in 2009 , it costs about $ 2 million to make an episode of Family Guy .
= = = Early history and cancellation = = =
Family Guy officially premiered after Fox 's broadcast of Super Bowl XXXIII on January 31 , 1999 , with " Death Has a Shadow " . The show debuted to 22 million viewers , and immediately generated controversy regarding its adult content . The show returned on April 11 , 1999 , with " I Never Met the Dead Man " . Family Guy garnered decent ratings in Fox 's 8 : 30 pm slot on Sunday , scheduled between The Simpsons and The X @-@ Files . At the end of its first season , the show ranked at # 33 in the Nielsen ratings , with 12 @.@ 8 million households tuning in . The show launched its second season in a new time slot , Thursday at 9 pm , on September 23 , 1999 . Family Guy was pitted against NBC 's Frasier , and the series ' ratings declined sharply . Subsequently , Fox removed Family Guy from its schedule , and began airing episodes irregularly . The show returned on March 7 , 2000 , at 8 : 30 pm on Tuesdays , where it was constantly beaten in the ratings by ABC 's then @-@ new breakout hit Who Wants to Be a Millionaire , coming in at # 114 in the Nielsen ratings with 6 @.@ 32 million households tuning in . Fox announced that the show had been canceled in May 2000 , at the end of the second season . However , following a last @-@ minute reprieve , on July 24 , 2000 , Fox ordered 13 additional episodes of Family Guy to form a third season .
The show returned November 8 , 2001 , once again in a tough time slot : Thursday nights at 8 : 00 pm ET ; this slot brought it into competition with Survivor and Friends ( a situation that was later referenced in Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story ) . During its second and third seasons , Fox frequently moved the show around to different days and time slots with little or no notice and , consequently , the show 's ratings suffered . Upon Fox 's annual unveiling of its 2002 fall line @-@ up on May 15 , 2002 , Family Guy was absent . Fox announced that the show had been officially canceled shortly thereafter .
= = = Cult success and revival = = =
Fox attempted to sell the rights for reruns of the show , but it was difficult to find networks that were interested ; Cartoon Network eventually bought the rights , " [ ... ] basically for free " , according to the president of 20th Century Fox Television . Family Guy premiered in reruns on Adult Swim on April 20 , 2003 , and immediately became the block 's top @-@ rated program , dominating late @-@ night viewing in its time period versus cable and broadcast competition , and boosting viewership by 239 % . The complete first and second seasons were released on DVD the same week the show premiered on Adult Swim , and the show became a cult phenomenon , selling 400 @,@ 000 copies within one month . Sales of the DVD set reached 2 @.@ 2 million copies , becoming the best @-@ selling television DVD of 2003 and the second @-@ highest @-@ selling television DVD ever , behind the first season of Comedy Central 's Chappelle 's Show . The third @-@ season DVD release also sold more than a million copies . The show 's popularity in DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox 's interest , and , on May 20 , 2004 , Fox ordered 35 new episodes of Family Guy , marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales .
" North by North Quahog " , which premiered May 1 , 2005 , was the first episode to be broadcast after the show 's hiatus . It was written by MacFarlane and directed by Peter Shin . MacFarlane believed the show 's three @-@ year hiatus was beneficial because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses , and towards the end of their seasons , " ... you see a lot more sex jokes and [ bodily function ] jokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried " . With " North by North Quahog " , the writing staff tried to keep the show " [ ... ] exactly as it was " before its cancellation , and " None of us had any desire to make it look any slicker " . The episode was watched by 11 @.@ 85 million viewers , the show 's highest ratings since the airing of the first season episode " Brian : Portrait of a Dog " .
= = = Lawsuits = = =
In March 2007 comedian Carol Burnett filed a $ 6 million lawsuit against 20th Century @-@ Fox , claiming that her charwoman cartoon character had been portrayed on the show without her permission . She stated it was a trademark infringement , and that Fox violated her publicity rights . On June 4 , 2007 , United States District Judge Dean D. Pregerson rejected the lawsuit , stating that the parody was protected under the First Amendment , citing Hustler Magazine v. Falwell as a precedent .
On October 3 , 2007 , Bourne Co . Music Publishers filed a lawsuit accusing the show of infringing its copyright on the song " When You Wish Upon a Star " , through a parody song entitled " I Need a Jew " appearing in the episode " When You Wish Upon a Weinstein " . Bourne Co . , the sole United States copyright owner of the song , alleged the parody pairs a " thinly veiled " copy of its music with antisemitic lyrics . Named in the suit were 20th Century Fox Film Corp. , Fox Broadcasting Co . , Cartoon Network , MacFarlane and Murphy ; the suit sought to stop the program 's distribution and asked for unspecified damages . Bourne argued that " I Need a Jew " uses the copyrighted melody of " When You Wish Upon a Star " without commenting on that song , and that it was therefore not a First Amendment @-@ protected parody per the ruling in Campbell v. Acuff @-@ Rose Music , Inc . On March 16 , 2009 , United States District Judge Deborah Batts held that Family Guy did not infringe on Bourne 's copyright when it transformed the song for comical use in an episode .
In December 2007 , Family Guy was again accused of copyright infringement when actor Art Metrano filed a lawsuit regarding a scene in Stewie Griffin : The Untold Story , in which Jesus performs Metrano 's signature " magic " act involving absurd " faux " magical hand gestures while humming the distinctive tune " Fine and Dandy " . 20th Century Fox , MacFarlane , Callaghan and Borstein were all named in the suit . In July 2009 a federal district court judge rejected Fox 's motion to dismiss , saying that the first three fair use factors involved — " purpose and character of the use " , " nature of the infringed work " and " amount and substantiality of the taking " — counted in Metrano 's favor , while the fourth — " economic impact " — had to await more fact @-@ finding . In denying the dismissal , the court held that the reference in the scene made light of Jesus and his followers — not Metrano or his act . The case was settled out of court in 2010 with undisclosed terms .
= = = Voice cast = = =
Seth MacFarlane voices three of the show 's main characters : Peter Griffin , Brian Griffin , and Stewie Griffin . Since MacFarlane had a strong vision for these characters , he chose to voice them himself , believing it would be easier than for someone else to attempt it . MacFarlane drew inspiration for the voice of Peter from a security guard he overheard talking while attending the Rhode Island School of Design . Stewie 's voice was based on the voice of English actor Rex Harrison , especially his performance in the 1964 musical drama film My Fair Lady . MacFarlane uses his regular speaking voice when playing Brian . MacFarlane also provides the voices for various other recurring and one @-@ time @-@ only characters , most prominently those of the Griffins ' neighbor Glenn Quagmire , news anchor Tom Tucker , and Lois ' father , Carter Pewterschmidt .
Alex Borstein voices Peter 's wife Lois Griffin , Asian correspondent Tricia Takanawa , Loretta Brown , and Lois ' mother , Barbara Pewterschmidt . Borstein was asked to provide a voice for the pilot while she was working on MADtv . She had not met MacFarlane or seen any of his artwork , and said it was " really sight unseen " . At the time , Borstein was performing in a stage show in Los Angeles . She played a redheaded mother whose voice she had based on one of her cousins .
Seth Green primarily voices Chris Griffin and Neil Goldman . Green stated that he did an impression of the character Buffalo Bill from the thriller film The Silence of the Lambs during his audition .
Mila Kunis and Lacey Chabert have both voiced Meg Griffin . Chabert left the series because of time conflicts with schoolwork and her role on Party of Five . When Kunis auditioned for the role , she was called back by MacFarlane , who instructed her to speak slower . He then told her to come back another time and enunciate more . Once she claimed that she had it under control , MacFarlane hired her .
Mike Henry voices Cleveland Brown , Herbert , Bruce the Performance Artist , Consuela and the Greased @-@ up Deaf Guy . Henry met MacFarlane at the Rhode Island School of Design , and kept in touch with him after they graduated . A few years later , MacFarlane contacted him about being part of the show ; he agreed and came on as a writer and voice actor . During the show 's first four seasons , he was credited as a guest star , but beginning with season five 's " Prick Up Your Ears " , he has been credited as a main cast member .
Other recurring cast members include Adam West as the eponymous Mayor Adam West ; Jennifer Tilly as Bonnie Swanson ; John G. Brennan as Mort Goldman and Horace the bartender ; Carlos Alazraqui as Jonathan Weed ; Adam Carolla and Norm Macdonald as Death ; Lori Alan as Diane Simmons ; and Phil LaMarr as Ollie Williams and the judge . Fellow cartoonist Butch Hartman has made guest voice appearances in many episodes as various characters . Also , writer Danny Smith voices various recurring characters , such as Ernie the Giant Chicken . Alex Breckenridge also appears as many various characters .
Episodes often feature guest voices from a wide range of professions , including actors , athletes , authors , bands , musicians , and scientists . Many guest voices star as themselves . Leslie Uggams was the first to appear as herself , in the fourth episode of the first season , " Mind Over Murder " . The episode " Not All Dogs Go to Heaven " guest starred the entire cast of Star Trek : The Next Generation , including Patrick Stewart , Jonathan Frakes , Brent Spiner , LeVar Burton , Gates McFadden , Michael Dorn , Wil Wheaton , Marina Sirtis , and even Denise Crosby ( season 1 as Tasha Yar ) , playing themselves ; this is the episode with the most guest stars of the seventh season .
= = Hallmarks = =
= = = " Road to " episodes = = =
The " Road to " episodes are a series of hallmark travel episodes . They are a parody of the seven Road to ... comedy films starring Bing Crosby and Bob Hope . These episodes have always involved Stewie and Brian in some foreign , supernatural or science @-@ fiction location , unrelated to the show 's normal location in Quahog . The first , entitled " Road to Rhode Island " , aired on May 30 , 2000 , during the second season . The episodes are known for featuring elaborate musical numbers , similar to the Road films . The episodes contain several trademarks , including a special version of the opening sequence , custom musical cues and musical numbers , and parodies of science fiction and fantasy films .
The original idea for the " Road to " episodes came from MacFarlane , as he is a fan of the films of Crosby , Hope and Lamour . The first episode was directed by Dan Povenmire , who would direct the rest of the " Road to " episodes until the episode " Road to Rupert " , at which point he had left the show to create Phineas and Ferb . Series regular Greg Colton then took over Povenmire 's role as director of the " Road to " episodes .
The " Road to " episodes are generally considered by critics and fans to be some of the greatest in the series , thanks to the developing relationship between Stewie and Brian , and the strong plotlines of the episodes themselves .
= = = Humor = = =
Family Guy uses the filmmaking technique of cutaways , which occur in the majority of Family Guy episodes . Emphasis is often placed on gags which make reference to current events and / or modern cultural icons .
Early episodes based much of their comedy on Stewie 's " super villain " antics , such as his constant plans for total world domination , his evil experiments , plans and inventions to get rid of things he dislikes , and his constant attempts at matricide . As the series progressed , the writers and MacFarlane agreed that his personality and the jokes were starting to feel dated , so they began writing him with a different personality . Family Guy often includes self @-@ referential humor . The most common form is jokes about Fox Broadcasting , and occasions where the characters break the fourth wall by addressing the audience . For example , in " North by North Quahog " , the first episode that aired after the show 's revival , included Peter telling the family that they had been cancelled because Fox had to make room in their schedule for shows like Dark Angel , Titus , Undeclared , Action , That ' 80s Show , Wonderfalls , Fastlane , Andy Richter Controls the Universe , Skin , Girls Club , Cracking Up , The Pitts , Firefly , Get Real , Freakylinks , Wanda at Large , Costello , The Lone Gunmen , A Minute with Stan Hooper , Normal , Ohio , Pasadena , Harsh Realm , Keen Eddie , The $ treet , The American Embassy , Cedric the Entertainer Presents , The Tick , Luis , and Greg the Bunny . Lois asks whether there is any hope , to which Peter replies that if all these shows are canceled they might have a chance ; the shows were indeed canceled during Family Guy 's hiatus .
The show uses catchphrases , and most of the primary and secondary characters have them . Notable expressions include Quagmire 's " Giggity giggity goo " , Peter 's " Freakin ' sweet " , and Joe 's " Bring it on ! " The use of many of these catchphrases declined in later seasons . The episode " Big Man on Hippocampus " mocks catchphrase @-@ based humor : when Peter , who has forgotten everything about his life , is introduced to Meg , he exclaims " D 'oh ! " , to which Lois replies , " No , Peter , that 's not your catchphrase . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Ratings = = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Catherine Seipp of National Review Online described it as a " nasty but extremely funny " cartoon . Caryn James of The New York Times called it a show with an " outrageously satirical family " that " includes plenty of comic possibilities and parodies " . The Sydney Morning Herald named Family Guy the " Show of the Week " on April 21 , 2009 , hailing it a " pop culture @-@ heavy masterpiece " . Frazier Moore from The Seattle Times called it an " endless craving for humor about bodily emissions " . He thought it was " breathtakingly smart " and said a " blend of the ingenious with the raw helps account for its much broader appeal " . He summarized it as " rude , crude and deliciously wrong " . The New Yorker 's Nancy Franklin said that Family Guy is becoming one of the best animated shows ; she commented on its ribaldry and popularity . The show has become a hit on Hulu ; it is the second @-@ highest viewed show after Saturday Night Live . IGN called Family Guy a great show , and commented that it has gotten better since its revival . They stated that they cannot imagine another half @-@ hour sitcom that provides as many laughs as Family Guy . Empire praised the show and its writers for creating really hilarious moments with unlikely material . They commented that one of the reasons they love the show is because nothing is sacred — it makes jokes and gags of almost everything . Robin Pierson of The TV Critic praised the series as " a different kind of animated comedy which clearly sets out to do jokes which other cartoons can 't do . " Family Guy has proven popular in the United Kingdom , regularly obtaining between 700 @,@ 000 and 1 million viewers for re @-@ runs on BBC Three .
The series has attracted many celebrities . Robert Downey , Jr. telephoned the show production staff and asked if he could produce or assist in an episode 's creation , as his son is a fan of the show ; the producers subsequently created a character for Downey . Lauren Conrad met MacFarlane while recording a Laguna Beach clip for the episode " Prick Up Your Ears " ( season 5 , 2006 ) . She has watched Family Guy for years and considers Stewie her favorite character . Commenting on his appearance in the episode " Big Man on Hippocampus " ( season 8 , 2010 ) , actor Dwayne Johnson stated that he was a " big fan " of Family Guy . Johnson befriended MacFarlane after he had a minor role in Johnson 's 2010 film Tooth Fairy . R & B singer Rihanna has admitted to being a fan of Family Guy , as has pop singer Britney Spears ; she tries to imitate Stewie 's English accent . Spears , who was mocked for her personal problems in the South Park episode " Britney 's New Look " in 2008 , offered to appear in a cameo to hit back at the similar animated show , but MacFarlane declined , stating that he did not want to start a feud with the series .
= = = Awards = = =
Family Guy and its cast have been nominated for thirteen Emmy Awards , with five wins . MacFarlane won the Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance award for his performance as Stewie ; Murphy and MacFarlane won the Outstanding Music and Lyrics award for the song " You Got a Lot to See " from the episode " Brian Wallows and Peter 's Swallows " ; Steven Fonti won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode " No Chris Left Behind " ; and Greg Colton won the Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation award for his storyboard work in the episode " Road to the Multiverse " . The show was nominated for eleven Annie Awards , and won three times , twice in 2006 and once in 2008 . In 2009 it was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Comedy Series , becoming the first animated program to be nominated in this category since The Flintstones in 1961 . The Simpsons was almost nominated in 1993 , but voters were hesitant to pit cartoons against live action programs . The show was nominated for a Grammy in 2011 . Family Guy has been nominated and has won various other awards , including the Teen Choice Awards and the People 's Choice Awards . In the 1,000th issue of Entertainment Weekly , Brian Griffin was selected as the dog for " The Perfect TV Family " . Wizard Magazine rated Stewie the 95th @-@ greatest villain of all time . British newspaper The Times rated Family Guy as the 45th @-@ best American show in 2009 . IGN ranked Family Guy at number seven in the " Top 100 Animated Series " and number six in the " Top 25 Primetime Animated Series of All Time " . Empire named it the twelfth @-@ greatest TV show of all time . In 2005 viewers of the UK television channel Channel 4 voted Family Guy at number 5 on their list of the 100 Greatest Cartoons . Brian was awarded the 2009 Stoner of the Year award by High Times for the episode " 420 " , marking the first time an animated character received the honor . In 2007 TV Guide ranked Family Guy number 15 in their list of top cult shows ever . Family Guy has garnered six Golden Reel Awards nominations , winning three times . In 2013 , TV Guide ranked Family Guy the ninth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time .
= = = Criticism and controversy = = =
One of the initial critics to give the show negative reviews was Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly ; he called it " The Simpsons as conceived by a singularly sophomoric mind that lacks any reference point beyond other TV shows " . The Parents Television Council ( PTC ) , a conservative , non @-@ profit watchdog , has attacked the series since its premiere and has branded various episodes as " Worst TV Show of the Week " . In May 2000 the PTC launched a letter @-@ writing campaign to the Fox network in an effort to persuade the network to cancel the show . The PTC has placed the show on their annual lists of " Worst Prime @-@ Time Shows for Family Viewing " in 2000 , 2005 , and 2006 . The Federal Communications Commission has received multiple petitions requesting that the show be blocked from broadcasting on indecency grounds . Tucker and the PTC have both accused the show of portraying religion negatively , and of being racist . Because of the PTC , some advertisers have canceled their contracts after reviewing the content of the episodes , claiming it to be unsuitable . Critics have compared the show 's humor and characters with those of The Simpsons .
Various episodes of the show have generated controversy . In " 420 " ( season seven , 2009 ) Brian decides to start a campaign to legalize cannabis in Quahog ; the Venezuelan government reacted negatively to the episode and banned Family Guy from airing on their local networks , which generally syndicate American programming . Venezuelan justice minister Tareck El Aissami , citing the promotion of the use of cannabis , stated that any cable stations that did not stop airing the series would be fined ; the government showed a clip which featured Brian and Stewie singing the praises of marijuana as a demonstration of how the United States supports cannabis use . In " Extra Large Medium " ( season eight , 2010 ) a character named Ellen ( who has Down syndrome ) states that her mother is the former Governor of Alaska , which strongly implies that her mother is Sarah Palin , the only woman to have served in the office of governor in the state . Sarah Palin , the mother of a special @-@ needs child , criticized the episode in an appearance on The O 'Reilly Factor , calling those who made the show " cruel , cold @-@ hearted people . "
= = Broadcast = =
Family Guy premiered in Australia on April 9 , 1999 on the Seven Network , in 2000 on Fox8 , and on 7mate on September 27 , 2010 . In Canada , the series started airing January 31 , 1999 on Global and September 1 , 2003 on Teletoon . The show aired on Global until 2015 . Beginning in the 2015 – 16 season , it started to air on City instead . In the past the show was also syndicated on TVtropolis ( now DTour ) and on Adult Swim from July 4 , 2012 . The show also airs in Ireland on 3e , and in New Zealand on Four .
In the United Kingdom , Family Guy premiered in September 1999 , originally on Channel 4 and Sky One . In January 2005 , FX ( now Fox ) began broadcasting the show . From October 2005 , BBC Two started screening Family Guy before switching to BBC Three on September 2006 . In March 2015 , it was announced that season 14 of Family Guy and all of MacFarlane 's other cartoons will transfer to ITV2 , premiering on February 29 , 2016 , while the BBC would continue to hold the rights until 2017 for older episodes .
= = Other media = =
= = = Comic books = = =
A comic book based on the Family Guy universe is being produced . Published by Titan Comics , it will be edited by Steve White and illustrated by Anthony Williams and S. L. Gallant . The writing and the illustrations will be supervised by the show 's producers . The comics will consist of a main story , a short story , and a gag strip . The first comic book was released on July 27 , 2011 .
= = = Books = = =
Family Guy : It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One was written by executive story editor Chevapravatdumrong and actress Alex Borstein . The book was first published on 8 May 2007 . The book is a biographical monologue by Lois Griffin discussing her memories of growing up and to her attempted run for mayor in the town of Quahog . Though the book primarily consists of a loose narrative monologue by Lois , it is also interspersed with sections from other characters such as Peter Griffin . The book covers events featured in the Family Guy episode " It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One " , with which it shares a title .
It was published in the United Kingdom in 2007 by Orion Books .
= = = Live performances = = =
As promotion for the show , and , as Newman described , " [ to ] expand interest in the show beyond its diehard fans " , Fox organized four Family Guy Live ! performances , which featured cast members reading old episodes aloud . The cast also performed musical numbers from the Family Guy : Live in Vegas comedy album . The stage shows were an extension of a performance by the cast during the 2004 Montreal Comedy Festival . The Family Guy Live ! performances , which took place in Los Angeles and New York , sold out and were attended by around 1 @,@ 200 people each .
In 2007 , at the 59th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards , MacFarlane performed ( as the digitally inserted Stewie and Brian ) the ceremony 's opening number . He performed a song insulting modern television to the tune of the song " The Fellas At The Freakin ' F.C.C. " performed in the episode PTV . The song insulted TV shows such as Two and a Half Men , Desperate Housewives , and Scrubs , as well as the final scene of The Sopranos .
In 2009 , a special televised performance show aired entitled Family Guy Presents Seth & Alex 's Almost Live Comedy Show , in which voice actors Alex Borstein and MacFarlane performed songs from the show , as well as a parody of Lady Gaga 's song " Poker Face " in the voice of Marlee Matlin , who appeared on stage as a guest during the performance . Some new animated gags also appeared in the show .
= = = Film = = =
On July 22 , 2007 , in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter , MacFarlane announced that he may start working on a feature film , although " nothing 's official . " In TV Week on July 18 , 2008 , MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a theatrically released Family Guy feature film sometime " within the next year . " He came up with an idea for the story , " something that you could not do on the show , which [ to him ] is the only reason to do a movie . " He later went to say he imagines the film to be " an old @-@ style musical with dialogue " similar to The Sound of Music , saying that he would " really be trying to capture , musically , that feel . " On October 13 , 2011 , Seth MacFarlane confirmed that a deal for a Family Guy film had been made , and that it would be written by himself and series co @-@ producer Ricky Blitt .
On November 30 , 2012 , MacFarlane confirmed plans to produce a Family Guy film . The project was put on hold while MacFarlane worked on Ted 2 .
= = = Spin @-@ off = = =
MacFarlane co @-@ created — alongside Mike Henry and Richard Appel — the Family Guy spin @-@ off The Cleveland Show , which premiered September 27 , 2009 . They began discussing the project in 2007 . Appel and Henry served as the show 's executive producers and showrunners , handling the day @-@ to @-@ day operations , with limited involvement from MacFarlane . Henry and Appel conceived the show as " more of a family show , a sweeter show " than Family Guy . The first season consisted of 22 episodes , and the show was picked up by Fox for a second season , which consisted of 13 episodes . The announcement was made on May 3 , 2009 , before the first season began . It was extended to a full second season . Appel signed a new three @-@ year , seven @-@ figure deal with Fox to continue serving as showrunner on The Cleveland Show in 2010 . Fox chairman Gary Newman commented : " What is special about him is his incredible leadership ability . " The show follows the Family Guy character Cleveland Brown , who is voiced by Henry , as he leaves the town of Quahog and moves with his son to start his own adventure .
Fox canceled The Cleveland Show on May 13 , 2013 , roughly a week before the May 19 conclusion of its fourth season . On July 16 , 2013 , MacFarlane confirmed an upcoming twelfth season episode of Family Guy centering on Cleveland 's return to Quahog .
= = = Video games = = =
The Family Guy Video Game ! is a 2006 action game released by 2K Games and developed by High Voltage Software . The game received mixed reviews , averaging 50 % favorable reviews for the PlayStation 2 version , 51 % for the PlayStation Portable version , and 53 % for the Xbox version , according to review aggregator Metacritic . The game received praise for its humor , but was criticized for its short playtime and " uninteresting gameplay " . On November 2 , 2009 , IGN journalist Ryan Langley reported the production of a Family Guy @-@ based party game for the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Wii . He cited the LinkedIn profiles of former HB Studios developer Chris Kolmatycki and Invisible Entertainment co @-@ owner Ron Doucet , which stated that the individuals had worked on the game . MacFarlane recorded exclusive material of Peter 's voice and other Family Guy characters for a 2007 pinball machine of the show by Stern Pinball . A game called Family Guy Online was announced .
Family Guy : Back to the Multiverse , which is centered around the episode " Road to the Multiverse " , was released on November 20 , 2012 .
Family Guy : The Quest for Stuff launched on iOS and Android on April 10 , 2014 .
= = = Crossovers with other animated series = = =
An event known as " Night of the Hurricane " depicts a hurricane hitting the hometowns of MacFarlane 's sitcoms Family Guy , American Dad ! and The Cleveland Show , culminating in a stand @-@ off among the three fathers of each family .
It was announced that a special episode of Family Guy featuring an official crossover with The Simpsons would premiere in 2014 . At San Diego Comic Con a 5 @-@ minute preview was shown . The episode is titled The Simpsons Guy and aired September 28 , 2014 .
= = Merchandise = =
As of 2009 , six books have been released about the Family Guy universe , all published by HarperCollins since 2005 . The first , Family Guy : Stewie 's Guide to World Domination ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 077321 @-@ 2 ) by Steve Callahan , was released in April 26 , 2005 . Written in the style of a graphic novel , the plot follows Stewie 's plans to rule the world . Other books include Family Guy : It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7528 @-@ 7593 @-@ 4 ) , which covers the events of the episode " It Takes a Village Idiot , and I Married One " ; and Family Guy and Philosophy : A Cure for the Petarded ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4051 @-@ 6316 @-@ 3 ) , a collection of 17 essays exploring the connections between the series and historical philosophers . A book written from Brian 's point of view ( written by Andrew Goldberg ) was published in 2006 , called Brian Griffin 's Guide to Booze , Broads and the Lost Art of Being a Man .
Family Guy has been commercially successful in the home market . The show was the first to be resurrected because of high DVD sales . The first volume , covering the show 's first two seasons , sold 1 @.@ 67 million units , topping TV DVD sales in 2003 , while the second volume sold another million units . Volumes six and seven debuted at fifth place in United States DVD sales ; volume seven was the highest @-@ selling television DVD , selling 171 @,@ 000 units by June 21 , 2009 . Family Guy Presents Blue Harvest , the DVD featuring the Star Wars special " Blue Harvest " , was released on January 15 , 2008 , and premiered at the top of United States DVD sales . The DVD was the first Family Guy DVD to include a digital copy for download to the iPod . In 2004 , the first series of Family Guy toy figurines was released by Mezco Toyz ; each member of the Griffin family had their own toy , with the exception of Stewie , of whom two different figures were made . Over the course of two years , four more series of toy figures were released , with various forms of Peter . In 2008 , the character Peter appeared in advertisements for Subway Restaurants , promoting the restaurant 's massive feast sandwich .
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= A Canticle for Leibowitz =
A Canticle for Leibowitz is a post @-@ apocalyptic science fiction novel by American writer Walter M. Miller , Jr . , first published in 1960 . Set in a Catholic monastery in the desert of the Southwestern United States after a devastating nuclear war , the story spans thousands of years as civilization rebuilds itself . The monks of the fictional Albertian Order of Leibowitz take up the mission of preserving the surviving remnants of man 's scientific knowledge until the day the outside world is again ready for it .
A Canticle for Leibowitz is based on three short stories Miller contributed to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction . It is the only novel published by the author during his lifetime . Considered one of the classics of science fiction , it has never been out of print and has seen over 25 reprints and editions . Appealing to mainstream and genre critics and readers alike , it won the 1961 Hugo Award for best science fiction novel .
Inspired by the author 's participation in the Allied bombing of the monastery at Monte Cassino during World War II , the novel is considered a masterpiece by literary critics . It has been compared favorably with the works of Evelyn Waugh , Graham Greene , and Walker Percy , and its themes of religion , recurrence , and church versus state have generated a significant body of scholarly research . Miller 's follow @-@ up work , Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman , was published posthumously in 1997 .
= = Publication history = =
= = = Development = = =
Walter Miller was a prolific writer of science fiction short stories ; by 1955 he had published over 30 stories in such magazines as Astounding Science Fiction , Amazing Stories , and Fantastic Adventures . Significant themes of his stories included loss of scientific knowledge or " socio @-@ technological regression and its presumed antithesis , continued technological advance " , its preservation through oral transmission , the guardianship of archives by priests , and " that side of [ human ] behavior which can only be termed religious . " These thematic elements , combined with the growing subgenre of the " post @-@ disaster " story and Miller 's own World War II experiences , set the stage for the short story that would become the opening section of A Canticle for Leibowitz .
During World War II , Miller served as part of a bomber crew that participated in the destruction of the ancient Roman Catholic monastery at Monte Cassino , Italy founded by St. Benedict in the 6th century . This experience impressed him enough to write , a decade later , the short story " A Canticle for Leibowitz " about an order of monks whose abbey springs from the destroyed world around it . The story , which would evolve into " Fiat Homo " — the first part of the novel — was published in the April 1955 edition of The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction ( F & SF ) . Although not originally intended as a serialization , the saga continued in " And the Light Is Risen " , which was published in August 1956 ( also in F & SF ) . That work would later grow into " Fiat Lux " . It was while writing the third " novelette " , " The Last Canticle " , for magazine publication in February of the following year that Miller realized he was really completing a novel : " Only after I had written the first two and was working on the third did it dawn on me that this isn 't three novelettes , it 's a novel . And I converted it . "
The publication of the three Canticle stories , along with Miller 's " The Lineman " , in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction marked a significant evolution in the writer 's craft . Under the editorship of Anthony Boucher , F & SF possessed a reputation for publishing works with " careful writing and characterization . " Walker Percy considered the magazine " high @-@ class sci @-@ fi pulp " . The appearance of these stories in the magazine is indicative of the direction Miller 's writing had taken toward " ' human ' stories , less crowded with incident , more concerned with values . "
For the novelization , Miller did not simply collate the three short stories . He changed the title and the names of some characters , added new characters , changed the nature and prominence of existing characters , and added Latin passages . These revisions affected the religious and recurrence themes of the story , resulting in " decided improvements " over the magazine versions .
The Latin phrases in the novel related to Roman Catholic Church practices , rituals and official communications . Susan Olsen writes that Miller did not include the Latin phrases just to " add dignity " to the work , but to emphasize its religious themes , making it consonant with the tradition of Judeo @-@ Christian writings .
Changing the name of the abbot of the first part from " Father Juan " to " Abbot Arkos " strengthened the cyclical / recurrence motif , since the name of the first abbot encountered , " Arkos " , begins with the first letter of the Latin alphabet and the name of the last abbot , " Zerchi " , begins with the last letter . Miller also expanded scenes , increasing their importance : for instance , the initial encounter between Brother Francis and Abbot Arkos in " Fiat Homo " grew from two pages in the short story to eight pages in the novel . Abbot Arkos was shown to possess doubts and uncertainty , unlike the dogmatism of Father Juan .
Miller also used the adaptation process to add a significant layer of complexity to the story . Walker Percy recognized this dimension of the novel , which he compared to a " cipher , a coded message , a book in a strange language . " David Seed deemed the novel " charged with half @-@ concealed meaning , " an intricacy that seems to have been added as Miller was revising the stories for publication as a novel . Decoding messages such as this is an important activity in Miller 's works , both in A Canticle for Leibowitz and his short stories . For example , in the original version of " Fiat Homo " Miller limits his " wordplay " to an explicit symbolism involving the letter " V " and Brother Francis 's " Voice / Vocation " during Francis 's encounter with the wandering pilgrim . In the novel , however , " Miller reserves such symbolistic cross @-@ references to the more intellectual analysts and builds a comedy of incomprehension around Francis . "
Miller 's extensive experience in writing for science fiction magazines contributed to his achievement with A Canticle for Leibowitz . His strengths were with the medium lengths of the short story , novelette , and short novel , where he effectively combined character , action , and import . The success of this full @-@ length novel rests on its tripartite structure : each section is " short novel size , with counterpoint , motifs , and allusions making up for the lack of more ordinary means of continuity . "
= = = Publication = = =
The novel was published by J. B. Lippincott & Co. as a hardcover in 1960 ( although the copyright is 1959 ) , and demand for the book was sufficient to prompt two reprints within the first year . In 1961 it was awarded the Hugo Award for Best Novel by The World Science Fiction Convention . Since then A Canticle for Leibowitz has had new editions and reprints issued in paperback and hardcover more than 40 times , and has never been out of print . It regularly appears on " best of " lists and has been recognized three times with Locus Poll Awards for best all @-@ time science fiction novel .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = Background = = =
A Canticle for Leibowitz opens 600 years after 20th century civilization has been destroyed by a global nuclear war , known as the " Flame Deluge " . The text reveals that as a result of the war there was a violent backlash against the culture of advanced knowledge and technology that had led to the development of nuclear weapons . During this backlash , called the " Simplification , " anyone of learning , and eventually anyone who could even read , was likely to be killed by rampaging mobs , who proudly took on the name of " Simpletons " . Illiteracy became almost universal , and books were destroyed en masse .
Isaac Edward Leibowitz had been a Jewish electrical engineer working for the United States military . Surviving the war , he converted to Roman Catholicism and founded a monastic order , the " Albertian Order of Leibowitz " , dedicated to preserving knowledge by hiding books , smuggling them to safety ( booklegging ) , memorizing , and copying them . The Order 's abbey is located in the American southwestern desert , near the military base where Leibowitz had worked before the war , on an old road that may have been " a portion of the shortest route from the Great Salt Lake to Old El Paso . " Leibowitz was eventually betrayed and martyred . Later beatified by the Roman Catholic Church , he became a candidate for sainthood .
Centuries after his death , the abbey is still preserving the " Memorabilia " , the collected writings that have survived the Flame Deluge and the Simplification , in the hope that they will help future generations reclaim forgotten science .
The story is structured in three parts titled : " Fiat Homo " , " Fiat Lux " , and " Fiat Voluntas Tua " . The parts are separated by periods of six centuries each .
= = = " Fiat Homo " ( Let There Be Man ) = = =
In the 26th century , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old novice named Brother Francis Gerard is on a vigil in the desert . While searching for a rock to complete a shelter , Brother Francis encounters a Wanderer , apparently looking for the abbey , who inscribes Hebrew on a rock that appears the perfect fit for the shelter . When Brother Francis removes the rock , he discovers the entrance to an ancient fallout shelter containing " relics " , such as handwritten notes on crumbling memo pads bearing cryptic texts resembling a 20th @-@ century shopping list . He soon realizes that these notes appear to have been written by Leibowitz , his order 's founder . The discovery of the ancient documents causes an uproar at the monastery , as the other monks speculate that the relics once belonged to Leibowitz . Brother Francis ' account of the Wanderer , who ultimately never turned up at the abbey , is also greatly embellished by the other monks amid rumours that he was an apparition of Leibowitz himself ; Francis strenuously denies the embellishments , but equally persistently refuses to deny that the encounter occurred , despite the lack of other witnesses . Abbot Arkos , the head of the monastery , worries that the discovery of so many potentially holy relics in such a short period may cause delays in Leibowitz 's canonization process . Francis is banished back to the desert to complete his vigil and defuse the sensationalism .
Many years later , the abbey is visited by Monsignors Aguerra ( God 's Advocate ) and Flaught ( the Devil 's Advocate ) , the Church 's investigators in the case for Leibowitz 's sainthood . Leibowitz is eventually canonized as Saint Leibowitz – based partly on the evidence Francis discovered in the shelter – and Brother Francis is sent to New Rome to represent the Order at the canonization Mass . He takes the documents found in the shelter and an illumination of one of the documents on which he has spent years working , as a gift to the Pope .
En route , he is robbed and his illumination taken . Francis completes the journey to New Rome and is granted an audience with the Pope , who was modeled after Pope John XXIII . Francis presents the Pope with the remaining documents , and the Pope comforts Francis by giving him gold with which to ransom back the illumination ; however , Francis is killed during his return trip by a group of " The Pope 's Children " ( an affectionate name for the people who have been so severely affected by the genetic mutation caused by radiation that they are subhuman in both intelligence and capacity for reason ) , receiving an arrow in the face . The Wanderer discovers and buries Francis 's body . ( The book then focuses on the vultures who were denied their meal ; they fly over the Great Plains and find much food near the Red River until a city @-@ state , based in Texarkana , rises ) .
= = = " Fiat Lux " ( Let There Be Light ) = = =
In 3174 , the Albertian Order of St. Leibowitz is still preserving the half @-@ understood knowledge from before the Flame Deluge and the subsequent Age of Simplification . The new Dark Age is ending , however , and a new Renaissance is beginning . Thon Taddeo Pfardentrott , a highly regarded secular scholar , is sent by his cousin Hannegan , Mayor of Texarkana , to the abbey . Thon Taddeo , frequently compared to Galileo , is interested in the Order 's preserved collection of Memorabilia .
At the abbey , Brother Kornhoer , a talented engineer , has just finished work on a " generator of electrical essences " , a treadmill @-@ powered electrical generator that powers an arc lamp . He gives credit for the generator to work done by Thon Taddeo . After arriving at the monastery , Thon Taddeo , by studying the Memorabilia , makes several major " discoveries " , and asks the abbot to allow the Memorabilia to be removed to Texarkana . The Abbot Dom Paulo refuses , stating he can continue his research at the abbey . Before departing , the Thon comments that it could take decades to finish analyzing the Memorabilia .
Meanwhile , Hannegan makes an alliance with the kingdom of Laredo and the neighboring , relatively civilized city @-@ states against the threat of attack from the nomadic warriors . Hannegan , however , is manipulating the regional politics to effectively neutralize all of his enemies , leaving him in control of the entire region . Monsignor Apollo , the papal nuncio to Hannegan 's court , sends word to New Rome that Hannegan intends to attack the empire of Denver next , and that he intends to use the abbey as a base of operations from which to conduct the campaign . For his actions , Apollo is executed , and Hannegan initiates a church schism , declaring loyalty to the Pope to be punishable by death . The Church excommunicates Hannegan .
= = = " Fiat Voluntas Tua " ( Let Thy Will Be Done ) = = =
It is the year 3781 , and mankind has nuclear energy and weapons again , as well as starships and extra @-@ solar colonies . Two world superpowers , the Asian Coalition and the Atlantic Confederacy , have been embroiled in a cold war for 50 years . The Leibowitzan Order 's mission of preserving the Memorabilia has expanded to the preservation of all knowledge .
Rumors that both sides are assembling nuclear weapons in space and that a nuclear weapon has been detonated increase public and international tensions . At the abbey , the current abbot , Dom Jethras Zerchi , recommends to New Rome that the Church reactivate the Quo Peregrinatur Grex Pastor Secum ( " Whither Wanders the Flock , the Shepherd is with Them " ) contingency plans involving " certain vehicles " the Church has had since 3756 . A " nuclear incident " occurs in the Asian Coalition city of Itu Wan : an underground nuclear explosion has destroyed the city , and the Atlantic Confederacy counters by firing a " warning shot " over the South Pacific .
New Rome tells Zerchi to proceed with Quo Peregrinatur and plan for departure within three days . He appoints Brother Joshua as mission leader , telling him that this is an emergency plan for perpetuating the Church on the colony planets in the event of a nuclear war on Earth . The Order 's Memorabilia will also accompany the mission . That night the Atlantic Confederacy launches an assault against Asian Coalition space platforms . The Asian Coalition responds by using a nuclear weapon against the Confederacy capital city of Texarkana . A ten @-@ day cease @-@ fire is issued by the World Court . Brother Joshua and the space @-@ trained monks and priests depart on a secret , chartered flight for New Rome , hoping to leave Earth on the starship before the cease @-@ fire ends .
During the cease @-@ fire , the abbey offers shelter to refugees fleeing the regions affected by fallout , which results in a battle of wills over euthanasia between the abbot and a doctor from a government emergency response camp . The war resumes and a nuclear explosion occurs near the abbey . Abbot Zerchi tries to flee to safety , bringing with him the abbey 's ciborium containing consecrated hosts , but it is too late . He is trapped by the falling walls of the abbey and finds himself lying under tons of rock and bones as the abbey 's ancient crypts disgorge their contents . Among them is a skull with an arrow 's shaft protruding from its forehead ( presumably that of Brother Francis Gerard from the first section of the book ) .
As he lies dying under the abbey 's rubble , Zerchi is startled to encounter Mrs Grales / Rachel , a bicephalous tomato peddler and mutant . However , Mrs. Grales has been rendered unconscious by the explosion , and may be dying herself . As Zerchi tries to conditionally baptize Rachel , she refuses , and instead takes the ciborium and administers the Eucharist to him . It is implied that she is , like the Virgin Mary , Eve and Jesus , exempt from original sin , and may even be the Second Coming of Christ to begin a new cycle on Earth . Zerchi soon dies , having witnessed an apparent miracle .
After the Abbot 's death , the scene flashes to Joshua and the Quo Peregrinatur crew launching as the nuclear explosions begin . Joshua , the last crew member to board the starship , knocks the dirt from his sandals ( a reference to Mt . 10 : 14 , If anyone will not welcome you or listen to your words , leave that home or town and shake the dust off your feet ) , murmuring " Sic transit mundus " ( " Thus passes the world " ) . As a coda , there is a final vignette depicting the ecological aspects of the war : seabirds and fish succumb to the poisonous fallout , and a shark evades death only through moving to particularly deep water , where , it is noted , the shark was " very hungry that season . "
= = Major themes = =
= = = Recurrence and cyclical history = = =
Scholars and critics have noted the theme of cyclic history or recurrence in Miller 's works , epitomized in A Canticle for Leibowitz . David Seed , in discussing the treatment of nuclear holocaust in science fiction in his book American Science Fiction and the Cold War : Literature and Film ( 1992 ) , states , " it was left to Walter M. Miller 's A Canticle for Leibowitz to show recurrence taking place in a narrative spanning centuries . " David N. Samuelson , whose 1969 doctoral dissertation on Canticle is considered the " best overall discussion of the book " , calls the " cyclical theme of technological progress and regress ... the foundation @-@ stone on which A Canticle for Leibowitz is built . "
A Canticle for Leibowitz 's circular structure – and the cyclical history it presents – support a number of thematic and structural elements which unify its three sections . Although the novel 's events take place in a fictional future , the three parts allegorically represent crucial phases of Western history . The first section , " Fiat Homo " , depicts a Church preserving civilization , a counterpart to the " Age of Faith " after the Fall of Rome . The action of the second part , " Fiat Lux " , focuses on a renaissance of " secular learning " , echoing the " divergences of Church and State and of science and faith " . " Fiat Voluntas Tua " , the final part , is the analog of contemporary civilization , with its " technological marvels , its obsessions with material , worldly power , and its accelerating neglect of faith and the spirit . "
In her analysis of Miller 's fiction , Rose Secrest connects this theme directly to one of Miller 's earlier short fiction works , quoting a passage from " The Ties that Bind " , published in the May 1954 edition of If magazine : " All societies go through three phases .... First there is the struggle to integrate in a hostile environment . Then , after integration , comes an explosive expansion of the culture @-@ conquest .... Then a withering of the mother culture , and the rebellious rise of young cultures . "
= = = Church versus state = = =
The third part , " Fiat Voluntas Tua " , includes a debate between future Church and state stances on abortion and euthanasia , a thematic issue representative of the larger conflict between Church and state . Literary critic Edward Ducharme claimed that " Miller 's narrative continually returns to the conflicts between the scientist 's search for truth and the state 's power . "
= = Literary significance and reception = =
Initial response to the novel was mixed , but it drew responses from newspapers and magazines normally inattentive to science fiction . A Canticle for Leibowitz was reviewed in such notable publications as Time , The New Yorker , the New York Times Book Review , and The Spectator . While The New Yorker was negative – calling Miller a " dull , ashy writer guilty of heavy @-@ weight irony " – The Spectator 's was mixed . Also unimpressed , Time said , " Miller proves himself chillingly effective at communicating a kind of post @-@ human lunar landscape of disaster , " but dubbed it intellectually lightweight . The New York Times Book Review , however , was solid in its praise – Martin Levin hailed A Canticle for Leibowitz as an " ingenious fantasy " . The Chicago Tribune gave the book unusual exposure outside the genre in a front page review in the Chicago Tribune Magazine of Books , reviewer Edmund Fuller calling the book " an extraordinary novel " . Genre reviewer Floyd C. Gale praised its " many passages of remarkable power . " A decade later , Time re @-@ characterized its opinion of the book , calling it " an extraordinary novel even by literary standards , [ which ] has flourished by word of mouth for a dozen years . "
Sales of the hardcover publication were significant enough to justify two additional reprints of the book within the first year , and the novel was recognized with a Hugo Award by science fiction and fantasy fans as the best science fiction novel of 1960 .
In the years since , praise for the work has been consistently high . It is considered a " science @-@ fiction classic ... [ and ] is arguably the best novel written about nuclear apocalypse , surpassing more popularly known books like On the Beach " . A Canticle for Leibowitz has also generated a significant body of literary criticism , including numerous literature journal articles , books and college courses . Acknowledging its serialization roots , literary critic David N. Samuelson writes that A Canticle for Leibowitz " may be the one universally acknowledged literary masterpiece to emerge from magazine SF . " Fellow critic David Cowart places the novel in the realm of works by Evelyn Waugh , Graham Greene , and Walker Percy , in 1975 stating it " stands for many readers as the best novel ever written in the genre . " Percy , a National Book Award recipient , declared Canticle " a mystery : it 's as if everything came together by some felicitous chance , then fell apart into normal negative entropy . I 'm as mystified as ever and hold Canticle in even higher esteem . " Scholars and critics have explored the many themes encompassed in the novel , frequently focusing on its motifs of religion , recurrence , and church versus state .
= = Adaptations = =
A 15 @-@ part full @-@ cast abridged serial of the novel was adapted for radio by John Reeves and broadcast in 1981 by National Public Radio ( NPR ) . Directed by Karl Schmidt , it was produced by Karl Schmidt and Marv Nonn . Carol Cowan narrated the production .
In 1993 the BBC broadcast a 90 @-@ minute dramatisation of the first two books , " Fiat Homo " and " Fiat Lux , " with Andrew Price as Brother Francis and Michael McKenzie as Dom Paulo . The adaptation was by Donald Campbell and it was directed by Hamish Wilson .
A 2012 adaptation of " Fiat Homo , Part One Of A Canticle For Leibowitz " read by Nigel Lindsay , abridged by Nick McCarty and produced by Philippa Geering for BBC Radio 4 Extra was broadcast in five 30 minute parts .
= = Sequel = =
Toward the end of his life , Miller wrote another installment of the Abbey of Saint Leibowitz saga , Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman . A full @-@ length novel ( 455 pages ) significantly longer than its predecessor , it is set in AD 3254 , seventy years after the events of " Fiat Lux " but several centuries before " Fiat Voluntas Tua . " Suffering from writer 's block and fearful the new work would go unfinished , Miller arranged with author Terry Bisson to complete it . According to Bisson , all he did was go in and tie up the loose ends Miller had left . The novel tells the story of Brother Blacktooth St. George of the Leibowitzan abbey who , unlike Brother Francis , wants to be released from his holy vows and leave the abbey . In addition to recounting his travels as Cardinal Brownpony 's personal secretary , the book describes the political situation in the 33rd century as Church and empire ( Texark ) vie for power . Miller died before the novel 's publication .
Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman has been called " Walter Miller 's other novel . " Reviewer Steven H. Silver points out that this " ... is not to say that Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman does not deserve to be read . It is a fantastic novel , only suffering in comparison to Miller 's earlier work . "
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= George Scratchley Brown =
George Scratchley Brown ( 17 August 1918 – 5 December 1978 ) was a United States Air Force general who served as the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . In this capacity , he served as the senior military adviser to the President of the United States , the National Security Council and the Secretary of Defense . Through the commanders of the unified and specified commands , he was also responsible for executing the decisions of the National Command Authorities regarding worldwide readiness and employment of combat forces of the United States Army , Navy , Air Force and Marine Corps .
= = Early life = =
George Scratchley Brown was born in Montclair , New Jersey , on 17 August 1918 , the son of Thoburn Kaye Brown , an Army officer who had graduated with the West Point class of 1913 , and his wife Francis Katherine née Scratchley . As an Army brat , Brown lived in a succession of different towns and military bases . He was an Eagle Scout , and played on the American football varsity team as a freshman at Fort Brown , Texas . He later was a fullback during his junior and senior years at Immaculata High School in Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , and was an all @-@ league in the Catholic high school interstate league .
Both Brown and his younger brother Tim set their sights on attending West Point , but their father advised taking a year of college first . Therefore , after graduating from high school in 1936 , Brown enrolled in engineering at the University of Missouri where he joined Sigma Alpha Epsilon . A fine horseman , he played polo . He also enlisted in the 128th Field Artillery Battalion of the Missouri National Guard , rising to the rank of corporal . His father was able to secure a congressional appointment to the United States Military Academy from Kansas for him , and Brown entered on 1 July 1937 .
At West Point , Brown was roommates with John Norton , future US Army lieutenant general . Brown once again played polo , and was captain of the team in his senior year , when the West Point team lost in the final to Princeton University . In that year he was also cadet captain and regimental adjutant . He would have liked to have joined the cavalry on graduation like his father , but his standing as 342nd in his class was too low for an appointment to the cavalry . Instead , he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the infantry on graduation on 11 June 1941 . However , he volunteered for Air Corps training . At West Point he met Alice ( Skip ) Colhoun . An Army brat like himself , Alice met George at a party her father had thrown for the sons of the graduates of the class of 1913 . George and Alice dated for over a year , and were married in 1942 . Their marriage produced three children , two boys and a girl .
= = World War II = =
Brown commenced his basic flight training in Fairchild PT @-@ 19s at Pine Bluff , Arkansas on 20 August 1941 . He then went to Randolph Field , Texas , for the second phase of his training . The third and final phase was completed at Kelly Field , Texas , where he received his pilot 's wings on 7 March 1942 . He officially transferred to the Air Corps on 4 April , and was promoted to first lieutenant on 18 June . His first assignment after flight training was at Barksdale Field , Louisiana , where , as a member of the 344th Bombardment Squadron of the 93d Bombardment Group , he flew Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator . Moving with the organization to Fort Myers , Florida , he flew both antisubmarine patrol and conventional bomber training aircraft .
In August 1942 he flew with the 93d Bombardment Group to England , where it became the first B @-@ 24 group to join the Eighth Air Force . He served in various positions with the group , including commander of the 329th Bombardment Squadron , group operations officer and group executive officer . He was promoted to captain on 20 October , major on 13 February 1943 , and lieutenant colonel on 27 August 1943 . High casualties and the rapid expansion of the Air Force paved the way for fast promotion , which Brown 's superiors felt was deserved due to his outstanding performance in combat and leadership skills . Perhaps no one was as surprised at his rapid advance in rank as his father , now a brigadier general , who was serving in North Africa at the time Brown arrived there with the 93d Bombardment Group when it was temporarily detached from the Eighth Air Force . The elder Brown wanted to know " What 's a young whippersnapper like you doing as a colonel ? ! "
It was as executive officer that he took part in Operation Tidal Wave , the low @-@ level bombing raid against oil refineries at Ploieşti , Romania , on 1 August 1943 . The 93d Bombardment Group was the second of five B @-@ 24 groups that raided Ploieşti from a temporary base at Benghazi , Libya . It flew directly into heavy defenses to attack three of the six target refineries . The lead plane , flown by the group commander , Lieutenant Colonel Addison Baker , was shot down . Brown took over the command of the battered 93d and led it through the attack on the target and the journey back to Benghazi . He received the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions on that mission . For his services in combat in the skies over Europe , he was also awarded the Silver Star , two Distinguished Flying Crosses , three Air Medals , the French Croix de guerre with palm and the British Distinguished Flying Cross .
Brown was appointed assistant operations officer , 2d Air Division on 8 April 1944 . He was promoted to colonel on 1 October 1944 . Having completed the required 25 missions , he was rotated back to the United States on 9 November 1944 . Alice was shocked to discover " that guy of mine had in fact requested another overseas assignment . He was so gung ho that he had come home , checked on me , and without my knowing it , put in to go back for another tour . " However , the Air Force turned down the request . On 27 January 1945 , Brown became Deputy Assistant Chief of Staff A @-@ 3 with the Air Training Command at Fort Worth , Texas .
= = Cold War = =
In February 1946 , Brown was posted to the Operations Division of the Air Training Command at Barksdale Field , Louisiana , where he served under Major General Alvin C. Kincaid and his Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations , Brigadier General Thomas C. Darcy . For the first time , Brown received a mediocre effectiveness report . In December 1946 he joined Headquarters Air Defense Command at Mitchel Field , New York , as assistant to Air Chief of Staff , Operations , and later as chief of its ROTC branch . On 1 July 1947 he became assistant deputy for operations .
Brown became commander of the 62d Troop Carrier Group at McChord Air Force Base , Washington , on 17 July 1950 . This group operated Douglas C @-@ 124 Globemaster II and Fairchild C @-@ 119 Flying Boxcar aircraft between the West Coast and Japan . With the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 , this mission acquired great importance . In July 1951 he assumed command of the 56th Fighter Interceptor Wing at Selfridge Air Force Base , Michigan , part of the Air Defense Command , although he had never flown fighters before . He learned to fly the Lockheed T @-@ 33 Shooting Star , North American F @-@ 86 Sabre and Lockheed F @-@ 94 Starfire . On 1 January 1952 Brown became Assistant Director of Operations of the Fifth Air Force in South Korea . He became Director on 15 July 1952 .
Brown returned to the United States where he assumed command of the 3525th Pilot Training Wing at Williams Air Force Base , Arizona , on 6 June 1953 . He entered the National War College in August 1956 . It was the first and only service school he attended after graduating from West Point . After graduation in June 1957 , he served as executive to the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force , General Thomas D. White . Brown was promoted to brigadier general in August 1959 . He was selected to be military assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense , Thomas S. Gates Jr . , and then to the new Secretary of Defense , Robert MacNamara , with the rank of major general .
Brown became commander of the Eastern Transport Air Force at McGuire Air Force Base , New Jersey , in August 1963 . In September 1964 , he was selected to organize and command Joint Task Force 2 , a Joint Chiefs of Staff unit formed at Sandia Base , New Mexico , to the test weapon systems of all the military services in order to avoid wasteful duplication of effort . It was staffed by personnel of all three services . In May 1966 he became the Assistant to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , General Earle G. Wheeler , on the recommendation of his predecessor in the role , Lieutenant General Andrew Goodpaster . Brown was promoted to the same rank on 1 August 1966 . The preoccupation of the Joint Chiefs at this time was the Vietnam War , but he was also involved in the handling of the Pueblo crisis .
On 1 August 1968 , Brown assumed command of the Seventh Air Force and also became deputy commander for air operations , U.S. Military Assistance Command Vietnam , with the rank of general . As Seventh Air Force Commander , he was responsible for all Air Force combat air strike , air support and air defense operations in Southeast Asia . In his MACV position , he advised on all matters pertaining to tactical air support and coordinated the Republic of Vietnam and United States air operations in the MACV area of responsibility . According to Goodpaster , Brown and MACV commander General Creighton Abrams " were like two brothers " . General George F. Keegan felt that :
[ Brown 's ] relationship with General Abrams was the finest between a ground theater commander and his air subordinate that I have seen since 1941 . There was complete trust , rapport , an end to gamesmanship between one service and another . It was clear from the outset that Abrams understood finally that in George Brown he had a personal friend whose life and resources were wholly committed to fulfilling the theater job and responsibility that Abrams had upon his shoulders .
Brown 's tour of Vietnam ended in September 1970 , and he became Commander , Air Force Systems Command , with headquarters at Andrews Air Force Base , Maryland . This job involved handling a number of troublesome projects , including the F @-@ 111 .
= = Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and later life = =
On the recommendation of the Secretary of the Air Force , Robert Seamans , President Richard Nixon appointed Brown to be Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force , effective 1 August 1973 . When the Arab @-@ Israeli War of 1973 broke out in October 1973 , Brown realized that the Israeli Air Force would quickly run short of consumables like bombs and ammunition . Without waiting for approval from the Secretary of Defense , he ordered two squadrons of F @-@ 4 Phantoms with Electronic Counter Measures capability be delivered to Israel , along with 100 @,@ 000 tons of bombs and ammunition . Keegan believed that without Brown , " the supplies would never have reached Israel . "
However , he did not remain Chief of Staff for long . He was appointed Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff effective 1 July 1974 . As Chairman , Brown was responsible for the handling of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 , and the Mayaguez incident , the final act of the war in Vietnam in 1975 . He also dealt with the 1976 shootings and Axe Murder Incident in the Korean Demilitarized Zone , and oversaw the Panama Canal Treaty in 1977 .
During his term as Chairman , Brown commented on two occasions – firstly to a Duke University audience in October 1974 , and then to a French reporter in 1976 – that Israel was becoming a burden to The Pentagon and that he believed the reason for continual military aid was due to Jews having control over America 's banks , newspapers and elected officials . His exact words were :
It 's so strong you wouldn 't believe now . We have the Israelis coming to us for equipment . We say we can 't possibly get the Congress to support that . They say , ' Don 't worry about the Congress . We will take care of the Congress . ' Now this is somebody from another country , but they can do it . They own , you know , the banks in this country , the newspapers . Just look at where the Jewish money is .
Brown 's comments at Duke and subsequent reprimand by President Gerald Ford were reported on the front page of The Washington Post on 13 and 14 November 1974 . There was speculation that Brown would be asked to resign , or at least not be nominated for a second two @-@ year term ; but he was renominated and went on to serve under the new president , Jimmy Carter .
Brown was known for the directness of his speech , which sometimes offended those around him . Asked to comment in an interview for Newsweek on his opinion of the British Armed Forces , Brown replied , " They 're no longer a world power . All they 've got are generals , admirals and bands . " Reaction in Britain was mixed . Some , like Lord Allenby condemned Brown 's remarks , while others , like Lord Monckton acknowledged the truth of the remarks . Brown also said that Israel was a " burden " to the United States , and predicted that Iran would become an important military power in the Middle East .
Brown was diagnosed with prostate cancer and retired due to ill health on 21 June 1978 . He died at the Malcolm Grow Air Force Hospital at Andrews Air Force Base , Maryland , on 5 December 1978 , and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery , not far from Creighton Abrams . He was survived by his wife and three children .
= = Awards and decorations = =
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= U.S. Route 202 in Delaware =
U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) is a US Highway running from New Castle , Delaware northeast to Bangor , Maine . The southernmost section of the route in the U.S. state of Delaware passes through northern New Castle County . It runs from its southern terminus at a cloverleaf interchange with US 13 / US 40 near the Wilmington Airport north to the Pennsylvania border in Brandywine Hundred . The route passes the airport concurrent with Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) before coming to an interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) . At this point , US 202 heads northeast along with I @-@ 95 through Wilmington . Just north of Wilmington , US 202 splits from I @-@ 95 by running north on Concord Pike through the suburban Brandywine Hundred area to the Pennsylvania border .
The Concord Pike was originally chartered as the Wilmington and Great Valley Turnpike in 1811 , a turnpike that was to connect Wilmington to Great Valley , Pennsylvania . The Concord Pike between US 13 in Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border became a part of US 122 in 1926 . By 1936 , US 122 was renumbered to US 202 and the road was realigned to head southwest and end at US 13 in downtown Wilmington . In the 1950s , the Concord Pike north of Wilmington was widened into a divided highway . By 1954 , US 202 was realigned to follow US 13 northbound and Washington Street southbound through downtown Wilmington and by 1959 was also extended south along US 13 to end at I @-@ 295 / US 40 in Farnhurst . In 1970 , US 202 was truncated to the I @-@ 95 interchange north of Wilmington . DE 202 was designated along Concord Avenue in 1981 . US 202 was extended to its current terminus in 1984 .
= = Route description = =
US 202 begins at a cloverleaf interchange with US 13 / US 40 east of the Wilmington Airport , with the road continuing south toward New Castle as DE 141 . From the southern terminus , US 202 heads north @-@ northwest concurrent with DE 141 on four @-@ lane divided Basin Road , passing between Wilmington Airport to the west and residential neighborhoods in Wilmington Manor to the east . The road passes between the Delaware Air National Guard 's New Castle Air National Guard Base to the west and commercial establishments to the east , coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 37 . Past this intersection , the median of US 202 / DE 141 widens as the road intersects Airport Road and becomes a freeway . The road comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 and the southern terminus of I @-@ 295 .
Here , US 202 splits from DE 141 and heads to the east along I @-@ 95 , an eight @-@ lane freeway with a wide median . I @-@ 295 splits off to the east before the freeway curves northeast and interchanges with the southern terminus of I @-@ 495 . Following this , I @-@ 95 / US 202 becomes a six @-@ lane freeway and heads through marshland , crossing the Christina River . The freeway comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Shellpot Branch , with Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor running a short distance to the northwest . The road enters Wilmington and curves to the north , passing to the west of Frawley Stadium , which is home of the Wilmington Blue Rocks baseball team . I @-@ 95 / US 202 continues towards downtown Wilmington and crosses onto a viaduct , passing over the Northeast Corridor and coming to an interchange that provides access to the downtown area by way of DE 4 and DE 48 .
At this point , the four @-@ lane freeway continues northeast , with one @-@ way northbound North Adams Street to the east and one @-@ way southbound North Jackson Street to the west serving as frontage roads . I @-@ 95 / US 202 continues through residential areas to the west of downtown Wilmington , passing over DE 9 , with a southbound exit . Farther northeast , the freeway heads into an alignment below street level and comes to an interchange with DE 52 . Past this interchange , the road continues north and crosses Brandywine Creek , heading through Brandywine Park , which is a part of the Wilmington State Parks complex . The freeway curves northeast again and passes under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision before reaching an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 202 at the northern edge of Wilmington , at which point US 202 splits from I @-@ 95 .
Upon splitting from I @-@ 95 , US 202 heads north on the six @-@ lane divided Concord Pike into the Brandywine Hundred area , passing Alapocas Run State Park and coming to an interchange with the northern terminus of DE 141 and the southern terminus of DE 261 . Past this interchange , the road enters Fairfax and passes between AstraZeneca 's North American headquarters to the west and businesses to the east . The route continues through commercial areas , heading into Talleyville . At this point , the median of the road widens at the intersection with Garden of Eden Road / Silverside Road . The median narrows again as the road runs curves to the north @-@ northeast . US 202 passes to the west of the Widener University School of Law and the Concord Mall before it reaches an intersection with DE 92 east of First State National Historical Park . Past this intersection , the route runs between business parks to the west and the Brandywine Town Center shopping center to the east . The road narrows to four lanes as it passes farm fields and homes . US 202 reaches the Pennsylvania border , where it continues into that state as Wilmington West Chester Pike .
US 202 in Delaware has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 102 @,@ 035 vehicles at the south end of Wilmington along the I @-@ 95 concurrency to a low of 30 @,@ 807 vehicles at the intersection with Augustine Cut @-@ Off between I @-@ 95 and DE 141 / DE 261 . The portion of US 202 in Delaware from the south end of the I @-@ 95 concurrency to the Pennsylvania border is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
The Wilmington and Great Valley Turnpike Company was chartered on January 23 , 1811 to build a turnpike running north from Wilmington along the Concord road , continuing to West Chester and Great Valley in Pennsylvania . Construction on the turnpike progressed throughout the 1810s . The Wilmington and Great Valley Turnpike was known in Delaware as the Concord Pike . The Concord Pike was taken over by New Castle County in 1911 , at which point the tolls were removed . A portion of the Concord Pike near Talleyville was incorporated into the state highway system by 1920 , with the remainder of the road proposed to become a state highway . By 1924 , the Concord Pike between Blue Ball and Talleyville was a state highway , with the remainder remaining a county road . A year later , what is now US 202 along Basin Road was completed as a state highway . When the US Highway System was established in 1926 , US 122 was designated to follow the Concord Pike between US 13 ( Philadelphia Pike ) in Wilmington and the Pennsylvania border , heading north into that state and continuing to US 22 at Whitehouse , New Jersey . On July 1 , 1935 , the portion of the route between Talleyville and the Pennsylvania border was taken over by the state .
By 1936 , US 122 was redesignated US 202 . Also at this time , US 202 was realigned in Wilmington to head southwest from Concord Avenue onto Baynard Boulevard , splitting into a one @-@ way pair following Washington Street southbound and West Street northbound as it passed through downtown Wilmington . In this area , US 202 turned east onto Front Street to end at US 13 . In 1941 , the portion of US 202 along Baynard Boulevard and from Talleyville to the Pennsylvania state line was reconstructed .
In 1953 , the portion of US 202 along the Concord Pike between the Wilmington border and Murphy Road was widened into a four @-@ lane divided highway . In September 1953 , construction began to widen the portion of US 202 between Murphy Road and Talleyville into a four @-@ lane divided highway . This widening was completed in October 1954 . In 1955 , recommendations were made to widen US 202 between Talleyville and the Pennsylvania border . The divided highway was extended north from Talleyville to the Pennsylvania border in 1957 .
By 1954 , US 202 was moved onto a new one @-@ way pair through downtown Wilmington , with the southbound direction splitting from Concord Avenue to follow Baynard Boulevard to Washington Street and the northbound direction following US 13 on one @-@ way Walnut Street and two @-@ way Market Street before heading north onto Concord Avenue . US 202 was extended south along US 13 from downtown Wilmington to an interchange with I @-@ 295 / US 40 in Farnhurst by 1959 . By 1966 , the portion of I @-@ 95 that currently carries US 202 was completed between DE 141 and downtown Wilmington . I @-@ 95 was completed between downtown Wilmington and the Concord Pike in 1969 .
In 1970 , the southern terminus of US 202 was truncated to the interchange with I @-@ 95 north of Wilmington . By 1981 , DE 202 was designated along Concord Avenue between US 13 Bus. and I @-@ 95 , extending south from the southern terminus of US 202 . US 202 was extended south to its current terminus at US 13 / US 40 near the Wilmington Airport in 1984 , following I @-@ 95 through Wilmington before heading south along DE 141 .
In 1992 , plans were made to build an interchange with DE 141 and DE 261 north of I @-@ 95 ; however , plans for the proposed interchange were placed on hold two years later . In 2000 , the portion of US 202 between I @-@ 95 and DE 141 ( Powder Mill Road ) was improved , with the alignment shifted to eliminate a few curves , the intersections at DE 261 and DE 141 improved , and a southbound transit lane added . In the 2000s , the Blue Ball Construction Project built an interchange at DE 261 that also relocated the northern terminus of DE 141 from the Powder Mill Road intersection further north . The project took place between 2002 and 2007 and cost $ 123 million .
In December 2011 , a project began to improve the interchange between I @-@ 95 and US 202 / DE 202 in order to reduce congestion . The project widened the ramp between northbound I @-@ 95 and northbound US 202 to two lanes , the ramp between southbound US 202 and southbound I @-@ 95 was extended to modern standards , and the ramp between southbound I @-@ 95 and southbound DE 202 was relocated from a cloverleaf loop to a directional ramp that intersects DE 202 at a signalized intersection . In addition , the interchange ramps were repaved and bridges were rehabilitated . The project was finished in July 2015 , months behind schedule due to the closure of I @-@ 495 in 2014 . On August 7 , 2015 , a dedication ceremony to mark the completion of the project was held , with Governor Jack Markell , Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT secretary Jennifer Cohan in attendance . The project , which cost over $ 33 million , was 80 @-@ percent funded by the federal government .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Norris Bradbury =
Norris Edwin Bradbury ( 30 May 1909 – 20 August 1997 ) , was an American physicist who served as Director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory for 25 years from 1945 to 1970 . He succeeded Robert Oppenheimer , who personally chose Bradbury for the position of director after working closely with him on the Manhattan Project during World War II . Bradbury was in charge of the final assembly of " the Gadget " , detonated in July 1945 for the Trinity test .
Bradbury took charge at Los Alamos at a difficult time . Staff were leaving in droves , living conditions were poor and there was a possibility that the laboratory would close . He managed to persuade enough staff to stay , and got the University of California to renew the contract to manage the laboratory . He pushed continued development of nuclear weapons , transforming them from laboratory devices to production models . Numerous improvements made them safer , more reliable and easier to store and handle , and made more efficient use of scarce fissionable materiel .
In the 1950s Bradbury oversaw the development of thermonuclear weapons , although a falling out with Edward Teller over the priority given to their development led to the creation of a rival nuclear weapons laboratory , the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . In later years , he branched out , constructing the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility to develop the laboratory 's role in nuclear science , and during the Space Race of the 1960s , the laboratory developed the Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application ( NERVA ) . The Bradbury Science Museum is named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Norris Bradbury was born in Santa Barbara , California , on 30 May 1909 , one of four children of Edwin Pearly and his wife Elvira née Clausen . One sister died as an infant , and the family adopted twins Bobby and Betty , both of whom served in the United States Marine Corps during World War II . Bradbury was educated at Hollywood High School and Chaffey High School in Ontario , California , graduating at the age of 16 . He then attended Pomona College in Claremont , California , from which he graduated summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) in chemistry in 1929 . This earned him membership of the Phi Beta Kappa Society . At Pomona , he met Lois Platt , an English Literature major who was the sister of his college room mate . They were married in 1933 , and had three sons , James , John , and David .
Bradbury became interested in physics , and did graduate work at the University of California , Berkeley , where he was a teaching fellow from 1929 to 1931 , and then a Whiting Foundation fellow from 1931 to 1932 . He submitted a PhD thesis on Studies on the mobility of gaseous ions under the supervision of Leonard B. Loeb , and was awarded a National Research Council fellowship .
As well as supervising Bradbury 's thesis , Loeb , who had served as a naval reservist during World War I , encouraged Bradbury to apply for a commission as a naval reservist . Bradbury 's commission as an ensign was signed by Lieutenant Commander Chester W. Nimitz , who was the head of the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps at Berkeley at the time .
After two years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Bradbury became an assistant professor of physics at Stanford University in 1935 , rising to become an associate professor in 1938 , and a full professor in 1943 . He became an expert on the electrical conductivity of gases , the properties of ions , and the behavior of atmospheric electricity , publishing in journals including the Physical Review , Journal of Applied Physics , Journal of Chemical Physics , and the Journal of Atmospheric Electricity and Terrestrial Magnetism . He invented the Bradbury @-@ Nielsen shutter , a type of electrical ion gate , widely used in mass spectrometry in both time @-@ of @-@ flight mass spectrometers and ion mobility spectrometers .
= = World War II = =
Bradbury was called up for service in World War II in early 1941 , although the Navy allowed him to stay at Stanford until the end of the academic year . He was then sent to the Naval Proving Ground at Dahlgren , Virginia , to work on external ballistics . Already working at Dahlgren were Loeb and Commander Deak Parsons .
In June 1944 , Bradbury received orders from Parsons , who was now the Deputy Director of the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , to report to Albuquerque , New Mexico . Parsons explained that he needed Bradbury to work on the explosive lenses required by an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . Bradbury was less than enthusiastic about the prospect , but he was a naval officer , and ultimately agreed to go .
At Los Alamos , Bradbury became head of E @-@ 5 , the Implosion Experimentation Group , which put him in charge of the implosion field test program . In August , the laboratory 's director , Robert Oppenheimer , implemented a sweeping reorganisation . E @-@ 5 became part of George Kistiakowsky 's new Explosives Division ( X Division ) , and was renumbered X @-@ 1 . At this point , Bradbury was leading some of the most critical work at the laboratory , as it struggled with the jets that spoiled the perfect spherical shape desired for the implosion process . These were examined with a combination of magnetic , X @-@ ray and RaLa techniques .
In March 1945 , Oppenheimer created Project Alberta under Parsons to carry out the Manhattan Project 's ultimate mission : the preparation and delivery of nuclear weapons in combat . Bradbury was transferred to Project Alberta to head the Fat Man assembly group . In July 1945 , Bradbury supervised the preparation of " the Gadget " , as the bomb was known , at the Trinity nuclear test . " For me to say " , Bradbury later recalled , " I had any deep emotional thoughts about Trinity ... I didn 't . I was just damned pleased that it went off . "
= = Director of Los Alamos = =
Oppenheimer submitted his resignation as Director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , but remained until a successor could be found . The Director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , wanted someone with both a solid academic background and a high standing within the project . Oppenheimer recommended Bradbury . This was agreeable to Groves , who liked the fact that as a naval officer Bradbury was both a military man and a scientist . Bradbury accepted the offer on a six @-@ month trial basis .
Parsons arranged for Bradbury to be quickly discharged from the Navy , which awarded him the Legion of Merit for his wartime services . He remained in the Naval Reserve , though , ultimately retiring in 1961 with the rank of captain . On 16 October 1945 , there was a ceremony at Los Alamos at which Groves presented the laboratory with the Army @-@ Navy " E " Award , and presented Oppenheimer with a certificate of appreciation . Bradbury became the laboratory 's second director the following day .
The first months of Bradbury 's directorship were particularly difficult . He had hoped that Atomic Energy Act of 1946 would be quickly passed by Congress and the wartime Manhattan Project would be superseded by a new , permanent organization . It soon became clear that this would take more than six months . President Harry S. Truman did not sign the act creating the Atomic Energy Commission into law until 1 August 1946 , and it did not become active until 1 January 1947 . In the meantime , Groves ' legal authority to act was limited .
Most of the scientists at Los Alamos were eager to return to their laboratories and universities , and by February 1946 all of the wartime division heads had left , but a talented core remained . Darol Froman became head of Robert Bacher 's G division , now renamed M Division . Eric Jette became responsible for Chemistry and Metallurgy , John H. Manley for Physics , George Placzek for Theory , Max Roy for Explosives , and Roger Wagner for Ordnance . The number of personnel at Los Alamos plummeted from its wartime peak of over 3 @,@ 000 to around 1 @,@ 000 , but many were still living in temporary wartime accommodation . To make matters worse , the water pipe to Los Alamos froze and the water had to be supplied by tanker trucks . Despite the reduced staff , Bradbury still had to provide support for Operation Crossroads , the nuclear tests in the Pacific .
Bradbury pushed continued development of nuclear weapons to take them from laboratory devices to production models . There were numerous improvements that could make them more safe , reliable and easy to store and handle , and make more efficient use of scarce fissionable materiel . While Bradbury gave priority to improved fission weapons , research still continued on " Alarm Clock " , a boosted nuclear weapon , and the " Super " , a thermonuclear weapons design . The new fission designs were tested during Operation Sandstone in 1948 . The Mark 4 nuclear bomb became the first nuclear weapon to be mass @-@ produced on an assembly line .
As the future became more certain , Bradbury began looking for a new site for the laboratory away from the crowded town center . In 1948 , Bradbury submitted a proposal to the Atomic Energy Commission for a new $ 107 million facility on the South Mesa , linked to the town by a new bridge over the canyon .
All this time , Bradbury remained nominally a professor in absentia at Stanford . The Los Alamos Laboratory was nominally run under a wartime contract with the University of California , but a clause in the contract allowed the University to terminate the contract three months after the end of the war . The university duly served notice , but Bradbury managed to get it rescinded , and in 1948 the contract was renewed . In 1951 , he became a professor at the University of California .
By 1951 , the laboratory had come up with the Teller @-@ Ulam design , and thermonuclear tests were conducted during Operation Greenhouse . Tensions between Bradbury and Edward Teller over the degree of priority given to thermonuclear weapons development led to the creation of a second nuclear weapons laboratory , the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory .
In later years , Bradbury branched out , constructing the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility to develop the laboratory 's role in nuclear science . During the Space Race of the 1960s , the laboratory worked on Project Rover , developing the Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application ( NERVA ) . The laboratory demonstrated the feasibility and value of nuclear rocket propulsion .
For many years , Bradbury was responsible for much of the administration of the town of Los Alamos . The town established impressive health and education facilities . Eventually the new technical area was built outside the town , and on 18 February 1957 the security gates were taken down . Finally , the town became an incorporated community and the director 's civic responsibilities ended .
In 1966 , Bradbury was awarded the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Public Service for " exceptionally meritorious civilian service to the Armed Forces and the United States of America in a position of great responsibility as director , Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory " . His citation went on to say that " The outstanding international reputation of the Los Alamos Laboratory is directly attributable to his exceptional leadership . The United States is indebted to Dr. Bradbury and his laboratory , to a very large degree , for our present nuclear capability . " He also received the Enrico Fermi Award in 1970 .
= = Later life = =
Bradbury retired as director of Los Alamos Laboratory in 1970 . His successor , Harold Agnew , invited him to become a senior consultant , but Bradbury declined the offer , although he did serve as a consultant for other government agencies , including the National Academy of Sciences , and as a member of the boards of the Los Alamos Medical Center , the First National Bank of Santa Fe , the Los Alamos YMCA and the Santa Fe Neurological Society .
In 1969 the Governor of New Mexico , David Cargo , appointed Bradbury as a regent of the University of New Mexico , but this was a turbulent time for the university . In response to the Kent State Shootings in May 1970 , students and antiwar activist Jane Fonda marched on the home of Ferrel Heady , the President of the University of New Mexico . When he refused to meet with them , the students called a strike . Classes were cancelled , rallies were held and students occupied the Student Union Building . Cargo called in the New Mexico National Guard to remove them , and eleven people were bayoneted . Cargo 's successor , Bruce King , replaced Bradbury and another regent .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Bradbury accidentally hit his leg while chopping firewood . Gangrene set in , and his right leg was amputated below the knee . It spread to his left leg , and part of his left foot was amputated , leaving him in a wheelchair . The disease eventually proved fatal , and he died on 20 August 1997 . He was survived by his wife Lois , who died in January 1998 , and his three sons . A funeral service was held in Los Alamos , and he was buried at Guaje Pines Cemetery in Los Alamos .
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= Regioni @-@ class cruiser =
The Regioni class was a group of six protected cruisers built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the late 1880s through the early 1900s . The class comprised Umbria , Lombardia , Etruria , Liguria , Elba , and Puglia , all of which were named for regions of Italy with the exception of Elba , which was named for the island . The class is sometimes referred as the Umbria class , for the first ship to be laid down . The ships , built by four different shipyards , varied slightly in their size , speed , and armament , but all could steam at about 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) and their main armament consisted of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns .
The ships served in a variety of roles throughout their careers , including scouts for the main fleet , colonial cruisers , and representatives of Italy at major foreign events . Elba observed the Russo @-@ Japanese War , including the Battle of Chemulpo Bay in 1904 , where she picked up Russian survivors . Lombardia was converted into a depot ship for submarines in 1906 . Elba and Liguria were equipped with observation balloons in 1907 – 1908 . In 1910 , Umbria was sold to Haiti and renamed Consul Gostrück , though she quickly sank under the care of her inexperienced crew . The remaining ships , except for Lombardia , took part in the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 , where they provided gunfire support to Italian troops , bombarded Ottoman ports , and instituted a blockade in the Red Sea .
By World War I , most of the ships had been withdrawn to secondary roles , with Elba having been converted into a seaplane tender . Puglia was the only member of the class to take an active role , based out of Durazzo . Etruria was deliberately blown up by the Regia Marina as a deception operation against Austria @-@ Hungary . The remaining ships were broken up for scrap in the early 1920s , though the bow section of Puglia was preserved at the Vittoriale degli italiani museum .
= = Design = =
The design for the Regioni class , sometimes referred to as the Umbria class after the lead ship , was prepared by the naval architect Edoardo Masdea , and it was the first protected cruiser designed in Italy . All previous ships of the type had been designed in Britain , or in the case of the Etna class , enlarged copies of the British @-@ designed Giovanni Bausan . As a first attempt , the ships of the Regioni class proved to be a disappointment , owing to their slow speed and insufficient armor protection .
= = = General characteristics = = =
All six ships varied slightly in their dimensions . The ships were 80 to 83 @.@ 2 meters ( 262 to 273 ft ) long at the waterline and 88 @.@ 25 m ( 289 @.@ 5 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 12 @.@ 03 to 12 @.@ 72 m ( 39 @.@ 5 to 41 @.@ 7 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 67 to 5 @.@ 35 m ( 15 @.@ 3 to 17 @.@ 6 ft ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 245 to 2 @,@ 689 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 210 to 2 @,@ 647 long tons ; 2 @,@ 475 to 2 @,@ 964 short tons ) normally and 2 @,@ 411 to 3 @,@ 110 t ( 2 @,@ 373 to 3 @,@ 061 long tons ; 2 @,@ 658 to 3 @,@ 428 short tons ) at full load . The ships were originally designed with a fore and aft sailing rig , though this was quickly removed . Instead , they were fitted with two pole masts equipped with spotting tops . They had a crew of between 213 @-@ 78 .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into a pair of funnels on the centerline . On her speed trials , Umbria reached a maximum of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) at 7 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 500 kW ) . Lombardia made 18 @.@ 4 kn ( 34 @.@ 1 km / h ; 21 @.@ 2 mph ) at 6 @,@ 010 ihp ( 4 @,@ 480 kW ) , while Etruria reached 18 @.@ 3 kn ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) at 7 @,@ 018 ihp ( 5 @,@ 233 kW ) . Liguria made 18 @.@ 1 kn ( 33 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 mph ) at 5 @,@ 536 ihp ( 4 @,@ 128 kW ) and Elba , the slowest member of the class , made 17 @.@ 9 kn ( 33 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 6 mph ) at 7 @,@ 471 ihp ( 5 @,@ 571 kW ) Puglia was by far the fastest , capable of steaming at a speed of 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The ships had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
All six ships were armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . The ships ' light armament varied . All of the ships save Lombardia were equipped with eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , which had an additional two of these guns . Umbria was also equipped with one 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun and nine 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , while Puglia had eight of the 37 mm guns and Elba had six of them . Liguria and Etruria only had two 37 mm guns , and Lombardia had none . All six ships had a pair of machine guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes .
The ships all had their armament repeatedly revised throughout their careers . By 1905 , each ship had had two of the 15 cm guns replaced with two additional 12 cm guns , and their secondary battery was standardized at eight 57 mm guns and eight 37 mm guns , with the exception of Puglia , which had six and two guns , respectively . Puglia had also had her two torpedo tubes removed by this point . In 1914 , Liguria had all of her 15 cm guns removed , along with six of the 37 mm guns . Her armament was reduced further in 1917 when she was refitted as a minelayer ; at this point , she mounted only six 12 cm guns and two 37 mm guns . Starting in 1915 , Etruria and Lombardia were equipped with only six 12 cm guns , six 57 mm guns for Etruria and eight for Lombardia , two 37 mm guns , and their torpedo tubes . At the same time , Elba was rearmed with six 12 cm guns , two 37 cm guns , and one machine gun ; she retained her torpedo tubes .
The first five ships were protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and their conning tower had 50 mm thick sides . Puglia had a deck that was only 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , though she had the same thickness of armor on her conning tower .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
The ships of the Regioni class served in a variety of roles throughout their careers . Their first decade in service was marked by frequent deployments abroad , interspersed between stints in the main Italian fleet , where they served as scouts for the battleships . In 1895 , Etruria and much of the main fleet visited Germany for the opening ceremonies for the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . Lombardia was stationed in South America in 1896 , when an outbreak of yellow fever killed half of her crew while she was in Rio de Janeiro . In 1897 , Umbria and Liguria were assigned to the Cruiser Squadron of the main fleet . Lombardia was deployed to China in 1901 , where she replaced Elba , and to Italian Somaliland in 1903 . There , she briefly skirmished with Somali rebels .
Elba was present in Korea during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , which took place primarily in neighboring Manchuria . She witnessed the Battle of Chemulpo Bay in February 1904 and rescued Russian survivors along with British and French cruisers . In 1905 , Umbria represented Italy at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland , Oregon . Lombardia was converted into a depot ship for submarines in 1906 – 08 . Etruria visited the United States twice for major events , the Jamestown Exposition in 1907 and the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in 1909 . Elba and Liguria were modified to operate an observation balloon to assist in spotting naval mines , which could be more easily seen from the air . In December 1910 , Umbria was sold to the Haitian Navy and renamed Consul Gostrück , though she sank shortly after the transfer due to her new crew 's inexperience .
All of the remaining ships participated in the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 , with the exception of Lombardia which was stationed in the Adriatic . Etruria and Liguria took part in the assault on Benghazi and thereafter provided gunfire support to Italian forces in North Africa . Puglia was stationed in East Africa for the duration of the war , and frequently bombarded Ottoman ports . These included a diversionary attack that helped the cruiser Piemonte and two destroyers sink or force aground a flotilla of seven Ottoman gunboats in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay . In January 1912 Liguria and Elba joined the fleet in the Red Sea , where they imposed a blockade on Ottoman ports in the region , coupled with frequent bombardments of Ottoman positions .
In 1914 Elba was converted into the first dedicated seaplane tender in the Italian fleet . She was nevertheless too small to be of real use , and she remained in service for only two years . Puglia was the only ship of the class to take an active role in the First World War ; in 1915 , while patrolling off Durazzo she briefly encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Novara , which retreated before either ship could open fire . She covered the withdrawal of elements of the Serbian Army from Durazzo and shelled the pursuing Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Etruria was deliberately blown up in Livorno on 13 August 1918 to fool Austria @-@ Hungary into believing its espionage network , which had been thoroughly compromised , was still operational . Elba was sold for scrapping in January 1920 , followed by her sister Lombardia in July . That month , Puglia became involved in the civil unrest in Split , and the ship 's captain and another sailor were murdered by a group of Croat nationalists . Liguria was sold in May 1921 and broken up . The Navy sold Puglia in March 1923 , but while she was being dismantled Benito Mussolini donated her bow section to the Vittoriale degli italiani museum .
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