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Most items that are an integral part of our daily routine are made of plastics. Plastic is an incredibly versatile and durable material, which is why it is so popular today. Furniture, containers, appliances, packaging, and even synthetic clothing can lead to the release of tiny plastics called microplastics into our environment and water systems. However, our reliance on plastic has begun to take its toll on our environment. As plastics are exposed to sun, wind, and water, they begin to degrade into smaller pieces. Because plastics are made from petroleum, they do not decompose. Instead, they continue to persist in our environment, adsorbing other contaminants from polluted runoff and becoming increasingly toxic. Marine debris has been slowly transforming our oceans into plastic soup. Trash gyres, like the Great Pacific Garbage Patch draw in plastic debris where it becomes trapped. Many marine mammals get entangled in or mistake these plastic pieces, both large and small, for food. Once ingested, these toxic particles fill the stomachs of unfortunate animals and leach chemicals into their muscle and tissue. Microplastics can be passed up the food chain and find their way into sea birds, marine mammals, mollusks, and animals that live along the coasts. As our food chain becomes more permeated with plastics, it is likely that it can also make its way to our dinner plates. Simple ways to reduce microplastic pollution are achieved by using reusable coffee mugs, water bottles, and fabric shopping bags. Additionally, choose more sustainable packaging, such as cardboard and recyclable materials whenever possible. Microplastics have taught us that sometimes the smallest things can make the biggest impact. For more information, please refer to:

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“African languages: Languages indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa that belongs to the Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, Khoisan, and Afroasiatic language phyla. Africa is the most polyglot continent; estimates of the number of African languages range from 1,000 to 1,200. Many have numerous dialects. Distinctions in tone play a significant role in nearly all sub-Saharan languages. Contact between people who do not speak that same language has necessitated the development of lingua francas such as Swahili in eastern Africa, Lingala in the Congo River basin (see Bantu languages), Sango in the Central African Republic (see Adamawa-Ubangi languages), and Arabic across much of the Sahel.” Excerpted/Adapted from: Stevens, Mark A., Ed. Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Encyclopedia. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, 2000.

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Children/Youth Who Hear Voices: Information for Family and Caregivers Dave is a 10-yo boy who has started to hear voices. He has always been somewhat quiet, and not been that talkative about his thoughts and feelings. The voices appear triggered when he is under more stress, e.g. conflicts with classmates or not understanding work at school. When he is angry, the voices are angry. When he is feeling good, the voices are nice… Studies show that voices are quite common, though the exact numbers vary depending on the study: At a single point in time - About 2-3% of the general population hears voices (Tien, 1991) - In children, a study showed that 8% of children reported hearing voices. At any point in one’s life - 5-15% of people will report hearing voices (Romme & Escher, 2001) Most people who hear voices do not require mental health care. Of the people who hear voices: - Most (⅔) are able to cope well enough that they do not require psychiatric care, nor do they receive any psychiatric diagnosis. In these individuals, a common theme is that they accept the voices, and see them as advisors and messengers of some feeling or stress. - Some (⅓) end up being seen by mental health services and become patients. In patients, voices are generally not accepted and seen as troublesome, distressing symptoms to be eliminated. Hearing voices can occur in many situations such as: - Children who are otherwise fine. - Trauma and dissociative disorders Even amongst professionals, there is often a misconception that voices automatically mean a condition such as schizophrenia, but it is important to realize that voices can occur in many different situations. According to a study of 153 people who heard voices (Woods, 2015): - Most (80% in one study) report hearing more than one voice, with 70% stating that they heard specific characters - 50% report their voices were sounds that they had heard - 50% felt the voices were more like thoughts, or somewhere between sounds and thoughts - 50% felt the voices were more like a voice - 66% reported feeling bodily sensations (e.g. tingling or hot sensations in the hands or feet) while hearing voices) Help your child/youth by ensuring that they: - Get enough sleep. The average person in modern society does not get enough sleep. Ensure that your child is handing in the electronics to parents and getting to sleep at an early enough time. - Avoid caffeine or stimulants. Stimulants such as caffeine or nicotine (from cigarettes) can worsen voices. - Have a healthy diet, without too much sugar or artificial processed foods. In some individuals, artificial sweeteners, or food enhancers (such as monosodium glutamate) can be overstimulating for the brain. Try avoiding processed foods to see if it makes a difference. - Avoid sensory overload or situations that cause stress. In people with voices, often things are worsened if it is too loud, too bright, too stimulating. Help create a quiet, calm environment for the person. - Nature. Get outside with your loved one as nature is soothing for the brain, ideally at least 1-hr outside daily. Validation and acceptance - Accept that the voices may carry some message, such as expressing a feeling, or distress. Some people may have troubles being aware of how they feel. The voices might be a way of expressing that which people are unaware, or unable to express. - If the voice is an angry voice, consider that perhaps your loved one may be feeling angry about something (or worried about feeling angry), but been unable to express that. - If the voice is a critical voice, consider that perhaps your loved one feels judged and worries about not being good enough. - Gently ask your loved one if they might be having a certain feeling, and validate that it is okay to have those feelings. It is true that certain behaviours are not good (e.g. harming yourself), but you can always validate the feelings (e.g. that everyone feels sad, or angry or overwhelmed at times). Dealing with stresses - Help your loved one identify and cope better with stresses/triggers and emotions in general. In the beginning, it can seem like voices come out of nowhere. However, often there are specific stresses or triggers for the voices, and it helps to identify those. - You might ask: - “When do the voices happen?” For example, if the voices always happen at school, it suggests there may be a stress with school. - “What else is happening around the time when the voices happen?” - “Is it possible that ___ might be a trigger?” - “Everyone has stresses. What stresses are you under at school? Work? Relationships?” - Once you have identified the stresses, try to come up with a way to deal with each stress. Non-talking / environmental strategies - Reduce sensory overload. Some people are sensitive if things are too bright, too cluttered, too loud, too stimulating. Especially if your loved one is getting upset, it may be helpful to: - Reduce background noise - Keep your voice quiet -- many people are exquisitely sensitive and can be triggered if others raise their voice, or even change their tone of voice. - Ask others to give some space. - Try soothing sensory input, such as cuddling a pet, a heavy blanket, giving a back rub. Its best to do this after you've already discussed this ahead of time. - Grounding techniques help the brain to get focused on compelling sensory input rather than the hallucinations. When you notice your loved one starting to get stressed, consider grounding strategies such as: - “5-4-3-2-1” exercise. - If your child is upset, here are some things that parents can say to guide them through the grounding exercise: - Orient your child in case your child is disoriented - Parent: “Hello (person’s name)... I’m here… It’s your mom.... It’s Saturday… We’re at home….” - Parent: “Let’s think about 5 things that we can see…” - E.g. other people, things in the room or outside - “5-4-3-2-1” exercise. Do something to get your loved one's mind off the voices and onto something else, such as: - Listening to music - Physical activity such as going for a walk with your loved one. - Mental activity such as playing a game, doing a puzzle, doing coloring, etc. Mindfulness and relaxation activities - Do mindfulness and relaxation activities to feel calmer, which can reduce stress and thus can reduce voices such as - Apps such as Calm.com. - Other strategies that people with voices have reported as helpful are: - Agreeing to listen to the voices at certain times - Listening selectively, e.g. accepting the things you like, and ignoring other things - Sending the voices away, e.g. "Thank you. I will listen to you later!" Review when things are calm what is working or not working to help - Do try to talk ahead of time about how you will support your child/youth when they are upset. - Don't use a strategy if it isn't working -- Don't use a strategy if it gets your loved one more upset. - Sometimes people are too overwhelmed to be able to use a strategy such as deep breathing, grounding, etc. - If so, then back off, let them know you'll check in later. Later, when the incident has subsided, problem-solve for the next time. - Don't tell your loved one to “just ignore them”; most likely, if it were that simple, your loved one wouldn’t be complaining about having voices. - Don't ignore the feelings or stress that are connected to the voices. - Don't try to fight the voices or to argue with them. The voices are coming from the person's brain, and often represent parts of the person’s own worries or fears. During one study where children hearing voices were monitored over four years, it was discovered that most (64%) of the voices disappeared as children learned to cope with their emotions and stress (Romme & Escher, 2006). Is your child hearing voices, but other than appears perfectly fine? - It is still recommended to speak to a health professional at some point, in order to further explore and see if other help might be required, or if it is fine to just keep an eye on things. - See if there is a local Hearing Voices Network chapter. If not, learn about the Hearing Voices Movement, and the coping strategies espoused by the movement. Are the voices causing distress? Are there other symptoms such as: - Visual hallucinations, such as seeing things; - Paranoia (i.e. worries that s/he is unsafe or in danger); - Troubles functioning at home, school or work. - Disorganized thinking or speech that doesn’t make sense. If so, then it is highly recommended to seek help sooner than later. - Contact your family physician, a mental health walk-in clinic, or even a crisis line (in order to learn about where to find help in your area.) Are the voices causing problems, and haven’t responded to various strategies such as talk therapy and coping strategies? - If so, then medications may be prescribed by a primary care provider (e.g. family physician), psychiatrist or paediatrician. Dave is a 10-yo boy who has started to hear voices. Dave receives help from parents on identifying what his stresses are. It turns out that he has been upset at his father, but afraid to tell his father. He has also had some troubles with some classmates at school that have been mean to him. Now that he is able to express some of his stresses more easily, his parents are more easily able to support him. They learn together about what triggers his voices, and he learns to express when he is starting to get upset or stressed. Through openly talking to parents about his problems, and by seeing that parents accept him despite his problems, he learns to accept himself as well, i.e. self-compassion. Dave is doing much better now -- the angry voices haven’t been around for a long time, and when there is a voice, it is a gentle, kind forgiving voice that helps him regulate his feelings -- for example, if he makes a mistake, the voice will say, “It’s okay, everyone makes mistakes.” Hearing Voices Network – self-help group for people hearing voices. Although originally based in the United Kingdom, there are a growing number of chapters outside the UK. Self-Compassion for Voices - Wonderful video illustrating a self-compassionate approach to dealing with voices Eaton, W., Romanoski, A., Anthony, J., Nestadt, G. (1991) Screening for psychosis in the general population with a self report interview, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 179(11), pp 689-693. About 4% of the population has prolonged auditory hallucinations, with 16% meeting diagnosis of schizophrenia, and 45% having psychiatric diagnosis. Most (55%) cases of hearing voices did not meet the criteria for a psychiatric diagnosis. Romme, M., Escher, S. (2001). Making Sense of Voices. London: Mind. Romme M. A. J., Escher S. D. M. (2006). Trauma and hearing voices, in Trauma and Psychosis: New Directions for Theory and Therapy, eds Morrison A., Larkin W., editors, p 162–192. Tien, A et al. (1991). Distribution of hallucinations in the population, Journal of Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, No.26, pp. 287-292. Survey of 15,000 people in Baltimore, St Louis and Los Angeles showed prolonged auditory hallucinations (i.e. voices heard regularly and continuously) by 2-4% of the general population. Woods A, Jones N, Alderson-Day B, Callard F, Fernyhough C. Experiences of hearing voices: analysis of a novel phenomenological survey. The Lancet Psychiatry. Vol 2(4), p323-331, Apr 2015. DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S221... by members of the eMentalHealth.ca team. Special thanks to Noah Spector, Registered Social Worker and Crisis Intervention Worker. Under a Creative Commons License. You are free to share, copy and distribute this work as in its entirety, with no alterations. This work may not be used for commercial purposes. View the full license at: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ca/ Date of Last Revision: Oct 11, 2020

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Every year, hundreds of millions of people get infected by waterborne diseases, especially those who don’t have access to clean, drinkable water in developing nations. Waterborne diseases due to contaminated water occur quite often. Pathogenic microorganisms such as protozoa, bacteria, intestinal parasites, and viruses reproduce in such waters. It is said that one of the best ways to protect yourself as well as your family against such harmful diseases is to invest in a high-quality water purifier or a filter. Here are some of the most common contaminated water diseases: This type of disease is caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. S.Typh can be a fatal disease. This type of bacteria is also found in chicken and eggs and is more publicly known as salmonella poisoning or food poisoning. This is perhaps the most common waterborne bacteria that are found in developing states. Approximately 20 million people around the world suffer from this infection every year. Anyone suffering from this disease can transfer harmful bacteria in their intestinal tract and bloodstream. Diarrhea is the most common waterborne disease in India. Most of the victims are children under the age of five. This disease can spread through contaminated food or water and can last about two weeks. Some of the common symptoms that are reported from suffers of this infection include loss of consciousness, pale skin, dizziness, and blood in stools in some cases. Dysentery is a mix of abdominal cramps, severe diarrhea, and nausea. A person suffering from acute dysentery could experience traces of blood and high fever in the fecal matter. There are two types of dysentery; amoebic dysentery that is caused by amoebae; and bacillary dysentery that’s caused by bacteria. Should either of these diseases be ingested through contaminated food or water, one may develop dysentery within four days. Cholera is commonly found in marginalized villages and humanitarian emergencies where poor sanitation and poverty are widespread. This infection can spread through contaminated water and results in severe diarrhea and dehydration. Cholera can be fatal if one is exposed within days or perhaps even hours to the bacteria. However, only 1 out of 10 people can develop seriously-concerning contaminated water symptoms. Hepatitis A is a liver-based disease that is caused by a virus known as the hepatitis A virus (HIV) which can affect anyone. It is usually found in the stools of anyone infected with this disease and can spread drastically from one person to another. The virus can easily be transmitted in areas that have poor sanitary conditions for new places where cleanliness isn’t usually considered. Anyone infected with hepatitis A can affect anyone living within the same vicinity. One sure way of purifying contaminated water is by buying a water softener system. These systems use either sodium or potassium (read more about the distinction between those two on this website) to treat your water before it passes on to other filtration systems capable of removing bacteria. Water softeners make these additional filters much more capable of doing their job. Industrial units located on river banks usually discard a poisonous substance called arsenic as wastewater. It’s another one of those drinking contaminated water diseases where exposure to small amounts of arsenic via drinking water can lead to arsenic poisoning or arsenicosis. The most telling symptom of this virus is painful skin lesions (keratosis), which elevates the chances of cancer. It can also end up infecting our bladder, kidneys, and lungs. This disease is shared through contaminated water, usually in streams and ponds, but can also be found in swimming pools, the town’s water supply and more. A parasite causes the infection and it typically clears up in just a couple of weeks. But some who have been exposed to the virus may experience prolonged intestinal problems for several years. Malaria is spread through a mosquito known as the plasmodium parasite mosquito. Water bodies like stagnant water and lakes are the usual breeding grounds of these harmful insects. The symptoms of this virus include body chills, vomiting, headaches, and fevers. Polio (Infantile Paralysis) Poliomyelitis, also known as polio, is an acute viral infection that is caused by a virus that passes through water from the feces of those infected by it. When someone contracts this virus, it affects the central nervous system causing the victims to suffer from headaches, seizures, fever, and paralysis. Escherichia Coli (E. coli) Escherichia coli, or E. coli for short, is a bacteria that contains a number of strains, some fatal, and others beneficial. For instance, E. coli is crucial for creating a healthy intestinal tract. However, if strains of the virus spread through how the process of how ground beef is made, anyone who consumes this beef would be showcasing the symptoms of this waterborne disease. This virus can also be found in unsafe water sources from around the world where cattle and human water sources exist side-by-side. The symptoms of the dangerous strains of E. coli are identical to that of dysentery as well as other waterborne infections. Most cases of this virus pass in under a week, but young children and older adults possess higher chances of developing fatal symptoms. Anyone who’s been exposed to contaminated water or food should contact their physicians right away, especially if their diarrhea has blood in it. Also known as Montezuma’s Revenge, Aztec Two-Step, the Turista Traveler’s Diarrhea is the most recurring waterborne infection that spreads to travelers. Every year, around 20 to 55% of vacationers who travel to other countries from around the world contract this disease after coming home. This infection usually occurs within the first week but can also occur during travel or even after when travelers return home. Some destinations in Asian countries come with a higher risk of this infection where the attack rates are usually for both men and women, whereas the main source of the infection is the ingestion of highly contaminated food and water.

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On this page you can download all the writing materials which were disseminated at the PDC in MFL workshops in Summer 2012. To watch video clips students’ responses to using this Principle, click here. You will find other useful writing skills resources sent in to us by teachers here. The research based principle for developing students’ writing skills is: Principle 7 Writing should be developed as a skill in its own right not just as a consolidation of other language skills. For this to happen students should frequently write using the language and strategies they already know rather than resources provided by the teacher (e.g. textbooks, writing frames, dictionaries, etc. ) We believe that writing could be used as a means for introducing a new topic, by encouraging students to reflect on the language that they already know and adapting it to its new purpose. The video clips presented at the workshop demonstrate some examples of this principle in action, with students encouraged to write using their own resources, rather than those given to them by a teacher. The document below formed part of an initial group discussion in the workshop. Two lesson plans are presented, both with the aim of students producing a written piece of work. The structure and outcomes of both lessons are very different. The second lesson plan represents the ideas put forward by the Consortium and is expanded on in more detail at the bottom of the document. Combined with the use of check lists, peer response forms and teacher feedback, students can be taught to evaluate the quality of their written work and therefore become more self-efficient in assessing and improving what they have produced. Here you can download an example of one Year 10 student’s process of developing a piece of writing at the start of a topic. The lesson structure used is the same one presented in the extended lesson plan above in the first download.

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Mexico is home to a staggering amount of cultural heritage, from the pyramids of Teotihuacan to the ancient civilizations in Chichen Itza and Xochicalco. However, one of Mexico’s most iconic and spiritual icons is missing—Borracharme. Borracharme is a type of hand tool used for carpentry, construction, and other manual labor. It’s a symbol of Mexican culture and its influence can be seen in architecture all around the world, from California’s Mission Revival to New Orleans’ French Creole style. Sadly, Borracharme is now a rarity as many craftsmen have switched over to mechanized tools. If you want to learn more about Borracharme and what it means to Mexican culture, read on. The borra charme – a type of bagpipe played in the Basque country and Navarre, southwestern France – is an important cultural and spiritual icon. It has been played for centuries by Basque shepherds and tradesmen who have kept its traditions alive. The borra charme is now considered a national symbol of both countries. The borracharme is considered one of the oldest instruments in Europe. It is believed to have originated in the Near East and was brought to Europe by the Greeks and Romans. The Basques are thought to be the first people to play it seriously. The borra charme is played with a single reed pipe that has two chambers, one for blowing air and one for holding the melody. The player blows into the pipe while plucking it with his thumb, index finger, and middle finger. The Borracharme’s Impact on Society and Culture The Borracharme, also known as the “Burning Bush,” is a religious icon that is said to have originated in Spain. The Borra charme is a small bush that is set on fire each year on January 1st to symbolize the end of the year and the new beginning of the next. The Borracharme has been burned in many different countries around the world, including Spain, Portugal, Colombia, Peru, and Argentina. The Borracharme has had a significant impact on society and culture. It is often used as a symbol for peace and prosperity. The Borracharme is believed to protect people from bad luck and evil. It is also used as a symbol of faith and hope. It is with a heavy heart that I write this concluding paragraph about borra charme. It was only a few years ago that the Borracharme festival in Galicia, Spain, was one of the largest and most important events on the cultural calendar for people of all ages. Borracharme has now been canceled due to financial difficulties faced by its organizers, but this cancellation does not mark the end of borra charme – it will continue to be celebrated in different ways across Galicia. Nevertheless, this year’s Borracharme festival will be the last time that it takes place in its traditional location.

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by Bertrand Russell Bertrand Russell is concerned with the foundations of knowledge which he approaches first through language. ‘Meaning’, as applied to words, is shown to be different for words of different kinds: object-words, proper names, logical words and dictionary words. For a sentence we have to consider the way that it expresses something of the nature of an assertion, a denial, an imperative, a desire, or a question. We can understand what it expresses if we know the meaning of its several words and the rules of syntax. From this Russell passes to a discussion of a belief and a sentence in which it is expressed. ‘Knowledge’ and ‘truth’ involve the relationship of truth to experience and Russell considers whether we can know that there are unknowable truths.

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An animal that can push with 40x their bodyweight, the hairy-tailed mole for example, is definitely something to better understand, and scientists at the University of Massachusetts and Brown University are trying to do just that. So how exactly do moles move so much dirt around as they tunnel underground? From The New York Times’ ScienceTake: Uncovering the Secrets of Mole Motion. This Webby award-winning video collection exists to help teachers, librarians, and families spark kid wonder and curiosity. TKSST features smarter, more meaningful content than what's usually served up by YouTube's algorithms, and amplifies the creators who make that content. Curated, kid-friendly, independently-published. Support this mission by becoming a sustaining member today.

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Table Talk: Family Conversations About Current EventsFor Educators | For Parents, Families, and Caregivers | 7 and up Bullying is a phrase we hear regularly and often: in the media, on TV shows and movies, in schools and in conversations among both adults and children. Parents, students and schools are rightfully worried about bullying. It is a problem and cause for concern but may not be as widespread as many think because the term “bullying” is often used as an umbrella to describe all kinds of mean behavior—from a rude comment to a conflict between two people to a one-time physical altercation. In the U.S., 20.2% (NCES, 2017) of students age 12-18 report being bullied at school and 36.5% (Cyberbullying Research Center, 2019) of 12-17 year-olds have experienced cyberbullying over the course of their lifetime. Definition of bullying Bullying is defined as follows: The repeated actions or threats of action directed toward a person by one or more people who have or are perceived to have more power or status than their target in order to cause fear, distress or harm. Bullying can be physical, verbal, psychological or any combination of these three. Here’s a definition to use for younger, elementary age children: When a person or a group behaves in ways—on purpose and over and over—that make someone feel hurt, afraid or embarrassed. It is important to distinguish bullying from other unkind, mean and harmful behavior. Calling someone a name or pushing someone once, being rude or having an argument with someone is not bullying. Of course, these behaviors should be addressed but may have different consequences and interventions, which is why the distinction is critical. To be defined as bullying, all three components must be present: (1) repeated actions or threats, (2) a power imbalance and (3) intention to cause harm. If bullying is identified correctly, there are various ways to address it. Many bullying incidents can be described as “identity-based,” which is any form of bullying related to characteristics that are part of a person’s identity or perceived identity group, such as race, religion, disability, immigration status, sexual orientation, gender identity, physical appearance, etc. Because identity-based bullying targets who the student is—a core part of their identity—it can be especially harmful. It impacts not only the individual student but everyone else around them who identifies in the same way and who worries that they may be the next target. In discussing identity-based bullying with young people, it’s important to make the point that bullying happens because of an aggressor’s bias, not because of the target's identity. Because a great deal bullying takes place when and where adults aren't around and because young people increasingly (as they get older) don’t report bullying to adults, it is especially important to help young people learn how to be an ally which includes: supporting targets, not participating, telling aggressors to stop, informing a trusted adult, not judging people and getting to know them and being an ally online. 7 and up Questions to Start the Conversation - Do you know what bullying is? How is it different than mean behavior? - Is someone engaging in bullying just because they are mean to you? - Have you ever experienced mean behavior? What about bullying? Can you tell me more about it? - Have you ever been mean to someone else? Do you think you have bullied someone before? Please explain. - What do students do when they see bullying take place in school? What do you do? Questions to Dig Deeper - Have you ever acted as a bystander when someone was being bullied? What was that like? - Have you ever acted as an ally when someone was being bullied? What was that like? - Have you seen students targeted for bullying based on an aspect of their identity (race, religion, disability, etc.)? What was that like? - How can we make our school safer and decrease or eliminate bullying? Ideas for Taking Action Ask: What can we do to help? What actions might make a difference? - Consider one of the six simple ways to move from being a bystander to being an ally when faced with a bullying situation. - Talk with teachers about what they can do to take bullying more seriously. This resource may help. - Talk with your school about bringing ADL's No Place for Hate and/or Peer Training Program to the school.

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- Homework and practice are instructional techniques that give students opportunities to deepen understanding and skills that have been taught to them. - There is one common purpose for homework which is practice! - When homework is assigned for the purpose of practice it should be structured around content with which students have a high degree of familiarity. - Homework should be quality not quantity work. All homework assignments should have an educational purpose behind it. For example: if students are asked to practice the new skills they have learned in class through homework they should be fairly familiar with that skill. Practicing a skill with which a student is unfamiliar is not only inefficient, but might lead to many errors and misconceptions. AL-MADINAH ELEMENTARY DIVISION HOMEWORK GRADING RUBRIC Purpose: To your assess students learning through homework accurately and fairly.

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Diarrhea and enteric illnesses Did you know? Diarrheal disease is one type of enteric illness—the name for any disease caused by an intestinal infection. All enteric pathogens enter the body through the mouth, usually via contaminated food, water, or hands. Diarrheal diseases caused by rotavirus, Shigella, enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), and other pathogens are some of the most common enteric diseases. Other, non-diarrheal enteric diseases include polio, typhoid, and paratyphoid. Even though these enteric diseases do not always cause diarrhea, they are spread in the same way as diarrhea and, as such, share many of the same tools to address diarrheal disease. Prevention for all enteric diseases includes vaccines, exclusive breastfeeding and nutrition, and improvements in water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). WASH improvements are key to preventing most types of enteric infections, as well as other childhood diseases such as pneumonia, because of the role that water and waste play in spreading the disease. Vaccines, a best buy in improving global child health, are available for several enteric pathogens, including rotavirus, cholera, and polio. Vaccines for other enteric pathogens, such as Shigella and ETEC are on the horizon. New and improved typhoid vaccines that can better target children, who need them most, could soon be available to countries. Additionally, efforts to improve breastfeeding and nutrition help all children develop stronger immune systems to better fight a wide variety of enteric and other childhood diseases. Prevention is even more important when we factor in the potential long-term impacts on gut health. Environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), also called environmental enteropathy, is a disorder of the small intestine that can be acquired after multiple and repeated enteric infections, with or without diarrhea. EED compromises a child’s ability to absorb nutrients and build immunity in the long term. Researchers are conducting important research to uncover new insights about gut health and their implications for new treatments and approaches. Childhood diseases do not exist in siloes, so interventions shouldn’t, either. That’s why we support the integration of diarrheal disease control with efforts to combat other enteric and childhood diseases that have overlapping interventions. For more information about efforts to combat other enteric diseases, please visit:

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Insects, spiders and crustaceans (flies, beetles, ants, ticks, daddy long legs, centipedes, pill bugs, crayfish, etc.) are members of the largest category of creatures on the planet: arthropods. Arthropods have hard, external shells called “exoskeletons,” segmented bodies and jointed legs. (The word "arthropod" comes from the Greek words for “joint” and “foot.”) When talking about small arthropods that crawl or fly around basements, gardens and forest preserves, many people use the word "bug," but "bug" covers just one group. If the arthropod in question has three pairs of jointed legs, a three-part body, compound eyes and two antennae, it's an "insect." Familiar insects include bees, wasps, beetles, mosquitoes, flies, grasshoppers, ants, butterflies, moths, dragonflies and damselflies. An insect's a "true bug" only if it has a certain type of sucking mouthpart called a “stylet.” Cicadas, aphids and leafhoppers are all true bugs. All true bugs are insects, but not all insects are true bugs, and you can't rely on common names to tell who's who. Lightning bugs, June bugs and ladybugs are all insects, but because they don't have the right mouthparts none are "true bugs." One large group of arthropods often lumped in with "bugs" aren't insects at all. Spiders, harvestmen, ticks and mites are all "arachnids." Most adults have eight legs and two-part bodies, although on ticks and harvestmen (aka daddy longlegs) the two parts are joined so closely they look like single ovals. Equally "buggy" to some are centipedes and millipedes — "myriapods" from the Greek for "10,000" and "foot" — although these multilegged arthropods are certainly not insects. (Common name aside, though, most centipedes in your basement likely have only 30 legs). BirdsFishFrogs, Turtles, Snakes & MoreInsects, Spiders, Crayfish & More Butterflies & Moths Dragonflies & Damselflies Mosquitoes Spiders, Harvestmen & Ticks Crayfish & ShrimpMammalsMussels & Snails Living With Wildlife 3S580 Naperville RoadWheaton, IL [email protected] Monday – Friday 8 a.m. – 4 p.m. [email protected] Our Board Board MeetingsRules & RegulationsJobsBids & ProposalsFOIA CenterTransparency Portal Help keep our forest preserves beautiful and safe places. If you have a concern, let us know. The Forest Preserve District is committed to making its facilities accessible to all visitors. Contact 630-933-7683 or TTY 800-526-0857.

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Verb tenses are an attribute of verbs that tell us about time. Remember that verbs are words that show actions or states of being. There are only six tenses for English verbs! You can learn about six tenses! Three of them are called simple tenses, and three of them are called perfect tenses. Simple Verb Tenses There are three basic times when verbs can take place: past, present, and future. These are the easy ones to remember. In fact, they are called simple tenses. 1. Simple present tense verbs show actions that happen regularly or that are permanently happening. We play football in the backyard. My niece skips down the road. 2. Simple past tense verbs are verbs that show actions that took place in the past. We played football in the backyard. My niece skipped down the road 3. Simple future tense verbs are verbs that show actions that have not taken place yet, but that will take place in the future. We will play football in the backyard. My niece will skip down the road. Perfect Verb Tenses English verbs also have three perfect verb tenses: present perfect tense, past perfect tense, and future perfect tense. These tenses are pretty cool, I guess, but I'm not sure that I'd call them perfect. Whoever named these guys sure thought highly of them. At any rate, all of these perfect tenses are formed with the helping verbs have, has, had, will and shall and the past participles of the verb. 4. Present perfect tense verbs show actions that were finished recently or ones that were completed at an indefinite time in the past. These use has or have. We have played football. My niece has skipped down the road. 5. Past perfect tense verbs show actions that came directly before another action in the past. These use had. We had played football. My niece had skipped down the road before I came. 6. Future perfect tense verbs show actions that will happen before other future actions happen. These use will have and shall have. By tomorrow, we will have played football. By noon, my niece will have skipped down the road. Both simple and perfect verb tenses can also be made into progressive verb forms. Sometimes they are also called continuous. That just means that they show an action that is in progress or that is continuing. To form this type of verb, you add one of the forms of the verb be with the present participle of the verb. (The present participle ends in -ing.) We are playing. (present progressive) We were playing. (past progressive) We will be playing. (future progressive) We have been playing. (present perfect progressive) We had been playing. (past perfect progressive) We will have been playing. (future perfect progressive) Regular verbs aren't a different tense, but they're an important thing to learn. Verbs that add -d or -ed to their present form to form the past tense are regular verbs. Here are some sentences with regular verbs. Notice that they end in -d or -ed. The dog jumped toward the squirrel. We all noticed the stain on his shirt. My grandmother knitted me this scarf. Irregular verbs aren't a different tense, but they're also an important topic to study. The word irregular means not regular, so irregular verbs are those that have unpredictable forms in the past tense. Verbs that don't add -d or -ed to their present form to form the past tense are irregular verbs. Here are some sentences with irregular verbs written in the past tense. Notice that they don't end in -d or -ed. I ate my vegetables. We swam across the lake. My mother read me a bedtime story.

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Updated: Nov 25, 2019 Take any integer like 1, 2, 3, or 18. If it is odd, multiply it by 3 and add 1. If it is even, divide it by 2. Repeat with your new number. Stop when you notice a pattern. Try another integer and another. Even try the first 20 or so. What do you see? Here, let me show you a few examples: 4 → 2 → 1 5 → 16 → 8 → 4 → 2 → 1 7 → 22 → 11 → 34 → 17 → 52 → 26 → 13 → 40 → 20 → 10 → 5 → 16 → 8 → 4 → 2 → 1 Strangely enough, all of these sequences end in 4 → 2 → 1, and 1*3 + 1 is 4 so these cycles begin to repeat forever: 5 → 16 → 8 → 4 → 2 → 1 → 4 → 2 → 1 → 4 → 2 → 1 ... At this point, it might seem that we've accumulated enough evidence to say that every single sequence will end this way. In fact, mathematicians have used computers to test every integer from 1 to 87*2^60, which is an extremely large number, and they always come down to 1. But mathematicians cannot fully establish that something is true without proving it, that is, establishing an argument that this will always remain true no matter what number we choose. It is possible that 1 to 87*2^60 can all satisfy this principle, but 87*2^60 + 1 does not. Even something larger than a googol could defy this. (Scientists can make conclusions by accumulating large bodies of evidence; mathematicians do not, which is why their conclusions can hold for thousands of years because they're universally true.) This problem is called the Collatz Conjecture as it was initially posed by Lothar Collatz in 1937. The challenge is to prove that every single positive integer will reach the 4 → 2 → 1 cycle at some point. Visualizations of the Collatz Conjecture are surprisingly complex. Here's one from the book Visions from the Universe: Essentially, this visual takes each path of the Collatz Conjecture into a tree format: Here, each step where you divide by 2 is represented by a vertical black line and each step where you multiply by 3 and 1 is represented by a red horizontal line. Then, we tilt the tree to get a little more insight into how this works. The path goes slightly counterclockwise if the next number is odd and slightly clockwise if the next number is even if you view it from the bottom up. I also removed the red horizontal lines for the sake of simplicity. Finally, removing the numbers allows us to see the complexity of the problem in full light and to create the famous mathematical "seaweed" image we see above. Watch Numberphile (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqKpkdRRLZw) to see an in-depth discussion of how these visuals were created. Here's one more visual, created with a similar but different concept: What's crazy about these visuals is just how complex they are. The fact that two very simple rules generate just complex figures blows my mind every time, and it gives us a glimpse of why this problem is so hard for mathematicians to solve. Beyond the Collatz Conjecture, there are more of these simple but yet unsolved problems. The Goldbach Conjecture states that every even integer can be written as the sum of two primes (where primes are integers whose only factors are 1 and itself). The Twin Prime Conjecture states that there are an infinite number of prime numbers that are only two apart (such as 3 and 5, 5 and 7 and 11 and 13) The Inscribed Square Theorem states that for any possible closed loop that doesn't cross itself, you can draw a square with all 4 corners on the loop, such as in the drawing below: All of these problems are simple to state, yet not even the smartest minds in the world have been able to solve them. It's for this reason these fields (here, number theory and geometry) are often called "elementary," not because they're easy to solve, but because it's often fairly easy to understand the problems as they are stated. Who knows, maybe one day you'll tackle one of these problems! Keep reading to learn more about mathematics as a field today! With the Collatz Conjecture specifically, mathematicians are starting to make progress. On September 10, 2019, child prodigy and renown professor Terrence Tao announced he discovered something about the problem, publishing a blog post and paper with the complicated title, “Almost all Collatz orbits attain almost bounded values.” Recent developments like these are happening every day, and some of the most highly contested problems in history are being tackled. In a world where the math we're taught in school is often centuries, even millenia, old, it may surprise you to learn just how quickly mathematics is growing. Every day, mathematicians are publishing groundbreaking new work, and in the last few months, we've made significant progress on two long-standing problems, the sum of three cubes problem and the twin prime conjecture. In fact, in the last thirty years, more math has been published than in any other thirty year period! In the last few decades, almost the entire field of graph theory (a new way of thinking that lends itself directly to networking and the Internet) has emerged, and the three-century-old problem, Fermat's Last Theorem, was solved by Andrew Wiles as recently as 1995. It's a fascinating time for math (and honestly STEM in general!) Visit Quanta Magazine to stay up to date about current progress in any scientific field. I especially recommend this article on the twin prime conjecture (https://www.quantamagazine.org/big-question-about-primes-proved-in-small-number-systems-20190926/) and this one on the Nobel Prize winner in Physics, Donna Strickland

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According to a study, dogs do not simply age seven times faster than humans. Rather, young dogs appear to be biologically much older than the equivalent young human. Researchers at the University of California studied– the addition of methyl groups to the that can change gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself. patterns change with age and can be used to accurately predict biological age in humans. The researchers studiedchanges in around 100 Labrador retrievers and compared these to the equivalent methylation changes that are known to occur in humans. They found that a one year old dog has methylation changes equivalent to those of a 30 year-old human, suggesting a dog’s may increase significantly faster at the start of its life before slowing down relative to human ageing. This finding is interesting, as it demonstrates that while methylation changes may occur with age in many species, they don’t necessarily follow the same trajectory as each other. Studying ageing in different species can provide important insights into human longevity, as it presents an opportunity to investigate the biological mechanisms that might distinguish a short-lived species from a long-lived one. Even species that are genetically very similar can have radically different lifespans, and understanding what causes this could help us extend longevity in humans. Quantitative Translation of Dog-to-Human Aging by Conserved Remodeling of the DNA Methylome: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cels.2020.06.006 Every dog year not equivalent to seven human years, scientists find: https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2020/jul/02/every-human-year-not-equivalent-to-seven-dog-years-scientists-find?CMP=Share_AndroidApp_Gmail

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The Cenozoic period spans the Palaeogene (66 million years ago (Ma)) to the Quaternary (Holocene – present). During the late Cretaceous (145.5–99.6 Ma) and Tertiary (23–11.6 Ma) Africa separated from its neighbouring Gondwana continents and began moving north. During this time there was erosion in the interior resulting in few onshore deposits surviving. These onshore deposits are related to sea level changes. The Cenozoic climate changed from relatively warm and ice free during the Paleocene (66 Ma) to massive ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres during the Pliocene (5.33–2.58 Ma). It was marked by long- term cooling and was further influenced by the opening of the circum-Antarctic seaway, with shallow and deep seaways. During the late Paleocene (58.7 Ma) to early Eocene (55.8 Ma) Southern Ocean high latitude sea surface temperatures were between 9 and 15ºC higher than present but by the late Eocene these temperatures had cooled. At the Eocene/early Oligocene boundary a further 1-2ºC cooling is noted. Cooling along the west coast of southern Africa is supported by the change in the nannoplankton off the northern Namibian coast from warm water forms in the Eocene –middle Miocene (16 Ma) to cold water dominant forms in the late Miocene (7.2 Ma)– early Pliocene thus marking the establishment of the Benguela Upwelling System (BUS). The Cenozoic Palaeontology collections house fossils and sub-fossils mainly from the Neogene and Quaternary. The animals preserved in these collections are ancestral to living animals, resemble modern animals or have become extinct. There is also geological and palaeobotanical information which help with building the palaeoenvironment. The Neogene includes the Miocene (23.0 – 5.33 Ma) and Pliocene (5.33 – 2.58 Ma). The world famous collection from Langebaanweg (West Coast Fossil Park) straddles the late Miocene and early Pliocene. This collection includes the first fossil bear (Agriotherium africanum) from sub-Saharan Africa, a wolverine (Plesiogulo monspessulanus), 4 species of hyaena, four species of penguin, sabre tooth cats, Sivatherium (long horn, short neck giraffe), gomphothere, mammoth, elephant and numerous birds. This period marks a time of cooling along the west coast and higher sea levels.It was also possible that at this time dry summers and wet winters were already being experienced. This material was collected in Namaqualand, Northern Cape, South Africa. The Avontuur member (50 m package), was deposited on a prograding shoreline. The sediments represent intertidal (foreshore), breaker and surf zone (upper shoreface), a zone seaward of the surf zone with dominant storm deposits (lower shoreface) and a nearshore shelf facies as well as a tidal inlet and lagoon deposits. The Duynefontyn member (Table 1) underlies the Koeberg Nuclear Power Station37. These early Pliocene sediments were deposited in an open a lagoon sheltered by an intertidal barrier spit37. It was initiated as a prograding sequence by the early Pliocene transgression with a barrier spit developing as a result of the regression and was replaced by marshes Ysterplaat was a high energy beach during the late Miocene. This deposit is only 9 m to 10 m above sea level. The phosphatic sandstone was deposited in a shallow marine setting with molluscs suggesting the presence of a sandy beach. There is a point bar deposit and along with a meandering stream. The Hondeklip Bay Member (30 m package) was deposited along the Namaqualand coast during a late Pliocene regression which and preserves foreshore face, upper shoreshoreface and lower shore face facies.Prospect Hill Formation 25 m strandline in the Lower Quarry has fossils related to the 30 m package in Namaqualand. Baard’s Quarry is a late Pliocene to early Pleistocene river channel complex that was deposited during a regression (low sea level). The Quaternary spans the Gelasian (early Pleistocene) to the present (Holocene). The following are some of the sites included: Swartklip 1, Swartklip 2, Ysterfontein-carnivore, Ysterfontein-L. Katz Street, Spreeuwalle, Sea Harvest, Hoedjiespunt, Duinefontein 2, Duinefontein, Duinefontein-calcrete, Duinefontein, Elandsfontein-Main, Elandsfontein-Bone Circle, Elandsfontein-HD, Donkerga, Hout Bay, Geelbek, Velddrif, Skurwerug – Saldanha, to name a few. These collections date from 2.58 Ma to present. The Elandsfontein collections holds about 20 000 fossil specimens. There are about 13,000 mammalian bones identified to skeletal part and taxon. There 49 species, 15 have no historic descendants. Its age is between 1 million and 600 thousand years. The site was close to a large marsh or pond, maintained bya higher water table. The bones accumulated during one of the mid-Pleistocene interglacials that were longer and cooler than later ones, including the Holocene. It is thought deaths probably resulted from attritional factors. The animals described include the long-horned buffalo, Pelorovis antiquus, the extinct Arambourg’s hartebeest, Rabaticeras, which probably gave rise to the extant hartebeest genus, Alcelaphus. The relative representation of large-mammal taxa in the EFTM fauna, based on the minimum numbers of individuals (MNI) represented. The percentageswere calculated on a total MNI of 712 (Klein et al. 2007). This site probably representing buried land surfaces. The levels are probably earlier late Pleistocene at youngest (older than 40 000 years) and may even be later Middle Pleistocene (older than 125 000 years) in age. The following animals have been identified: Loxodonta Africana (elephant),Dicerosbicornis (black rhinoceros), Ceratotheriumsimum (white rhinoceros)Equus capensis (Cape’Giant Horse’), Megalotraguspriscus (Hartebeest). This site is located along the False Bay coast and the fossils were accumulated by hyaenas that were scavenging carcasses. This assemblage accumulated during a glacial period when a regression (low sea level) moved the coast kilometres away from Swartklip. Swartklip carnivores include lion, leopard, serval cat, hunting dog, Egyptian mongoose, water mongoose, clawless otter, black-backed jackal and hyaena. The herbivores include: giant long-horned buffalo, grysbok, vaalribbok, southern springbok, black wildebeest, southern reedbok, blue antelope, eland, kudu, hippo, white rhino, Cape zebra, quagga and ostrich. This area had more grasses, was more moist and cooler than present. There was a gentle undulating plain with a stream that was “dammed” into a vlei behind a low stabilised dune ridge. It possibly dates to about 110 000 years ago. This collection, primarily assembled from samples originally made in modern biological research, provides assemblages for actualistic studies of the taphonomy of palaeontological and archaeological assemblages. Assemblages of prey of leopards, hyaenas, jackals, mongooses and large and small raptors are held. Collections of Barn Owl pellets from a range of habitats comprise a significant element of the collection, which also includes comparative assemblages of marine molluscs from modern contexts.

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Scientists Find Nearest-Known Black Hole, In Distressingly Fitting Metaphor If it feels as if gravity has been tugging harder than it usually does the past couple of months, it'd be easy to guess why — what with the global pandemic, a hemorrhaging economy and the strain of staying at least six feet away from just about everyone. So perhaps it's an appropriate time to add news of another impossibly dark, heavy item to the list. The European Southern Observatory announced Wednesday that a team of astronomers has discovered the closest-known black hole to Earth, roughly 1,000 light-years away. They found it hiding in a double-star system known as HR 6819, where scientists say the black hole — rendered effectively invisible by gravity so strong that even light cannot escape — revealed itself in the curious orbit of the star nearer the center of the system. "An invisible object with a mass at least four times that of the Sun can only be a black hole," Thomas Rivinius, the Chile-based ESO scientist who led the study, said in a statement released Wednesday. His team published their findings in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics. The black hole is not anywhere near close enough for the average observer on Earth to feel its effects, to be absolutely clear. But it is close enough that, during winter in the southern hemisphere, the two stars that are believed to compose its solar system can be seen without a telescope as a single point of light in the constellation Telescopium. The new discovery has unseated the black hole found in system A0620–00, which is located more than 3,000 light-years away in the constellation Monoceros — and which for years was the nearest black hole to Earth that scientists had identified. Now, that does not mean these two huge — and hugely dense — stellar objects are the only ones to be found in the Milky Way, the galaxy humans call home. In fact, Rivinius described the discovery as merely "the tip of an exciting iceberg." "There must be hundreds of millions of black holes out there, but we know about only very few," he explained. "Knowing what to look for should put us in a better position to find them." The key is that this black hole is relatively quiet. Many of the others that have been identified in our galaxy have been spotted because of the powerful X-rays they emit when consuming the material around them. This one, however, betrayed its location largely with the pull that it exerted on the innermost star of the system, which the team had been studying before stumbling on the invisible interloper. Given the scale of that gravitational pull, if a star were causing it, the team would have expected to see it. The only convincing alternative, they concluded, was that they were watching the effects of a black hole. And Marianne Heida, a co-author on the paper, says they're already seeing signs of triple systems such as this one elsewhere in the galaxy. "By finding and studying them," she said, "we can learn a lot about the formation and evolution of those rare stars that begin their lives with more than about eight times the mass of the Sun and end them in a supernova explosion that leaves behind a black hole." Copyright 2020 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.

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As we celebrate Native American Heritage month in November, we remember that Native sacred places, lifeways, and traditions have shaped this land since time immemorial—and Native people continue to create, share, and inspire despite centuries of colonization. Art exists to tell a story about who we are, where we’ve been, and where we’re going. And as we look to the future in a moment of so much crisis and uncertainty in our country and world, we know that Native knowledge can help us all chart a path forward—healing from the past, understanding and navigating our present, and inspiring positive change for the future. The arts are an essential component of justice for Native people. Reclaiming our language, our culture, and expressing our art in modern times after generations of attempted erasure is a necessary act of Indigenous resilience and liberation. “ Just five days ago, after months of a contentious and divided election, a new President-Elect Joe Biden and Vice President-Elect Kamala Harris were declared, calling for unity and pledging to represent all people in the United States. Almost 160 million Americans voted in this election, the largest turnout in American history. We’re especially thrilled that a record-breaking six Native American house candidates won their respective races, more than any previous Congress. And most historic, the first woman was elected as Vice President, and even more notable she is the first Black and South Asian woman to hold this high office. Many may not be aware that our democratic system was inspired by the Iroquois Confederacy’s Great Law of Peace. In 1988, the U.S. Senate paid tribute to the Iroquois with a resolution that said, “The confederation of the original 13 colonies into one republic was influenced by the political system developed by the Iroquois Confederacy, as were many of the democratic principles which were incorporated into the constitution itself.” The Iroquois Constitution is known as the Great Law of Peace for having brought together five nations that had been involved in continuous inter-tribal conflicts at the expense of the well being of their societies. Those five nations came together under the Iroquois Confederacy, and their people became known as the Haudenosaunee. In 1744, chief Canassatego of the Onondaga Nation, which was part of the Iroquois Confederacy, gave a speech urging the 13 colonies, then at odds, to unite as the Iroquois had. In his speech, Canassatego used the metaphor that many arrows cannot be broken as easily as one. This inspired the bundle of 13 arrows held by an eagle in the Great Seal of the United States. As we reckon with a history that has silenced Native truth, as the movement for racial equity surges across our country, as we yearn for the ability to gather, learn, and share experiences together, as climate change threatens our homelands, and as Native elders and culture bearers age – we also reflect on this moment in time. Now is not the time to shy away from the challenges that stand in our way of being a united peoples. There is a glimmer of hope in our democracy during these momentous times, and as Native peoples, we will continue to listen to the voices of our ancestors and forge forward. We will use our creativity, arts, and cultures to inspire the human spirit, unite with one another, and shine a light on the most pressing social issues we face in our communities and nation.

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Build a Worm Bin (Vermicomposting) Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin What is a Worm Bin? A worm bin is a structure designed to create compost using worms. Vermicomposting, or worm composting, is different than traditional composting. Worm composting is a process that uses red earthworms, also commonly called red worms, to consume organic waste, producing castings (an odor-free compost product for use as mulch), soil conditioner, and topsoil additive. Naturally occurring organisms, such as bacteria and millipedes, also assist in the aerobic degradation of the organic material. Vermicomposting is especially useful for processing food scraps, since the worms consume the material quickly and there are fewer problems with odor. Worm composting does not generate temperatures high enough to kill pathogens. For this reason, vermicomposting is more appropriate for food, paper, and yard waste. Why Should I Create a Worm Bin? Yard and food waste make up a major component of solid waste in most municipalities throughout the United States. Although much of this organic waste can be recycled in the backyard using traditional aerobic backyard composting techniques, these techniques are not appropriate for apartment dwellers and are often inconvenient, particularly during bad weather in the winter. Additionally, many municipalities prefer that food wastes NOT be composted in the backyard compost pile in order to cut down on problems with odors and pests. Vermicomposting, is an excellent technique for recycling food waste in the apartment as well as composting yard wastes in the backyard. Finished vermicompost can be used in potting soil mixes for house plants and as a top dressing for lawns. Screened vermicompost combined with potting soil mixes make an excellent medium for starting young seedlings. Vermicompost also makes an excellent mulch and soil conditioner for the home garden. In short – creating a worm bin for compost saves you money on top soil, potting soil, and fertilizers and saves your municipality money on landfill costs. In terms of ease of composting, nothing tops vermicomposting. Worms can compost garbage faster than any other type of composting method. Each day a worm eats half its weight in food. Furthermore, it take far less effort to care for your worm bin than to maintain an outdoor compost pile. In terms of helping the environment, using compost rather than chemical fertilizers helps grow a healthy, sustainable garden – recycle nutrients and organic matter that help grow trouble-free plants with less water, fertilizer or pesticides. It also builds healthy soil that reduces watering needs and absorbs runoff, protecting streams from erosion and pollution. Developing Your Goals and Budget Creating a worm bin is not very expensive, however the costs can add up if you are trying to create many of them! Your goals for creating worm bins will in part determine the costs of their creation. You may be building worm bins just for the members of your organization, or for a local school, or you may be reaching out to a specific audience such as homeowners in your watershed. Whatever the case, you will want to write out your specific goals and let them guide your work plan. Some example goals: - Create community stewards by showing homeowners simple methods that reduce their impact on their local stream - Foster environmental stewardship and an interest in science by students of a local school - Reduce the amount of food and yard waste going to the local landfill Worm bins come in two varieties—home-built or purchased. It goes without saying that store-bought worm bins are more expensive. In most cases it makes more sense to make a worm bin that suits your needs rather than purchasing one that may not be ideal. The cost of building a worm bin is quite low, however it varies depending on the materials used and the size of the bin created. In general the cost of the tools used in creating a worm bin is greater than the cost of a worm bin itself. We will provide instructions for building two types of low-cost worm bins, however there are many other designs available. Use the links that we provide to find the version that is right for your needs and your budget. There are many ways to finance a worm bin project. The simplest method of cost cutting is to cut material costs by using leftover lumber. You can also partner with a lumber yard to get new or scrap lumber donated. As previously noted, tools are the primary cost of building worm bins. You can cut these costs by asking members of your organization or friends to lend you their tools for the project. You can also ask your local high school wood shop class if they would be willing to donate their time to help prepare the worm bins. If you are in need of funding for your project, you can also ask the recipients of the worm bins to make a donation or you can seek out grants. The Home Depot and Walmart offer grants for community environmental projects such as these. You might also try the Chesapeake Bay Trust (MD) and the Chesapeake Bay Restoration Fund (VA) or other environmental grant making organizations in your jurisdiction. Steps for Creating a Worm Bin Below is a sample timeline for a worm bin project where individuals will be building their own bins and the materials and tools will be provided by your organization: - Determine the target audience for the worm bin construction - Order materials from supplier - Arrange for a location to store and build the worm bins - Arrange for materials to be delivered or to pick up the materials (NOTE: this may be an additional cost) - Purchase or arrange to borrow needed tools - Advertise the worm bin construction day through as many outlets as possible - Create and print steward’s manual/educational materials - Host worm bin construction day - Arrange site visits to make sure that the worm bins are functioning properly and answer any questions that the bin owners might have - Call worm bin owners to remind them to clean out their worm bins to instill good maintenance habits Advertising your Worm Bin Building Project There are lots of ways to advertise for an event and, unfortunately, no one way works consistently. Here are several options for you to choose from. The best outreach campaigns make use of several techniques and only you can know what is best for your project. Advertising options include: - Creating and distributing door hangers to target a specific neighborhood where you would like to work - Creating and distributing a press release to your local paper, radio stations and/or television stations (see the Resources section for information on how to write and distribute a press release). - Creating flyers and placing them in public libraries, recreation centers, and walking trails - Developing a web site or adding the information to an existing web site - Running an advertisement in a local paper, or on radio stations and/or television stations - Discussing the event at a targeted community association, church group, youth group, and/or service organization meeting - Advertising your event on free on-line environmental calendars such as the Chesapeake Network - Sending out an email to people you think would be interested and asking them to tell their friends as well - Sending out a mass mailing to your targeted audience Organizing a Worm Bin Construction and/or Distribution Day It is not enough to have the construction materials for your worm bins ready for your event—some final preparations need to be made to make your construction/distribution day a success. In advance of your event make sure that you have: - Enough tools to share among participants without creating long waits - Refreshments and snacks if possible or at least provide water - Created and printed a sign-in sheet - Created and printed enough directions for constructing the worm bins (with diagrams, if possible) - Created a pre-constructed worm bin for demonstration purposes - Done as much prep work for each worm bin as is possible—for example, put all the parts together with each worm bin or pre-cut the wood for each bin - Called key volunteers and asked them to arrive early and be Team Leaders - Organized stations or groups so that volunteers can be teamed up with Team Leaders to assemble their worm bins - Put together an emergency medical kit and set up an emergency plan in case of an accident - Made sure that bathroom facilities are available for volunteers - Contacted local newspapers - Designated a volunteer to take photos of the event It is not enough to give out the completed worm bins and assume that they are being used correctly. In advance of your event make sure to: - Create and have on hand a working worm bin to demonstrate care - Discuss the proper location of worm bins for a house or apartment - Create and print instructions for installing the worm bins Creating a Worm Bin Below are instructions for two different worm bins. The first is a very simple bin that is ideal for those just getting started on vermiculture, apartment dwellers, or singles or couples without children. The second bin is larger and requires more effort to build. The general structure of the two bins is the same so you can take the general plan and build your own to match your needs. If you are creating one of the more complex bins, you may consider completing some of the steps requiring cutting or drilling before the volunteers assemble the worm bin in order to save time and to minimize the number of people using potentially dangerous tools. Bin 1 – Small, starter bin - A shallow box (about 1’ deep, 1’ wide and 2’ long) made of dark colored plastic, wood or even Styrofoam - A lid to fit the box (if it does not have one already) Bin 2 – Larger, complex bin - 1 four foot x eight foot x .5 inch sheet exterior plywood (Download a PDF of the cuts HERE) - 1 fourteen foot construction grade 2” x 4″ - 1 sixteen foot construction grade 2″ x 4″ - 1 lb 4d galvanized nails - 1/4 lb. 16d galvanized nails - 2 Three inch door hinges Bin 1 – Small, starter bin - Hand Drill or Drill with ½” bit Bin 2 – Larger, complex bin - Tape measure - Skill saw or rip hand saw - Saw horses - Long straight edge or chalk snap line - Screwdriver or Drill with screwdriver drill bit - Hand Drill or Drill with ½” bit Building your Worm Bin Bin 1 – Small, starter bin In the case of the small starter bin, you are almost there! You have the bin, you just need to add ventilation and drain holes. Drill about ten air holes in the side and top of your bin for ventilation. Then drill four or five holes in the bottom of your bin for drainage. Your bin is now ready go! Bin 2 – Larger, complex bin Step 1 – Mark and Cut the Worm Bin Base Frame and Plywood - Measure and cut plywood as indicated in diagram for the bottom and sides - Cut the 12 foot 2”×4” into five pieces: two 39″, two 23″, and one 20″ long - Cut four 1 foot lengths out of the 16 foot 2”×4” - Take the remaining 12 foot 2”×4” and cut it into two 45″ pieces and two 20″ pieces Step 2 – Nail the Base Frame and Plywood Together Nail the 2”×4”s together on edge with two 16d nails at each joint as illustrated in the base frame diagram. Nail the plywood base piece onto the 2”×4” frame. Take each plywood side piece and place a one foot 2”×4” under each of it’s ends so that the 2”×4” is flush with the top and side edges of the plywood, and nail the boards into place. Nail the side pieces onto the base frame. To complete the box, nail the ends onto the base and sides. To reinforce the box make sure there is a nail staggered at least every 3 inches wherever plywood and 2”×4”s meet. Step 3 – Build the Lid and Drill Air and Drain Holes - Drill twelve ½” holes through the bottom of the box for drainage - To build the lid, take the remaining two 45″ pieces of 2”×4” and two 20″ pieces of 2”×4” and lay them flat (short pieces on the inside as indicated in diagram) so that the plywood top is inset from the edges of the 2”×4” by 1-½” all the way around the perimeter. Nail the plywood onto the 2”×4” securely. Place the hinges on the backside of the box at both ends on the 2”×4”s, and on the under side of the 2”×4” lid frame, so that the lid will stand upright when opened. Step 4 – Paint or Stain Your Worm Bin (if desired) If you paint your box, just do the outside of the box as the paint or stain may be deadly to your worms! All worm bins create some liquid. Place a metal or plastic tray under your bin to capture this liquid. The liquid can than be used as an excellent plant fertilizer. Without enough air your worms can’t survive and, worse yet, you will have a smelly worm bin! If your bin produces odors, try drilling some additional holes in the sides for ventilation. Preparing and Populating Your Worm Bin The first step after creating your worm bin is to add bedding for the worms. Bedding holds moisture and provides a medium in which the worms can work and the garbage can be buried. It must be light and fluffy enough to allow air exchange. The worms will actually consume bedding as well as the kitchen vegetable wastes. Bedding can be made of shredded newspaper (just the black and white sections), shredded corrugated cardboard, peat moss, or leaf mold. Bedding must be well soaked in water and wrung out before adding to the bin. You want your bedding to be moist, but not soaked and fluffy, not packed. Fill your bin with bedding until it is about 2/3 full – around eight inches in depth. Finally add a handful of fine sand, soil, ground egg shells or other clean gritty material. This is necessary because worms don’t have teeth and they therefore need some other material in order to grind up their food. Adding the Worms You are now ready to add your worms. Remember, you can’t just use any species of worm–these are red worms or red wigglers (Eisenia foetida or Lumbricus rubellus). Some bait shops may sell them but you will probably have better luck looking at a garden supply catalog or online. You need about a pound of worms for each pound of kitchen waste per week you would like to compost. These worms can double their populations every 90 days! As long as they have enough food and a healthy home, the worms you buy will expand their population to fill your bin, so you shouldn’t have to buy more unless you want to increase your worm composting operation very quickly. A good rule of thumb is that it takes approximately two pounds of earthworms to recycle a pound of food waste in one full day. Two pounds of worms requires about 4 cubic feet of space in your worm bin – so size your bin appropriately for the amount of food waste you produce! Worms should be placed in the middle of the bedding – not on top. They like the cool, moist interior of the bedding and will not survive if exposed to the dry air for a long time! Placing the Worm Bin Now you need to find an appropriate place for your worm bin. In the Potomac basin, worm bins should not be left outdoors. Red worms cannot survive the freezing temperatures of winter and they do not process food well at the high temperatures that occur in summer months. Instead, place your bin in a place with moderate temperatures between 55 degrees and 77 degrees. Some people keep them in their basements, next to their hot water heaters, or in their garages. In apartments they can be stored under the kitchen sink or in a cabinet. Maintaining Your Worm Bin Adding Food Scraps Feeding worms is the fun part of vermicomposting. Since red worms eat up to their own weight in food every day, a box with one pound of worms will easily handle five pounds of food per week (but do not overfeed the box—stop for a week or more if the worms cannot keep up with your supply). Feel free to include almost all fruits and vegetables, such as citrus and melon rinds, wilted lettuce, potato and carrot peelings, etc. You can also add coffee grounds and filters, tea leaves and bags, crushed egg shells, and house plant prunings. Never add meat, fish, dairy products or oils. Add food by lifting up the bedding, depositing the scraps, and always covering it with the damp bedding. This will prevent any odors or fruit flies. Try to place food in alternate areas of the box. You shouldn’t need to add any additional water—but check every few weeks to make sure the bedding does not dry out. If the bedding gets soggy, tear up more paper and mix it in dry with the other bedding. After about four-six months, the worm population will have grown remarkably and most of the food scraps and older bedding will have been converted into worm castings or vermicompost. Harvesting the Compost Tea If your worm bin has holes in the bottom to allow for liquids to flow through, you will occasionally need to harvest the compost tea from the tray that you keep under your worm bin. The tea can be used as a liquid fertilizer for your plants. Harvesting the Compost After a few months, most of your bedding will have been converted to vermicompost and you will need to add new bedding and remove the compost material. The most convenient method of performing this procedure is to move the compost to one side of the bin and add new bedding and garbage to the other. Allow about one month for the worms to migrate to the fresh material. At this point the compost may be removed and replaced with new bedding. Another method for harvesting the compost is to place the compost on some plastic sheeting in small piles and expose the piles to the sun or bright lights. Because the worms don’t like light, they will move to the bottom of their pile. After about a quarter of an hour you can remove the upper inch the compost from each pile. Again, let the worms move to the bottom of the pile. At the end of this process you will have separated your worms from your compost. You can then add your worms back into your compost bin with new bedding and use your compost as you see fit! Typical Worm Bin Problems and their Solutions If your bin is receiving more food than the worms can eat, the food waste will begin to rot and cause odors. If you notice that your bin has begun to smell, stop adding the waste until the worms have a chance to catch up. Another cause of foul odors is too much moisture. If it looks like your bin is collecting moisture, fluff up the bedding to add air, add some dry bedding, and check the drainage holes. As a general rule of thumb, keep the bedding material moist, but never soggy. Make sure the food waste is buried properly in the bedding. If neither of these problems seems to be the case with your bin, it may be that your bin is too acidic. Cut back on the amount of acidic food you are adding to your bin (foods such as coffee and citrus). Fruit flies generally appear if the food waste is exposed. Make sure when adding food to your bin that you put it inside the bedding, not on top. Additionally, make sure to keep the top of your worm bin covered. Fruit flies can also appear if you are adding more food than your worms can handle. If you think this is the case, cut back on the amount of food you add until the worms can catch up. It is also possible that if your worm bin has holes in the bottom, insects may be attracted to the compost tea that you are collecting. If you find this is the case, you can plug the holes in the bottom of your bin as long as you keep an eye on the level of moisture in your bin. If the bin is too wet, add some dry bedding to soak up the moisture. - Sample Liability Waiver - Sample Press Release - Sample Sponsor Letter - The Worm Digest–a book on all things vermiculture - Vermicomposting – A Guide to Getting Started (Ava’s Flowers)

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Greenhouse supplemental lighting A greenhouse is a structure enclosed entirely by transparent materials such as glass, rigid plastic, or a thin plastic (polyethylene film) that protect plants from the effects of wind, cold, dehydration, and insects while still admitting the light they need to grow. Greenhouses allow for regulation of microclimatic parameters such as temperature and humidity, giving plants the most optimal environment in which to grow. However, the single most important variable with respect to plant growth and development—light—often becomes a limiting factor. The influence of light on the production of various plants, such as vegetables, fruits, flowers and herbs has been well documented. Plant cultivation in greenhouse heavily relies on sunlight, of which the availability depends strictly on weather conditions. Natural sunlight is not always attainable in sufficient quantities. Supplemental lighting is often used in permanent rigid plastic and glass greenhouse structures to extend daylight hours during winter seasons with short periods of solar radiation or to fill in the natural fluctuations in sunlight due to weather. Horticulture lighting is meant to provide a source of energy and information The use of artificial lighting in horticultural applications generally serve three purposes: transplant production and propagation of seedling that involve both photosynthetic and photomorphogenic lighting; supplemental lighting to enhance photosynthesis and thereby improving growth and quality of plants, especially during light-limited periods of the year; and photoperiodic lighting to control developmental phases, e.g., inducing early or out-of-season flowering. Photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, and photoperiodism are the three basic processes related to interaction between optical radiation and plants. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants harvest energy from photons to synthesize sugars, for example glucose, from carbon dioxide and water. Photomorphogenesis is about the development of plant morphology (plant architecture) under the influence of light spectrum. Photoperiodism relates to the reaction of the plants to the light-dark cycle. At its most basic, supplemental greenhouse lighting should address the minimum requirements on daily light integral (DLI) from plants. DLI quantifies the total number of photosynthetically active photons that a plant receives over the 24 hours of a solar day. It’s especially important to measure DLI in every greenhouse where plants are receiving varying amounts of sunlight. In addition to the seasonal fluxes in solar radiation and unpredictability of weather, light transmission inside a greenhouse is usually reduced by 35-50%. The amount of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) received each day can have a profound effect on plant growth, development, yield, and quality. There is a direct correlation between DLI and shoot mass, root development, transplant propagation, as well as finish plant quality attributes such as stem thickness, plant branching and number of leaves and flowers. The deficiencies of HID lighting High intensity discharge (HID) lamps, such as high pressure sodium (HPS) and metal halide (MH), have been the usual choice of light source for greenhouse lighting systems because of their ability to deliver adequate photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) with economic viability. An HPS lamp emits in the red-orange region of the visible light spectrum, which can power the flowering and fruiting processes. The blue-white emission of metal halide lamps may be better suited for vegetative growth and seedlings. However, the spectral power distribution (SPD) of both MH and HPS lamps do not exactly match chlorophyll absorption spectrum. About 20% to 30% of the light is emitted outside the PAR region. Radiant energy that is not absorbed by the plant photoreceptors is simply wasted. HID lighting requires considerable separation between light fixtures and plants to ensure uniform light distribution as well as to avoid thermal stress from infrared radiation. Achieving a very high photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) with HID lighting has always been limited by the distance that the lamps need to be kept from the plant canopy. Furthermore, limited dimming ability and fixed light spectrum of HID lamps deprive conventional greenhouse toplights of the flexibility to develop a customized light recipe that works for each stage of plant growth. LED technology arrives at the forefront of horticulture lighting conversations The advent of solid state lighting based on LED technology has sparked a revolution in horticulture lighting. Capable of delivering electromagnetic radiation that plants need in the exact spectrums across all stages of crop production from, seedling, cloning, all through vegetative to flowering, fruiting and harvest, the benefits of LED lighting in the cultivation of herbs, vegetables, fruit, flowers and other plants in greenhouses is nothing short of remarkable. While recent implementation of double-ended HPS lamps provides a significantly improved photosynthetic photon efficacy (PPE) (up to 1.7 µmol/J) over traditional mogul-based HPS lamps (1.02 µmol/J), the best-in-class PPE of LED grow lights has reached 3.8 µmol/J and continues to advance toward the practical potential of 4 µmol/J. Improved optical design thanks to the directionality and small source size of LEDs can allow more efficient delivery of light with the optimum optical distribution. In contrast, much of the light produced by an HID lamp is lost within the fixture due to the omni-directional emission of the light source. The light that exits the HID fixture is not uniformly distributed, thus further lowering the optical delivery efficiency of the entire lighting system. The estimated lighting power density (LPD) of incumbent HID fixtures for greenhouse lighting is 10.7 W/ft2. With LED lighting, a 40% reduction in electricity consumption per square feet of grow area can be achieved. An overwhelming advantage of LED lighting is the ability to optimize of the spectral power distribution for the function of the light. The LED packages can be spectrally engineered to target the active spectrum of photosynthetic, photomorphological, photoperiodic, and phototropic photoreceptors. The SPD of an LED grow light can be actively controllable, which allows to provide a spectrum tailored to the optimal needs of specific plant species over the course of a plant’s life cycle. Last but not least, the digital nature of LED technology brings lighting, intelligence and networking together, allowing horticulture lighting systems to participate in smart farming enabled by the Internet of Things (IoT). Complement natural light with a precise spectrum Greenhouse LED grow lights may be designed with light engines that emit light in a wide spectral variety to meet the needs of specific cultivation environments and applications. The selection of spectral composition for greenhouse applications will depend on the particular plant being grown, stage of growth, geographic location of greenhouse, availability of natural daylight, and desired plant growth or development. Broad spectrum lighting with electromagnetic radiation spanning a wide range of wavelengths is generally used to supplement daylight when DLI is a major factor limiting plant production. The spectrum typically plays an emphasis on red and blue light and may expand beyond the photosynthetically active range of wavelengths, into the UV and far-red regions. Narrow band lighting is designed to stimulate specific plant photoreceptors for desired plant responses. The LEDs of the light engine are selected to emit photon colors that match the absorbance peaks of the desired plant photoreceptors. Chlorophyll photoreceptors tend to absorb red and blue light most strongly to drive photosynthesis and growth. Photons with a wavelength of 660–680 nm in the red waveband yield the highest photosynthetic productivity. While chlorophylls have their photosynthetic peaks in the red part of the visible light spectrum, red light alone is insufficient to achieve maximal yield from photosynthesis. Plants grown under the spectral combination of red and blue show a higher photosynthetic activity than that under either monochromatic light. Accessory pigments such as carotenoids play an important role in photosynthesis as they can assist in capturing light that chlorophyll does not absorb. The absorbance range of carotenoids covers UV and blue and extends into the green region (400–550 nm, peaking at around 470 nm). Another well-characterized function of carotenoids is to protect chlorophylls from photooxidation in high irradiance environments. Beyond driving photosynthesis The influence of the spectral composition of an LED grow light on plant is not only limited to growth. The development and physiology of plants are also strongly influenced by the particular spectrum of light they receive. Photomorphogenesis is controlled by phytochromes and cryptochromes. Phytochromes come in two isoforms which respond to 660 nm red and 735 nm infrared radiation respectively. The conversion between two isoforms is determined by the ratio of surrounding red and far-red light. Photomorphogenetic responses mediated by phytochromes are related to flowering induction, seed development, inhibition of hypocotyl elongation, apical hook straightening, leaf expansion, circadian rhythm entrainment, shade avoidance syndrome, and chlorophyll biosynthesis. The prevalence of one form or the other (R:FR spectral ratio) can stimulate or inhibit a number of developmental processes such as flowering induction, seed development, hypocotyl elongation, apical hook straightening, leaf expansion, shade avoidance syndrome, and chlorophyll biosynthesis. Phytochromes interact with and regulate cryptochromes, which most strongly absorb at 350 nm (UV-A) and 450 nm (blue). Cryptochromes are involved in the regulation of germination, hypocotyl elongation, pigment synthesis, photoperiodism (circadian rhythm entrainment), sensing of magnetic fields, normal chlorophyll and chloroplast development, and enzyme synthesis. Phototropins are also blue/UV-A absorbing pigments. These photoreceptors regulate stomatal aperture (opening and closing), phototropism (bending towards the light), chloroplast movement (photosynthetic organelles) within leaf cells, leaf flattening, and hypocotyl elongation. System design and engineering A greenhouse toplighting LED luminaire is a high output system that can produce a photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of up to 2500 μmol/s. It can take many forms, but often comes in a linear shape which minimizes blocking of sunlight. Modular design of linear luminaires allows for end-to-end installation or parallel configuration so that lighting can be easily adapted to any layout. The need for longevity from a lighting system runs parallel with the incentive to maximize energy efficiency in the horticulture lighting market. The longevity and efficiency of LEDs are achieved on the prerequisite that the LEDs are driven under the anticipated operating conditions. The high power architecture of greenhouse LED grow lights presents a litany of challenges to effectively mining the full potential of LED lighting. A holistic approach is necessary to ensure all subsystems of the luminaire are orchestrated to provide an optimal operating environment for the LEDs. Many of the performance variants that a high power LED grow light offer depend on the performance of the LEDs under operational and environmental stresses. For LEDs, their ability to perform under given conditions for a required period of time depends on the package platform they use. While chip-on-board (COB) and plastic-molded lead frame packages find their applications in high power LED systems, high power LED packages are currently the mainstream choice of light source for greenhouse toplighting applications. These ceramic-based semiconductor emitters have gained a reputation for excellent lumen maintenance and long-term reliability in high power density and high luminous intensity lighting applications. Chip-scale package (CSP) LEDs are finding their way into high power horticulture lighting applications. Built on a platform that removes as many of the packaging elements found in conventional LEDs as possible, these semiconductor packages have the lowest thermal resistance and this offer high drive current capability. Most LEDs, such as full spectrum white LEDs, and monochromatic green, cyan, blue and royal blue LEDs use indium gallium nitride (InGaN) chip technology. Red LEDs are currently fabricated from aluminum indium gallium phosphide (AlInGaP). When the LEDs are installed in a luminaire, their performance metrics and service life values are only valid provided that their p-n junction temperatures are controlled below the limit above which there is irreversible damage. Notwithstanding the impressive improvement in energy efficiency over more traditional light sources, 50 to 80% of the power fed to the LEDs are converted into heat. The external quantum efficiencies of red AlInGaP LEDs are only about 25%. While InGaN LEDs have external quantum efficiencies that exceed 60%, a significant portion of radiant energy is converted to heat in full spectrum white LED packages during wavelength conversion (phosphor down-conversion). Unlike HID lamps that dissipate most of thermal energy through infrared radiation, LEDs do not radiate heat. The heat generated within the semiconductor package must be dissipated through conduction and convection via a physical thermal path. The LED junction temperature is a function of the drive current, thermal path, and ambient temperature. While it’s necessary to exercise proper regulation of drive current, thermal management for LED grow lights revolves around minimizing the effective thermal resistance for every component along the thermal path. The high power LEDs are populated on a metal core printed circuit board (MCPCB) which incorporates a dielectric polymer layer with high thermal conductivity in its construction to reduce thermal resistance. Thermal interface resistance formed between the PCB and heat sink has taken into account. Thus, it is often required to use thermal interfacing material (TIM) that completely fills interfacial air gaps and voids and facilitates heat transfer between two mating surfaces. Most greenhouse LED lighting systems use passive heat sinks to dissipate heat, rather than fan-assisted or other active cooling systems. For a passive heat sink to handle the massive thermal load, its critical to maximize its maximizing material thermal conductivity and effective surface area. The heat sink is usually constructed from die cast, extruded, or cold forged aluminum. Different manufacturing processes lend aluminum heat sinks different thermal characteristics. The shape and geometry of a heat sink should be optimized as well to enhance convective thermal transfer. Drive current regulation An LED driver converts power supplied from an alternating current (AC) source to direct current (DC) power with forward voltage and current matched to the LED array. Typically, such transformation of AC electrical energy into DC electrical energy is accomplished by an intelligent, two-stage SMPS LED driver that implements an active PFC stage to provide a near unity power factor and a low total harmonic distortion (THD) across a wide input voltage range. A DC-DC converter then converts the pre-regulated DC power into a predetermined magnitude of DC power. This circuit configuration provides more efficient power conversion for high power LED systems and higher surge immunity than it is possible with a single-stage solution. The LED driver may be designed with multiple output channels which keep groups of LEDs on a circuit board operating independently of each other to stimulate specific plant photoreceptors. Protection features against overvoltage, overload, open- and short-load conditions, as well as intelligent overtemperature protection are also a part of the driver design. Lighting controls, which include various dimming and sensor technologies, may be used to operate the LEDs for further energy savings or advanced lighting capabilities.

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In 2012 the UK Government’s Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs and Environment Agency (DEFRA) produced a Climate Change Risk Assessment (CCRA) evaluating the main climate-related risks and opportunities in eleven sectors in the UK, over the course of the current century to 2100. The intention was that it will be used to identify priority areas for action and develop a national adaptation programme. This article summarises the main environmental and social consequences of climate change and the impact of key socio-economic factors as identified in the CCRA sector report on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services. This sector in particular was chosen for in-depth analysis since biodiversity is essential to human survival and well-being, through food production and energy security, as well as financial and social factors such as leisure, tourism, education, and cultural value placed on nature. Environmental consequences of climate change The CCRA identified thirteen major environmental risks resulting from the impact of climate change on biodiversity. The report outlines the current risk status, the potential impact of climate change on each risk factor, the implications for the ecosystem services sector, and the implications for adaptation. Here we outline the salient elements of each risk. It should be noted that the CCRA considers the risks of a changing climate in the UK only, not the risks to which the UK may be exposed from global climate-related events. There is likely to be an impact on the UK economy from climate-related disruption elsewhere in the world, for example, through international trade, supply chains, and migration. As yet, there is little research on the likelihood and potential impact of such events. Changes in soil moisture levels - Most habitats and species in the UK are adapted to a rather wet environment. Climate change forecasts expect moisture levels to decrease, so habitats that are sensitive to moisture levels will suffer if the climate becomes much drier. Reduction in function of loss of habitats could impact food production, water supply and quality, and use of land for tourism and leisure. Reduced soil moisture is also linked to increased risk of wildfires, and the vulnerability of species to pests and disease. Potential adaptations to this risk are highly species and site specific, such as developing new woodland areas and managing bog land, with no universal solution. Extreme flooding and coastline changes - A coastal environment is dynamic and with high biodiversity, supporting a wide range of species. Changes in sea level can change coastal habitats through erosion or sediment deposits, providing both risks and new opportunities to plant and animal species. Some coastal features also play an important role in protecting human settlements from flooding. Typically coastal changes occur over a long period of time but events such as storm surges and major flooding can lead to large-scale changes in a short period of time (although this is rare). Climate change is expected to lead to sea level rise and both loss of habitats and creation of new ones around the whole of the UK, with South West and East England worst affected. All studies project significant losses of coastal habitats, but since coastal land often provides leisure, landscape and tourism benefits, adapting and managing new coastal habitats could be cost-effective. Increased risk from pests, disease and invasive non-native species - These issues are interlinked and the risk is expected to increase due to climate change because many species are climate sensitive, and also because generally warmer winters provide a more conducive environment for nonnative species and pathogens. Most of the research to date has focussed on human health effects, but the risk also applies to broader biodiversity. There is already legislation to prevent the introduction of non-native species (either deliberate or accidental), which may displace existing species and lead to the introduction of new pests and diseases as well as disrupt agriculture. However, many have already been introduced in the UK and it is possible that a changing climate may favour non-native species to the detriment of native ones. Species unable to track changing climate space - Species distribution is often associated with a particular range of climate parameters, so changing climate is likely to shift their preferred habitat either geographically or in terms of size. Some species may not be able to find an available and suitable new habitat, leaving them vulnerable to extinction. In turn this reduces biodiversity and potentially the resilience of the local ecosystem. Human management of local ecosystems may be possible but the outcome is uncertain. Impact of climate mitigation programmes - This consequence is indirectly related to climate change, resulting from lead to a change in rainfall patterns, and indirectly impact the use of fertilisers in agriculture. The key challenge is to reduce pollution at its source. Changes in soil organic carbon - The organic content of soil influences the supply of nutrients and water to plants and the release of greenhouse gases. All components of soil are considered to be at risk from climate change, reducing the ability of the ecosystem to function. Land use change has been the biggest driver of changes in soil organic carbon in the UK and soil erosion is also a problem. While climate change may lead to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide which could potentially increase plant productivity, temperature increases are likely to increase biomass decomposition (reducing soil organic carbon) and the combination of drier summers and wetter winters to increase soil erosion. Adaptation responses should focus on protecting active peatlands that sequester large amounts of carbon. Changes in species migration pattterns - Many animals, especially birds, migrate to warmer climates in winter. Changing climates can therefore impact migration patterns. This may present both risks and opportunities to migratory species. Observations suggest that patterns are already changing, in terms of geography and timing, behaviour which itself might be considered an adaptation to climate change. However concern is that it may impact breeding patterns and successes. Increased water temperature - Aquatic species are generally highly sensitive to water temperatures, and the stratification of water bodies can also be impacted by climate chance, affecting the supply of oxygen and nutrients which in turn affects fish growth and viability. Adaptation possibilities include direct management of the local ecosystem through release of cooler water into stream and rivers, planting tree shade, and modifying stream topography, through there is limited evidence on whether this is likely to be effective. Impacts on water quality - Water pollution is a major source of damage to aquatic habitats. It can occur through human and agricultural waste deliberately or accidentally deposited in water bodies, and can be exacerbated by low rainfall. Climate change may lead to a change in rainfall patterns, and indirectly impact the use of fertilisers in agriculture. The key challenge is to reduce pollution at its source. Generalist species benefiting at the expense of specialists - Changing environments will benefit species that have less specific habitat requirements, possibly leading to an overall reduction in biodiversity. The magnitude of the effect from climate change will depend on the rate of change, since a rapid change makes it more difficult for a specialist species to adapt. Increased risk of wildfires - Hotter, drier summers, and reduced soil moisture as described above, lead to greater fire risk. This can result in habitat destruction and species extinction, as well as increased soil erosion and water pollution. In practice most wildfires are started by people, either deliberately or accidentally, hence active management of access and leisure is critical to adaptation. Reduced water quantity - A reduction in water supply due to climate change combined with an increase in demand for agricultural irrigation will have an impact on the ability of aquatic ecosystems to maintain and replenish. It is known that low water flows can lad to increases in pollution and nutrient concentrations. This can affect both wildlife and drinking water. The potential drying-up of watercourses also has implications for wider landscape amenity. While the impact of climate change on some species is already well understood, less is known about the interactions of different species and of habitat change. The inevitable impact of climate change on most ecosystems is exacerbated by human-driven factors such as land use change and pollution. Some ecosystems may prove resilient to some climate change impacts, but the evidence suggests that most need to be supported by a planned adaptation response if irreversible changes to ecosystems are to be prevented. Many of these issues described above are not unique to biodiversity and ecosystems services. Those that are particularly interdependent with other sectors include floods and coastal erosion, water quality and availability, land use change, pollution and invasive species. In addition the CCRA outlines several social consequences: - Many diseases affecting people are also found in animal and plant habitats. A rise in pests and disease may have an impact on human health. - Much of the UK’s natural environment and landscape is a great cultural and tourism asset; protecting it will have benefits for cultural wellbeing and the economy. Governance and regulation - Many ecosystems are already partly managed and will need human intervention to adapt to a changing climate, organised on a sufficiently broad scale. - The ability to adapt will depend on public perception and willingness; including changes in the way we view the value of natural assets and non-market goods in economic assessments. Socio-economic factors contributing to climate change risks Six key socio-economic drivers were identified within the CCRA and their impact on biodiversity considered: - Changes in the size and distribution of populations and related social pressure in the form of, for example, housing and education. This is believed to impact all biodiversity risks such as soil changes, species behaviour, water quality, and in particular increased risk from pests and diseases. - Events such as war, natural disasters and economic crises can affect global stability, with less stability associated with a high degree of pressure on governments. Its impact on biodiversity is less significant than some of the other socio-economic factors, and seen mainly in increased risk from pests and diseases through international trade, climate mitigation programmes, and changes in species’ migration patterns through local conditions at the breeding or winter sites or along migration routes. Distribution of wealth - Distribution of wealth affects and can be affected by changes in coastal land use as a result of sea level rises, since coastal land provides a number of ecosystem services such as tourism, recreation and food production. Climate mitigation programmes can also be influenced and in sensitive areas there is increased risk of wildfire with increases human leisure use, and an impact on water availability as demand goes up. - The direction of change in consumer values towards either wealth generation and material goods, or towards leisure and a focus on non-market goods and services such as conservation, affects many areas of biodiversity especially an increased risk from pests and disease through greater global trade in increasingly “exotic” goods. Local versus national government decision-making - Local versus national government decision-making is likely to impact all biodiversity risks but in particular climate mitigation measures, which are strongly influenced by public perception, such as developing an energy strategy and use of renewable energy, Urbanisation versus rural development strongly affects many areas of biodiversity including species behaviour and soil changes through land use change, and water quality and availability through increasing demand for irrigation water versus water for consumption. Human well-being is inextricably linked with the environment, in often complex way. Some human populations are particularly vulnerable to the effects of natural hazards, changes to the clean water supply, or disruption to primary industries such as agriculture through climate change. In addition, the cultural benefits of the environment, such leisure and well-being, can also be lost through changes to the environment. Download the issue RI Quarterly Vol. 3: Long-termism in financial markets

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Japanese kamikaze pilots struck fear in the hearts of allied troops as they conducted choreographed nose-dives right into U.S. ships during World War II’s Pacific fight. Although the act proved costly for both sides, the Japanese were determined to take out as many Americans as they could in their quest for victory. Reportedly, the first kamikaze operation of WWII occurred during the Battle of the Leyte Gulf in the Philippines. After a mission had been planned out, the pilots of the Japanese “Special Attack Corps” received a slip of paper with three options: to volunteer out of a strong desire, to simply volunteer, or to decline. On Apr. 11, 1945, just 10 days into the battle of Okinawa, a Japanese kamikaze pilot reportedly named Setsuo Ishino began his final mission at the young age of 19. Ishino flew with 15 other pilots on their mission to directly nose dive into the USS Missouri — known as the Mighty Mo — and kill as many Americans as possible. Around noon, the Mighty Mo spotted the inbound aircraft on their radar and fired their massive anti-aircraft weapons in defense. The well-equipped battleship nailed Ishino’s plane, but somehow the motivated pilot regained control of his fighter and managed to crash into the USS Missouri, causing hot debris to rain all over the deck. The surviving crew cleared the wreckage and discovered Ishino’s dead body inside the plane. The deckhands planned on tossing the Japanese pilot overboard until Capt. William M. Callaghan, Missouri’s commanding officer ordered his men to render the enemy a proper burial. While not unheard of, there really wasn’t a precedent for rendering military funeral honors for an enemy. Nonetheless, the ship’s medical staff prepared Ishino’s body, respectfully wrapping him up in his flag. As the lifeless body slid overboard, the crew members saluted and the Marines fired their weapons toward the sky, giving the Japanese kamikaze pilot full military honors. Humanity can still be found in war.

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At Woodridge, we value reading as a key life skill and are dedicated to enabling our pupils to become lifelong readers with a love for stories, vivid imagination and a thirst for knowledge. Teachers use a variety of strategies to ensure pupils are receptive and engaged with the fundamental skills and competencies of reading. Shared reading sessions allow children have the opportunity to develop reading strategies, comprehension and discuss texts in detail, forming personal opinions. Additionally, independent reading provides time for building fluency and stamina, assessment and one-to-one teaching. All pupils have access to books from their class book corners, the school library, and the Barnet School Library Service. Pupils are encouraged to access a range of genres, including fiction, non-fiction, poetry, newspapers and biographies, whilst at school and at home. We encourage our children to become enthused and excited by reading, through the whole school celebration of focused days/weeks (World Book Day/Author weeks) and through assemblies. In EYFS and KS1, Phonics is taught on a daily basis following Letters and Sounds which is enhanced with elements of Phonics Play, Espresso and Twinkl phonics. For reading, we use the Oxford Reading Tree scheme. Children read individually with a teacher weekly and are sent home with books linked to the letter sound they are learning and appropriate to their ability. Progress is recorded in reading journals which are completed by both school staff and parents. At Key Stage 1, guided reading takes place daily for thirty minutes using a carousel approach, with adults reading with children at least once a week, with weaker readers being heard more regularly. Volunteer readers also support children and guided reading records are used to make a link between home and school reading. For pupils at an early Key Stage 1 phase, teaching will be mainly focused on establishing and developing phonic skills, vocabulary and a basic understanding of content meaning in a group environment. Pupils at a later Key Stage 1 phase will continue developing these skills whilst taking on more complex words, grammar and texts. Pupils are increasingly encouraged to read independently at allocated times to help develop an enjoyment of reading. At Key Stage 2, guided reading is carried out four times a week for thirty minutes as a whole class. Texts are selected from a variety of sources, including suggestions from the Power of Reading and Literacy Shed. The format includes modelling reading to support fluency and expression, activating background knowledge, shared close reading and an independent activity. Guided reading is also supported by independent reading to build fluency and stamina. In lower Key Stage 2, the emphasis is more on comprehension than word reading but pupils increase their understanding of different and more complex words. Greater independence allows the development of attitudes and understanding of what they read. Upper key stage 2 focus on diversifying their reading repertoire to multiple text types and styles. Alongside independent silent reading, group discussions takes place so pupils can share opinions on what they have read. Children not reaching ARE continue to use guided reading records to monitor their progress and are supported by their teacher, TAs and volunteer readers. Archie the dog also visits once a week for children who need support, a confidence boost or just a friendly face to read to! At the end of each day, every class listens to the teacher reading their class book. This could be linked to their topic or selected by pupil vote. This time is highly valued by both staff and children, as it provides another opportunity for children to access high quality books potentially from a genre unfamiliar to them and enables a shared experience. Through the teaching of systematic phonics, our aim is for children to become fluent readers by the end of Key Stage One. This way, children can focus on developing their fluency and comprehension as they move through the school. Attainment in phonics is measured by the Phonics Screening Test at the end of Year 1. Attainment in reading is measured using the statutory assessments at the end of Key Stage One and Two. These results are measured against the reading attainment of children nationally and are used internally to adapt teaching and tailor support where needed. Teachers in Years 1 to 6 measure progress in reading half termly, through a combination of summative and formative assessments. Shared reading, targeted questioning, independent activities and more formal tests, such as Rising Stars, are used to assess and then results are fed back at termly Pupil Progress Meetings. This information then leads to changes in strategy, teaching and intervention support. We firmly believe that reading is the key to all learning and so the impact of our reading curriculum goes beyond the results of the statutory assessments. We promote reading for pleasure as part of our reading curriculum and aim to give all children the opportunity to enter the magical worlds that books open up to them. Children are encouraged to develop their own love of genres and authors and to review their books objectively. This enhances a deep love of literature across a range of genres, cultures and styles. English Subject Leader - Miss Laura Monro

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https://www.woodridgeprimaryschool.com/reading/

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The online Financial Times Deutschland reports that a British team of astronomers, led by Jane Greaves of the University of St. Andrews in Scotland, have found strong evidence of global warming of Pluto’s atmosphere using the 15-meter James Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii. They also detected carbon monoxide in its atmosphere. The researchers also say that new findings show that Pluto’s atmosphere extends to more than 1860 miles (3000 km) above the surface – or a quarter of the distance out to its largest moon, Charon. Before it was thought to be only 100 km thick. Greaves will present the new discovery today at the Royal Astronomical Society’s National Astronomy Meeting in Wales. Pluto’s atmosphere appears to have expanded due to warming. Greaves says: The change in brightness over the last decade is startling. We think the atmosphere may have grown in size, or the carbon monoxide abundance may have been boosted.” The Financial Times writes;. Pluto’s extremely low density atmosphere has a fragile balance made up of the coolant carbon monoxide and the greenhouse gas methane. It is probably the most sensitive in the solar system, Greaves said.” The far away dwarf planet is probably currently experiencing climate change, said Greaves. ‘We believe that the expansion of the atmosphere has grown. in 1989 Pluto passed its closest point to the sun in its orbit. Probably the stronger solar radiation vapourised additional ice and the atmosphere expanded.” In the new study, scientists found that the carbon monoxide gas on Pluto is extremely cold, at about minus 364°F (-220°C ). ‘This simple, very cold atmosphere, which is greatly influenced by the sun’s warmth, could give us important information on the fundamental physical interactions and thus a better understanding of the earth’s atmosphere,’ Greaves said.” Yeah – like the sun plays the major role on atmospheric behaviour and climate, even when it is 3 billion miles away (the earth is only 93 million miles away) and that everything else, like oceans and atmospheres, reacts to its changes and orbital changes.

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By Dr. Sebastian Lüning and Prof. Fritz Vahrenholt (German text translated/edited by P Gosselin) Today’s topic: Sea level rise around Africa. There the sea level is rising there like anywhere else. Already during the last warm phase, the Medieval Warm Period (WMP), sea level rose. That makes sense because during the warm phases ice melts at the poles and high mountains glaciers. But what was the case during the Little Ice Age as the glaciers expanded? There aren’t any tide guage measurements from this time, but geological reconstructions have been carried out. And lo and behold, the south coast of Africa saw sea level drop during the Little Ice Age. See Scott & Lee-Thorpe 2004: There is good evidence for a number of environmental shifts during the last 2000 years, but the most noteworthy event may be the climatic fluctuation during the Little Ice Age (LIA) period. Evidence for a lower sea level on the southern coast during its earlier phase (1520 or 1570 AD) may be a reflection of widespread anomalous conditions during this phase (Marker 1997).” Also on the west coast of South Africa we find a small surprise. Five thousand years ago sea levels were 3 meters higher than they are today. This is nicely documented by Carr et al. 2015 in their Figure 7: Sea level of the west coast of South Africa during the past 9000 years (BP=years before present). The solid curve applies here (not the dashed line). Source: Carr et al. 2015. Next let’s move northeast to Mozambique. There scientists Achimo and colleagues, find that Maputo Bay already reached today’s levels 5000-7000 years ago: The complete picture of Maputo Bay patterns with its modern sedimentary environments including Inhaca Island may have evolved when the sea level has stood close to its present level around 7000 – 5000 years BP, after which the Maputo Bay became more or less stable.” A sea level drop between 800-1300 A.D. at Mozambique was documented in Sitoe et al. 2017 (see their Fig. 5). Sea level rose again gradually after the year 1300 A,D, but hasn’t reached by any measure the level seen in 800 A.D. Follow NTZ at Twitter

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In its simplest form, the definition of a table is simply a list of the columns that the table contains with their respective datatypes. The following statement could therefore be used to create the table STUDENT: 1 2 3 4 5 6 Notice that each column definition consists of the column name and datatype and that the list is separated by commas. When writing DDL statements, it is useful to lay them out like the example so that they can be read easily. This helps to avoid simple mistakes like forgetting the comma between two columns or missing out the final bracket. In this example, we can store first and last names of up to 20 characters each. If we discover that this is not sufficient, the table definition can be altered using a statement like the following: The ALTER TABLE statement can be used to make other changes to the table definition besides changing column datatypes. There are certain occasions where this is useful, and some of them will be illustrated in this week's practical exercises. However, in many cases it is quicker to remove the table and create it again with an updated definition. A table can be removed using a statement such as: Each of these statements can be used with further optional clauses which modify their behaviour. A full description of their syntax can be found in the Oracle SQL Language Reference.

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https://bdavison.napier.ac.uk/db/Notes/DDL_DML/tables/

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Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) are handy programming tools for describing how one program can access the functionality of another. In many cases, an API might manifest as the definition of a subroutine call, describing how to reference the subroutine (for example, its name) and what parameters the subroutine is expecting and in what format, and the nature and format of any returned parameters resulting from invoking the subroutine call. It is common for libraries of subroutines to be created and APIs to them standardized so that programmers using the library can exercise the functionality of the subroutines at need. Interestingly, the standardization of the APIs can lead to the property that a collection of software that relies on the library subroutines might run successfully on more than one, independently programmed library, as long as the APIs used are the same (that is, refer to the same names and use the same parametric specifications). This aspect of APIs leads to the same kind of interoperability that the Internet Protocol has provided in the Internet. Many protocols that lie above the IP layer (for example, transmission control protocol, user datagram protocol, real-time protocol) can make use of a substantial array of alternative underlying network technologies (for example, Ethernet, multiprotocol label switching, asynchronous transfer mode switches, software-defined networks, frame relay, point-to-point radio, laser links, and so on) without knowing anything about how these underlying layers work. They "see" the Internet through the lens of the standard Internet Protocol with its standard packet format and its addressing structure. The Internet Protocol is sometimes referred to as the narrow waist of the Internet Protocol architecture. Think of an hourglass with a narrow waist. Above are all the protocols that are encapsulated in standard Internet Protocol packets and below are all the possible carriers of the IP packets. An API has a similar property. Any number of programs can be written that call upon the functionality of the libraries or operating system functions referenced by the APIs. More than one library or operating system can be programmed to behave in accordance with the standardized APIs. The commonality of the API enables the alternative implementation of operating systems and libraries, permitting "mixing and matching" of the application programs and the independently produced libraries or operating systems supporting them. The widespread sharing of common or standardized APIs confers rich opportunities for choices of operating system or library implementations for the programming of applications. Underlying hardware, library, and operating system implementations can host the same application software on a wide range of platforms. The investment in platform, operating system, and library software can yield widespread benefits to the application programs that can run on any of them. Applications don't have to be rewritten and users benefit from enhanced choices. Widely used programming languages often define common subroutines to make programming more efficient. Programmers do not have to create all new subroutines for common functions, rather, they can refer to the common functions using common APIs. For this benefit to be widely realized and to avoid having to reprogram applications to refer to the same functions by different names and formats, adoption of standardized APIs induces portability of applications to run on multiple platforms. Of course, these same programming languages typically also allow programmers to define their own, idiosyncratic subroutines for functions that may be unique to a particular application. The availability of common libraries referenced by a common set of APIs also has the benefit that the common libraries may receive additional scrutiny for reliability and security owing to widespread use. But the standard APIs also allow for distinctly programmed libraries or operating system functions that are matched to the underlying hardware platform and its peculiarities and capabilities that are invoked by a common set of APIs or system calls. A powerful example of standardization is the so-called Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX)a standardized by the IEEE. Innumerable applications intended to run in the UNIX operating system environment can be made to run on many variations of UNIX that implement the POSIX API. This is but one of many examples of the powerful, enabling effect of adopting common APIs with standardized reference names and parametric format. The Digital Library is published by the Association for Computing Machinery. Copyright © 2019 ACM, Inc. No entries found

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This course will help you understand how 3D printing is being applied across a number of domains, including design, manufacturing, and retailing. It will also demonstrate the special capabilities of 3D printing such as customization, self-assembly, and the ability to print complex objects. In addition to business applications, this course will also examine how individuals, including those in developing countries, are using this technology to create solutions to the problems they face. This course will also provide an overview of design thinking and how you can use this framework to develop ideas that can be turned into objects. Learners who complete this course will obtain a rich understanding of the capabilities of 3D printing and how to think about designing objects for this new technology.

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The cell scaffolding holds muscle fibers together and protects them from damage. Individuals who suffer from muscular dystrophy often lack essential components in this cell scaffold. As a result, their muscles lack strength and become progressively weaker. The research team of Prof. Markus Rüegg at the Biozentrum, University of Basel, has now designed two proteins that stabilize the cell scaffolding link it to the muscle fiber and thereby restore muscle structure and function. Their findings are published in the current issue of Science Translational Medicine. Muscular dystrophy is a term used to describe many different muscular diseases caused by genetic defects. To date, there are no treatments available to stop disease progression. In their study, the scientists led by Prof. Markus Rüegg have investigated a specific type of muscular dystrophy, called congenital muscular dystrophy. In an animal model, they demonstrated for the first time that two proteins designed by the researchers not only recover muscle force and increase body weight in the sick animals but also significantly prolong survival. Severe impairments due to congenital muscular dystrophy Congenital muscular dystrophy is a rare and severe form of a muscular dystrophy that presents at birth or during infancy. “The children born with this disease are also called ? because of the poor muscle tone and weakness,” says Judith Reinhard, first author of the study. “The disease becomes more severe with increasing age, as the muscle wasting progresses.” Affected children are often unable to walk independently or they lose this ability with age. The respiratory muscles are also affected. The lifespan is often short and many patients die before reaching adulthood. Defective gene – defective cell scaffolding This form of muscular dystrophy results from a genetic defect in laminin-α2. This protein is a key component of the cell scaffolding and connects it with the inner part of the muscle fiber, ensuring the stability of the tissue. Consequently, as a result of gene defects in laminin-α2 the muscles are extremely unstable and even normal use of the muscles leads to muscle injuries, inflammation and finally to the degeneration of muscle fibers. In these diseased muscles, which are unable to produce laminin-α2, another laminin takes over. This protein, called laminin-α4, however, is only a poor replacement because it is not well integrated into the cell scaffolding. Proteins anchor cell scaffolding and stabilize muscle fibers The researchers designed two proteins that allow the integration of laminin-α4 and anchor it to the muscle cell. “Using these linkers, we were able to stabilize the muscle fibers,” explains Rüegg. “When animals with a laminin-α2 defect express the two linkers, there was a significant improvement in muscle structure and force and an increase in body weight. We were particularly pleased to observe that these animals also had an almost normal lifespan. Some of them even survived their healthy siblings.” Furthermore, the scientists examined muscle biopsies of patients with congenital muscular dystrophy. They found very similar structural defects and laminin-α4 was also found in place of laminin-α2 in the diseased muscle fibers. “Both of the designed linker proteins may possibly be used in the future as a gene therapy treatment for congenital muscular dystrophy,” says Rüegg. “Our study is a nice example of how the understanding of a disease on the molecular and cellular level results in new therapeutic options. We are now interested in whether these linker proteins also improve muscle function as well as affect survival in advanced stages of congenital muscular dystrophy.” Source: Katrin Buehler – University of Basel Image Source: NeuroscienceNews.com image is credited to University of Basel, Biozentrum. Original Research: Abstract for “Linker proteins restore basement membrane and correct LAMA2-related muscular dystrophy in mice” by Judith R. Reinhard, Shuo Lin, Karen K. McKee, Sarina Meinen, Stephanie C. Crosson, Maurizio Sury, Samantha Hobbs, Geraldine Maier, Peter D. Yurchenco and Markus A. Rüegg in Science Translational Medicine. Published online June 28 2017 doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aal4649

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Our world continues to navigate the physical, emotional, social, and economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. Everyday life has been affected in unique and unexpected ways. It is overwhelming at times, especially with an added concern about contracting the virus. COVID-19 is a new strain. There are many unknowns, no proven cure, medication, or vaccination. What if there was a powerful task force assigned to hunt down disease, bacteria, and viruses? Good news! This task force exists inside the human body. It is called the immune system, a balanced network of cells and organs that defend the body against disease. It fights threats like viruses or bacteria with proteins called antibodies that destroy abnormal or foreign particles. This worldwide pandemic has clearly demonstrated the importance of prioritizing health and wellness. There are several natural lifestyle choices that strengthen and support the immune system. COVID-19 has disrupted daily routines, including jobs. Many individuals, not in essential positions or facing unemployment, have found themselves working from home to stop the spread of infectious disease. It is not just working from home, but living at work. This makes it particularly tricky to balance work and rest. When the bedroom suddenly doubles as a home office, it can be difficult to sleep. Adequate sleep is key to a healthy immune system! Studies show that a lack of sleep can weaken immunity and increase susceptibility to infection. Healthy adults need 7—9 hours of sleep each night. Prioritize sleep by following a consistent sleep schedule, implementing a peaceful bedtime routine, and creating a restful environment without electronics. Exercise has numerous benefits, such as decreasing heart disease, strengthening bones, and reducing stress. In addition, research suggests that moderate exercise increases immunity and decreases illness. Moderate physical activity does not mean training for a marathon or intense weight lifting. It is as simple as bike riding a few times a week or taking a 30-minute walk daily. There are several sports that comply with social distancing guidelines, such as tennis, golf, or badminton. Bonus points if physical activity gets you outside during quarantine! Get Outside and Get Vitamin D Vitamin D is often associated with musculoskeletal health because it is key to bone growth and maintenance. However, did you know that vitamin D plays an important role in immune function? Research shows that vitamin D activates the cells that discover and destroy pathogens. Deficiency in vitamin D is shown to increase vulnerability to infection. There are several sources of vitamin D, such as food, supplements, and sunshine. Sunshine is available to everyone for free! The skin manufactures vitamin D when exposed to the sun. David J. Leffell, MD, chief of Dermatologic Surgery at Yale Medicine explains, “We each have vitamin D receptor cells that…produce vitamin D3 when they’re exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) from the sun.” Furthermore, spending time outside breaks up the monotony of staying home. Reduce Sugar Intake Everyone is spending more time at home, which might result in frequent trips to the pantry. Take stock of the items on the shelf. Is there a lot of processed food containing sugar? Research shows that sugar affects the way white blood cells attack bacteria. Consuming 75-100 grams, the equivalent of just two cans of soda, can inhibit the immune system. Replace sweet treats with whole foods! Eat Whole Foods The sugars found in fruit can give the body the boost you are seeking. Unlike processed foods, whole foods contain fiber, vitamins, and nutrients. Nourishing the body with healthy foods will help the immune system protect against illness. The food we put in our bodies is important, just like the mask we put on our face. Stay tuned for an upcoming post on immune boosting whole foods! The purpose of this article is to compliment, not replace, CDC guidelines. The content in this post is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health providers with any questions concerning medical conditions.

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|Born||c. 446 BCE| |Died||c. 366 BCE (aged approximately 80)| |Era||Ancient Greek philosophy| |Asceticism, ethics, language, literature, logic| |Laying the foundations of Cynic philosophy| Distinction between sense and reference Antisthenes (//; Greek: Ἀντισθένης; c. 446 – c. 366 BCE) was a Greek philosopher and a pupil of Socrates. Antisthenes first learned rhetoric under Gorgias before becoming an ardent disciple of Socrates. He adopted and developed the ethical side of Socrates's teachings, advocating an ascetic life lived in accordance with virtue. Later writers regarded him as the founder of Cynic philosophy. Antisthenes was born c. 445 BCE, the son of Antisthenes, an Athenian. His mother was thought to have been a Thracian, though some say a Phrygian, an opinion probably derived from his sarcastic reply to a man who reviled him as not being a genuine Athenian citizen, that the mother of the gods was a Phrygian (referring to Cybele, the Anatolian counterpart of the Greek goddess Rhea). In his youth he fought at Tanagra (426 BCE), and was a disciple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates; so eager was he to hear the words of Socrates that he used to walk daily from the port of Peiraeus to Athens (about 9 kilometres), and persuaded his friends to accompany him. Eventually he was present at Socrates's death. He never forgave his master's persecutors, and is said to have been instrumental in procuring their punishment. He survived the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE), as he is reported to have compared the victory of the Thebans to a set of schoolboys beating their master. Although Eudokia Makrembolitissa supposedly tells us that he died at the age of 70, he was apparently still alive in 366 BCE, and he must have been nearer to 80 years old when he died at Athens, c. 365 BCE. He is said to have lectured at the Cynosarges, a gymnasium for the use of Athenians born of foreign mothers, near the temple of Heracles. Filled with enthusiasm for the Socratic idea of virtue, he founded a school of his own in the Cynosarges, where he attracted the poorer classes by the simplicity of his life and teaching. He wore a cloak and carried a staff and a wallet, and this costume became the uniform of his followers. Diogenes Laërtius says that his works filled ten volumes, but of these, only fragments remain. His favourite style seems to have been dialogues, some of them being vehement attacks on his contemporaries, as on Alcibiades in the second of his two works entitled Cyrus, on Gorgias in his Archelaus and on Plato in his Satho. His style was pure and elegant, and Theopompus even said that Plato stole from him many of his thoughts. Cicero, after reading some works by Antisthenes, found his works pleasing and called him "a man more intelligent than learned". He possessed considerable powers of wit and sarcasm, and was fond of playing upon words; saying, for instance, that he would rather fall among crows (korakes) than flatterers (kolakes), for the one devour the dead, but the other the living. Two declamations have survived, named Ajax and Odysseus, which are purely rhetorical. According to Diogenes Laertius In his Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers Diogenes Laertius lists the following as the favorite themes of Antisthenes: "He would prove that virtue can be taught; and that nobility belongs to none other than the virtuous. And he held virtue to be sufficient in itself to ensure happiness, since it needed nothing else except the strength of spirit. And he maintained that virtue is an affair of deeds and does not need a store of words or learning; that the wise man is self-sufficing, for all the goods of others are his; that ill repute is a good thing and much the same as pain; that the wise man will be guided in his public acts not by the established laws but by the law of virtue; that he will also marry in order to have children from union with the handsomest women; furthermore that he will not disdain to love, for only the wise man knows who are worthy to be loved". Antisthenes was a pupil of Socrates, from whom he imbibed the fundamental ethical precept that virtue, not pleasure, is the end of existence. Everything that the wise person does, Antisthenes said, conforms to perfect virtue, and pleasure is not only unnecessary, but a positive evil. He is reported to have held pain and even ill-repute (Greek: ἀδοξία) to be blessings, and he said, "I'd rather be mad than feel pleasure". However, it is probable that he did not consider all pleasure worthless, but only that which results from the gratification of sensual or artificial desires, for we find him praising the pleasures which spring "from out of one's soul," and the enjoyments of a wisely chosen friendship. The supreme good he placed in a life lived according to virtue — virtue consisting in action, which when obtained is never lost, and exempts the wise person from error. It is closely connected with reason, but to enable it to develop itself in action, and to be sufficient for happiness, it requires the aid of Socratic strength (Greek: Σωκρατικὴ ἱσχύς). His work on natural philosophy (the Physicus) contained a theory of the nature of the gods, in which he argued that there were many gods believed in by the people, but only one natural God. He also said that God resembles nothing on earth, and therefore could not be understood from any representation. In logic, Antisthenes was troubled by the problem of universals. As a proper nominalist, he held that definition and predication are either false or tautological, since we can only say that every individual is what it is, and can give no more than a description of its qualities, e.g. that silver is like tin in colour. Thus, he disbelieved the Platonic system of Ideas. "A horse I can see," said Antisthenes, "but horsehood I cannot see". Definition is merely a circuitous method of stating an identity: "a tree is a vegetable growth" is logically no more than "a tree is a tree". Philosophy of language Antisthenes apparently distinguished "a general object that can be aligned with the meaning of the utterance" from "a particular object of extensional reference." This "suggests that he makes a distinction between sense and reference." The principal basis of this claim is a quotation in Alexander of Aphrodisias's “Comments on Aristotle's 'Topics'” with a three-way distinction: - the semantic medium, δι' ὧν λέγουσι - an object external to the semantic medium, περὶ οὗ λέγουσιν - the direct indication of a thing, σημαίνειν … τὸ …} Antisthenes and the Cynics In later times Antisthenes came to be seen as the founder of the Cynics, but it is by no means certain that he would have recognized the term. Aristotle, writing a generation later refers several times to Antisthenes and his followers "the Antistheneans," but makes no reference to Cynicism. There are many later tales about the infamous Cynic Diogenes of Sinope dogging Antisthenes's footsteps and becoming his faithful hound, but it is similarly uncertain that the two men ever met. Some scholars, drawing on the discovery of defaced coins from Sinope dating from the period 350–340 BCE, believe that Diogenes only moved to Athens after the death of Antisthenes, and it has been argued that the stories linking Antisthenes to Diogenes were invented by the Stoics in a later period in order to provide a succession linking Socrates to Zeno via Antisthenes, Diogenes, and Crates. These tales were important to the Stoics for establishing a chain of teaching that ran from Socrates to Zeno. Others argue that the evidence from the coins is weak, and thus Diogenes could have moved to Athens well before 340 BCE. It is also possible that Diogenes visited Athens and Antisthenes before his exile, and returned to Sinope. Antisthenes certainly adopted a rigorous ascetic lifestyle, and he developed many of the principles of Cynic philosophy which became an inspiration for Diogenes and later Cynics. It was said that he had laid the foundations of the city which they afterwards built. - Luz, Menahem (2019). "Antisthenes' Portrayal of Socrates" from "Brill's Companion to the Reception of Socrates". Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 124. ISBN 978-90-04-39674-6. - Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter James; Hartman, James; Setter, Jane, eds. (2006). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (17th ed.). Cambridge UP. - Suda, Antisthenes.; Laërtius 1925, § 1. - "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology — Antisthenes". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Archived from the original on 2021-05-31. Retrieved 2021-08-10. - "CYBELE (Kybele) - Phrygian Goddess, Mother of the Gods". www.theoi.com. Retrieved 2021-08-10. - public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antisthenes". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 146. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the - Plato, Phaedo, 59b. - Laërtius 1925, § 9. - Plutarch, Lycurgus, 30. - Eudocia, Violarium, 96 - Diodorus Siculus, xv. 76.4 - Laërtius 1925, § 13. - Athenaeus, v. 220c-e - Athenaeus, xi. 508c-d - "Κῦρος δ᾽, ε᾽ mihi sic placuit ut cetera Antisthenis, hominis acuti magis quam eruditi". Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticum, Book XII, Letter 38, section 2. In English translation: "Books four (δ᾽) and five (ε᾽) of Cyrus I found as pleasing as the others composed by Antisthenes, he is a man who is sharp rather than learned". - Laërtius 1925, § 4. - Prince, Susan (Dept. of Classics, University of Colorado, Boulder). "Review of LE. Navia - Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright". Bryn Mawr Classical Review. Retrieved 6 August 2017. — Navia, Luis E. (2001). Antisthenes of Athens: Setting the World Aright. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. xii, 176. ISBN 0-313-31672-4. - Magill, Frank N. (2003). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography. Routledge. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-135-45740-2. - Judge, Harry George; Blake, Robert (1988). World history. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-19-869135-8. - Laërtius 1925, § 10. - Laërtius 1925, § 11. - Julian, Oration, 6.181b - Laërtius 1925, § 3, 7. - Laërtius 1925, § 3. - Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 41. - Laërtius 1925, § 12. - Laërtius 1925, § 11–12, 104–105. - Cicero, De Natura Deorum, i. 13. - Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, v. - Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1043b24 - Simplicius, in Arist. Cat. 208, 28 - Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press. p. 20 - Prince 2015, pp. 518–522 (Antisthenes's literary remains: t. 153B.1). - Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1024b26; Rhetoric, 1407a9; Topics, 104b21; Politics, 1284a15 - Long 1996, page 32 - Laërtius 1925, § 6, 18, 21; Dio Chrysostom, Orations, viii. 1–4; Aelian, x. 16; Stobaeus, Florilegium, 13.19 - Long 1996, page 45 - Dudley 1937, pages 2-4 - Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, page 100 - Navia, Diogenes the Cynic, pages 34, 112-3 - Xenophon, Symposium, iv. 34–44. - Laërtius 1925, § 15. - Brancacci, Aldo. Oikeios logos. La filosofia del linguaggio di Antistene, Napoli: Bibliopolis, 1990 (fr. tr. Antisthène, Le discours propre, Paris, Vrin, 2005) - Dudley, Donald R. (1937), A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century A.D.. Cambridge - Laërtius, Diogenes (1925). . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:6. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library. § 1–19. - Long, A. A. (1996), "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics", in Bracht Branham, R.; Goulet-Caze Marie-Odile, The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21645-8 - Luis E. Navia, (2005). Diogenes The Cynic: The War Against The World. Humanity Books. ISBN 1-59102-320-3 - Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press. p. 20. - Branham, R. Bracht; Cazé, Marie-Odile Goulet, eds. (1996). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Berkeley: University of California Press. - Fuentes González, Pedro Pablo (2013). "En defensa del encuentro entre dos Perros, Antístenes y Diógenes: historia de una tensa amistad". Cuadernos de Filología Clásica: Estudios Griegos e Indoeuropeos. 23: 225–267 (reprint in: V. Suvák [ed.], Antisthenica Cynica Socratica, Praha: Oikoumene, 2014, p. 11–71). - Guthrie, William Keith Chambers (1969). The Fifth-Century Enlightenment. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 3. London: Cambridge University Press. - Navia, Luis E. (1996). Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. - Navia, Luis E. (1995). The Philosophy of Cynicism An Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. - Prince, Susan (2015). Antisthenes of Athens: Texts, Translations, and Commentary. University of Michigan Press. - Rankin, H. D. (1986). Anthisthenes Sokratikos. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert. ISBN 90-256-0896-5. - Rankin, H. D. (1983). Sophists, Socratics, and Cynics. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9780389204213. - Sayre, Farrand (1948). "Antisthenes the Socratic". The Classical Journal. 43: 237–244.

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Introduction: What Is a Letter to a Representative? A letter to a representative is a formal document sent to a politician or public official to express an opinion, seek advice, or make a request. It is one of the most effective ways to make your voice heard and ensure your views are considered when the representative makes decisions. Letters to representatives can be written to express an opinion on a particular issue, to request answers to specific questions, or to request action on a particular case. Writing a letter to a representative is an important way for citizens to communicate with their elected officials. Remember that representatives often receive hundreds of letters a week, so it is essential to ensure that your letter stands out from the crowd. Here are some tips to ensure that your letter is practical and will be taken seriously: 1. Do your research: Before writing a letter to a representative, you must become familiar with the issue you are writing about. Make sure that you have a clear understanding of the issue and the position of the representative. You can do this by researching online, talking to knowledgeable people, and attending local meetings or hearings related to the issue. 2. Use a professional tone: While your letter should be personal and expressive, it is essential to maintain a professional manner. Avoid using slang, offensive language, or inflammatory rhetoric. Stick to the facts and be clear and concise in your writing. 3. Make it personal: Include personal stories about why the issue is important to you or how it will affect you or your community. This will make your letter more persuasive and memorable. 4. Keep it short: Your letter should be one-page maximum. Keep it concise and to the point. 5. Use official letterhead: If you are writing from an organization or company, use official letterhead. This will add credibility to your letter. 6. Include your contact information: Include your name, address, phone number, and email address at the end of the letter. This will allow the representative to contact you if they have any questions or need more information. 7. Follow-up: It is essential to follow up with the representative to ensure that they receive your letter and that it is taken seriously. Writing a letter to a representative effectively makes your voice heard and ensures that your views are considered. Following these tips ensures that your letter is effective and stands out from the crowd. Preparing to Write: Researching Your Representative Suppose you have decided to write your local representative to express your opinion on a particular issue. In that case, ensuring that you are writing to the correct person and that you have the facts to support your argument is essential. Before you start writing, you need to do your research. Begin by finding out who your local representative is. You can do this by visiting your local civic center, calling your county clerk’s office, or visiting the National Association of Counties website. Once you have identified your representative, it is essential to determine their voting record on the issue you are writing about. You can do this by finding out how they voted on related bills and by researching their public statements. You can also use websites like VoteSmart.org or GovTrack.us to learn more about your representative’s past voting record. It is also essential to research the issue on which you are writing. Make sure you are familiar with both sides of the argument and that you have a clear understanding of the facts. Spend time reading news articles, legislative documents, scholarly articles, and other reliable sources. Researching the issue, you are writing about will help you to make a stronger argument. Finally, make sure you know the current status of the issue you are writing about. Is there a bill being proposed or debated in the legislature? Are there any upcoming votes? Knowing the issue’s current status can help you make a more timely and relevant argument. By researching and familiarizing yourself with the issue and your representative’s voting record, you will be better prepared to write an effective letter expressing your opinion. Crafting Your Letter: What to Include When crafting your letter, it is essential to be mindful of what you should include making it effective. Begin your letter with a strong introduction. You should introduce yourself, explain why you are writing the letter, and clearly state the purpose of the correspondence. This introduction should be concise and to the point and will help set the tone for the rest of the letter. The main body of your letter should include all relevant information, such as the facts of the matter, what you are requesting, and any other pertinent details. Keep in mind that it should be written professionally and courteously. Be sure to double-check your spelling and grammar, as this can be a reflection on you. You should also include a call to action. This could be a request for further information, a meeting, or another activity. Be specific in your request and provide any necessary information to help the recipient comply. Finally, your letter should include a polite conclusion. This could be a simple thank you, or it could consist of a reminder of your request. The key is to make sure it is courteous and professional. By following these tips, you can ensure that your letter is well-crafted and compelling. Keep in mind that the tone of your letter should be genuine and professional and that the recipient should be able to understand what you are asking easily. Following these guidelines ensures that your letter will be taken seriously and have the desired impact. Writing Your Letter: Tips and Suggestions Whether you’re writing a letter to a loved one or penning a vital business correspondence, writing a letter can be intimidating. After all, you want to ensure that your letter is well-crafted, communicates its intended message, and is received in the manner you intended. Here are some tips and suggestions to help you write a letter that will make a positive impression. First, consider your purpose and the audience of your letter. Knowing why you’re writing and who you’re writing to will help you determine the tone and style of the letter. The letter can be more informal and friendly if you’re writing to a close friend. Conversely, the letter should be more formal and professional if you’re writing to a business contact. Next, use a clear layout with well-structured sentences. Start with a brief introduction, followed by the main body of your letter. Use paragraphs to break up information and make it easier to read. Try to keep the sentences concise and avoid using overly complex language. Before you send your letter, re-read it to ensure it reads as you intended. Also, make sure you proofread it for any typos or mistakes. It’s often helpful to have someone else read it, as a fresh set of eyes can help you identify any errors you may have missed. Finally, remember that signing off your letter is just as important as how you begin it. Make sure you sign off appropriately. If it’s a formal letter, consider using a phrase such as “Sincerely” or “Respectfully.” A simple “Cheers” will do if the letter is more informal. Writing letters can be daunting, but with a few tips and suggestions, you can craft a letter that conveys your message clearly and concisely. Remember to consider the purpose of your letter, use a clear layout with well-structured sentences, and proofread it before sending. With these tips in mind, you’ll be able to write letters that will make a positive impression. Double-Checking: Making Sure Everything Is Accurate Double-checking is essential to any work process, regardless of the task. It is a critical step in ensuring that everything is accurate and consistent. Double-checking is invaluable whether you’re completing a project for school, work, or something else. Double-checking involves revisiting the work you’ve completed and looking for any errors or inconsistencies. This is done by comparing the results of an earlier task or activity with those of a later one. For example, if you have a spreadsheet of customer data, you can look at the data in each row and column to ensure it matches the information it should display. You can double-check if something doesn’t fit to ensure the data is correct. Double-checking also involves ensuring consistency. For example, if you’re writing a report, you can review it to ensure that the language, style, and tone are consistent throughout. This is important because it helps ensure that the quality of the work is consistent and that the reader has a clear understanding of what is being presented. Finally, double-checking involves ensuring accuracy. This means looking at all the details to ensure they are correct. For example, if you’re writing a research paper, you should double-check your facts and sources to ensure they are reliable and up-to-date. This is essential to ensure that your work is accurate and credible. Overall, double-checking is an invaluable tool for any work process. It helps to ensure that everything is accurate, consistent, and error-free. Double-checking your work ensures that you are presenting your best work, which is essential for any successful project. Finding the Right Address: How to Send Your Letter When sending a letter, getting the address right is essential. It’s the difference between getting your message across to the intended recipient and having it end up in the wrong hands or, worse, in the trash. Here are some tips on ensuring your letter gets to where it needs to go. First, double-check the address. Make sure you have the correct name, street address, city, state, and zip code. If you don’t have the full address, consider using a service like Google Maps or MapQuest to get the necessary information. Second, use a reliable mailing service. The United States Postal Service is the most reliable way to send a letter, but other services may be more cost-effective. Consider looking into FedEx, UPS, DHL, or other private mail carriers for your needs. Third, make sure the package is sealed correctly. A letter should be filled with an envelope flap; if it’s not, your message may be read by a different person. For larger packages, use a secure form of tape, such as duct tape, to ensure the box is tightly sealed. Fourth, consider adding a tracking number. You can purchase a tracking number from the United States Postal Service if you send a letter. This will allow you to monitor the letter’s progress and make sure it arrives at its destination safely. Finally, add a return address. If the letter somehow gets lost or misdirected, it can be returned to you if you include a return address on the envelope. This also makes it easier for the recipient to reply to your letter. Getting an address right can seem like a daunting task, but it’s essential in ensuring that your letter reaches its intended recipient. By double-checking the address and using a reliable mail service, adding a tracking number, and including a return address, you can ensure your letter gets to where it needs to go. Following Up: Staying Informed and Involved To stay informed and involved in a particular company or industry, it is essential to follow up with key contacts and stay abreast of the latest news and developments. Following up is an integral part of staying informed and involved. When following up, it is essential to be both professional and witty. Professionalism involves being courteous, prompt, and honest in all communication. It is important to remember to be polite and respectful, even if the response is different from what was expected. Witty communication can also establish a connection with a contact. Using humor, puns, or a clever comment can make a good impression on the other person and differentiate you from others. One of the most effective ways to stay informed and involved is networking. It is important to attend industry events and meet potential contacts in person. Networking is a great way to stay informed and build relationships with people in the industry. By staying active on social media, it is possible to stay connected with key contacts and stay abreast of the latest news. Social media is a great way to share industry news, ask questions, and offer advice. In addition to networking and staying active on social media, it is also important to read business publications, industry websites, and blogs related to the particular industry or company. Staying informed about the industry by reading and following industry news can provide valuable insight and help to build relationships with contacts. Finally, it is essential to follow up with critical contacts regularly. Following up after an event, meeting, or phone call is necessary to stay informed and involved. Following up shows respect demonstrates interest, and helps to build relationships. Conclusion: Final Thoughts on Writing a Letter to Your Representative Writing a letter to your representative can be a powerful way to make your voice heard and advocate for the causes you believe in. By crafting a well-thought-out, concise and persuasive letter, your message has the potential to be heard and acted upon by the people you are trying to reach. Before you sit down to write your letter, it’s essential to do some research about the issues you’d like to discuss. This will help you craft a more effective and better-informed letter. Include accurate facts and data to support your argument and cite your sources. Once you’ve done this research, you should begin drafting your letter. Start by introducing yourself and introducing the issue you’d like to discuss. Then, move on to the main body of your letter, using persuasive language to explain why the case matters to you and how it affects your community. End your letter by summarizing your key points and asking your representative to consider your points of view. When you’ve finished drafting your letter, it’s essential to proofread it to ensure it’s free of any spelling or grammatical errors. You should also double-check the facts and figures you’ve included to ensure they are accurate. Finally, include your contact information so your representative can reach out to you if they have any questions. Writing a letter to your representative can be a powerful way to make your voice heard and impact the issues that matter to you. By crafting a well-informed and persuasive letter, you can ensure that your message is heard and acted upon by the people you are trying to reach.

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A Level Physics MCQs A Level Physics MCQ PDF - Topics Practice Combine Forces Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ), Combine Forces quiz answers PDF to learn a level physics online course for a level physics classes. Forces, Vectors and Moments Multiple Choice Questions and Answers (MCQs), Combine Forces quiz questions for SAT prep classes. "Combine Forces MCQ" PDF Book: combine forces, turning effect of forces, torque of couple test prep for GRE test prep classes. "Combined effect of several forces is known as" MCQ PDF: combine forces with choices net force, resultant force, normal force, and weight for SAT prep classes. Learn combine forces quiz questions for merit scholarship test and certificate programs for schools that offer online degrees. MCQ: Combined effect of several forces is known as MCQ: Object is in equilibrium if resultant force acting on it is MCQ: Number of forces a falling tennis ball experiences is MCQ: If weight of a falling tennis ball is 1.0 N and drag force acting on it is 0.2 N then resultant force is

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What are the similarities between veins and arteries? Similarities between Arteries and Veins Ø Both are blood vessels. Ø Both transport blood. Ø Blood transport is unidirectional in both arteries and vein. Ø Arteries and veins composed of layers of cells. What structures do arteries and veins have in common? It is returned to the heart in the veins. The capillaries connect the two types of blood vessel and molecules are exchanged between the blood and the cells across their walls….Structure and function of blood vessels. |Always carry blood away from the heart||Always carry blood to the heart| What are the similarities and differences between veins arteries and capillaries? Arteries have thick walls composed of three distinct layers (tunica) Veins have thin walls but typically have wider lumen (lumen size may vary depending on specific artery or vein) Capillaries are very small and will not be easily detected under the same magnification as arteries and veins. What are arteries and veins connected by? Capillaries are small, thin blood vessels that connect the arteries and the veins. Their thin walls allow oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide and waste products to pass to and from the tissue cells. What are the structural differences and similarities between veins and arteries? Arteries have thick, elastic, muscular walls whereas veins have thin walls with few elastic fibres. Arteries need these properties to give them the strength and elasticity needed to cope with the high pressure surges of oxygenated blood coming from the heart. What are the differences between veins and arteries? Arteries and veins (also called blood vessels) are tubes of muscle that your blood flows through. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Veins push blood back to your heart. You have a complex system of connecting veins and arteries throughout your body. What are the differences between arteries veins and capillaries? Arteries transport blood away from the heart. Veins return blood back toward the heart. Capillaries surround body cells and tissues to deliver and absorb oxygen, nutrients, and other substances. Is there between arteries and veins? Capillaries. Capillaries are the smallest and most numerous of the blood vessels. They connect between the arteries (which carry blood away from the heart) and the veins (which return blood to the heart). Where is the tunica media? The tunica media (New Latin “middle coat”), or media for short, is the middle tunica (layer) of an artery or vein. It lies between the tunica intima on the inside and the tunica externa on the outside. What are the structural and functional differences between arteries and veins? 1. Arteries have a much thicker wall to withstand the high pressure of blood flowing in them, whereas veins have a thinner wall so that they can be pressed flat against adjacent muscles, helping to move the blood. 2. Veins have valves, contrary to arteries, to prevent back-flow of blood flowing in them. How are arteries and veins similar and different? Arteries and veins both circulate the blood in different directions. Arteries help the blood flow away from the heart, as they carry blood containing oxygen. On the other hand, veins will carry the blood back to the heart, which it collects from different organs. What’s the difference between a lumen and a artery? Lumen is narrow. Lumen is wide. Veins are less susceptible to diseases such as varicose veins. Arteries are the blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, where it branches into even smaller vessels. What do arteries and veins carry blood to? Arteries and veins (also called blood vessels) are tubes of muscle that your blood flows through. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. Where are the veins located in the body? 1 Deep Veins: These are located deep within the muscle tissue. 2 Superficial Veins: These are closer to the surface of the skin. 3 Pulmonary Veins: These transport oxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs. 4 Systemic Veins: These are present throughout the body and transport deoxygenated blood to the heart for purification.

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Vitamin K is a group of fat-soluble vitamins that play a vital role in blood clotting, bone metabolism, and regulating blood calcium levels. Green vegetables contain vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and vitamin K2 (menaquinone), which is synthesized in the digestive system. What are the causes and symptoms of vitamin K deficiency? Why is it given to newborns immediately after birth? What is Vitamin K for Vitamin K is a group of organic chemical compounds containing: - vitamin K1 (phylloquinone); - Vitamin K2 (menaquinone) – short chain menaquinones (including MK-4) and long chain menaquinones (MK-7, MK-8, MK-9). Vitamins K1 and K2 differ in their chemical structure, phylloquinone has less bioavailability. Also, it is worth noting that K2 MK-7 has a higher bioavailability than MK-4. Vitamin K3 (menadione) is also highlighted in the literature – it is a synthetic provitamin that does not occur naturally in nature. Vitamins K1 and K2 are fat-soluble compounds, while vitamin K3 is water-soluble compounds. Along with vitamin D and calcium, vitamin K plays an important role in maintaining bone health, preventing osteoporosis, among other things. By taking vitamin D, we increase the need for vitamin K2, which has a positive effect on calcium absorption. If we cannot provide enough of them using a balanced diet, vitamin D, K and calcium supplements can be included. In the pharmacy you can find both single and combined drugs. It is estimated that about 90% of vitamin K1 is converted to vitamin K2 (MK-4 form). The transformation process takes place in the testicles, pancreas and arterial walls. The human body almost exclusively produces the MK-4 form, which, as mentioned, is less active than the MK-7 form. Vitamin K for newborns The requirement for vitamin K (phylloquinone) for infants is set at 5 micrograms for children under 6 months of age and 8.5 micrograms per day for children aged 6 to 12 months. In infants, self-medication with vitamin K is limited and should only be used after consulting a pediatrician. According to the recommendations of pediatricians, every newborn after birth should receive prophylactic vitamin K1. The preferred route of administration of vitamin K1 is IM, while when parents refuse to administer vitamin K1 IM, it is given orally. Vitamin K for adults Vitamin K norms for adults: 65 micrograms for men and 55 micrograms per day for women. Other professional sources indicate that the daily requirement for vitamin K is 75 micrograms, sometimes it is reported that this value is higher at 120 micrograms per day for adults. However, these sources do not distinguish between vitamin K and vitamin K1 or K2. It is often emphasized that the K2 MK-7 form has an advantage over the K2 MK-4 form (the MK-7 form is more active than the MK-4 form). It is also important to know that the above values refer to the requirement of the liver for vitamin K (synthesis of blood clotting factors), while the requirement for vitamin K for other tissues of the body has not been determined. What foods contain Vitamin K Vitamin K1 is synthesized in plants, it is mainly found in such green vegetables: - brussels sprouts; Smaller amounts of phylloquinone are also found in rapeseed oil, soybean oil, and olive oil. This compound is also present in margarine, mayonnaise, yogurt, and plums. Vitamin K2 is produced by bacteria in the small intestine. The deficiency can be filled by the consumption of animal products containing menaquinone. - chicken liver; - chicken meat; - fermented milk products; - egg yolks; - hard cheeses; - soft (blue) cheeses; Vitamin K2 is also found in spices such as basil and coriander, as well as bread and sauerkraut. In adults, vitamin K2 deficiency is relatively rare. Symptoms of an insufficient amount of vitamin K in the body include, first of all, a tendency to bleed from the mucous membranes, the gastrointestinal tract or urinary system, and increased blood clotting time. This is due to a decrease in the activity of blood clotting factors. Vitamin K deficiency symptoms can also include bruising and heavy menstrual bleeding. In newborns, vitamin K deficiency can be the cause of the so-called neonatal hemorrhagic disease. There are three forms: - early (rare, affects newborns who have not received a prophylactic dose of vitamin K); - classic (from the 2nd to the 7th day of life); - late (rare). Bleeding as a result of vitamin K deficiency in newborns is a life-threatening condition. Bleeding can occur, for example, in the form of a hemorrhage in the brain or other internal organs.

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Biomass energy is a type of renewable energy that is derived from organic materials, such as plants and animals. It is considered a carbon-neutral source of energy as the carbon dioxide released when it is burned is the same amount that was absorbed by the plants during their growth. There are several different types of biomass energy, each with their own unique characteristics and uses. One of the most common types of biomass energy is wood energy. This type of biomass energy is derived from trees and other woody plants and is used to generate electricity, heat, and transportation fuels. Wood energy can be used in power plants to generate electricity, in boilers to provide heat for buildings and industrial processes, and in the form of wood pellets to fuel stoves and boilers. Another type of biomass energy is bioenergy. This type of biomass energy is derived from crops, such as corn and sugarcane, and is used to generate electricity and transportation fuels. Bioenergy can be used in power plants to generate electricity, and in the form of biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, to fuel vehicles. A third type of biomass energy is biogas. Biogas is produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen, a process called anaerobic digestion. Biogas is primarily composed of methane and carbon dioxide and can be used to generate electricity and heat. Biogas can be produced from a variety of organic materials, such as agricultural waste, sewage, and food waste. A fourth type of biomass energy is algae-based biofuel. Algae are simple aquatic plants that can grow quickly and produce a high yield of biomass. They can be grown in a variety of environments and require little land, water, or fertilizer. Algae can be used to produce biofuels such as biofuels, hydrogen, and electricity. Finally, Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a fifth type of biomass energy. MSW refers to the waste generated by households and businesses and can include paper, plastics, food waste, and yard waste. MSW can be converted into energy through a process called waste-to-energy or incineration, which involves burning the waste to produce electricity. In conclusion, biomass energy is a diverse and versatile source of renewable energy that can be used in a variety of ways. Each type of biomass energy, such as wood energy, bioenergy, biogas, algae-based biofuels, and MSW, has its own unique characteristics and uses. This diversity allows us to choose the type of biomass energy that is most suitable for a given application, whether it is generating electricity, heat, or transportation fuels.

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Depending upon the material being burned, open fires can release many kinds of toxic fumes. Leaves and plant materials send aloft millions of spores when they catch fire, causing many people with allergies to have difficulty breathing. The pollutants released by open burning also make it more difficult to attain, or maintain, health-based air quality standards, especially in or near the major metropolitan centers. The gases released by open burning can also harm neighboring buildings by corroding metal siding and damaging paint. Finally, open burning is not an efficient way to get rid of wastes since open fires do not get hot enough to burn the materials completely.

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Just type a value in one field and the other field will show the equivalent temperature in Fahrenheit or Celcius. If your students are suffering from the cold-weather blues, turn your classroom into a summer resort for a day or a week. They will get a chance to pretend it’s warm, and also do comparison activities that will put their brains to work. The summer solstice here in the northern hemisphere marks a time when the earth’s axis tilts towards the sun, as it will between June and September, causing warm weather and “longer” days in the northern hemisphere, and cold weather and “shorter” days in the southern hemisphere. The student will be able to interpret data; make and read a line graph, understand plotting points on an X-Y axis, and round numbers. The first snow of the year might mean a snow day for your happy students. When they return, talk about the impact snow has on your local environment – including missed days of school and work. A simple dough that dries to create aromatic hanging ornaments. Please note that these items are not intended to be eaten, even though they smell good enough! Kites are a welcome outdoor project after being cooped up inside all winter, right? In fact, they’re the perfect celebration of the end of winter. Students study and create their kites indoors, and then you just wait for the ideal weather to take them out for testing. For the younger students, try a quick and easy Paper Bag Kite. Older students can tackle the Tetrahedral Kite, which can be scaled for a large or small format creation. Students will learn how latitude affects weather patterns.

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What could be a step in the Energy Revolution that could change the way a far distant future society lives has taken place, according to new research that is being unveiled Tuesday. The Department of Energy is announcing that for the first time, a laboratory experiment has been able to produce a fusion reaction in which the energy produced exceeded the energy needed to create the fusion reaction, according to The Washington Post. While holding off the details pending Tuesday’s media announcement, the Department noted that Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm will be announcing “a major scientific breakthrough.” Proponents of fusion say it will revolutionize energy. Can’t overstate the importance of this result! “The fusion reaction at the US government facility produced about 2.5 megajoules of energy, which was about 120 per cent of the 2.1 megajoules of energy in the lasers…”#FusionEnergy #Lasers #Ignition #Breakeven @lasers_llnl https://t.co/VjsdOubKpl — Fusion is the Future (@is_fusion) December 12, 2022 “Fusion is the Holy Grail of climate change and decarbonized future. Perhaps even more profoundly, fusion has the potential to lift more citizens of the world out of poverty than any idea since fire,” Democratic Rep. Don Beyer of Virginia said earlier this year, according to his website. Unlike fission, which breaks apart the energy bonds of atoms, fusion smashes atoms together, releasing energy. Fusion research has been taking place since the 1950s, because unlike existing commercial forms of nuclear energy, there is no radioactive waste. Energy produced by the sun is an example of fusion. Dr Arthur Turrell, a plasma physicist who wrote a book chronicling efforts to harness fusion, said the announcement is of vast importance, according to the Financial Times. “If this is confirmed, we are witnessing a moment of history. Scientists have struggled to show that fusion can release more energy than is put in since the 1950s, and the researchers at Lawrence Livermore seem to have finally and absolutely smashed this decades-old goal,” he said. Nuclear fusion has demonstrated a net energy gain. Researchers say nuclear power stations are still decades away, but “a small cup of the hydrogen fuel could theoretically power a house for hundreds of years.” Here’s how it works: pic.twitter.com/zliy7HIgLs — Jesse Wood (@jrhwood) December 12, 2022 The results of the work at the National Ignition Facility, though, are only a first step on a very long road. “It’s about what it takes to boil 10 kettles of water. In order to turn that into a power station, we need to make a larger gain in energy — we need it to be substantially more,” said Jeremy Chittenden, co-director of the Centre for Inertial Fusion Studies at Imperial College in London, according to CNN. So what’s next? After the research goes through a vetting process, the critical issue will be trying to scale up what was accomplished. In the lab, mammoth lasers were used in the process. In its reporting, the Post noted that “engineers have yet to develop machinery capable of affordably turning that reaction into electricity that can be practically deployed to the power grid.” Machinery that could withstand the pounding process of fusion, using materials that are difficult to obtain and doing so on a broad scale, are major, daunting issues, leading proponents of fusion to stress that the breakthrough is not going to change the energy picture any time soon. But it is a start, and also an advance in which the United States can say it achieved first. “There is going to be great pride that this is something that happened in the United States. This is a very important milestone on the road toward fusion energy,” said David Edelman, who leads policy and global affairs at TAE, a large private fusion energy company. The road forward is paved with American taxpayer dollars. As noted in the Financial Times, the so-called Inflation Reduction Act includes almost $370 billion for subsides that will back low-carbon energy research and development. The post US's Nuclear 'Breakthrough' Could Provide Unlimited Clean Energy by Mimicking the Sun appeared first on The Western Journal.

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Addiction is a chronic, typically relapsing, brain disease that affects the reward structure of the brain, causing compulsive drug use and seeking behaviors, despite suffering the negative consequences associated with addiction. Drug addiction is considered a brain disease because, over time and abuse, it changes the function and structure of the brain. While it is a fact that when a person uses drugs initially, it is a choice to do so, over time, the changes that occur in the brain due to repeated use can actually impair the person’s self-control and reduce the ability to make good decisions, while simultaneously creating an overwhelming impulse to take more drugs. Overcoming addiction typically requires professional intervention and long-term support throughout recovery. What is Addiction? Addiction occurs when an individual becomes physically, psychologically, and emotionally dependent on drugs or alcohol. There are certain characteristics involved with addiction: - The ongoing inability to abstain from a specific substance - Cravings for a specific drug or alcohol - Impairment or loss of control due to a substance - Continued use of drugs or alcohol even when negative consequences are present - Dysfunctional or inappropriate emotional responses when access to the substance of choice is eliminated Drug or alcohol addiction impacts nearly every aspect of a person’s life. Personal relationships, financial status, and careers are often the first aspects to suffer, and oftentimes, legal problems follow. Additionally, many people with drug or alcohol addictions suffer physical health problems, memory impairment, and ultimately, permanent disability. What is Physical Dependence? The biggest sign of physical dependence on a substance is that an individual will suffer withdrawal symptoms if the substance use is stopped or doses are significantly decreased. Another sign is developing a tolerance to the drug that requires larger and larger doses to achieve the same effects that the individual did previously. When you use drugs or alcohol for an extended period of time, your body becomes used to functioning with it in your system. The substance affects the brain and central nervous system, causing them to have to recalibrate to stabilize for normal functioning with the substance added. Over time, the brain and nervous system adapt to working with the substance present, and it becomes the new normal for them. This is physical dependence. Once you are physically dependent on a substance, you’ll suffer withdrawal symptoms if you discontinue using it. That is your brain and nervous system again recalibrating to stabilize, this time without the substance present. Dependence versus Addiction In most cases, physical dependence is the predecessor of addiction. People who become physically dependent on a substance continue to use it so that they don’t suffer from withdrawal symptoms, or they begin taking more of the drug because they have developed increased tolerance to its effects. In these situations, addiction can develop as a result of continued use. Addiction to a substance, especially prescription medications, is very different than a physical dependence on the substance. With addiction, there are psychological symptoms as well as physical symptoms of dependence. Those symptoms show an overall loss of control and/or obsessive-compulsive thoughts about using and drug-seeking behavior. The main signs of addiction to a drug are: - Continued use despite negative consequences to a person’s health, relationships, work or school, or freedom (legal issues, arrests, etc.) - Loss of control of the use of the drug (being unable to stop using even though you want to) - Cravings and compulsive thinking about the drug Becoming addicted means that you cannot stop using the drug through sheer willpower. You have a psychological need to use the drug and cravings for it. People who are physically dependent on drugs or alcohol are able to go through the withdrawal, and while they may be uncomfortable, once they have made it through, they have no desire (or craving) to use the substance again. What Happens to Your Brain When You Take Drugs? Drug addiction occurs because the chemicals in drugs disrupt the brain’s communication system and the way that nerve cells receive, send, and process information. This typically happens in one of two ways, or a combination of both – the drugs mimic the natural chemical messengers of the brain, and they overstimulate the reward center of the brain. Some drugs, like opioid painkillers and heroin, have a structure that is similar to the brain’s chemical messengers (neurotransmitters), which are produced naturally by the brain. Due to the similarity, these types of drugs “trick” the brain’s receptors and cause the nerve cells to send abnormal messages. Drugs that are stimulants, like methamphetamines and cocaine, can cause the brain to release large, sometimes huge, amounts of its natural neurotransmitters, or they can stop the normal recycling of the chemicals, which is necessary to interrupt the signal between neurons. Stopping that process causes an amplified message that wreaks havoc on normal communication patterns. Almost all drugs that are abused affect the brain’s reward system by flooding it with dopamine. Dopamine is the neurotransmitter that helps control emotion, movement, motivation, and pleasure feelings. When this system is overstimulated (which happens naturally in positive situations like eating, cuddling an infant, or spending time with family), it produces euphoric feelings in response to the drug. As the drug use continues, the brain recalibrates itself to the floods of dopamine by producing less of the neurotransmitter or reducing dopamine receptors. That means that the person will have to continue to abuse the drug just to bring the dopamine function back to “normal,” or he or she will have to increase drug use to attempt to achieve the same euphoric high. Why Do Some People Become Addicted to Drugs? There isn’t one specific thing that indicates whether you will or won’t become addicted to drugs. There are some common risk factors, though, that may increase the chances that someone will become an addict. The risks for drug addiction may be influenced by biological, environmental, and developmental factors. The greater the number of risk factors that a person has, the higher the chances are that if they begin taking drugs, they will become addicted. Risk factors for drug addiction can include: - Biological – There is a genetic component to drug addiction. People who are born with certain genes may have a higher level of risk of becoming addicted to drugs. That, in combination with environmental factors, typically makes up about half of their vulnerability to addiction. Also, biological factors like ethnicity, gender, and the presence of mental disorders may influence their risks. - Environmental – There are many different environmental factors that contribute to a person’s risk of becoming addicted to drugs. Their socioeconomic background, family and friends’ influences and quality of life all play a part. Past trauma, sexual or physical abuse, peer pressure, stress, and parental involvement can also greatly add to a person’s risk of drug addiction. - Developmental – Where a person is in their life developmentally (chronological and emotional maturity) can greatly affect his or her chances of drug addiction. While anyone, at any age, can become addicted, people who begin using drugs during adolescence or younger have a much higher propensity to addiction later in life. Prevention and Treatment Are Key to Reducing Drug Addiction Even though drug addiction is a brain disease, it is preventable. Studies show that programs that are dedicated to the prevention of drug use in the first place, involving family, schools, communities, and the media, are effective in reducing drug abuse and addiction. For those who are already in the cycle of drug addiction, treatment is essential to making the right changes and discovering a new life of recovery. With treatment and an ongoing recovery program, you can get and stay clean and live a fulfilling and happy life. In treatment, those suffering from drug addiction are taught new coping skills so that when feelings of frustration and pain do come up, they are prepared to deal with them without returning to drug use.

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5 Ways Trauma-Informed Care Supports Children’s Development Childhood trauma is common. More than two thirds of children in the United States experience a traumatic event or circumstances—such as abuse or neglect, death of a loved one, or community violence—by the time they turn 16. Young children (birth to age five), in particular, are disproportionately exposed to traumatic events and circumstances. While many children return to normal functioning after a traumatic event, others show symptoms of posttraumatic stress. These children are more likely to suffer harmful long-term consequences, including serious impairments in mental and physical health, when not met with understanding and trauma-appropriate responses from adults. Trauma-informed care (TIC) encompasses a variety of approaches to working with children exposed to traumatic events or conditions. Research suggests that TIC is associated with considerable benefits for children and their families, including reductions in children’s behavior problems and posttraumatic stress. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration identified four key assumptions of a trauma-informed approach; the approach should: - realize the widespread impact of trauma and understand potential paths for recovery; - recognize the signs and symptoms of trauma; - fully integrate knowledge about trauma into policies, procedures, and practices; and - seek to actively resist re-traumatization. Below, we highlight five ways TIC supports children’s healthy development. 1 TIC helps service providers, parents, and systems recognize and respond to the needs of children who experience trauma. Each child reacts to trauma differently, but experiencing some form of distress is nearly universal. Children exposed to trauma may display heightened aggression, poor social skills, and impulsivity, struggle academically, and engage in risk-taking behaviors with serious consequences (e.g., substance abuse, risky sexual behavior). Given these challenges, it is not surprising that youth who experience trauma are overrepresented in the juvenile justice system. Parents, service providers, and other caregivers trained in TIC learn effective ways to interact with these children, such as helping them cope with trauma reminders (“triggers”), supporting children’s emotion regulation skills, maintaining predictable routines, and using effective behavior management strategies. TIC also promotes adults’ capacity to identify childhood trauma and to make appropriate referrals for screening, assessment, and evidence-based treatment. 2 TIC enhances the effectiveness of child-serving systems by promoting a common language. Having a shared language helps create a collective understanding of trauma and effective ways to address its impact. It also is a powerful tool for developing common goals and strategies. For instance, Trauma Systems Therapy promotes widespread understanding among caregivers in the home, school, and community that a child’s inability to regulate emotions or behavior does not mean the child is “bad,” but rather that the social environment is not meeting the needs of the child in some way. This simple change in language enables adults to focus on what is most important–for example, what is triggering the child, and how to help the child self-regulate. Findings from a large-scale evaluation conducted by Child Trends, to be released later this year, will provide insight into how Trauma Systems Therapy was implemented in a child welfare setting, and its positive effects on child well-being. Similarly, Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, another evidence-based intervention, helps children develop a trauma narrative, allowing parents, service providers, and other caregivers to provide appropriate support through a shared understanding of the child’s unique experience with trauma. 3 Everyone in a child’s life has a role to play in TIC. TIC is a key component of behavioral health services delivery, but mental health providers are not the only people who are essential to TIC. Caregivers, early childhood educators, teachers, medical staff, judges, child welfare workers, juvenile justice workers, first responders, and other community service providers all play an important role in buffering the negative effects of childhood trauma and in preventing it from occurring in the first place. As the adage goes, “It takes a village,” and TIC requires collaboration to embrace an approach to care that is consistent with the best available evidence on how to promote resilience to adversity. 4 TIC supports the capacity of adults to cope with their own responses to trauma. Many parents and other caregivers have a history of trauma themselves, which may compromise their ability to be sensitive caregivers. For example, up to one-third of parents abused or neglected in childhood maltreat their own children. Similarly, service providers who have a history of trauma, or who suffer from severe stress as a result of working with people who are exposed to trauma, may become either distanced or overly involved with children and families, experience burnout, or have difficulty tolerating their emotions. Accordingly, TIC attends to the needs of adults by helping them identify and work through their own reactions to trauma. Self-care (e.g., exercise, good nutrition, mindfulness), psychotherapy, reflective supervision, and psycho-education are a few techniques that help individuals cope with their own responses to trauma. 5 TIC is receiving increased attention from policymakers. Legislators and other policymakers increasingly recognize the importance of implementing TIC across systems of care. For example, states are required to develop and implement a plan for meeting the physical and mental health needs of foster children, including addressing the issue of trauma. A number of child welfare systems have trauma-informed training requirements. In Texas, the Department of Family Protective Service is legislatively mandated to provide trauma-informed training for caseworkers, foster parents, adoptive parents, and kinship caregivers. TIC also has been implemented in school systems. Other policies have focused on TIC in healthcare (including mental health) and juvenile justice. Several multi-sector approaches have been developed, such as legislation established in Washington state—the Adverse Childhood Experiences Public-Private Initiative—which is aimed at reducing children’s exposure to trauma, as well as its consequences. Child Trends is grateful for the generous support of the Irving B. Harris Foundation.

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c. 1400, from Old French loialte, leaute "loyalty, fidelity; legitimacy; honesty; good quality" (Modern French loyauté), from loial (see loyal). The Medieval Latin word was legalitas. The earlier Middle English form was leaute (mid-13c.), from the older French form. Loyalty oath first attested 1852. Allegiance ... is a matter of principle, and applies especially to conduct; the oath of allegiance covers conduct only. Loyalty is a matter of both principle and sentiment, conduct and feeling; it implies enthusiasm and devotion .... [Century Dictionary, 1897] updated on September 25, 2018

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PNG images: Circus collection A circusis a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, unicyclists, as well as other object manipulation and stunt-oriented artists. The term 'circus' also describes the performance which has followed various formats through its 250-year modern history. Philip Astley is credited with being the 'father' of the modern circus when he opened the first circus in 1768 in England. A skilled equestrian, Astley demonstrated trick riding, riding in a circle rather than a straight line as his rivals did, and thus chanced on the format which was later named a 'circus'. In 1770 he hired acrobats, tightrope walkers, jugglers and a clown to fill in the pauses between acts. Performances developed significantly through the next fifty years, with large-scale theatrical battle reenactments becoming a significant feature. The 'traditional' format, whereby a ringmaster introduces a varied selection of acts that mostly perform choreographed acts to traditional music, developed in the latter part of the 19th century and continued almost universally to be the main style of circus up until the 1970s.

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The function of a compressor is simple: gas enters the compressor at low pressure, it is compressed, and leaves at a higher pressure. Though compressors have a broad range of uses, this blog will focus on those used for refrigeration and HVAC systems. Like most machines, compressors come in many types based on their application. In general, the refrigerant or the required volume of cooling capacity will determine the type of compressor needed. There are three main types of compressors used in refrigeration: reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal. Reciprocating compressors function similarly to a car engine. A piston slides back and forth in a cylinder, drawing in and compressing the low-pressure refrigerant before sending it out at a higher pressure. Reciprocating cylinders are frequently multi-stage systems, meaning one cylinder's discharge leads directly into the input side of the next cylinder. This allows for more compression than a single stage. Reciprocating parts have many lubricated parts, including cylinders, valves, bearings, and more. Rotary compressors use a set of screws or vanes to draw gas into the compression chamber and compress it. This function is similar to the flow of a vane pump. Not unlike reciprocating compressors, they have many lubricated components. Centrifugal compressors use the rotational motion of the drive to rotate a series of impellers that provide the compression action. These systems often rotate at several thousand revolutions per minute, meaning the lubricant must be thin enough to lubricate at these speeds but still thick enough to handle the heat and refrigerant contamination that could occur. Refrigeration has revolutionized countless industries, whether it is used to remove heat or simply to create a more comfortable work environment. The cooling cycle is based on the way gases experience a change in temperature when their pressure changes. The compressor acts as a pump to circulate the refrigerant. The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a high-pressure gas and travels into a condenser. In the condenser, the gas turns into a liquid which then flows through a pipe to a metering device. Following the metering device is the evaporator, where the heat transfer occurs. When the air passing over the evaporator is warmer than desired, the heat is absorbed by the refrigerant and transported back to the condenser and removed. The compressor is what allows for this process to take place. Refrigerants must be able to absorb and transfer heat. Based on the desired temperature, there are several types of refrigerants. They must also be readily able to change from liquid to gas, this change of state allowing for the sudden temperature drop after moving through the metering device. Depending on the type of refrigerant, you can achieve very low temperature refrigeration as well as simple cooling capacity. The most common types of refrigerants are hydrocarbon-based, which are are similar to the refrigerants you would use in your house or car. Another common refrigerant used in industrial settings is ammonia, which performs well and can achieve low temperatures for cooling and freezing. For all types of refrigeration compressor parts and much more, look no further than Industrial Gamut. Owned and operated by ASAP Semiconductor, we can help you find all types of parts for the aerospace, civil aviation, defense, electronics, industrial, and IT hardware markets. Our account managers are always available and ready to help you find all the industrial parts and equipment you need, 24/7-365. For a quick and competitive quote, email us at [email protected] or call us at 1-714-705-4780. Let us show you why we consider ourselves the future of purchasing. We hope that you will visit us again the next time you need industrial parts and make us your strategic purchasing partner.Request for Quote

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Sunlight could be used to power microfliers travelling above the stratosphere in the mesosphere. At present, the only vehicles that can travel in this layer of our atmosphere, at an altitude between 50 and 80 kilometres, are rockets destined for space. Aeroplanes and other modern aircraft can’t fly above 50 kilometres because the lower air density at these altitudes doesn’t allow for sufficient lift. On the flip side, the air in the mesosphere is too dense for the safe passage of satellites and could damage them, so it is off limits for them too. Igor Bargatin at the University of Pennsylvania and his colleagues have come up with a device that could potentially achieve sustained travel through the mesosphere. “What we’re looking at is a new mechanism of levitation that has been used in the past for really small particles, ones that you can’t see,” says Bargatin. “But what we’re doing is making it work for structures that are big enough that you can hold them in your hands and therefore, at least potentially, will have real-life applications.” The technique exploits the phenomenon of photophoresis, which relies on the transfer of solar energy – initially to an object such as the new device, and then to the air molecules surrounding the object. “When you expose [the device] to sunlight, the molecules that hit the surfaces will absorb some of the heat,” says Bargatin. “We designed the [device] surfaces in such a way that the top surface is not very good at transferring heat whereas the bottom surface is very good at transferring heat and as a result more molecules will gain downward velocity than upward velocity.” This creates a lift force, he adds, meaning that when the microfliers were exposed to incident light intensity of about 0.5 Watts per square centimetre at air pressures of about 10 Pascals they moved through the air. The team believes that in the future, versions of the microfliers fitted with sensors could be used to map wind and temperatures in the mesosphere, which could improve climate models. “In general, it’s unclear how many practical aspects of this technology would work, such as delivering the microfliers to this part of the atmosphere, which would presumably need to be dropped from rockets,” says Karen Aplin at the University of Bristol in the UK. “At the moment, this technology looks like a bit of a solution searching for a problem.” “I should say that every time a new flight mechanism is implemented or discovered, people find new applications that are hard to think about from the beginning,” says Bargatin. Journal reference: Science Advances, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe1127 More on these topics:

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- How do you use rests in music? - How do you identify musical notes and rests? - What does a whole rest look like in music? - What are the kind of notes and rest? - What are the kinds of rests? - What is a measure in music? - What does a music measure look like? - What is a line of music? - What are the lines on a music staff called? - What are the names of the lines on a music staff? - What are the 2 clefs in music? - What are the three clefs in music? - Why are there different clefs in music? - What does clef mean in music? - What’s a melody in a song? - How do you use into in a sentence? How do you use rests in music? To Sum Up - Write rests that equal ONE BEAT and place them ON the beat (not between the beats). - Always combine rests that equal TWO, THREE or FOUR beats into longer rests, but ONLY if they fall on the strong beat of the bar. - If a rest follows a note which is less than one beat, FINISH that beat first. How do you identify musical notes and rests? Notes and rests are musical symbols on a staff that designate when to play and when to not play. Notes on a staff represent what pitch to play and for how long. Rests are musical symbols used to designate when to pause and not play. What does a whole rest look like in music? A whole rest instructs you not to play for four beats. The whole rest looks like an upside down hat. To remember that it’s upside down just think you can hold a whole lot of stuff in an upside down hat. All the other basic rhythmic values are just simple fractions of the 4-beat whole note… What are the kind of notes and rest? They tell us what note to play and for how long. Rests tell us how long to play nothing, or have silence in the music. We’re going to learn four types of notes and rests; whole, half, quarter and eighth. What are the kinds of rests? The Different Types Of Rests In Music - Semibreve Rest (Whole Note Rest) - Minim Rest (Half Note Rest) - Crotchet Rest (Quarter Note Rest) - Quaver Rest (Eighth Note Rest) - Semiquaver Rest (Sixteenth Note Rest) What is a measure in music? In music theory, a measure (or bar) refers to a single unit of time featuring a specific number of beats played at a particular tempo. What does a music measure look like? Measure. Measure is a segment of time within a piece of music defined by a given number of beats. Each measure is separated by a bar. A repeat sign looks like the music end, but it has two dots, one above the other, indicating that the section of music that is before is to be repeated. What is a line of music? In Western musical notation, the staff is a set of five horizontal lines and four spaces that each represent a different musical pitch—or, in the case of a percussion staff, different percussion instruments. The musical staff is analogous to a mathematical graph of pitch with respect to time. … What are the lines on a music staff called? Musical notes are written on a staff. A staff is made up of five horizontal lines and the four spaces between the lines. The vertical lines on the staff are called bars. The space between two bar lines is called a measure. What are the names of the lines on a music staff? Again, starting on the bottom line and moving up, the notes on the lines of the staff are E, G, B, D, and F, letters that begin the words of the sentence Every good boy does fine. For the bass clef, the spaces are A, C, E, and G, the letters that begin the sentences All cows eat grass or All cars eat gas. What are the 2 clefs in music? Two clefs are normally used: the Treble and Bass clefs. First, we will discuss the Treble Clef (also called the G Clef). The staff line which the clef wraps around (shown in red) is known as G. Any note placed on this line becomes G. What are the three clefs in music? The three clef symbols used in modern music notation are the G-clef, F-clef, and C-clef. Why are there different clefs in music? Music is written in different clefs because the range of notes that exist is far greater than what can fit on one five-line staff. Instead, each instrument uses a clef that allows most of the notes in its middle range to fall right on the staff. What does clef mean in music? A musical-notation symbol at the beginning of a music staff, a clef indicates the pitch of the notes on the staff. Clefs were originally letters, identifying letter-named pitches, that were added to one or more of the staff’s lines (thus providing a “key” to their identity). What’s a melody in a song? Melody is a succession of pitches in rhythm. The melody is usually the most memorable aspect of a song, the one the listener remembers and is able to perform. How do you use into in a sentence? Into sentence example - The little fellow ran into the street. - Jonathan came into the room, fully dressed. - His words put courage into every heart. - “He will sprout very soon,” said the Prince, “and grow into a large bush, from which we shall in time be able to pick several very good sorcerers.”

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On ‘Barbed Wire Sunday’, 13 August 1961, the German Democratic Republic closed the border into West Berlin and began the construction of the Berlin Wall. Since the end of World War II, East Germany had lost some 3.5 million citizens from defection to West Germany. The exclave of West Berlin was not protected with a hard border, unlike the national border that had been established in 1952, thus making it the prime route of escape for Germans seeking to leave the ever-more repressive German Democratic Republic. The wall was reinforced using increasingly extreme measures over the years. The last iteration, which began in 1975, featured a 12-ft high (3.6-m) concrete wall, barbed wire, anti-vehicle trenches and hundreds of armed guards who were ordered to shoot defectors. By the time the demolition of the wall started in 1989 after massive protests, 5,000 people had successfully crossed the border while at least 100 were killed during escape attempts. — OR —

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What It Means to Have Sickle Cell Trait Sickle cell trait (SCT) affects approximately one in 12 African-Americans in the U.S., yet many are unaware that they carry the gene that causes sickle cell disease (SCD). Living with the trait doesn’t mean that the person exhibits any characteristics of the disease. It does mean that the person carries the gene and can therefore pass on the disease to his or her baby. Probability of Sickle Cell Disease If only one or both parents have the sickle cell trait, then there is a 50 percent chance that the baby will receive the trait, making the baby a carrier (but not have the disease). If both parents have the trait, then there is 25 percent chance that the baby will have sickle cell disease, and a 25 percent chance that the baby will not have either the disease or the trait. Sickle cell trait is most common in African-Americans, but is also found in those with a family history from Central and South America, the Caribbean, India, Saudi Arabia, sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean – Italy, Greece and Turkey. What It’s Like to Have Sickle Cell Disease People with SCD have red blood cells that are harder and stickier than normal, causing the cells to buckle into a c-shape, like a sickle (farm tool). The cells also: - Get stuck when flowing through small blood vessels and can clog blood flow. - Die earlier than normal blood cells, which creates a constant deficit of red blood cells. Pain is the primary complication of SCD, called a pain crisis. Other complications include: - Hand-foot syndrome (swelling) - Acute chest syndrome (similar to pneumonia) - Vision loss - Leg cramps - Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism - Splenic sequestration (spleen) In rare cases, some people with the trait may experience a complication. Living a healthy lifestyle and staying on top of medical care are helpful defenses against complications of the disease. Healthy living includes dinking a lot of water – 8 to 10 glasses a day – eating healthy and taking steps to prevent infections, such as washing hands, paying attention to food safety and being current on vaccinations. Preventing Sickle Cell Disease While you can’t prevent the trait, you can start by being aware of carrying the trait. A medical professional will take a small amount of blood from a finger prick for evaluation in a lab. If the results are positive, then it will be helpful to talk with a genetic counselor and learn as much as possible before having children. Sickle cell disease has many life-long complications that you may not want to risk passing onto the next generation. Sickle cell trait (SCT) affects approximately one in 12 African-Americans in the U.S., yet many are unaware that they carry the gene that causes sickle cell disease (SCD).

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Self-awareness is one of the two foundational domains of all SEL skills. Without the ability to recognize and understand your own thoughts and feelings and desires for expression, and without the ability to recognize and understand how thoughts and feelings and behaviors are being presented to others, it is very challenging to understand and/or utilize all other aspects of SEL. All other domain areas of SEL require self-awareness skills. We often equate self-awareness to the fundamentals for a sport of art or academic content area. Recognizing and understanding cognition, physiology, the desire for expression and the actual expression are the fundamentals of competence in SEL, and like sports and arts and academics, it is always helpful to revisit the fundamentals, particularly as student skill develops, after all Lebron didn't shoot one free-throw 15 years ago and call it good. If you move through the domains in the order they are arranged on this site you will see a pattern of skills; first the self than the social; Self-awareness followed by social awareness; self-management followed by social management; self-efficacy followed by social engagement. The design is intentional first we learn, practice, apply, assess with and for the self, then we learn, practice, apply, assess with and for others. The reason for this order is that if we do not have awareness of our individual feelings, thoughts, and desire for expression, we may be "off" when we work to interact with or provide for others. Moving back-and-forth between the self and the social also supports equitable learning opportunities with both individualistic and collectivist cultures. (You can jump over to the Culture Matters page here for to read more about collectivist and individualistic approaches and why equitable experiences with both are significant for gaining SEL competence.) There are many ways to build self-awareness skills. Mindfulness practice is a self-awareness, "checking-in" can build self-awareness skills, reflecting can build self-awareness. To help our students develop self-awareness we have designed four questions for students and staff to ask. What am I thinking? What am I thinking? – This question helps us recognize and understand our cognitive process. All mindfulness practice or mediation practice works to build strength in recognize our thoughts. Things like, "Am I thinking (dwelling, ruminating, perseverating) on a past event or memory (pleasant or unpleasant) or am I focused on a potential/hopeful/dreadful possible future?" Also, what are the feelings I am associating with my thoughts? Do my feelings give me thoughts? Do my thoughts give me feelings? Both? Do I see a pattern between a recurring thought and a recurring feeling? What am I feeling in my body? What am I feeling in my body? – This question helps us recognize and understand what is going on physiologically by focusing attention on the mind/body connection. Some common places to start focusing on are shoulders (tense or relaxed) jaw (clinched or loose) hands (fists or open) forehead (crinkled or flat) low-back (tight or flexible) hamstrings (tight or flexible) and always breathe into the stomach (the second brain) to see what’s going on there. Sometimes the body awareness is stronger than the cognitive awareness so don't overlook the significance of what the body is feeling and communicating. What do I want to express to others and what am I expressing to others? What do I want to express to others? - This questions allows us to recognize our desires for expression. Do you want to express joy by hugging, do you want to express anger by hitting? Many people judge themselves harshly or even disown desires for expression that may not fit into their ideas of themselves or their ideas of being a "good person". Try to not! Work to approach yourself with as little judgement as possible about how you want to express yourself. It is okay and natural and healthy to "want" to express yourself in many, many ways that may not be socially or even personally acceptable. Don't add to a big feeling by condemning or shaming a desire. Allow your judgement about the thought to be the filter you use when choosing an expression. So if you are noticing a "less than pro-social" desire, don't do it. Which leads us to the second part of this question. What am I expressing? This focuses attention on what others see and hear. We cannot control how other people perceive us but we can work to put out our best intentions of how we hope to be received. Think about our body language. This could start with, “what can people see on my face right now?” (scowl, frown, smile, eye roll, avoiding/seeking eye contact, soft eyes or hard stares, mean mugging, apathy, distance, distracted/present) and check-in with the body language also (slouching, leaning back, leaning in, tension, relaxed, proximity toward others – too close, pulling away). It is okay to ask others if you are unsure. "Do I sound tense or calm?", "Do I look bored?" are kind ways to inquire. *NOTE *Kids, particularly those working with trauma, are typically adept at reading body language and tone in adults. If you are unsure about what you may be projecting to others it’s always okay to ask, “How does my tone sound to you? Or What does my body look like right now?” These can support self-awareness for the person asking and the person being asked. Asking those around you for feedback models checking in and it encourages connectivity by including the recipient of the body language and tonal communication by asking their perception. This also supports deepening awareness around non-verbal communication.

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Diabetes is a chronic health condition that affects how the body breaks down food into energy, and it occurs when your blood glucose is too high. About 1 in 10 Americans have diabetes, and about 1 in 5 people with diabetes do not know they have it. According to the CDC, diabetes costs $327 billion annually in medical costs and lost work and wages. People with diabetes have reported to pay almost twice as much in medical bills than people who do not have diabetes. Diabetes can affect mental, physical, and emotional well-being. While there are no cures for diabetes yet, there are many steps people can take to manage the disease and its complications. According to the 2020 National Diabetes Statistics Report, prevalence of diagnosed diabetes was highest among American Indians/Alaska Natives (14.7%), people of Hispanic origin (12.5%), and non-Hispanic blacks (11.7%), followed by non-Hispanic Asians (9.2% and non-Hispanic whites (7.5%). Aging, lifestyle habits, family history, socioeconomic status, education, and urbanization are seen as contributors to an increasing prevalence in diabetes. Environmental factors also influence a person's risk for diabetes. Those who live in low socioeconomic neighborhoods typically lack access to quality healthcare, healthy food options, and active transportation, which is part of the reason why certain populations are at disproportionate risk of diabetes. Although some risk factors are unavoidable (e.g. family history), lifestyle factors like physical activity and healthy eating can be modified to decrease risk of diabetes. It’s never too late to begin exercising regularly, eating more healthy foods, and drinking more water. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which provides numerous rights that make health coverage more fair, can help reduce diabetes in the United States and accelerate diabetes prevention. According to the American Diabetes Association, the Affordable Care Act made it illegal for insurers to charge higher premiums or deny coverage to individuals with diabetes, paving the way for millions of Americans to gain coverage free from discrimination based on health status. The government can continue to work towards decreasing diabetes rates in the United States by focusing on education initiatives and establishing policies that support dietary choices and improved lifestyle. Learning how to control your diabetes helps you manage your diabetes better, including how and when to take medication, how to monitor blood sugar, and how to take care of yourself—all of which leads to fewer emergency hospital visits. Community based organizations can help people with prediabetes enroll in the National Diabetes Prevention Program, a partnership of public and private organizations working to prevent or delay type 2 diabetes through evidence-based lifestyle change programs. The CDC offers an abundance of online learning modules and webinars that can be used to help support people at risk for developing diabetes or those who already have diabetes.

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Numeracy at Parkerville In the Western Australian Curriculum, students become numerate as they develop the knowledge and skills to use mathematics confidently across other learning areas at school and in their lives, more broadly. Numeracy involves students in recognising and understanding the role of mathematics in the world and having the dispositions and capacities to use mathematical knowledge and skills purposefully. Numeracy encompasses the knowledge, skills, behaviours and dispositions that students need to use mathematics in a wide range of situations. The Numeracy learning continuum identifies the related mathematical knowledge and skills, and contextualises these through learning area examples. Teachers at Parkerville Primary School seek to identify numeracy demands across the curriculum, and provide students with opportunities to transfer their mathematical knowledge and skills to contexts outside the mathematics classroom. These opportunities assist students to recognise the interconnected nature of mathematical knowledge, other learning areas and the wider world, and encourage them to use their mathematical skills broadly. This programme supplements teachers’ programmes with a comprehensive range of resources that covers the Australian Curriculum in all year levels from Pre-Primary to Year 6. Students each purchase a workbook and have access to the App that provides additional remediation or extension and practise of key skills. New Wave Mental This series provides an outline of the crucial mental strategies and assists teachers to explicitly teach and practise those skills as well as providing the opportunity to differentiate the support for each student. MTS Online Summative Assessment This WA based programme is used to provide explicit data on strengths and weaknesses for each individual child as well as across cohorts and the whole school.

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By Aasiya Aslam, Designer at DPAI The building industry contributes over 30% of all carbon emissions in the world, from construction to operation. With the world’s building stock estimated to double by 2060, the impact of the construction industry on our environment will be insurmountable. How do we change our current trajectory? Building professionals must redefine the rules of construction, and this calls for a paradigm shift in our building approach, from one that treats our environmental landscape as dispensable, to one that is sustainable and efficient. What is the Cradle-To-Cradle Model? Cradle-to-cradle (C2C), also referred to as regenerative design, is a philosophy that works with materials and energy utilizing a circular model. We are all familiar with the concept of ‘recycling’, but C2C takes it one step further and promotes ‘upcycling’. The C2C model was developed by architect William McDonough and chemist Michael Braungart and discussed extensively in their book ‘Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things.’ McDonough says that most manufacturing and building processes follow a ‘cradle to grave’ model based on systems that cannot be reused, rely on toxic materials, generate large amounts of waste and consume great amounts of energy. The C2C model mimics nature’s processes of circular transmission of energy. It suggests that in order for materials to complete their lifecycle s, they must either replenish the ecosystem in an organic way , (much like the food chain does), or else enter a new cycle with added value. The C2C model is a holistic approach that combines social, economic and efficient systems that are waste-free and can be applied to architecture. The concept is based on three principles: the understanding of waste as food, the use of renewable energy and the support of diversity. In the C2C scenario, there is no concept of waste. A closed cycle that treats ‘waste as “food”, or raw material in a renewal process, is what makes the C2C model sustainable. C2C also promotes upcycling rather than recycling, as within the recycling process, the end material or system often has lower value than the ‘parent’ material. Therefore upcycling results in new materials that lend themselves to higher quality applications. The model follows the idea of generating either ‘biological nutrients’ which can go back into the soil, or ‘technical nutrients’, which can be reused effectively again. C2C in the Building Industry What is promising about the cradle-to-cradle concept, while more prevalent in the creation of individual products and materials, is that it can also be applied to the architectural process. Despite the challenges that come with every project, architects and designers must be mindful of the building process and opt for methods that are both efficient and less detrimental to the environment. Approaches such as promoting renovation instead of demolition, designing buildings that can be disassembled and re-erected wholly elsewhere , and opting for low-impact materials, are inherent to the C2C approach. Materials and systems must be chosen ensuring that after they have served their lifecycles, their ‘nutrient’ value remains rich, unlike most ‘downcycled’ recyclables. Renewable energy sources such as wind, solar and geothermal are also reliable and sustainable ways of using energy in building construction and operation, unlike conventional fossil fuels, which have a negative impact on the environment. Designers can also incorporate ‘passive’ design to maximize on these renewable sources. Passive design strategies are features innate to the form and design of a building that utilize available natural resources to ensure thermal comfort. This climate specific approach based on sun, wind, light and micro-climatic considerations can be employed to design energy efficient buildings and reduce overall dependency on energy-intensive systems. Challenges and Opportunities Architects always feel the need to build, however we need to redefine the idea of what is worthy of a new build and whether there is an opportunity for adaptive reuse, retrofit or agile construction. If so, it must be explored. This does pose its own set of challenges such as code compliance, regulatory approval, adherence to socio-economic policies , and time and budget constraints, to name a few. Where technology-driven methods like additive manufacturing or automation are involved, the choice of materials and processes can be limited. But there are great benefits to the cradle-to-cradle ideology, which encompasses the use of local non-toxic materials, the reduction of waste during construction and the conservation of natural resources, most of which is within the architect’s control. Additionally, cradle-to-cradle promotes inter-disciplinary dialogue, whereby architects can grow their awareness and understanding of materials and systems that can be incorporated into their projects. A Brighter Future In the past, designers have explored alternative construction methods using shipping containers, paper tubes and salvaged timber. In the future, there are endless possibilities for creative building practices using the C2C ethos. Given the impending climate crisis and the history of environmental harm caused by our age-old practices, new sustainable ideologies must be considered and championed. Though the C2C model is not yet implemented as widely as it should be for the well-being of our planet and those who call it home, it gives building professionals food for thought, and furthermore, a positive outlook for the future ahead.

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Aviation Phonetic Alphabet Phonetic Alphabet Overview The NATO phonetic alphabet, more formally the international radiotelephony spelling alphabet, is the most widely used spelling alphabet. Though often called "phonetic alphabets", spelling alphabets have no connection to phonetic transcription systems like the International Phonetic Alphabet. The following is essential aviation terminology. |Learning The International Phonetic Alphabet| |A||ALFA or ALPHA||AL-FAH| |C||CHARLIE||CHAR-LEE or SHAR-LEE| |J||JULIETT or JULIET||JEW-LEE-ETT| |U||UNIFORM||YOU-NEE-FORM or OO-NEE-FORM| Instead, the NATO alphabet assigns code words to the letters of the English alphabet acrophonically so that critical combinations of letters (and numbers) can be pronounced and understood by those who transmit and receive voice messages by radio or telephone regardless of their native language, especially when the safety of navigation or persons is essential. The paramount reason is to ensure intelligibility of voice signals over radio links. Phonetic Alphabet Language Most of the words are recognizable by native English speakers because English must be used upon request for communication between an aircraft and a control tower whenever two nations are involved, regardless of their native languages. English is not required domestically, thus if both parties to a radio conversation are from the same country, then another phonetic alphabet of that nation’s choice may be used. In most versions of the alphabet, the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are found. Alfa is spelled with an f as it is in most European languages. The English and French spelling alpha would not be properly pronounced by speakers of other languages—native speakers of those languages would not know that ph should be pronounced as f. Juliett is spelled with a tt for the benefit of native French speakers because they will treat a single t as silent. In English versions of the alphabet, like that from ANSI, one or both may revert to their standard English spelling. Phonetic Alphabet Usage The alphabet is used to spell out parts of a message containing letters and numbers to avoid confusion, because many letters sound similar, for instance “n” and “m” or, "f","s" and "x" as well as “b”,”d” and "e". For instance the message “proceed to map grid DH98” could be transmitted as “proceed to map grid Delta-Hotel-Niner-Ait”. Using “Delta” instead of “D” avoids confusion between “BH98” and “DH98”. A simple safe guard against a potential hazard. Why not try using it next time you have to clarify something, help educate those who still think "m" is for "mary" and "c" is for cat??? In addition to the traditional military usage, civilian industry uses the alphabet to combat similar problems in the transmission of messages over telephone systems. For example, it is often used in the retail industry where customer or site details are spoken over the telephone (in order to authorize a credit agreement or confirming stock codes), although ad hoc coding is often used in that instance. It has found heavy usage in the information technology industry to accurately and quickly communicate serial/reference codes (which can be and are frequently extremely long) or other specialised information by voice. Phonetic Alphabet and Pronunciation The pronunciation of the words in the alphabet as well as numbers may vary according to the language habits of the speakers. In order to eliminate wide variations in pronunciation, posters illustrating the pronunciation desired are available from the ICAO. VIDEO: An excellent comprehensive phonetic alphabet tutorial

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Astronomers Detail A Massive Barrier Protecting Earth From Deeper Parts Of The Milky Way NASA and others have been scouring our galaxy and beyond for decades in search of new celestial bodies. With each new discovery, more questions also arise of course. A team of researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Nanjing have been studying a map of radioactive gamma-rays that exist in and around the center of our galaxy. Their findings seem to indicate that there is something near the center of the galaxy creating an abundance of cosmic rays and gamma-rays just outside of the galactic center. Gamma-rays are the highest-energy form of light in the universe and come about when high-speed particles called cosmic rays slam into ordinary matter. The team from China found that there is something preventing a large number of cosmic rays from entering from other parts of the universe. They describe this effect as an "invisible barrier" that wraps around the center and is causing the density of cosmic rays to be far less than the rest of our galaxy. It seems cosmic rays are welcome to leave, but are having a hard time gaining entry. The image below of giant gamma-ray bubbles emitting from the center of the galaxy comes from a study done by NASA researcher Doug Finkbeiner back in 2010. The galactic center of the Milky Way is about 26,000 light-years from Earth and located in the constellation Sagittarius. This locale is the home to more than 1 million times as many stars per cubic light-year as the rest of the solar system combined. It is all wrapped around a supermassive black hole known as Sagittarius A, which has a mass 4 million times that of the sun. For quite some time scientists have thought Sagittarius A, or another object in the same area, has been creating cosmic rays that emit throughout the galaxy. As these rays move through the magnetic fields of our galaxy, they create what is referred to as the cosmic ray sea. or an ocean of high-energy particles that is roughly the same density throughout the Milky Way. By utilizing data from Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT, researchers confirmed that there is something located in the galactic center acting as an extremely large particle accelerator. They theorize that possibilities could include Sagittarius A, or even strong stellar winds that arise from the large number of stars crammed into the galactic center. The barrier that was discovered is proving much harder to pinpoint its origin. Some have suggested that it may involve the jumble of magnetic fields near the dense core of our galaxy. Research is ongoing and, as more is discovered, it will either aid in uncovering the beginning of this invisible barrier, or simply spur more questions that need to be answered. At this juncture, how this barrier originated and how it works remains a mystery. If you want to read more in depth information regarding the research, you can visit Nature Communications as well. Regardless of the outcome of this new finding, each discovery will only keep us searching for more information about the awe-inspiring new frontier of space, matter, antimatter and time. Update, 11/23/21: This article was updated to reflect slightly more accurate terminology.

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My Child is Lonely Q: How can I improve social skills in a child who is gifted or has learning differences? I try to help my child make new friends, but she will not listen. She clings onto friends who don’t treat her well. It is so difficult to watch – again – the same mistakes that ultimately leave her in pain! When I manage the courage to discuss it, she screams, “I AM Fine, Thank you Very Much!” or “I’m OK! I don’t want to talk about it!” How can I improve social skills in my teen? Unfortunately, everything is not “OK” A: Social isolation is excruciating! You know that despite his claims that he has plenty of friends – he doesn’t have the kind of positive friendships we want for our kids. Spontaneous social interactions have been disrupted This loss of social engagement may have impacted your child’s ability to learn and practice social skills naturally. Asking her to “reach out” may seem like a simple suggestion, but she may resist due to all the steps and time required to coordinate the invitation. It may also be that she has a thin social network and fears rejection. Those with the greatest needs – children and teens with ADHD or 2e – have fewer opportunities to socialize Usually those with the greatest needs – children and teens with ADHD or 2e – lack the social skills, maturity, executive functioning skills and self-awareness to makes friends and therefore have fewer opportunities to socialize. This social isolation produces a more negative impact than in their neurotypical peers. 5 Ways to Help Your Child Manage Social Relationships: - Evaluate friendships – Help your child evaluate what makes an attractive friend and which steps are required to make and keep friends. Don’t single out a friend. Instead help your tween or teen recognize the steps necessary to connect. This will allow her to examine friendships in general. After all, even if that one friend is removed from the equation, the problem still remains. - Explore the value of friendships – Unless the friendship is a dangerous one, take a conversational approach by asking him about his friends without judgment or harsh restrictions. Ask open-ended questions, such as “What do you enjoy doing with your friend?” “What do you like about him or her?” We want children to develop lifelong positive beliefs about how they should be treated and to choose positive friends who make positive choices. - Empathize – Information is power, so regardless of what your child says, take a moment to breathe and listen. The larger goal is to gain your child’s trust, which is more important than any minor rule infraction. Help your child know that she can always feel comfortable coming to you, no matter what social problems she’s encountering, now or in the future. - Don’t impose your goals – Ask and listen, don’t apply pressure nor assume you know the reasons for your child’s behavior. Getting your child to feel comfortable talking to you requires waiting, listening, and showing confidence that they have the capacity to learn and grow. If you try to push your agenda, you will likely get nowhere. By truly hearing your child’s perspective, you allow her to hold a mirror up to her views about friendship and evaluate them. This takes time, but it will have better results. - Reflect, clarify and be curious – Paraphrasing what your child says and then repeating it back to him shows empathy and helps clarify your child’s concerns. By summarizing and repeating his statements, you allow your child to clarify, share more information, and to tell his interpretation of the statement. This curiosity invites him to be comfortable opening up to you. Good social skills are essential for effective communication, but they don’t come easily. The good news is that social skills, just like other skills, can be developed. First help your child identify the reasons why they want to improve, and then practice and practice.

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1. Right-Brained Learners Need Hands-on Activities Something I learned when working with right-brained children was that if I engaged the child’s hands in their learning, their learning deepened, they were more engaged, and their focus would go wherever their fingers went. Of course, visual, kinesthetic and tactile learners are also right-brained learners. In a previous blog post, Teaching Strategies That Help Children Improve Focus, I shared stories about three students I worked with, each of whom had real problems with focus. Each of them had different issues: flickering attention, wandering attention, and attentional gymnastics, where the child just could not sit still. Focus can be an issue for right-brained learners because they are visual learners, and they learn through their hands and their bodies. This is why hands-on activities help. Read the blog for specific strategies that helped each of these children. 2. Right-Brained Learners Are Impacted by Their Environment Children who are ADD and right-brained learners need to be enticed to learn what you believe they should. If their learning environment is sterile, drab, or uninviting, getting them to want to learn will be much more difficult. If you are teaching your child at home, it will be totally worth the effort to enlist your child in creating this environment. If you cannot paint the room, hang colorful images on the wall that appeal to your child. 3. Right-Brained Learners Need Relevance to Their Lives Rather than teaching math facts using pencil and paper and sterile problems, find out what your child really likes and relate math to that. For example, teach him how to use money as you shop for groceries, or as he saves up for something he really wants. Set her up with a check register and as you teach her to use it, she will be learning to count money, to add and subtract, etc. Give him a real wallet with real coins to use. If you are studying measurement, study it as you build something that is interesting to the child. If she loves playing with construction sets, study the concepts of perimeter or area as she’s building a house. 4. Right-Brained Learners Need to Find Relationships For instance, choose a topic from science, and relate all other subjects to that one theme. If volcanoes are your topic for science, add geography by finding volcanoes on the world map, read books and articles about them, go back in history to study Pompeii, bring math into the mix by creating word problems relating to volcanoes. Let your child have the chance to become totally immersed in the subject. He will do better if he’s had the chance to spend time focusing on one theme. 5. Right-Brained Children Need to Move While Learning Any time you can structure learning so that your child is NOT seated at her desk, the better for her concentration. Instead of using pencil and paper all the time, affix a small whiteboard to the wall, door, or tabletop and let the child use dry erase markers to work out problems. If you plan for movement, it is going to be easier to channel the child’s energy. If you are practicing spelling, for instance, use the white board on the wall and try calling out a word. Say, “house.” Your child will write her word on the white board. Have her do a toe touch, and then jump back up to do the next word. Or she could do a body movement that the word reminds her of. For house, maybe it would be tenting her fingertips over her head as if making a roof on a house. 6. Right-Brained Learners Need to See the Goal and Mark Their Progress Many right-brained children love to see not only where they are going, but they like to mark their progress along the way to reaching the goal. It would be great to decide on specific tasks for each day and write these on colorful cards with a cute picture drawn to illustrate the topic. Break tasks down as detailed as possible. You can attach magnets to the back and display the cards in the order you will accomplish them, or you could put them all into a little basket and let your child select a card that will tell him what his next task is. Each task he accomplishes will get him closer and closer to the goal. The goal should be something he really likes to do. 7. Strategies to Help Right-Brained Learners Focus I know from personal experience that if I am having trouble settling down to start a “desk task,” it helps tremendously to have a lamp on my desk that shines light directly on the spot I should be focusing. If I am already having trouble focusing, then if the overhead light is on, every object in the room demands equal visual attention and it becomes very easy to go off on mental or tactile rabbit trails. This being true, most days find my office light off, but my desk lamp shining away valiantly, pointing my attention to the next task. Try this method with your child if she has trouble settling down to do a task at her desk. 8. Right-Brained Learners are Distracted by Clutter I wrote in another blog (Confessions of an Adult Visual Learner) what clutter on my work space does to me. Every little scrap of paper, every object, screams equally for attention. So while I love a visually pleasing room to work in, the space also needs to be conducive to focus. So, in your child's immediate work area, have only the items needed for that task. What will help tremendously is to have places for everything that tends to accumulate on the desk. Part of getting down to work will be putting all extraneous clutter away: pencils in the pencil jar, other books in the to-do basket, etc. 9. Playing Mozart Can Benefit Right-Brained Learners I read a long time ago that playing Mozart helps organize one's thoughts for work. A decade ago I was working on three manuscripts. Each time I sat down to write another chapter, the blank paper screamed at me in its whiteness, and its blankness mirrored my own mind. Even a little black dot on the page would have been preferable to seeing nothing on the page. The more time that ticked by without my being able to come up with something to start with, the surer I became that I would have nothing whatsoever to say on the topic. One day I decided to try the Mozart music theory. I actually tried this many times I had writing tasks to do, and while I never was aware of when the words actually started to flow, flow they did. You might consider playing Mozart while your child works. 10. Right-Brained Learners Need to Learn and Practice Visualization For the right-brained learner, the ability to visualize is not only a gift, it is critical to success in learning. Visualization needs to be practiced and your child needs to understand how valuable this ability will be to him. Words and symbols are not going to be his strong suit, so capitalize on what he does so well already. For example, if you are learning a new word, let the child study the written word for a bit, and then have him close his eyes and see it in his imagination. Give him time to form that mental picture and when he has it in place, ask him what he sees. Have him spell it as he sees the word in his head. Play Visualization Games VISUALIZE, THEN ACT IT OUT Something active children will enjoy doing, which will also help them in school, is playing visualization games. Start small and build as you see they are able to do more. Say, “Close your eyes and make pictures in your head of what I say.” Next say, “You are going to stand up, walk to the window and look out. Next you will walk to the door and close it, finally, you will touch your toes and then sit in your chair.” When your child has visualized themselves doing this, ask them to do what she saw in their head. This game will greatly improve your child’s listening and following directions skills, while giving them a lot of practice in visualization. VISUALIZE, THEN DRAW Do a similar activity. Say a sentence that would be easy to see in your head, and prompt children to close their eyes and see it happening in their heads. Next, have them draw what they saw. This particular activity will help a lot with reading comprehension. 11. Right-Brained Learners May Need Help With Prioritizing Facts Right-brained learners are global thinkers. This is a wonderful trait in that they are able to see cause and effect, can see how elements are related to each other and how they impact each other, can learn through detecting patterns from within the whole. However, global thinkers may experience challenges because of their global view. One challenge is that when there are several tasks to be completed, children may find it difficult to put them into a sequence or order to be completed. We want them to learn to help themselves as much as possible, so giving them some tips to help them prioritize would be helpful. They can write their tasks on little scraps of paper and then make a choice based on: 12. Right-Brained Learners Benefit from Drawing When Solving Problems Many right-brained children have trouble with math because of how it is typically taught: in little steps with memorization, frequently timed, and children are often told they need to show their work. Remember that right-brained children are generally picture thinkers. This means they need time to translate abstract, symbolic content into images they can use to understand. Try instead explaining the problem and then letting children draw pictures that represent the problem. Keep in mind, however, that some problems they may be able to solve in their head without being able to verbalize how they arrived at the answer. The last time I took a math class, I was pretty stressed. I struggled with math in elementary school, and so taking a graduate level math class as an adult, many years removed from college days, really freaked me out. I would literally experience rapid heartbeat and shortness of breath. I rescued myself by drawing little pictures that showed me the question and helped me work out the answer. I drew very furtively because I was sure someone my age should NOT have to draw little pictures in order to solve problems. Even today, if I have to add or subtract relatively short numbers, I don’t instantly pull the answer out of my head, I SEE the problem as a visual which would take many words to explain to someone else. When this type of problem solving fails is when there is pressure to hurry and I cannot take my needed seconds to visualize. Learn More About How Right-Brained Learners Process Set time aside to observe your right-brained children, taking notes on what you see during times they are engrossed and displaying remarkable focus. Write down everything you observe about what they're doing, and when you have done this a few times, study your notes to learn what those scenarios had in common. Doing this will reveal your child’s learning strengths. Ask questions that will reveal to both of you how the right-brained child processes. "How did you remember that?" "How did you figure that out?" "What did that remind you of?" Questions like these will help adults teach more effectively, but they will also teach children how to recognize and use their own learning strengths. Find Products Especially Designed for your Tactile and Kinesthetic Learners Would You Like to Learn More About Supporting Right-Brained Learners? We are here to help! Just reach out and someone on our team will be happy to answer your questions and show you how to help all students love learning!

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Colossal pyramids, imposing temples, golden treasures, enigmatic hieroglyphs, powerful pharaohs, strange gods, and mysterious mummies are features of Ancient Egyptian culture that have fascinated people over the millennia. The Bible refers to its gods, rulers, and pyramids. Neighboring cultures in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean wrote about its god-like kings and its seemingly endless supply of gold. The Greeks and Romans describe aspects of Egypt's culture and history. As the 19th century began, the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt highlighted the wonders of this ancient land, and public interest soared. Not long after, Champollion deciphered Egypt's hieroglyphs and paved the way for other scholars to reveal that Egyptian texts dealt with medicine, dentistry, veterinary practices, mathematics, literature, and accounting, and many other topics. Then, early in the 20th century, Howard Carter discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun and its fabulous contents. Exhibitions of this treasure a few decades later resulted in the world's first blockbuster, and its revival in the 21st century has kept interest alive. Join Dr. David Silverman, Professor of Egyptology at Penn, Curator in Charge of the Egyptian Section of the Penn Museum, and curator of the Tutankhamun exhibitions on a guided tour of the mysteries and wonders of this ancient land. He has developed this online course and set it in the galleries of the world famous Penn Museum. He uses many original Egyptian artifacts to illustrate his lectures as he guides students as they make their own discovery of this fascinating culture. This course focused on five key areas in the study of Ancient Egypt: 1) Principles of Egyptian Art, 2) The Basics of the Language of Ancient Egypt: Hieroglyphs, 3) Egyptian Magic, 4) Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and the Religion of the Aten, and 5) The Burial of Tutankhamun and the Search for his Tomb. This course is intended to accompany, and ideally to follow, Introduction to Ancient Egypt (also available on Coursera).

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What is gastrulation of frog? What is gastrulation of frog? Gastrulation in the process of highly integrated cell and tissue migrations of prospective endodermal and mesodermal areas to their definite positions into the interior of the embryo. There occur three types of morphogenetic movements in amphibian gastrulation. … What is gastrulation embryology? Gastrulation is defined as an early developmental process in which an embryo transforms from a one-dimensional layer of epithelial cells (blastula) and reorganizes into a multilayered and multidimensional structure called the gastrula. What is Embryology of frog? The frog egg is a huge cell; its volume is over 1.6 million times larger than a normal frog cell. During embryonic development, the egg will be converted into a tadpole containing millions of cells but containing the same amount of organic matter. The upper hemisphere of the egg — the animal pole — is dark. What are the steps of gastrulation? In amniotes, gastrulation occurs in the following sequence: (1) the embryo becomes asymmetric; (2) the primitive streak forms; (3) cells from the epiblast at the primitive streak undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition and ingress at the primitive streak to form the germ layers. Which is the first indication of gastrulation in frog? Invagination and involution Amphibian gastrulation is first visible when a group of marginal endoderm cells on the dorsal surface of the blastula sinks into the embryo. What is blastula and gastrula? The Blastula is a spherical, hollow, one celled thick structure, found during the first stage of embryogenesis, and is known as the ‘pre-embryo’. The gastrula is formed during the gastrulation stage of embryogenesis, and consists of three germ layers, with the structure known as the ‘mature-embryo’. What triggers gastrulation? Gastrulation is mechanically triggered by internal fluctuations of cell shape. What are the three layers of the Gastrula? Gastrulation is a key phase in embryonic development when pluripotent stem cells differentiate into the three primordial germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. What are the major differences between frog embryology and human embryology? Frog Embryology is the study of the embryonic cycles of a frog, Human Embryology is the study of the embryo and the embryonic cycles of humans. What egg is frog from in Adopt Me? The Frog is a limited ultra-rare pet, which was added to Adopt Me! along with the Aussie Egg on February 29, 2020. As it is now unavailable, it can only be obtained by trading or by hatching any remaining Aussie Eggs. Players have a 15% chance of hatching an ultra-rare pet from the Aussie Egg… What blastula means? Blastula, hollow sphere of cells, or blastomeres, produced during the development of an embryo by repeated cleavage of a fertilized egg. The cells of the blastula form an epithelial (covering) layer, called the blastoderm, enclosing a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel. What are the 3 germ layers of the embryo? Germ layer, any of three primary cell layers, formed in the earliest stages of embryonic development, consisting of the endoderm (inner layer), the ectoderm (outer layer), and the mesoderm (middle layer).

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A potent planet-warming gas set a record for the second year in a row, scientists reported Thursday, just as the UN’s panel on climate change warned the world is running out of time to rein in fossil fuel emissions. Methane — the second largest contributor to the human-caused climate crisis after carbon dioxide — increased in the atmosphere by the largest amount in 2021 since measurements began nearly 40 years ago, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration said. The invisible, odorless gas leaks into the atmosphere mainly from oil and gas operations, and often goes undetected. Methane has roughly 80 times more warming power than carbon dioxide in the near-term. With the planet rapidly approaching 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, scientists have warned atmospheric methane needs to be slashed quickly. Methane increased by 17 parts per billion in 2021, NOAA reported. The rise in 2020 — just above 15 parts per billion — was the previous annual record. The latest figures come just days after the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change released a report describing how the world should address the climate crisis. The panel reported that, as the world barrels toward levels of global warming that will have irreversible impacts, there are economically viable solutions already out there including curbing methane emissions — the fastest way to turn down the heat. The concentration of methane in the atmosphere is higher now than any time in at least 800,000 years, according the IPCC. Methane, the main component of the natural gas we use to heat our homes and cook, can leak from oil and gas drilling and the pipelines that transport those fossil fuels. It also comes from landfills and agricultural practices — and even from flatulent cows. Scientists at Stanford University reported in March that oil and gas operations in southeast New Mexico are leaking an alarming 194 metric tons of methane per hour into the atmosphere. That is more than six times what the Environmental Protection Agency has estimated. Climate experts see methane as a quick win. If the world stopped emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) tomorrow, global temperatures wouldn’t begin to cool for many years because of how long the gas stays in the atmosphere. Methane, on the other hand, has a large warming impact for about nine years, said Xin Lan, a research scientist working at the University of Colorado, Boulder, and NOAA’s Global Monitoring Laboratory. “That means if we reduce methane emissions now, we should be able to see the atmosphere levels coming down rather quickly in a few years,” she said. “That’s slightly different than CO2, which stays in the atmosphere for thousands of years, so it takes a lot more efforts to do the reduction.” “And because CO2 has such a long lifetime, once it’s released in the atmosphere, the impact is quiet long lasting,” Lan added. NOAA also reported Thursday that carbon dioxide is now at an average of 415 parts per million and continues to rise. For context, when President Barack Obama was elected, atmospheric carbon dioxide was at just over 385 parts per million. It was the 10th year in a row that CO2 increased by more than 2 parts per million, NOAA reported. Robert Jackson, a professor of environmental science at Stanford University, told CNN that while reducing methane emissions is important, global leaders can’t overlook carbon dioxide. “We must address both,” Jackson told CNN. “Methane action won’t do the job on its own, but is critical for delaying warming in the short-term. Carbon dioxide is still the most important greenhouse gas long-term.” Jackson noted that, because natural gas powers so much of our daily lives, cities and states would do well to prioritize electrifying new construction to avoid locking in the use of natural gas for decades more. He also said that there should be a cost for polluting methane. “We have even fewer mechanisms for pricing methane pollution than for carbon dioxide in the United States,” Jackson said. “We need to expand carbon removal incentives to include methane removal.” Rick Duke, the US Deputy Special Envoy for Climate, said the Biden administration wants to see more policies to regulate methane emissions from oil and gas — and that addressing methane is a major priority. President Joe Biden targeted methane emissions in November when he announced a new rule that would push oil and gas companies to more accurately detect, monitor and repair methane leaks from new and existing wells, pipelines and other equipment. Biden, alongside EU President Ursula von der Leyen, also launched the Global Methane Pledge last year, which aims to slash global methane emissions by nearly 30% by the end of the decade. More than 100 countries have signed that pledge.

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Read the article by Gould and Lewontin (1979). This article presents a critique of the way evolutionary biology was evaluating selection and adaptation. This article spawned a major turning point for the field. It provides the notion that some traits arise simply as a structural byproduct of selection on other traits. This means that observed or inferred functional differences cannot always be equated to adaptive changes. After reading this article, write a short essay describing how this idea of constraints impact evolution and the way in which researchers should study evolution. What information would Gould and Lewontin need to justify calling a trait an adaptation? What are the main critiques of the Adaptationist Programme? How important do you think the evolutionary history of the species is when considering if a trait is an adaptation? How important do you think constraints are to the process of evolution? Explain your reasoning for these opinions. Be sure to relate back to the readings, lectures, and/or videos that you watched in Modules 2 and 3. One-half to one typed-page, single-spaced, times new roman, and 12 point font. DO NOT GO OVER ONE PAGE. Include your name and your section number at the top of the page and upload your assignment as a Word document by the due date. Be concise and logical in your writing

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The term “fiction” refers to writing that is the product of the author’s imagination. Fictional genres include mysteries, science fiction, romance, fantasy, chick lit, and criminal thrillers, to name a few. Nonfiction literature is literature that is based on actual events. What are the 3 types of fiction? There are three types of novels that are typically classified as literary fiction, genre fiction, and mainstream fiction. What fiction means? Learners of the English Language Fiction is defined as written stories about people and events that do not occur in real life; for example, A work of literature that relates stories that have been invented by the author: something that is not factual. Fiction is defined in detail in the English Language Learners Dictionary as follows: fiction. noun What is fiction and examples? Generally speaking, fiction refers to something that is not true. A book that is not based on a factual tale is an example of fictional writing. As an example of fiction, consider a falsehood that you were informed of. A mistaken belief, for example, is an example of fiction. What books are considered fiction? Fiction is created by the author and is based on his or her imagination. Fiction includes short stories, novels, myths, legends, and fairy tales, to name a few examples. Though some of the settings, story ideas, and characters in fiction are based on real-life events or individuals, writers utilize these elements as starting off points for their novels. How do you study fiction? How to Read and Understand a Novel - Research. The characters, ideas, and narrative will all benefit from some background study on your novel’s setting. Your first reading of the novel should be focused just on reading, rather than beginning with a flurry of notes. - Read again, this time making notes. What are the 2 main types of fiction? Literary fiction and commercial fiction are the two primary forms of fiction. Commercial fiction appeals to a wide range of readers and can be classified into a variety of subgenres, including mystery, romance, legal thriller, western, science fiction, and other genres. Why is it called fiction? A fabrication is a story that has been purposefully produced to tell the story of something. Another type of literary work that relies on imagination rather than truth, such as a book or short tale, might be considered fictitious. Because fiction is created in the mind, the Latin term fictus, which meaning “to shape,” appears to be a good source for the English word fiction. How do you write a fiction story? Here are 16 pointers on how to write fiction: - Maintain the mystery of your novel by withholding information from your viewers. - Write short sentences and mix them up. - Write every day and set milestones. - Write every day and set milestones. Understand the fundamentals of story structure. Become familiar with effective character development approaches. What is the main purpose of fiction? Typically, the goal of fiction is to entertain the reader. However, the boundary between right and wrong is not always that obvious. Fiction based on real persons or events is referred to as historical fiction since it is based on events that occurred in the past and is thus accurate. What are the 5 types of fiction? There are five subgenres of this genre that are commonly divided into: fantasy, historical fiction, contemporary fiction, mystery, and science fiction. Although there are more than five forms of fiction, ranging from romance to graphic novels, there are only five categories of fiction. What are the 10 examples of fiction? Novels of Literary Fiction that are well-known are listed below. - Novels by F. Scott Fitzgerald and James Baldwin include The Great Gatsby, Giovanni’s Room, O Pioneers!, and The Invisible Man (Ralph Ellison). The Handmaid’s Tale (Margaret Atwood) - War and Peace (Leo Tolstoy) - Brave New World (Aldous Huxley) - and One Hundred Years of Solitude (Gabriel Garcia Marquez) are some of the best-known novels in the world. Does fiction mean real? The term “fiction” refers to writing that is the product of the author’s imagination. Nonfiction literature is literature that is based on actual events. What is the difference between novel and fiction? What is the distinction between a novel and a work of fiction? Fiction is imagined writing by an author in the form of prose, and it may be classified into a variety of genres such as romance, mystery, horror, and other similar genres. A book is the longest of all literature kinds, and a novel has at least 40000 words or more on average. What are the 4 types of books? Book Types There are many different types of books. - The following are examples of non-fiction: edited (non-fiction) - reference (non-fiction)

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With NUSD’s focus on informational writing, it’s important for our families to understand a tool that is used to help score writing and help students know how to improve their writing. This tool is called a writing rubric. A rubric is, very simply, a scoring guide based on grade-level writing standards that provides a guide for stronger writing practice. In a collaborative effort to determine student writing levels (regardless of grade level or content area, the group agreed on five key scoring elements of writing in all NUSD informational writing rubrics there are 5 elements that a student’s writing is scored on. Breaking the writing into 5 elements helps to identify specific areas of strength and areas for growth. These 5 scoring elements are as follows: The topic or Main Idea (K-5) /Thesis Statement (6-12) Use of sources (K-5) and Selection and Citation of Evidence (6-12) Standard English Conventions Why are writing rubrics important to the NUSD literacy plan? Rubrics help students, families, and teachers identify and expect what quality writing looks like in the classroom. But how do rubrics benefit our students? Students can identify and understand key scoring elements in their work so they know what good writing needs to include and how to improve their own writing. When students are given the opportunity to understand the scoring process, their success is based on clear expectations and requirements toward desired outcomes rather than general statements such as, “unclear opening” or “needs more detail”. NUSD writing rubrics also benefit parents by creating opportunities to speak with their students about the writing assessments. When parents know what is expected, they feel more confident and comfortable helping students or giving feedback. Additionally, students, parents, and teachers using the writing rubrics together can foster positive relationships where everyone is comfortable using results from the rubric to discuss areas of strength and improvement in a collaborative environment. Teachers can then use the rubrics to communicate with students and parents’ main ideas regarding meeting or exceeding an expectation, what further learning needs to take place, or any appropriate next steps based on equity and fairness.

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It’s 50 years since the two Apollo 11 astronauts – Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin – spent 22 hours collecting samples, deploying experiments and sometimes just playing in the Sea of Tranquillity on the Moon. In doing so, they created an archaeological site unique in human history, says Flinders University senior lecturer in archaeology and space studies Dr Alice Gorman in The Conversation. Now, with what’s been called the New Space Race and plans to return to the Moon, the Apollo 11 and other lunar sites are under threat. We need to protect this heritage for future generations. The archaeological site of Tranquillity Base consists of the hardware left behind, as well as the marks made in the lunar surface by the astronauts and instruments. The hardware component includes the landing module, the famous flag (no longer standing), experiment packages, cameras, antennas, commemorative objects, space boots and many other discarded objects – more than 106 in total. Around these objects are the first human footprints on the Moon as well as the tracks the astronauts made walking around, and the places where they dug out samples of rock and dust to take back to Earth for scientific analysis. The artefacts, traces and the landscape constitute an archaeological site. The relationships between them can be used by archaeologists to study human behaviour in this environment so different to Earth, with one-sixth terrestrial gravity and no atmosphere. Not only this, but the site has heritage value for people on Earth. To assess this, we can look at a number of categories of cultural significance. Those in the Burra Charter are widely used across the world for heritage assessment. Historic: There is no doubt that, as the first place where humans set foot on another celestial body, this is a very important place in global history. It also represents the ideologies of the Cold War (1947-1992) between the US and the USSR. Scientific: What can we learn from the site? More particularly, what questions would we no longer be able to answer if Tranquillity Base was damaged or destroyed? This is not just about archaeological research into human behaviour on the Moon. Apollo 11 has been exposed to the harsh lunar environment for 50 years. The surfaces of the hardware are accidental experiments in themselves: they carry the record of 50 years of micrometeorite and cosmic ray bombardment. Finding out how well the materials have survived can also provide information about how to design future missions. Aesthetic: This type of cultural significance is about how we experience a place. While we can’t assess it in person, there are films and photographs that give us a feeling for the place. This includes the light, shadows and colours of the lunar surface from the perspective of the human senses. The aesthetic qualities have inspired many artists and musicians, including astronaut Alan Bean who devoted his post-Apollo 12 life to painting the Moon. Social: This is about the value that contemporary communities place on the site. For the 600 million-plus people who watched the television broadcast of the landing, it was a life-changing moment representing the ingenuity of human technology and visions of a space-age future. But the mission did not mean the same for everyone. Some African-Americans protested against Apollo 11, seeing it as a waste of resources when there was such great economic and social disparity between white and black communities in the US. For them, it was a sign of human failure rather than a triumph. The larger the community that has an interest in a heritage place, the higher its level of social significance. It could be argued that Apollo 11 has outstanding universal significance, like places on the World Heritage List (unfortunately the World Heritage Convention cannot be applied to space). In the past few years we have seen an increase in proposed missions to return to the Moon. Some have stated their intention to revisit the Apollo sites, by human crew or robot – and this could lead to the removal of material, for souvenirs or science. But the sites are both fragile and unprotected. The two primary risks to their survival are uncontrolled looting, and damage from abrasive and sticky lunar dust. Removing material from the sites damages the integrity of the artefacts and the relationships between them. A casual visit could erase the original footprints and astronaut traverses. The corrosive dust disturbed by surface activities could wear away the materials. Dust was a problem for all the crewed lunar missions. Apollo 16 commander John Young said: “Dust is the number one concern in returning to the Moon.” The dust can be stirred up by plumes from landing or ascending vehicles, driving vehicles, walking on the surface, or, in the next phase of lunar settlement, by construction and industrial activities, such as mining. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 forbids making territorial claims in space. Applying any national heritage legislation to a place on the Moon could be interpreted as a territorial claim. The US states of California and New Mexico have placed the Apollo 11 artefacts left on the Moon on a heritage list. They can do this because, under the treaty, the US legally owns the artefacts. But this does not protect the site itself. NASA has established a set of heritage guidelines for its sites on the Moon. The guidelines propose buffer zones around these areas, inside which no-one should enter. They make recommendations for approaching the sites to minimise dust disturbance. In May 2019, a bill called the One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act was introduced to the US Congress. Its purpose is: To require any Federal agency that issues licences to conduct activities in outer space to include in the requirements for such licences an agreement relating to the preservation and protection of the Apollo 11 landing site, and for other purposes. But the bill applies only to Apollo 11 and does not have similar requirements for the five other Apollo landing sites. It also applies only to US missions. It’s a step in the right direction, but there is still much more to be done. Only in the last decade has the idea of space archaeology gained legitimacy. Until recently, there was no urgency to establish an international framework to manage the cultural values of lunar heritage. Now we’re in a new situation. On Earth, it’s common for industrial or urban activities that disturb the environment to be subject to an environmental impact assessment, which includes heritage. Even when there are no laws to force companies to pay attention to heritage, many consider it important to seek a Social Licence to Operate – support from stakeholder communities to continue their activities. Everyone on Earth is a stakeholder in the heritage of the Moon. Fifty years from now, what will remain of the Apollo 11 and other sites? What new meanings will people draw from it? Also on The Conversation – Footprints on the Moon and cemeteries on Mars, To The Moon And Beyond 1 and To the Moon and Beyond 2, and Shadows on the Moon – with Dr Alice Gorman, from the College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences at Flinders University. Dr Gorman is a member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the Advisory Council of the Space Industry Association of Australia and the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Her research focuses on the archaeology and heritage of space exploration, including space junk, planetary landing sites, off-earth mining, rocket launch pads and antennas.

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Unlike in Classical Greece, Egyptian cosmological, metaphysical and ethical concepts did not crystallize over the course of a few centuries. Instead they were the outcome of millennia of intellectual labour, during which hundreds of priests developed and grappled with challenging, often contradictory, ways of making sense of the universe. As part of that process, several schools of religious thought emerged, occasionally competing to establish their respective deities as the supreme creator. This jostling inadvertently ignited several intellectual breakthroughs at the end of the second millennium BCE, which resulted in Egyptians advancing ideas remarkably similar to some of the mainstays of later Hellenic and Hellenistic thought. In ‘Theological Responses to Amarna’ (2004), German Egyptological heavyweight Jan Assmann showed how the process began in the fourteenth century BCE when Akhenaten ascended to the throne. He sought to dismantle the powerful religious establishment that stood in the way of his quest for absolute power by using a proto-scientific worldview to eradicate Egypt’s polytheism. That is, he banned the entire Egyptian pantheon and replaced it with a single figure: Aten, the personification of the disc of the sun, or of solar energy. Anticipating the earliest pre-Socratic thinkers, who in various ways traced the source of the cosmos to a single element, Akhenaten promulgated that solar energy was not only divine, it was the sole element out of which the entire universe evolved. Each component of visible reality was described as an ‘evolution’ or emanation of that energy. In turn, the realm of invisible deities, the underworld, and spirits, were dismissed as fairy tales from a bygone era. Temples were closed, inscriptions referencing other gods were erased, and even representations of other deities were destroyed. This was the first time in history that a form of monotheism had been adopted as the official creed of a kingdom. The priesthood answered Akhenaten’s monist challenge in a way that prefigured Hermetic, and perhaps even ancient Greek efforts, such as those of Parmenides and his followers, to uncover the oneness concealed behind the plurality of the visible world. The Egyptian priesthood revamped older ideas to posit a hidden divine entity, symbolized by the sun, as constituting and animating the universe. Struggling with the limited vocabulary of their time, priests tried alluding to this unknowable Supreme Being’s immaterial qualities by loosely naming it ‘One’, ‘hidden’, and ‘soul-like’. They claimed that it was inaccessible to language or intellect and inhabited a separate ontological space. Paradoxically, the same priests also averred that the millions of gods and other constituents of the universe were constantly evolving parts of this ineffable being, which remained present yet invisible in and as the cosmos. Egyptians occasionally used the word ‘Amun’ (‘the hidden’) as a pseudonym to refer to the nameless Supreme Being who was simultaneously a boundless unified hidden One and the infinite Many of the cosmos. This emphasis on the invisible and underlying ‘oneness’ of the visible universe may well have been a precursor to the Eleatic Greek idea that the manifold world of sense perception conceals or misrepresents true reality, which is singular, all-encompassing, omnipresent Being. – Peter Flegel, ‘Does Western Philosophy have Egyptian Roots?’

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What is Pepino mosaic virus? Pepino mosaic virus (PepMV) is a single-stranded RNA-virus (Potexvirus genus, Fexiviridae family) that was originally isolated from pepino (Solanum muricatum), a South American melon-like fruit. From the season 1999-2000 the virus started to damage greenhouse tomato crops in Europe. Although the virus only causes major problems in tomato cultivation, other plants of the Solanaceae family (night shade family) such as eggplant, black nightshade, some potato and pepper varieties and some plants belonging to the genera Nicotiana (e.g. tobacco plant), Datura (e.g. thorn apple) and Physalis (e.g. Physalis floridana) can also act as a host. The virus is very infectious and is transmitted mechanically. Possible ways of mechanical transmission are tools, employees, visitors, mobile phones, insects, etc. In other words, all means by which plant sap of an infected plant gets in contact with a non-infected plant. As soon as one single plant in the greenhouse has been infected by the virus, it is impossible to protect the other greenhouse plants from infection because of the rapid spread of the virus. Moreover, the virus spreads heterogeneously, which makes it very difficult to control the crop. The most typical symptom of a PepMV infection is marbling of the tomato fruit. Brown sepals, bright yellow spots on the leaves and nettle-heads are also characteristic PepMV symptoms. In addition to these typical symptoms, some damage profiles with a physiological cause, such as flamed fruits or open fruits, can also be enhanced by the presence of PepMV. Because PepMV is a RNA-virus, the replication process in the plant cell proceeds in a less controlled way and mutations occur regularly. The yellowing mutant and the necrotic mutant for example are two atypical forms caused by a mutation in the viral genetic material. Both mutants can cause severe damage to the crop. Marbling of the tomato fruit bright yellow spots Four different strains of the virus are known: the Chilean strain (CH2), the European strain (EU), the Peruvian strain (LP) and the American strain (US1). Within these strains, many different individuals, called isolates, can be observed. In Europe, the Chilean strain (CH2) is dominant and present in 90% of the infections. If more strains are found in case of infection, the infection is usually more aggressive than when only one single strain is present. Within the strains, however, there is also variability among different isolates belonging to the same strain. Although different isolates within one and the same strain are genetically very similar, they can show very different levels of aggressiveness in the plant and, as a consequence, in the severity of the symptoms and the damage they cause. For example, there are very aggressive Chilean isolates, but also very mild ones that cause less symptoms. The impact of a PepMV infection for the tomato grower is variable. Based on a survey among Belgian growers and on several practical trials with various isolates of PepMV, quality losses were estimated to be between 4 and 15%, with additional production losses between 4 and 12%. Several factors contribute to this variability. The genetic identity of the virus – which isolate of which strain – that causes the infection is one them. The moment in the crop cycle when the infection takes place is another factor that might have an important impact on the damage that is caused. For instance, an infection early in the season, when the plant does not yet bear fruit, will typically cause less losses than when the infection takes place when the plants are heavily laden. Typical of the damage caused by PepMV is, that it is very intense for a few weeks and then disappears to eventually return later in the season. This means that damage can be more severe during a certain period of the year, with 50-60% non-marketable fruits. Moreover, some tomato varieties are more susceptible to quality losses due to PepMV than others and climate also has an impact. In general, when a plant has more stress for whatever reason, losses will be much greater. In the early 2000s, PepMV became such a huge problem in Belgium and the Netherlands, that there was an urgent demand for support and control measures from the tomato sector. As a first step, fundamental research was carried out to identify the problem and a very strict hygiene protocol was developed to avoid PepMV infections. These strict hygiene measures turned out to be insufficient to ensure the grower a PepMV-free crop. Soon, research was oriented towards concrete, biological management tools and step by step PMV®-01 vaccination strategy was developed to immunize plants in order to prevent infection.

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Question: What is HTML? The HTML uses “markup” to annotate text, images, and other content for display in a Web browser “Hypertext” refers to links that connect web pages to one another, either within a single website or between websites. Links are a fundamental aspect of the Web. By uploading content to the Internet and linking it to pages created by other people, you become an active participant in the World Wide Web. HTML markup includes special “elements” such as and many other HTML Elements. 17/03/2021 by SEO Book Pro

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The Reading Like a Historian curriculum engages students in historical inquiry. Each lesson revolves around a central historical question and features a set of primary documents designed for groups of students with a range of reading skills. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by employing reading strategies such as sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing historical facts, students evaluate the trustworthiness of multiple perspectives on historical issues and learn to make historical claims backed by documentary evidence. To learn more about how to use Reading Like a Historian lessons, watch these videos about how teachers use these materials in their classrooms.

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A new study has found that the Martian crust may be hiding water that was deposited long ago. The study, which was conducted by researchers at Brown University, found that the Martian crust is almost twice as thick as previously thought. The study was conducted by looking at data collected by the Shallow Radar (SHARAD) instrument on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The SHARAD instrument is designed to measure the thickness and composition of the Martian crust. The researchers found that the Martian crust is much thicker than previously thought, and that it is made up of a mix of solid rock and ice. The researchers also found that the ice is not evenly distributed throughout the Martian crust. Instead, it is concentrated in a few specific areas. This suggests that the water that is now hidden beneath the Martian crust was deposited long ago, when the climate was different. The discovery of water beneath the Martian crust could have important implications for the future of human exploration of the Red Planet. If water can be found in accessible locations, it could be used to support human settlements and to produce oxygen and water for astronauts. The study is published in the journal Science. Is there water in Mars crust? Is there water in Mars crust? The surface of Mars is dry and dusty, with only a tiny fraction of the planet’s surface consisting of permanent water ice. However, there is evidence that water exists in the Martian crust. A study published in the journal Nature in 2018 found that the Martian crust is rich in a mineral called olivine, which can form in the presence of water. The study’s authors suggest that this suggests that water exists in the Martian crust, and may be present in the form of groundwater or subsurface oceans. Further evidence of water in the Martian crust comes from the discovery of hydrated salts by the Mars Curiosity rover. These salts can only form in the presence of water, and their presence suggests that there is water in the Martian subsurface. While there is evidence that water exists in the Martian crust, it is not yet known whether this water is accessible and could be used by humans or Martian organisms. More research is needed to determine the presence and location of water in the Martian crust. Does Mars show evidence of water erosion? There is strong evidence that Mars shows evidence of water erosion. For example, images from the HiRISE camera on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter have shown that there are channels on Mars that are likely to have been created by water erosion. In addition, the features called recurring slope lineae, which are thought to be caused by the flow of water on the Martian surface, have been observed in many locations on Mars. There are many possible explanations for the evidence of water erosion on Mars. One possibility is that there was once a large body of water on Mars that has since disappeared. It is also possible that water is currently present on the Martian surface in the form of glaciers or groundwater. Another possibility is that the water that has been observed on Mars is the result of atmospheric processes, such as rain or snow. Further research is needed to determine the cause of the water erosion on Mars. However, the evidence that water has played a role in shaping the Martian surface is strong, and it is likely that water has been a significant factor in the evolution of the Martian environment. Did Mars ever have water on its surface? It’s a question that has been asked by scientists for centuries: did Mars ever have water on its surface? And if it did, what happened to it? A recent study by NASA has given us some tantalizing clues. According to the study, Mars may have had a huge ocean of water on its surface about 4.3 billion years ago. This ocean would have covered about 20% of the planet’s surface, and would have been up to 1.5 kilometers deep. So what happened to all that water? One possibility is that it was lost to space. Mars is a much drier planet than Earth, and its atmosphere is much thinner. This means that it is much easier for water to escape into space. Another possibility is that the water was frozen underground. Mars has a lot of ice on its surface, and it’s possible that the ocean was frozen over for millions of years. The final possibility is that the water was lost to evaporation. Mars is a very hot planet, and it’s possible that the water was vaporized by the heat of the sun. So what does this mean for the possibility of life on Mars? Well, it’s still possible that there was some form of life on Mars billions of years ago. However, it’s becoming increasingly unlikely that there is any life on the planet today. What evidence is there that Mars has water? There is a great deal of evidence that suggests that Mars has water. For example, there are dark lines on the surface of Mars that are thought to be caused by flowing water. There are also frozen water deposits near the poles of Mars. Additionally, there is evidence that Mars had a large ocean in the past. All of this evidence suggests that water is, or has been, present on Mars. How did Mars lose its water? A long time ago, it is believed that Mars had a lot of water on its surface. However, over time, that water appears to have disappeared. So, how did Mars lose its water? There are a few possible explanations for why Mars lost its water. One possibility is that the water was lost to space. It is thought that Mars lost its atmosphere a long time ago, and that this caused the water to evaporate and escape into space. Another possibility is that the water was lost to the planet’s interior. It is believed that Mars has a mantle of ice, and that this ice melted over time, causing the water to be lost to the planet’s interior. Finally, it is possible that the water was lost to the planet’s surface. This could have been caused by a change in the planet’s climate, or by the eruption of volcanoes. No one knows for sure what caused Mars to lose its water, but it is an interesting question that scientists are still trying to answer. Why did water disappear on Mars? Water has disappeared from a large portion of Mars, raising questions about what happened to it and where it went. Scientists have been studying the Martian landscape for years in an effort to determine what happened to the water that was once present on the planet. There are a number of theories about why the water disappeared, but the most likely explanation is that it either evaporated or was absorbed by the ground. One possible explanation for why the water disappeared is that the planet’s atmosphere changed. Mars has a very thin atmosphere, and it’s possible that the water evaporated into the atmosphere and was lost. Another possibility is that the water was absorbed by the ground. Mars is a very dry planet, and the ground is very porous. It’s possible that the water was absorbed by the ground and then lost to the atmosphere. Whatever happened to the water on Mars, its disappearance has left the planet with a very different landscape. Without water, Mars is a much less hospitable place, and it’s unlikely that any life ever existed on the planet. What caused erosion on Mars? The surface of Mars is constantly being eroded by wind and water. But what causes this erosion? And how does it affect the planet’s climate and environment? There are several factors that contribute to erosion on Mars. The most significant are wind, water, ice, and dust. Wind is the most significant factor in erosion on Mars. It can move large quantities of rocks and dust, and can also wear away surfaces over time. Water is also a major factor in erosion on Mars. It can dissolve rocks, and can also carve out valleys and canyons. Ice is also a major factor in erosion on Mars. It can freeze and thaw the surface, which can cause rocks to break apart. Dust is the final major factor in erosion on Mars. It can coat surfaces and make them more vulnerable to erosion. All of these factors together create a hostile environment for the planet’s surface. They cause the surface to be constantly eroding, which can have a significant impact on the planet’s climate and environment.

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By KWAME SOMBURU This is the fourth installment of a series of articles by Kwame Somburu on the history of African people in the United States – from the early days of slavery to our own century. The opening salvos of the Civil War, in 1861, brought one era of the struggle of Africans in America to a close-and it heralded the birth of another. The great scholar and fighter for human rights Dr. W.E.B. Dubois said the following about the legal status of Blacks on the eve of the Civil War: “The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, in an obiter dictum [a non-binding opinion expressed by a judge] had just said that, historically, the Negro had ‘no rights which a white man was bound to respect.’ Neither a horse, nor Frederick Douglass, could get an American passport for travel…. “White Americans shuddered at miscegenation, yet in 1861 there were two million colored women who had no right to refuse sexual intercourse with the white owners. That these masters exercised this right was shown by 588,000 mulattos in 1860. “Kidnapping of free Negroes in the North had been made easy by the fugitive slave law. All agreed that the Constitution recognized slavery as a legal institution and that the government was bound to protect it.” The majority of the South’s 8 million whites supported slavery even though only 24 percent of them owned slaves. In fact, only 3000, or 1 percent of the white population, owned more than 100 slaves. Most whites were poor. In the late 1850s in Jackson, Miss., slaves earned 20 cents a day while white workers at the same factory earned merely 30 cents a day. But most poor whites supported slavery because, as long as it existed, Blacks would be at the bottom of society. Although slavery harmed them economically by lowering the basic wage level, the whites gained the psychological lift of having others to look down upon. Additionally, slave patrols, overseers, and other flunkies of the ruling planters were recruited from the ranks of the poor whites. In order to justify white domination, “scientific” books were published to try to prove that Europeans were naturally superior to Africans. A notable contributor was Josiah C. Nott, a professor of Anatomy at the University of Louisiana, who collaborated in publishing “Types of Mankind” in 1855. But the major source for the racists was the Christian Bible: Africans are supposed to be descended from Noah’s son Ham, who was punished because he saw his father sleeping in the nude. As a result, they were ordained to servitude under the descendants of Shem and Japeth. Birth of the Republican Party In May 1854, Congress passed a bill that permitted slavery in the new territories of Kansas and Nebraska if the white settlers there voted for it. The bill had been proposed by Democratic Party Sen. Stephen Douglas of Illinois. Douglas was a land speculator in Kansas and a director of the Illinois Central railroad, which wanted to build a transcontinental line through the territory. Anti-slavery meetings throughout the North condemned the bill. During the next few years, bloody battles took place between “free-state” white homesteaders in Kansas and “border ruffians” who crossed the river from the nearby slave state of Missouri. In early 1854, a meeting in Wisconsin had approved a resolution that called for the formation of a new party if Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska bill. After the bill was passed, the Republican Party was founded-on July 6, 1854. The Republican Party was the political representative of the now economically powerful Northern industrialists. The party gained in strength during the next four years by supporting Northern farmers and mechanics who believed that federal lands should be given away in homesteads to poor people. Meanwhile, the ruling Democratic Party was divided over the issue of slave policy in the new territories. While Northern members of the party tended to support Sen. Douglas’s doctrine of letting the territories decide, the Southern wing believed that Congress should enact a new code allowing slavery to spread completely unobstructed. In the 1860 election, the majority Northern wing of the Democrats nominated Douglas for president, and the Southern wing nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky on a pro-slavery platform. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, and the middle-of-the-road Constitutional Union Party put forward John Bell of Tennessee. In part because of the split vote, Lincoln won the election. The Republicans’ victory promoted the secession of most of the slave states. This brought to a boil the conflict that had been brewing for 72 years between Northern and Southern exploiters of human labor. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels followed the course of the U.S. Civil War from Europe. They wrote in a dispatch to Die Presse of Vienna: “The present struggle between North and South is, therefore, nothing but a struggle between two social systems, between the system of slavery and the system of free labor. “The struggle has broken out because the two systems can no longer live peacefully side by side on the North American continent. It can only be ended by the victory of one system or the other.” Lincoln: The Great Vacillator The leadership of the Republican Party, on the whole, was not against slavery. To conciliate pro-slavery interests North and South, Lincoln stated in his first inaugural address: “Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern states that by the accession of a Republican administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. “There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary … is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. “I do but quote from one of these speeches when I declare that-I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so and I have inclination to do so.” Black leaders during the Civil War held a tortured, ambivalent stance toward the Republican Party because of its compromises toward their cause. In 1864, a National Negro Convention was held in Syracuse, N.Y. The convention-attended by Black leaders such as Frederick Douglass and Henry Highland Garnet (the “Tom Paine of the abolitionist movement”)-issued a resolution that stated in part: “In the ranks of the Democratic Party, all the worst elements of American society fraternize; and we need not expect a single voice from that quarter for justice, mercy, or even decency. To it we are nothing; the slave-holders everything…. “How stands the case with the great Republican Party in question? We have already alluded to it as being under the influence of the prevailing contempt for the character and rights of the colored race … not even those who fought for the country, recognized as having any political existence or rights whatever.” The Emancipation Proclamation When, soon after the beginning of the Civil War, Gen. John C. Fremont issued a proclamation freeing the slaves of rebel whites in Missouri, Lincoln annulled the proclamation. In fact, some Union commanders routinely returned runaway slaves to their masters. Gen. George McClellan, head of the Army of the Potomac, promised that slave insurrections would be put down “with an iron hand.” By the summer of 1862, however, Southern victories early in the war, along with pressure from abolitionists and Blacks, had forced Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. This was a promise that the slaves would be freed in areas of the South captured by the Union army after Jan. 1, 1863. No slaves were freed immediately by Lincoln’s announcement, which did not apply to border states, like Kentucky, that had remained in the Union or to sections of the Confederacy, like New Orleans and Norfolk, Va., already controlled by federal troops. In fact, slavery was not abolished throughout the reunified country until the 13th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified on Dec. 6, 1865-nine months after Lincoln’s death. But the proclamation did have an immediate effect on slaves in the South. As soon as the Union army approached, they often put down their tools and stole away in droves. Unfortunately, the proclamation, and pro-slavery newspapers, further incited racist feeling among whites in the North. The pro-slavery forces exploited fears that Blacks would compete with white workers for jobs and drive down wages, as well as racist accusations that the party of Lincoln was plotting to raise Black workers to the status of whites. Poor white workers were further agitated when Congress passed the first federal draft in U.S. history. The Conscription Act favored the wealthy by allowing them to pay $300 to avoid service, or to get a substitute. In July 1863, mobs of poor whites attacked Blacks and their supporters in several Northern cities. The bloodiest Draft Riots took place in New York City. More than a thousand people-among them white police officers-were killed or wounded. The Colored Orphan Asylum, housing 300 children, was burned to the ground. Many Blacks were hanged on lamp posts. An eyewitness related that after one Black man had been hanged, his flesh was cut off in bits and thrown to the mob. Blacks in the army In the early days of the Civil War, thousands of free Black men volunteered to fight with the Union army-but they were turned away. A law of 1792 barred Blacks from the army, although they did fight in the Battle of New Orleans in 1812. But the need for manpower was creating pressure for change. In August 1862, the military government of the captured South Carolina Sea Islands was authorized to enlist slaves in the area. At the same time, a group of 1400 free Blacks in New Orleans, who had formed a Confederate regiment, the First Louisiana Native Guard, was reorganized into the Union army. Finally, in January 1863, the government of Massachusetts was allowed to organize an official Black regiment, the famous Massachusetts 54th Volunteers. The 54th went into battle with the cry, “hurrah for Massachusetts and seven dollars a month,” reflecting the fact that Black soldiers were denied the full $13 that white privates received. Rather than endure the insult, the 54th and other Black regiments fought without accepting any wages until the pay inequity was corrected. By the end of the war, one federal soldier in eight was Black. More than 100,000 Black soldiers had been recruited in the South alone. Over 38,000 were killed in battle, a rate about 40 percent higher than that of white troops. Murderous atrocities were practiced against African Americans who were fighting in the war. The president of the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis, issued orders that all captured Black soldiers should be killed. They were beaten to death with muskets, bayoneted, burned alive, and even crucified. In 1864, after the capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, a slaveowner and the future head of the Ku Klux Klan, supervised the slaughter of Black troops and civilians. The Confederates entered the fort shouting, “Kill all the niggers!” Over 300 people, including women and children, were killed. Some were buried alive. After that, Black soldiers entered battle with the cry, “Remember Fort Pillow!” Next month, Kwame Somburu will discuss the Reconstruction period, in which Africans in America were briefly allowed to taste freedom. Soon, with the rise of the Ku Klux Klan and other forces, the former slaves were re-enslaved in a modified form that lasts until this day.

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This paper describes the what, why and how of L2 motivation. The central argument of the paper is that since motivation plays a central role in L2 learning, it should receive greater attention from important L2 stakeholders than it used to. The paper also argues that while motivation is both a student and teacher problem, and that both will need to work together to foster a healthy level of motivation in the L2 learning process, the responsibility of initiating and sustaining motivation in the learning process should rest more with the teacher. The bulk of the paper discusses five key factors that teachers can exploit to enhance student motivation. These factors are referred to as the 5 Ts of motivation: Teacher, Teaching Methodology, Text, Task and Test. Practical suggestions on how these can be productively used to increase student motivation are provided. The central role of motivation in learning, any kind of learning, is widely acknowledged in education (McInerney & Liem, 2008). Motivated learners are more enthusiastic, goal-oriented, committed, persistent and confident in their learning. They are willing to work hard to achieve their goal and they do not easily give up until they achieve that goal. This is true whether we talk about motivation in general education or in language learning contexts. In second language learning (L2) contexts, teachers are well aware that motivation is key to L2 development. They know that students with higher motivation are likely to be more successful than those with lower motivation. Their views are shared by L2 motivation experts and researchers. A renowned L2 motivation researcher, Zoltan Dörnyei (2001, 2012), for example, attributes success or lack of success in L2 learning to students’ varying degrees of motivation, saying that the more motivated students are more likely to develop a higher level of proficiency in the language compared to the less motivated ones. Many L2 teachers that I have worked with seem to share Dorney’s views. They believe that one of the most important characteristics of a good language teacher is their ability to motivate their students to learn English (Renandya, 2014a). They also believe that they themselves can be a great source of motivation and can play a major role in creating and fostering motivation in the classroom. Interestingly, however, the same group of teachers report that they lack the necessary skills and knowledge to increase their students’ motivation. When asked about the kinds of topics that they wanted to know more about if they had a chance to attend a professional development course, they ranked motivation as the number topic that they needed to know more about. This paper discusses the what, the why and the how of motivation in L2 learning. The central argument of the paper is that motivation is both a student and teacher problem and that both will need to work towards maintaining a sufficiently high level of motivation in the L2 learning process. However, experience and repeated observations seem to indicate that the teacher should perhaps play a more central role in initiating and sustaining their students’ motivation. This paper suggests a principled approach to motivation by examining five key factors that can potentially make classroom learning more engaging and motivating. These five factors are referred to here as the 5 Ts of motivation (T1 = Teacher, T2 = Teaching Methodology, T3 = Text, T4= Task and T5 = Test), each of which will be examined in the later part of the paper. WHAT IS MOTIVATION? In simple terms, motivation deals with the questions of why people choose to do an activity over another, how much energy and effort they will be putting in to do the activity and how long they will continue to do the activity (Dörnyei, 2001, 2012). When students choose to participate enthusiastically in a language lesson and are willing to extend sufficient efforts even when the activity is challenging, they are said to be motivated to learn and are likely to take in more and remember more from the lesson. Those who are not as motivated normally do not participate much in the lesson, do not put in sufficient effort, give up easily when the task gets harder to do and after a while lose their interest in learning. The definition of motivation above is quite straightforward to understand. But when we take it one step further and ask people about the sources of student motivation, we are likely to have a wide range of answers. The following are typical responses we hear from experienced classroom teachers: - Students’ perception about the utility of the target language beyond the classroom. They become more motivated if what they learn in the classroom can be put to immediate use outside the classroom. - Their attitude towards the target language. Students who have a positive attitude towards the target language, its culture and community, and who appreciate the social and economic benefits associated with it, tend to have a higher degree of motivation. - Their sense of competence in the target language. Students’ motivation goes up when they feel that they have the required skills and abilities to perform a task. They are more confident and more willing to participate more actively in the classroom. - Their perception about the enjoyment level of the lesson. Students become more motivated when they find the lessons intrinsically interesting and enjoyable, where they learn things that they like and want to learn, and not because they have to. - Their perception of the value of the language lessons. Students feel motivated when they can see the value of what they are learning. For example, a task or activity that they feel contributes more directly to their growing proficiency is likely to be perceived to be more motivating. - Their classroom learning environments. When the classroom is stress-free and students can participate without fear of being ridiculed when they make pronunciation or grammar mistakes, they tend to be more motivated to learn. - Their teacher’s personality and teaching effectiveness. Students tend to have higher motivation if their teacher is warm, humorous and caring, and who can teach well. It is not always easy to identify the single most important source of students’ motivation (or lack of it). More often than not, students’ levels of motivation are the results of a mixture of factors that are at play simultaneously at any given time. It is possible, for example, that in a reading lesson students are motivated because the teacher is perceived to be warm and humorous and the reading materials used in the lesson are interesting and enjoyable. In addition, reading skills may also be perceived to be of immediate relevance to students’ lives outside the classroom. Similarly, a grammar lesson may not be perceived as motivating because it is often associated with long explanations of grammar rules and unappealing grammar exercises that are of little use beyond the classroom walls. Students may remember the rules, but may not be able to express their thoughts using grammatically appropriate sentences. WHY IS MOTIVATION IMPORTANT? Motivation is perhaps the single most important factor affecting the outcome of L2 learning. Indeed, Dornyei (2001) contends that when L2 learners have sufficient motivation, most of them can acquire a working knowledge of the language. He further maintains that L2 learners’ ultimate success or failure is determined by their sustained ‘enthusiasm, commitment and persistence’ (p, 5) in the long and drawn out process of language learning. But whose responsibility is it to ensure that students’ motivation and levels of engagement remain high during the learning process? The answer seems to depend on whether we see motivation as a fixed or dynamic construct. When we see motivation as a fixed entity, we simply describe our students as being either motivated or unmotivated. In other words, we see motivation to learn as being essentially a ‘student problem’ (Johnson, 2008). The students are responsible for their own motivation and there is not much we can do to change it. However, if we believe that motivation is a dynamic construct and can change depending on the learning situation in the classroom or school, then it should no longer be seen as a student problem, but should be viewed more as a ‘teacher problem’ (Johnson, 2008). When motivation is seen as a teacher problem, we acknowledge that there are many classroom-specific factors that the teacher can exploit in order to foster student motivation. This however is not to say that students have little or no responsibility to work on their motivation levels. They do, because ultimately motivation is the responsibility of the individual students. The view that motivation is dynamic and changeable is more in line with recent theorizing on motivation (Dornyei , 2001, 2012; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). As Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2002) point out, ‘motivation is not a stable trait of an individual, but is more situated, contextual and domain- specific’. Thus, students may be motivated in a science class, but not in a language class or vice versa. Within a language class, students may be more motivated in a speaking class than in a writing class. We also often see students showing a higher level of motivation when taught by Teacher A, for example, but not so when taught by Teacher B. The dynamic view of motivation also means that during the course of their studies, students’ motivation does not stay at the same level; it fluctuates, going up and down in response to changes in learner internal as well as external factors (DÖrnyei, 2001). What often happens in L2 classes is that students normally start off with some initial motivation which gets strengthened as time goes by because they find the lessons cognitively and affectively fulfilling. However, the contrary is also possible, i.e., the initial motivation dies down because students find the lessons uninteresting or the homework assignments frustratingly demanding. Sometimes, their motivation drops to a low level simply because the prolonged learning activities tire them out. It is rare to observe students whose levels of motivation remains high throughout the whole semester, much less throughout the whole school year. In the next section, I discuss in detail the 5 Ts of motivation (i.e., Teacher, Teaching Methodology, Text, Task and Test), which, when fully and systematically utilized in the classroom, can potentially increase and sustain the level of student motivation for a longer period of time. THE 5 Ts of MOTIVATION Instead of looking at the myriad of factors that can affect student motivation within the school context, we should focus on classroom specific factors that teachers are most familiar with and which they can make the most impact on. Research on motivation tells us that the classroom environment, our behaviour and actions in the classroom, our relationship with the students, the way we teach in class, and how we structure our lessons, and the way we assess our students all have huge implications on student motivation. These classroom specific factors are referred to as the 5 Ts of motivation (Teacher, Teaching Methodology, Text, Task and Test) (Renandya, 2013). Each of these will be explored and elaborated on in the following sections.

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The most state-of-the-art tool available to climate scientists is, perhaps, the Earth System Model (ESM). These climate models simulate the flow of energy, moisture and chemicals through the atmosphere, ocean and land surface in unprecedented detail. However, they need considerable time and expense to run – requiring powerful supercomputers and teams of climate scientists and software engineers to produce the models and analyse the results. To speed things up, scientists have the option of using a type of simpler model – known as “emulators” – to provide projections. While ESMs can have millions of lines of computer code, an emulator may have just hundreds or thousands. While some emulators effectively act as simple climate models – taking future emissions scenarios and projecting greenhouse gas concentrations and global temperature change – others are used for more specific purposes. These models might be used for determining sea level rise from melting ice sheets and glaciers, or translating global temperature rise into regional climate change. In this article, I unpack what emulators are, how they are used in climate science, and the role they play in the sixth assessment report (AR6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Emulators have been around nearly as long as more sophisticated climate models. US climate scientist Dr James Hansen and his colleagues proposed a simple climate model back in 1981 that was based on concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and the activity of volcanoes and the sun. It has since been shown to have reproduced observed warming well. The IPCC has used emulators throughout its history. In its first four assessment reports, the Working Group 1 (WG1) part – which focuses on the underlying climate science – used emulators to project future warming under a number of emissions scenarios and supplement knowledge from the climate models available at the time. This period coincided with the development of the emulator “MAGICC” (Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse gas-Induced Climate Change), on which the majority of the IPCC projections were based. In the fifth assessment report (AR5), ESMs began to dominate future climate projections, not least due to the coordinated Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), which provided 30 or so ESM projections out to 2100 under different emissions scenarios. For the recently released AR6 WG1 report, emulators have returned to a more prominent role, being used once again to support, extend and constrain climate projections from ESMs. This is despite an updated set of ESM runs being available from the latest model intercomparison project (CMIP6). One challenge in using raw CMIP6 results from ESMs is the number of models that lie outside the AR6 assessed “very likely” range of equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) of between 2C and 5C – particularly at the high end. ECS is a measure of how much global average temperatures will eventually rise after atmospheric CO2 reaches double the levels seen before the Industrial Revolution. Coupled with high rates of simulated near-term warming, this leads to very high levels of projected future warming in several CMIP6 models. Using emulators that have been calibrated to the AR6 assessed range of ECS, in combination with observationally constrained results from CMIP6, brings down the high end-of-century projected future warming by some CMIP6 models. This is an example of a feature common to all emulators – they have a number of parameters, such as ECS, that can be varied to change the behaviour of the model. A simple climate model emulator may contain up to 100 or so different parameters that control different aspects of the climate system, such as the warming and cooling impact of air pollution, how heat diffuses in the ocean, and the response of land and ocean carbon sinks to global warming. By simultaneously varying parameters, emulators can be “tuned” to replicate the behaviour of ESMs. This is performed using the vast array of ESM output data available from the CMIP6 archive. Again, using the simple climate model example, each component of the Earth system can be tuned using a different experiment from CMIP6. For example, we know that the airborne fraction of CO2 – the proportion of CO2 emitted that remains in the atmosphere following emission – depends on the strength of land and ocean carbon sinks, which in turn are dependent on temperature and total carbon stored in those sinks. We might make an educated guess at the functional form of this relationship, and then fit this relationship to ESM results from dedicated model experiments. Validating against observations Unlike ESMs, emulators are very quick to run and can produce a climate projection in a fraction of a second on a desktop computer. This means that emulators can be run hundreds, thousands or even millions of times for a single emissions scenario with different parameter values. This is important in order to span the range of uncertainty around future climate projections. In each run, the parameters will be varied – usually sampled at random within predefined distributions – to produce a different climate projection. The parameter values may be sampled from distributions that are based on the CMIP6 model tunings, or from other prior knowledge, such as a very likely range for ECS. Not all parameter combinations will produce realistic climate projections. One indicator of “realism” is whether an emulator can reproduce a good representation of the historically observed climate change. As we can run very large sets of emulator projections, we can throw out simulations that do not correspond well to historical climate change. We can compare model output with, for example, observed global average temperature rise, the change in ocean heat uptake, and whether an emulator’s CO2 concentrations match observed values. Knowing observations are not perfect themselves, we can build in the observational uncertainty around these best estimate values, too. This results in a much smaller, constrained set of projections than we started with, but one in which we can have more confidence. You can see this in the figure below, which shows how global warming in CMIP6 models (red lines) compare to historical temperature observations (blue). Using our emulator that is calibrated to CMIP6 results, we can produce a range of projections (light grey). However, when we introduce our observational constraints, we substantially narrow the range of uncertainty in future projections (dark grey) by eliminating some of the more implausible projections, producing a best estimate future projection (black) that closely follows the observed warming. This method corrects for some of the systematic biases in CMIP6 models, for example a tendency to underpredict the warming in the late 20th Century. One of the many strengths of emulators is that they can be used to run climate scenarios not analysed by ESMs. The Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) developed for running in ESMs for CMIP6 only contain nine future scenarios – five of which are designated as “headline” scenarios. The number of scenarios are necessarily limited due to ESM run time and availability of supercomputers in modelling centres around the world. Additionally, many relevant physical science questions depend on running simulations that were not performed in CMIP6 and, as such, are best suited to emulators. One prominent example is the attribution of present-day warming to emissions of different gases and aerosols, which you can see in the chart below. The bars indicate emissions that have an overall warming (red) or cooling (blue) effect, with the total human-caused impact shown in grey. Using an emulator, the differences in radiative forcing are calculated with and without each type of emission present, and these forcings are then converted to a temperature contribution. Being able to run a large number of simulations means that the uncertainty in the temperature response to each forcing can be estimated – and using a constrained set of parameters means that the results reported are fully consistent with observed overall warming. Other uses of emulators in AR6 include estimating climate change to periods not well-covered by the model scenarios (pre-1850 or post-2100) or for determining climate phenomena absent in most ESMs – such as sea-level contribution from land ice and glacier melt, or methane release from permafrost melt. Together, these reasons lead to an extensive use of emulators in the WG1 report, which is summarised in the table below. |Location in AR6||Use of emulators||Why emulators are used| |Summary for Policymakers||Determining the contribution to present-day (SPM Fig. 2) and future (SPM Fig. 4) warming from individual emissions or radiative forcings||No CMIP6 model results available Reported results are fully consistent with AR6 assessed ranges of climate sensitivity and present-day and future warming |Chapter 1||Estimating anthropogenic temperature contribution from 1750 to 1850||No pre-1850 anthropogenic experiments available in CMIP6| |Chapter 3||Determining the contribution to present-day warming from individual forcings||Reported results are fully consistent with AR6 assessed ranges of climate sensitivity and present-day and future warming| |Chapter 4||Determining future warming estimates from five SSPs||Some CMIP6 models show implausibly high near-term warming rates and high climate sensitivity, leading to very high warming projections from the unconstrained CMIP6 model archive Assessed future warming is fully consistent with AR6-assessed ECS and TCR |Chapter 4||Demonstrating the difference in radiative forcing and temperature projections between RCP and SSP scenarios||Very few ESMs ran both RCP and SSP projections in the same model, making direct comparison impossible Difficulty of diagnosing radiative forcing from coupled ESMs |Chapter 4||Extending temperature projections beyond 2100||Only a handful of CMIP6 models ran projections beyond 2100 and those that did were biased towards high sensitivity models| |Chapter 5||Estimating non-CO2 contributions to the remaining carbon budget||No equivalent CMIP6 experiments| |Chapter 6||Determining the contribution to present-day warming from individual emissions||No CMIP6 model results available| |Chapter 7||Estimating processed-based TCR from a processed-based ECS||Specific emulator parameter set required that does not match any particular CMIP6 model| |Chapter 7||Greenhouse gas metrics of Global Warming Potential and Global Temperature Potential||Over 400 greenhouse gases assessed, only a small subset are modelled in ESM radiative transfer codes Almost impossible to perform in ESM as small radiative forcings and temperature responses in the GWP and GTP definition would be dominated by internal variability |Chapter 9||Global mean sea-level projections|| Some contributions to sea-level rise such as land ice sheet and glacier loss are not modelled by ESMs Only a handful of CMIP6 models ran projections beyond 2100 |Chapter 11||Regional climate change at different global warming levels||Reported results are fully consistent with AR6 assessed ranges of future warming| The ability for emulators to quickly run scenarios that are not used by ESMs is vitally important for the Working Group 3 (WG3) contribution to AR6 – which focuses on climate change mitigation – expected in early 2022. WG3 has long used emulators to determine the global average warming response to future emission pathways derived by Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs). The sheer number of IAM scenarios submitted for analysis by the IPCC – more than 1,000 in AR5 and more than 400 in the IPCC’s special report on 1.5C – necessitates the use of efficient models to make climate projections. This number of simulations would not be feasible in ESMs, particularly if the full uncertainty range in future projections is desired. One major advance in AR6 is the closer collaboration between WG1 in developing and testing emulators and WG3 in assessing IAM pathways. The WG1 report considers four climate model emulators: - MAGICC (developed at University of Melbourne, Australia); - FaIR (University of Leeds/University of Oxford, UK); - OSCAR (IIASA, Austria); and - CICERO-SCM (CICERO, Norway). These four are by no means the only ones available, but were considered by the IPCC as the ones with an ability to convert a wide range of different human-caused emissions first to greenhouse gas concentrations, then radiative forcing and finally global average temperature. In WG1, the MAGICC, FaIR, CICERO and OSCAR emulators were rigorously tested and compared to multiple assessed constraints contained within the report – such as ECS, warming since pre-industrial and ocean heat content change. Three of the four emulators were deemed suitable for delivery to WG3, where each will be used to run potentially thousands of IAM emissions scenarios. This ensures that the emulators used by WG3 are fully consistent with the most up-to-date climate science. It is very likely that coordination between the physical climate and socioeconomic aspects of climate science will continue to develop. An emerging research area is the interaction between climate change and the energy system. For example, existing emissions scenarios from IAMs do not account for human-system feedbacks – such as the fact that warmer summers projected in a changing climate will increase demand for air conditioning, which increases energy demand and therefore increases emissions if the grid is not zero-carbon, leading to further warming. Emulators will play a key role in translating climate knowledge efficiently between ESMs and IAMs. Emulators may have gained prominence in AR6, but that is not to say that they are a replacement for ESMs. There are some things that only ESMs can do – for example, they are necessary for a deeper dive into the statistics of climate change, particularly the changes in weather extremes that are most devastating for human and natural ecosystems. In general, emulators are not developed by the same groups who work on ESMs. This brings objectivity and independence to the simultaneous usage of the two levels of model complexity. As climate models continue to increase in resolution, they can begin to explicitly resolve localised processes – such as convection, the behaviour of clouds and circular ocean currents called “eddies” – and lead us to greater insight of these individual processes, their feedbacks and interactions, and how they might be affected by climate change. However, with the ongoing development of cleverly designed emulators, we can use the benefits of this cutting-edge science to create projections from models that are cheap and easy to run. This combination of the simple with the complex is a real strength in the IPCC’s AR6. Guest post: The role ‘emulator’ models play in climate change projections

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https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-the-role-emulator-models-play-in-climate-change-projections/

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Question: Why transformer rating is expressed in kVA instead of kW or kVAR? Answer: At the time of manufacturing, the nature of load to be connected is not known. (i.e it is resistive, reactive, R, RL, RC, RLC or of any other type). Therefore it is beneficial to express power in terms of voltage and amps. This V & A represents the overall power delivered to any sort of load. The power supplied to a resistive load is the product of voltage times current flowing through it. In case of ac loads, the case is not same. Here the load is the sum of resistance and reactance. The power delivered to an AC load is neither real nor reactive, it is the apparent power which is expressed in terms of kVA. Furthermore, two types of losses exist in Transformers: - Copper loess → They depend on current - Iron losses → They depend on the voltage Since these losses depend on V & I only, a transformer is rated in terms of VA. - Justify the rated voltage V in MVA breaking capacity of circuit breaker - Types of faults on Power systems - What is breaking capacity of circuit breakers - Why Buchholz relay should only be installed with oil immersed transformers - Why isolator is termed as offload device - Why overload protection is not required in alternators - Why liquid fuels are preferred over solid fuels - Why condenser is used in steam power station - Differentiate two types of boilers in thermal power plants - Explain the distinguishing feature of nuclear power plant - Explain the pros and cons of Nuclear power plant - How hydroelectric power plants are classified on the basis of head - What is forebay in hydroelectric power plants - What is the role of the regenerator in gas power plants - Why surge tank is built in close conduit Hydroelectric Power Plants - Differentiate base load and peak load power plants

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Using drones for the last mile of package deliveries uses less energy and creates fewer emissions than conventional means, a new study shows. As consumers, we’ve gotten used to the immediacy of deliveries. Order a product one day and have it at your house the next. But the logistics behind this massive movement of goods—and its environmental impact—mean that better solutions are needed to balance consumer demand and the energy consumption of “last-mile” deliveries. To address this issue, researchers looked at what they refer to as “an increase in the demand for last-mile delivery while trying to reduce the environmental impacts of the transportation sector.” Many companies are exploring using autonomous vehicles to perform last-mile delivery, says Thiago Rodrigues, a PhD candidate in civil and environmental engineering at Carnegie Mellon University. “We focused on understanding the impacts on the energy consumption and GHG emissions of this transformation in how we deliver packages,” Rodrigues says. The experiments began by defining the principles that influenced an aircraft’s overall energy consumption. “Most of the literature in this field is focused on helicopters,” Rodrigues says. “So we adapted the physical model and created an experimental protocol to replicate the flight conditions expected during last-mile delivery.” The team learned that both payload mass and total flight duration were the main contributors to the drone’s overall energy consumption. “For small packages with high aggregated value, such as medical supplies and electronics, the quadcopter drones showed a considerably low energy consumption per mile traveled compared to other transportation modes.” Surprisingly, drone speed and wind speeds had little impact on the drone’s overall energy consumption, Rodrigues says. Testing took place with the drone flying at speeds between four and 12 meters (about 13 to 39.3 feet) per second. During that time, the wind conditions varied from two to 16 knots. “Drones can have up to 94% lower energy consumption per package than other vehicles,” Rodrigues says, adding that the overall amount of emissions reduction depends on the intensity of the electricity grid in an area. “Regions with cleaner electricity would benefit more from adopting drones to transport small packages.” While the researchers determined multiple benefits in utilizing small drones, Rodrigues admits that there are still operational and regulatory challenges that need to be addressed before drone deliveries become a reality. “However, a few drone delivery operations are already being implemented, with medical supplies and even groceries being safely delivered by drones. These operations are leading the way in expanding the use of drones in all last-mile delivery sectors.” These successful operations may make the prospect of a drone delivery more enticing to consumers. Rodrigues believes that people are already receptive to the idea, stating that in a recent study, more than 60% of online customers says they’d be willing to pay extra to receive their packages using autonomous delivery robots. There’s also the issue of larger packages, which cannot be delivered by small drones. Rodrigues suggests that electric cargo bicycles and other ground autonomous delivery robots could be an energy-efficient way to get these items to customers. The new study appears in the journal Patterns. The Department of Energy funded the work. Source: Carnegie Mellon University

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A virus that affects rabbits has become more deadly over time, according to new research. The findings highlight the need for rigorous monitoring of human viruses, including SARS-CoV-2, monkeypox, and polio, for increased virulence. A common misconception is that viruses become milder over time as they become endemic within a population. “During the COVID-19 pandemic, many people have incorrectly assumed that as the SARS-CoV-2 virus becomes endemic, it will also become milder,” says Andrew Read, director of the Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences at Penn State. “However, we know that the Delta variant was more contagious and caused more severe illness than the original strain of the virus, and Omicron is even more transmissible than Delta. Our new research shows that a rabbit virus has evolved to become more deadly, and there is no reason why this couldn’t happen with SARS-CoV-2 or other viruses that affect humans.” The rabbit virus, called myxoma, was introduced to Australia in the early 1950s to quell an out-of-control non-native rabbit population. Known as “myxomytosis,” the disease it caused resulted in puffy, fluid-filled skin lesions, swollen heads and eyelids, drooping ears, and blocked airways, among other symptoms. It was so deadly that it killed an estimated 99.8% of the rabbits it infected within two weeks. Over time, however, the virus became milder, killing only 60% of the rabbits it infected and taking longer to do so. “Scientists at the time believed this outcome was inevitable,” says Read. “What they called the ‘law of declining virulence’ suggested that viruses naturally become milder over time to ensure that they do not kill their hosts before they’ve had a chance to be transmitted to other individuals.” Yet, when Read and his team began to study myxoma in rabbits in 2014, they found that it had regained the upper hand and was once again killing rabbits at a higher rate. In the current study, published in the Journal of Virology, researchers examined several myxoma virus variants collected between 2012-2015 in the laboratory to determine their virulence. The team determined that the viruses fell into three lineages: a, b, and c. Interestingly, the rabbits in their study exhibited different symptoms than those induced by viruses collected in the first decades after the release, Read says. “Instead of developing puffy, fluid-filled lesions, these rabbits developed flat lesions, suggesting a lack a reduced immune response. In addition, these rabbits had significantly more bacteria distributed throughout multiple tissues, which is also consistent with immunosuppression. “We interpreted this ‘amyxomatous’ phenotype as an adaptation by the virus to overcome evolving resistance in the wild rabbit population.” Lineage c, however, produced a slightly different response in rabbits. Rabbits infected with lineage c had significantly more swelling at the base of the ears and around the eyelids, where mosquitoes typically bite. These areas also contained extremely high amounts of virus. “Insect transmissibility is dependent on high amounts of virus being present in sites accessible to the vector,” says Read. “We hypothesize that lineage c viruses are capable of enhanced dissemination to sites around the head where mosquitoes are more likely to feed and that they are able to suppress inflammatory responses at these sites, allowing persistent virus replication to high amounts.” The team’s findings demonstrate that viruses do not always evolve to become milder, Read says. “By definition an evolutionary arms race occurs when organisms develop adaptations and counter-adaptations against each other,” says Read. “With myxoma, the virus has developed new tricks, which are resulting in greater rabbit mortality. However, over time the rabbits will likely evolve resistance to these tricks. “An analogous arms race may be occurring with SARS-CoV-2 and other human viruses as humans become more immune. This is why it’s so important for vaccine manufacturers to keep up with the latest variants and for the public to stay up to date on their vaccines. Better still would be to develop a universal vaccine that would work against all variants and be effective for a longer period of time.” Additional coauthors are from the University of Sydney and Penn State. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases supported the work. Source: Penn State

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Campylobacter infection is a common cause of intestinal infection in over 1.5 million people each year in the United States; and it is one of the main causes of diarrhea and foodborne illness. Once inside the human digestive system campylobacter infects and attacks the lining of both the small and large intestines. The bacteria can also affect other parts of the body. In some cases—particularly those with chronic illnesses or a weakened immune system—the bacteria can get into the bloodstream (called bacteremia) and become life-threatening. This bacterium is most often found in the intestines, liver, and other organs of most farm animals. When the animal is processed for food, the edible parts of the animal may become contaminated. Contamination may also occur when an animal comes in contact with feces, particularly chicken. Any raw poultry may contain campylobacter, including the organic and “free-range” products. Campylobacter can also be transmitted in water where animals graze, through milk that is not pasteurized, or through household pets from their diarrhea. Fruits and vegetables may also become contaminated with the bacteria if they come in contact with water that contains feces from animals. Humans can acquire this bacteria by eating fruits and vegetables that have not been washed; eating raw or undercooked poultry; eating food that was prepared on a cutting board that was not cleaned after cutting raw meat; drinking untreated water; consuming unpasteurized dairy and coming into contact with dog or cat feces and not properly washing hands afterward. Campylobacter infections usually occur 2 to 5 days after exposure and may last up to a week. The main symptoms of infection include: - Abdominal cramps - Watery diarrhea, sometimes bloody - Nausea and vomiting may accompany diarrhea Stool (poop) samples are used to identify the bacteria and make a diagnosis. Most kids will recover without medication. Sometimes antibiotics are prescribed especially if the child is very young, if the symptoms are severe or will not go away or if the child has a weakened immune system. Make sure your child drinks plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. Try to avoid fruit juices and soft drinks which can make diarrhea worse. Breastfed babies should continue to breastfeed throughout the illness. Call your doctor if: - Diarrhea continues for more than 1 week - There is pus or blood in the stool - Child has diarrhea and unable to drink fluids because of nausea or vomiting - Fever above 101°F - Signs of dehydration (dry mouth and tongue, excessive thirst, sunken eyes, lack of energy/movement, irritability) Campylobacter grows easily if contaminated foods are left out at room temperature. The bacterium is sensitive to heat so food should be thoroughly cooked. Follow these easy safety steps to prevent infection: - Make sure the thickest part of any chicken being cooked reaches 165°F. - When bringing home meat from the grocery store, put the meat in the coolest part of the car or in something that keeps things cool (insulated). - Defrost meat and poultry in the refrigerator or microwave, making sure the juice doesn’t drip on anything else. Do not use the same cutting board to cut the meat and then cut the vegetables. Wipe the cutting board clean before cutting each one. - Never leave food out at room temperature for over two hours. - Wash fruits and vegetables before eating - Use pasteurized milk and eggs - Wash your hands well after preparing food, changing diapers, and having any contact with pets or farm animals. Call our office today if you think your child is experiencing the symptoms of campylobacter infection.

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An ellipsis, or ellipses in the plural form, is a punctuation mark of three dots (. . .) that shows an omission of words, represents a pause, or suggests there’s something left unsaid. Known casually as dot, dot, dot, the ellipsis is a favorite tool of writers because it can symbolize silence in text, but it’s also used more practically to show that a direct quote has been altered. Ellipses can be powerful tools for writing . . . if you know how to use them. Below, we give a more thorough ellipsis definition and explain how to use those three dots in writing. We also clear up the ellipsis vs. ellipses debate and share plenty of ellipsis examples to demonstrate its use. What is an ellipsis? The ellipsis (pronounced il-LIP-sis) is a type of punctuation that represents a pause or that something has been intentionally left out. Specifically, it shows that words have been cut from a direct quote, so the reader knows the original passage has been modified. In form, the ellipsis is three dots or periods. Different style guides have different regulations for ellipses, but we prefer the version with spaces between the periods (. . .) from The Chicago Manual of Style. In formal writing and journalism, the ellipsis is placed between brackets when used within a quote [. . .] to show that the editors added the ellipsis, not the original speaker. Ellipsis, dash, and colon While the ellipsis and the dash both represent breaks in text, the dash—or more precisely, the em dash—represents an abrupt interruption. The dash can also be used to represent a pause, but a more emphatic one than the “soft” pause of an ellipsis. The colon also represents a break in text, although for much more deliberate reasons. Colons are used to introduce a list, quote, or explanation of what precedes it. However, unlike ellipses and dashes, they do not represent silence. Furthermore, neither the dash nor the colon can represent omitted words; only the ellipsis can do that. Ellipsis vs. ellipses There’s a lot of confusion over ellipsis vs. ellipses, but the truth is that they’re the same word. Ellipsis is singular, and ellipses is plural. Even this can be confusing because there are three dots involved. So to be clear, a single ellipsis is one group of three dots, while multiple ellipses are two or more groups of three dots. When to use an ellipsis, with examples While there are many types of ellipses in linguistics, an ellipsis in writing carries out four main duties: 1 Omitted words In writing, ellipses are used to show the reader that words have been removed, typically from direct quotes. More often than not, this is done to cut out parts of the quote that aren’t relevant to the topic or to make the quote more succinct. For example, if you want to include what a speaker said at the beginning and the end of a quote, but there’s a part in the middle that’s unnecessary, you can remove that middle part and replace it with an ellipsis. It must be obvious, from the very start, that there is a contradiction in wanting to be perfectly secure in a universe whose very nature is momentariness and fluidity. [QUOTE WITH AN ELLIPSIS] It must be obvious [. . .] that there is a contradiction in wanting to be perfectly secure in a universe whose very nature is momentariness and fluidity. When using an ellipsis to omit part of a quote, be sure to pick the right spot. It’s best to remove a part that leaves the remaining sentence grammatically correct, as if nothing had been cut at all. In the ellipsis example above, the part removed came between two commas, so the sentence still works fine without it. Though it’s less common, an ellipsis can also come at the beginning of a quote to show that the earlier part of a speech or conversation has been cut off. This is an effective way to open a scene in the middle of a dialogue, where the reader must guess at what the characters were talking about beforehand. “. . . and you wouldn’t believe the smell! We spent the rest of the afternoon cleaning it up.” 2 Pause for dramatic effect or suspense An ellipsis can also be used to depict a small pause or silence in text, which is ideal for a dramatic effect. Often, the ellipsis comes before an anticipated part, like the punchline of a joke. The idea is to build suspense before a big reveal. With sweaty palms, I reached out for the knob and threw the door open to reveal . . . a lost puppy. 3 Trailing off into silence In speech, we sometimes leave sentences unfinished for a variety of reasons. Maybe we forgot what we wanted to say, or maybe our listeners already know what we’ll say, so we don’t need to say it. In writing, this occurrence is represented by an ellipsis. When an ellipsis comes at the end of a sentence or quote, it means that the speaker has trailed off before finishing. Would you like sugar for your coffee, or . . . 4 To suggest there’s more When an ellipsis comes at the end of a complete sentence, it’s usually a dramatic device to insinuate that there’s more to come. One of the most common examples is the phrase to be continued . . ., where the ellipsis hints that there’s more to the story. This can be a great storytelling tool in the right spot. It essentially challenges the reader to imagine what will happen next, heightening their anticipation and engaging them more deeply. It works best for cliffhangers and other endings, but be sure to use it sparingly so you don’t waste its effect. And then only two remained . . . What is an ellipsis? An ellipsis is a punctuation mark of three dots (. . .) that shows an omission of words, represents a pause, or suggests there’s something left unsaid. How does an ellipsis work? If an ellipsis is placed at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence, it means something has been removed, or it represents a silence or pause, as if the speaker trailed off. If an ellipsis comes at the end of a sentence, it suggests that there’s more to the story. When should you use an ellipsis? If you remove part of a direct quote, use an ellipsis as a placeholder to show the reader that something has been omitted. In storytelling, you can also use an ellipsis in key parts to build anticipation and give the reader something to think about.

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You are not currently logged in. Please create an account or log in to view the full course. 1. Can There Be a Compromise of Slavery? About this Lecture In this module, we examine the question of whether there could be a compromise on slavery at all. In particular, we look at: (i) how slavery was dealt with from the signing of the Constitution to the 1950s, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850; (ii) the Compromise of 1850, including what changes it enacted and how it was passed; (iii) the Fugitive Slave Act and how it was strengthened in 1850; and (iv) the growth in both pro- and anti- slavery arguments. In this course, Professor Nicole Etcheson (Ball State University) explores the failures of compromise between North and South during the 1850s. In the first module, we examine the question of whether there could be a compromise on slavery at all. After this, we explore the finality of compromise in the early 1950s by looking at the Wilmot Proviso, the Fugitive Slave Law and political change in the period. From there, we look at whether there was a Slave Power conspiracy in the 1850s by looking at the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the caning of Charles Sumner, Bleeding Kansas, and the setting up of filibuster governments in the period. In the next modules, we explore the presidency of James Buchanan in more detail, exploring the Dred Scott decision, the Utah Territory, the Lecompton Constitution, and the late 1850s economic depression. In the final modules, we look at whether there was an abolitionist conspiracy during the 1850s, exploring the Lincoln-Douglas debates, the raid on Harpers Ferry by John Brown, and the election of 1860. Professor Nicole Etcheson is Alexander M. Bracken Professor of History at Ball State University. She specialises in the history of the sectional crisis, the Jacksonian era, the Civil War and Reconstruction. She has written widely on these themes, including her book, A Generation at War: The Civil War Era in a Northern Community (2011), which won the 2012 Avery O. Craven Award from the Organization of American Historians for most original book on the Civil War era and the 2012 Best Nonfiction Book of Indiana. Cite this Lecture Etcheson, N. (2022, April 21). US History - Failure of Compromise, 1848-61 - Can There Be a Compromise of Slavery? [Video]. MASSOLIT. https://www.massolit.io/courses/us-history-failure-of-compromise-1848-61/can-there-be-a-compromise-of-slavery Etcheson, N. "US History - Failure of Compromise, 1848-61 – Can There Be a Compromise of Slavery?." MASSOLIT, uploaded by MASSOLIT, 21 Apr 2022, https://www.massolit.io/courses/us-history-failure-of-compromise-1848-61/can-there-be-a-compromise-of-slavery

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Exposure to indoor allergens is a common trigger for so-called winter allergies. As people spend more time inside, especially in poorly ventilated areas, they may face more exposure to these allergens, which then may bring about symptoms of winter allergies. Symptoms are similar to those of other seasonal allergies, and certain symptoms may also resemble those of a cold. A few lifestyle changes and medical assistance can help people manage winter allergies. Keep reading to learn more about winter allergies, including the causes, symptoms, and treatment options available. Winter allergies are less dependent on season than on lifestyle. This is because most winter allergens are indoors. People are more likely to notice winter allergies when they spend more time inside, especially in poorly ventilated spaces. The most common causes of winter allergies include: In very warm climates, plants may continue producing allergens during the winter months. People living in these climates may struggle with pollen or ragweed for much of the year. Indoor winter allergies are very common. In industrialized areas, for example, as many as 1 in 4 people are allergic to dust mites. Cold and winter allergy symptoms can feel very similar, making it difficult to distinguish one from the other. It is possible to develop allergies at any age or even to become allergic to the same substances in the same house after years of no reaction. The fact that a person has not previously had allergies does not necessarily mean their symptoms are from a cold. Symptoms that last longer than a few weeks are usually the result of allergies. Symptoms that appear suddenly, after weeks or months in the same home, may be from a cold, especially if a person does not have a history of allergies. There are some symptoms that can help distinguish allergies from a cold: - Colds can cause a fever, but airborne allergens will not change a person’s body temperature. - A cold may cause aches and pains, while allergies typically do not. - Sore throat is common with colds, but it occurs less frequently with allergies. - A person with a cold may feel chest pressure. By contrast, only people with asthma who have allergies typically report chest pain. - Coughs are more common with colds, although they can also occur with allergies. - Colds go away on their own. Allergies may only self-resolve when the weather changes, and a person spends more time outside. - Colds typically do not cause itchy rashes or eyes, whereas allergies often do. Treatment for winter allergies depends on a person’s symptoms and how severe the allergies are. Some people may need medical treatment, while others may benefit from controlling the allergens by using some prevention strategies. These include: - Medication: Certain medications, such as over-the-counter antihistamines, nasal steroids, and prescription medication, may help control symptoms. - Immunotherapy: This process involves exposing a person to small quantities of an allergen over time to reduce the severity of their reaction. This usually means getting allergy shots. - Nasal rinses: Some people find that nasal sprays and neti pots may help keep the nasal passages clear of allergens, reducing the severity of allergic reactions. - Asthma treatment: Treating asthma may help reduce the severity of allergies. This may require taking medication, using an inhaler, or making some lifestyle changes. Some strategies that can reduce the severity of winter allergies and potentially prevent them include: - improving ventilation in the home - cleaning dusty areas to remove dust and dander - frequently cleaning toys - installing an indoor air filter - cleaning up cockroach droppings and exploring options for controlling cockroaches - using dust mite-proof encasings on your pillows, mattresses, and box springs - keeping pets out of sleeping areas if a family live with a pet to whom one or more members are allergic - removing carpeting from the home or using fewer carpets and rugs - keeping humidity in the home to 45% or less - removing any mold growing in the home Doctors do not fully understand what causes allergies or how to prevent them. There is some evidence that genetic traits, as well as lifestyle factors, may affect the risk of developing allergies. However, there is no compelling evidence that any specific intervention can prevent winter allergies. Usually, allergies are not an emergency. However, they can worsen symptoms of asthma. It is important to contact a healthcare professional if: - a person’s allergies become so severe that they interfere with daily life - a person’s symptoms of a cold persist after 1–2 weeks - a newborn is wheezing, has trouble breathing, or has any allergy or cold symptoms - a person does not know whether they have allergies or what they are allergic to - allergy treatment does not work or stops working Winter allergies can be unpleasant, since indoor substances that a person cannot easily escape usually trigger them. This does not mean a person has to resign themselves to trouble breathing during the winter. A doctor specializing in allergies can help diagnose the problem and choose the most suitable treatment.

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Their new technique, described in a study published on Thursday in the journal Science, promises to open new avenues of research into human prehistory and was met with excitement by geneticists and archaeologists. “It’s a bit like discovering that you can extract gold dust from the air,” said Adam Siepel, a population geneticist at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. “An absolutely amazing and exciting paper,” added David Reich, a genetics professor at Harvard who focuses on ancient DNA. DNA from fossil bones Until recently, the only way to study the genes of ancient humans like the Neanderthals and their cousins, the Denisovans, was to recover DNA from fossil bones. But they are scarce and hard to find, which has greatly limited research into where early humans lived and how widely they ranged. The only Denisovan bones and teeth that scientists have, for example, come from a single cave in Siberia. Looking for these genetic signposts in sediment has become possible only in the last few years, with recent developments in technology, including rapid sequencing of DNA. Although DNA sticks to minerals and decayed plants in soil, scientists did not know whether it would ever be possible to fish out gene fragments that were tens of thousands of years old and buried deep among other genetic debris. Bits of genes from ancient humans make up just a minute fraction of the DNA floating around in the natural world. But the German scientists, led by Matthias Meyer at the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology in Tübingen, have spent years developing methods to find DNA even where it seemed impossibly scarce and degraded. “There’s been a real revolution in technology invented by this lab,” Dr. Reich said. “Matthias is kind of a wizard in pushing the envelope.” Scientists began by retrieving DNA from ancient bones: - first Neanderthals, - then Denisovans. To identify the Denisovans, Svante Paabo, a geneticist at the Planck Institute and a co-author of the new paper, had only a child’s pinkie bone to work with. His group surprised the world in 2010 by reporting that it had extracted DNA from the bone, finding that it belonged to a group of humans distinct from both Neanderthals and modern humans. But that sort of analysis is limited by the availability of fossil bones. “In a lot of cases, you can get bones, but not enough,” said Hendrik Poinar, an evolutionary geneticist at McMaster University. “If you just have one small piece of bone from one site, curators do not want you to grind it up.”

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This month’s blog post comes to us from Double A Paper, the best choice for our environment. Their commitment to the environment is impressive and humbling, and their mission is to create “a better paper for a better world”. You’ve heard about biodegradable materials since grade school. But times have changed, and with all of the new synthetic materials available, it’s hard to know what’s biodegradable and what doesn’t fit the bill. The true definition of biodegradable, according to Webster’s Dictionary, is “capable of being broken down, especially into innocuous products, by the action of living things (such as microorganisms).” Are Plastics Biodegradable? Believe it or not, some are. Those made with renewable raw materials, microorganisms, petrochemicals, or mixes of all three will break down. For example, polylactic acid (PLA) plastics are made from fermented plant starch and can be composted. In the right scenario, they will dissolve into the earth without a trace within three months; but could take as long as 100 – 1,000 years, depending on how much circulation they receive while composting or sitting in a landfill. How About Styrofoam? Amazingly, this material is still as non-biodegradable as it was when it was first produced. It can break down between a few years and a million years, but is more likely to be on the longer end of that estimate. Made with petroleum, this product has been banned by places like Orange County, California and Portland, Oregon. If you’re looking for a biodegradable alternative, there are many options. What Materials Are Definitively, Without a Doubt Biodegradable? o Paper, including waxed paper o Fruits and Vegetables o Some Plastics that Include Corn Oil, Orange Peel, Starch, and Plants However, these materials must have the right conditions, such as a compost bin that will help break down the materials with heat, water, and microorganisms. Composting works by accelerating the natural decay process through offering microorganisms an optimal environment: nutrients, warm temperatures, oxygen, and moisture. They consume the composted materials and their waste products are nutrient rich soil, which can then be used for your garden or other growing area. Many biodegradable materials make great composting. For example, any foods that are not meat, like vegetable peelings and ends, coffee grinds, egg shells, and even non-food items like paper towels and napkins. But don’t include any meat, animal waste, animal bones, or anything that would foster harmful bacteria and microorganisms. What’s Not Biodegradable? o Most Plastics Some Biodegradable Alternatives to Try o Instead of plastic, try biodegradable plastics o Instead of Styrofoam, see if you can bring your own biodegradable container to a restaurant o Instead of plastic bags, use your own reusable cloth tote or satchel o Instead of foil, use wax paper o Instead of plastic straws, use paper ones Double A Paper is 100% biodegradable. We’re proud to offer a product that won’t harm the Earth, but we’re even more focused on the process of producing it, from seed to sapling to the letter you place on someone’s desk. One of our most important guiding tenets is sustainability. Order your Double A Paper from www.penny-wise.com and feel the difference.

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Eye charts of different variations have become a standard in vision screenings and eye exams. One of the most familiar charts associated with vision is the Snellen eye chart, designed by Dutch ophthalmologist Hermann Snellen in 1862 to measure visual acuity- how well you can see at various distances. Although there are variations of the Snellen chart used today, a traditional Snellen chart has eleven lines of block letters. The first line has one very large letter, which is one of several letters, for example E, H, or N. The following rows have increasing numbers of letters that become smaller in size as you read from the top to the bottom of the chart. The letters used on the chart are C, D, E, F, L, N, O, P, T, and Z. When taking a vision exam, one eye is covered and you are asked to read the letters of each row aloud beginning at the top of the chart. The smallest row that you can read correctly indicates the visual acuity in the eye being tested. The chart is positioned at a distance of 20 feet in the United States or 6 meters in the rest of the world. The term 20/20 vision is used to indicate the clarity and sharpness of your vision measured at a distance of 20 feet. If you have 20/20 vision, you can see clearly at 20 feet objects that can normally be seen at that distance. If you have 20/40 vision, it means that you need to be as close as 20 feet to see what a person with normal vision can see at 40 feet. The largest letter on an eye chart often represents an acuity of 20/200 which is associated with the term "legally blind." You will be asked to read the letters one eye at a time. Some people can see well at a distance, but are unable to bring nearer objects into focus, while others can see items that are close, but cannot see them far away. By having you read the chart, your eye doctor is able to ascertain whether you have difficulty with distance vision and can determine which corrective lenses can be used to improve it. Near vision problems or other vision and eye health issues may not be detected with the Snellen eye chart alone, so a comprehensive eye exam is always recommended. The next time you hop into the chair at your optometrists' office, you'll be able to understand why you have to read the letters on the chart in front of you and what the results mean for your vision.

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Critical Thinking Skills: Using Logic Ebook - Ebook Sample - View Inside Pages Here Because logic is the basis for all reasoning skills, it is important to teach it in as many different formats as possible. The 24 lessons in this unit involve the basic skills of language, math, and visual perception. Students must analyze each problem, evaluate possible solutions, and follow sequential steps to arrive at a conclusion. Choose the ending that is most logical: “My bike has a flat tire, so: A) I need a new bike. B) I should fix the tire. C) I’ll ride it anyway.” The sequential activities featured here will most certainly help young learners develop critical thinking skills. |Age/Grade||5 Yrs/ K - 11 Yrs/ Gr 6| |Shipping Height "||0.00| |Shipping Length "||0.00| |Shipping Width "||0.00|

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Between 1595 and 1600 Shakespeare faced a series of adversities that no doubt affected him profoundly, even as he continued to produce first-rate plays at a blistering pace. Many of the adversities that arose during this time related to the precariousness of the theater. In 1595 the Lord Chamberlain’s Men were preparing to move into a new theater in the Blackfriars district of London, when the Countess Elizabeth intervened. Though a strict Puritan, the Countess’s objection to the Blackfriars theater had less to do with morality than with her concern about ragged crowds flooding into an already cramped area of town. She used her connections among the nobility to ban the company from their new theater, leaving them in serious financial trouble. The following year brought the death of Henry Carey, the patron of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. His death placed the company’s future in jeopardy, and it survived in part because another patron adopted the players, but also because the company underwent a restructuring that involved the actors themselves, Shakespeare included, taking a financial stake in the company. The construction of the famous Globe Theater in 1599 ensured the company’s survival into the next century. Aside from the challenges of surviving as a theater company in London, perhaps the greatest adversity Shakespeare faced during this period was the death of his only son, Hamnet. Shakespeare probably received word of his son’s illness sometime in the spring of 1596, and though we can’t know for certain, he most likely returned to Stratford to attend his son’s burial. But Shakespeare would not have been able to stay in Stratford for long. The death of Henry Carey came quick on the heels of Hamnet’s passing, which means that Shakespeare probably returned to London to deal with the loss of his company’s patron. Scholars speculate that though Shakespeare no doubt grieved Hamnet’s death at the time, this grief would not find expression in his writing until around 1600, when he wrote the play that bears his dead son’s name—“Hamnet” and “Hamlet” were synonymous at the time. If this is true, then Shakespeare’s expression of grief takes an unexpected form in the play. Instead of the central grief being that of a beloved son’s death, the play centers on the murder of a cherished father.

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Spiders have primarily four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the cephalothorax, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The principal pair at the front are of the type called pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), which in most arthropods are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup. However, in spiders these eyes are capable of forming images. The other pairs, called secondary eyes, are thought to be derived from the compound eyes of the ancestral chelicerates, but no longer have the separate facets typical of compound eyes. Unlike the principal eyes, in many spiders these secondary eyes detect light reflected from a reflective tapetum lucidum, and wolf spiders can be spotted by torchlight reflected from the tapeta. On the other hand, the secondary eyes of jumping spiders have no tapeta. Other differences between the principal and secondary eyes are that the latter have rhabdomeres that point away from incoming light, just like in vertebrates, while the arrangement is the opposite in the former. The principal eyes are also the only ones with eye muscles, allowing them to move the retina. Having no muscles, the secondary eyes are immobile. The visual acuity of some jumping spiders exceeds by a factor of ten that of dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects. This acuity is achieved by a telephotographic series of lenses, a four-layer retina, and the ability to swivel the eyes and integrate images from different stages in the scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are relatively slow. There are spiders with a reduced number of eyes, the most common having six eyes (example, Periegops suterii) with a pair of eyes absent on the anterior median line. Other species have four eyes and members of the Caponiidae family can have as few as two. Cave dwelling species have no eyes, or possess vestigial eyes incapable of sight. Read more, here.

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This proclamation did not allow colonist to settle west of the Appalachin Mountins. The British government feared the conflict between colonists and Native Americans would lead to another war. They also could not afford to pay the British troops to defend the Western lands. Colonists were enraged by this proclamation because they felt they had won the right to settle in the Ohio River Valley after after winning the French and Indian War. Road to Revolutin The quartering act of 1765 is when the colonist's had to take care of the soilders whenever thay wanted to show up at the colonist's house. Thecolonist's had to not only provid a room for the soilders but also food. The bad part was that the colonists still had to pay for tax. Parliament passed the stamp act in 1765. The stamp act is the act when all commecial documents had to have a stamp on them. The stamp on the document had been taxed and approved. This act appies to colonists and merchants. To raise revenue guess what act parliament passed.The townshed act is when glass, paint, lead, tea, and other goods were taxed. The british used the rights of assistance to demand the towmshed act. Tea Act/ Boston Tea Party With the townshed act reapealed the tea act was passed. The tea act is the act that give Britin control over American tea trade and the still had tax on tea. This act made the colonial merchat shippers angry. The boston tea party is proof that colonist didn't agree with taxation om tea. During the boston tes psrty the colonists dressed up as native americans borded the ship with teas and dumped it overboard. The Battle of Lexington and Concord In the year 1775around 700 British troops came marching up to Lexington and incountered 70 militiamen. We don't who started the war but it was known as the shot heard from around the world.8 militiamen were found dead. After the British troops were found marching to Concord to destroy supplies. The militiamen and minutemen ganged up and attacked the British troops. Olive Branch Pettition After the battle bunker hill there was alot of people killed. So the olive branch petition was like a peace permit. Many times the king had denied it. Until finally it was accepted and the British sent more troops and german merchants bringing them down to their knees begging for forgivness. Declaration of Independence The declaration of independence is a proclamation that was passed by colonists. this was a resolution of independence passed by the colonists and the and the colonies.

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People have long known about the north and south poles located in Antarctica and the Arctic. These mark the farthest distance from the equator and are not the only poles in the world. Others are scattered about the planet, located on nearly every continent. These are the poles of inaccessibility, the most remote points in the world. Poles of inaccessibility are challenging to reach and are often defined as the furthest location from the coastlines of a continent. For anyone looking to get away from it all, the following points may be of interest. Poles of Inaccessibility Arctic Pole of Inaccessibility Also known as the Northern Pole of Inaccessibility, this point is located on a shifting ice pack in the Arctic Ocean. It is the furthest point from land. Although the ice pack moves somewhat, its coordinates are recorded as 85°48′N 176°9′W, and the nearest land masses are Ellesmere Island, Komsomolets, and Genriyetta Islands. The climate is harsh with freezing temperatures and not one human settlement in proximity. Southern Pole of Inaccessibility This pole is located at a point on Antarctica that is farthest from the coast. However, many researchers debate the exact coordinates. The confusion comes from a disagreement over where exactly scientists should measure the coastline. It could be measured from the edge of the Antarctic landmass or from the edge of the ice shelves that surround it. Like its Arctic counterpart, there are no human settlements nearby. Oceanic Pole of Inaccessibility The Oceanic Pole is located in the middle of the Pacific Ocean between Chile and New Zealand. This point is farthest from any landmass on Earth with the nearest being 1,670 miles away, Ducie Island (part of the Cairn Islands). Geographers have nicknamed this pole Point Nemo referring the captain from Jules Verne’s Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Eurasian Pole of Inaccessibility The European and Asian continents were combined to define the Eurasian Pole of Inaccessibility which most experts claim lies at 46°17′N 86°40′E, the farthest point from the ocean. Northwest China, near the Kazakhstan border, lays claim to this pole. In the middle of the Gurbantünggüt Desert, this pole is arid and filled with sand dunes. The nearest community is found to the south Ürümqi, with a population of nearly 3 million. Like other poles of inaccessibility, however, this location is often contested as not being the farthest from the coast because of the Gulf of Orb. This Russian Gulf connects the Orb River to the Arctic Ocean, and some researchers argue that it is part of the ocean and not a river as previously thought. African Pole of Inaccessibility This pole is located near the joining of three borders: the Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, and South Sudan. Coordinates for the African Pole are 5.65°N 26.17°E and the nearest town is Obo with a population of just over 12,000. The area is covered by savanna, and the climate is tropical with dry and rainy seasons. Australian Pole of Inaccessibility Australia’s Pole of Inaccessibility is 570 miles inland in the Northern Territory. This point is located along a dirt road that connects the small town of Papunya with Lake Lewis. The area, a semi-arid desert, is restricted Aboriginal land and requires an access permit. Once travelers obtain the access permit, the pole should be relatively easy to reach. North American Pole of Inaccessibility The North American Pole is located at 43.36°N 101.97°W and lies in the state of South Dakota in the US. This pole is only 7 miles north of Allen, a 420-person town with significant levels of poverty. The area is surrounded by hilly grassland and belongs to the Oglala Sioux Native American Tribe. The climate here ranges from hot, humid summers to freezing winters. South American Pole of Inaccessibility Brazil lays claim to the South American Pole of Inaccessibility which lies at 14.05°S 56.85°W. The area surrounding this point is filled with lush vegetation, canyons, and waterfalls. Three highways run around the pole but not through it making this location difficult to reach. Attempts to Reach the Poles Although these locations are meant to represent the most remote and difficult places to reach in the world, some of them are located near human settlements. Others, however, are truly off the beaten path. Their remoteness has not discouraged some explorers, however. Despite the rugged conditions of the Northern Pole of Inaccessibility, explorer Jim McNeill tried to reach the destination several times, failing each time. Nobody has yet reached this pole. The Antarctic Pole has been reached, however, and interestingly enough, is home to a bust of Lenin. Russians built a research station here in 1958 and marked the location with Lenin, who faces toward Moscow in Russia. Once a functioning site, today, all that is left is one abandoned building and Lenin’s bust. The Oceanic Pole, or Point Nemo, has no commercial transportation routes running through it.Each of these locations, particularly those near communities, would make a great travel bucket list!

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The world is warming. Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of air and Ocean on the earth's surface since the 20th century, which is expected to continue. Evidence shows that for every 0.6 degree rise in temperature, 150000 people die every year as a result of the negative effects of global warming. Among them: glaciers, permafrost and sea ice are disappearing, sea water level is rising, seasonal imbalance and weather become more extreme. When the temperature rises further, it will cause more floods, droughts, pestilence, famine and other situations, and damage the entire ecosystem. To achieve the best energy efficiency, it is necessary to effectively use energy, reducing power, make less energy to provide the same level of effect. In the face of energy shortage problem, improve energy efficiency is one of the most economic and effective method to improve. At the same time, reduce emissions of carbon dioxide when electricity production, can effectively slow climate change, reduce damage made of global warming on the earth.

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Sea hares (Aplysia punctata) are a common find on dives around the south, west and northern British Isle. They are usually around 7cm long but can grow up to 20cm in length. The colour of Sea hares varies from olive, brown, red and purplish black depending on the algal diet. At the head end, two slender rhinophores stand up like the ears of a hare, hence their common name. At first sight, Sea hares would appear to be an easy target as a meal, there’s no shell, no spines like an urchin, no claws and they move at a fairly slow pace. Sea hares have a mucous coating containing acid and other nasty compounds which might deter some predators, but their party piece is to release a cloud of sticky, purple ink when attacked by hungry predators. The cloud of purple ink is in fact a mixture of two secretions. On the back of the Sea hare the central structure is called the mantle with an opening called the foramen. Just under the surface there’s the last remnants of what was probably a shell in the Sea hare’s evolutionary history, a protein disc which acts as an internal shell. On the roof of the mantle is the Purple Gland above the gills. The Purple Gland is responsible for storing and secreting the ink. The building blocks for noxious chemicals are obtained from their algal food, particularly from red algae, metabolised and stored here. This strategy is quite common in marine gastropods and a number of these substances are being actively tested for pain killing, antibacterial, antiviral and anticancer activity. It’s powerful stuff. Beneath the gill on the floor of the mantle cavity is the Opaline Gland. This gland secretes a white liquid that becomes viscous upon contact with water. If you’ve ever seen the videos of Hagfish (Myxini sp.) producing copious volumes of slime as a way of evading predators, then you will already have seen opaline in action. The ink and the opaline are secreted into the cavity in the mantle where they mix and are expelled towards the predator. The ink has an intriguing role in that it has been shown to be a phagomimetic decoy (phago = eat, mimetic = to mimic). Some species of lobster will drop the sea hare and try to manipulate and eat the ink cloud, thinking that it is food. Whilst testing this idea scientists found another ink effect. The lobsters tried to rub the ink off their antennules. The opaline in the ink blocks the receptors and response to food odours, thereby preventing the predator from recognising that Sea hares are food. It’s the lobster equivalent of a stuffy nose. Whilst the lobster is busy removing the sticky ink, the Sea hare can make its escape. So, in this aspect the ink is rather more than just a cloud to hide the escape of the Sea hare, it is an active cloud which has the effect of blinding the predator. It can take quite a bit of stimulation to persuade a Sea hare to produce ink. The threshold depends on factors such as the environment (living in a turbulent environment makes inking less likely), how full the gland is and what the stimulus is (inking occurs more rapidly near anemone tentacles that it does in response to an electric shock). If a Sea hare has full ink glands then it will release nearly half of its ink at the first stimulation. Each subsequent stimulation will release 30-50% of the contents. It will take at least 2 days to replenish the gland. Whilst aquarium owners like the grazing tendencies of Sea hares, they panic about the effect that any inking has on the fish and other residents inside their tank. The jury is out on how much effect the Sea hare ink can have. Sea anemones retract their tentacles, but the evidence for the toxic effect of the ink inside an aquarium is limited, perhaps because the Sea hares aren’t feeding on red algae that are the source of the most potent toxins. It’s a popular misconception that lobsters are red in colour. That’s because most people have never seen a live lobster, and what gets served up in their lobster thermidor is distinctly red in colour. It’s one of my pet hates when media shows lobsters as red, right up their with the reporter talking about the oxygen tanks worn by the scuba divers. Grrr! As divers we are well positioned to know that lobsters are a dark shade of blue-green, but it’s not just the shell that’s blue, so is the lobster’s blood. Technically the lobster doesn’t have blood in the way that we would understand it. They have haemolymph, a fluid equivalent to blood that circulates inside arthrpods. Haemolymph is mostly watery with some salts and nutrients dissolved in. There are some cells known as haemocytes, but in arthropods these play a role in the immune system of the organism. There aren’t any red blood cells containing haemoglobin to carry oxygen like we have. Instead invertebrates have some special proteins in their haemolymph called haemocyanins that transport oxygen for them. Haemocyanins are metalloproteins that have two copper atoms which can reversibly bind to a single oxygen molecule. Oxygenation causes a colour change from the colourless deoxygenated form to the blue oxygenated form. Haemocyanins are only found in molluscs and arthropods but aren’t limited to marine animals and can be found in tarantulas, scorpions and centipedes too. Haemocyanins turn out to be rather more efficient than haemoglobin at binding to oxygen in cold environments and when the oxygen pressure is low. Sounds ideal for the average marine crustacean. Lobster haemolymph has been shown to have antiviral properties, but only in the uncooked state. In research it was shown to be effective against the viruses that cause shingles and warts. In fact, there is an American based company that has developed a blood-based cream for treating cold sores and skin lesions, although it’s yet to get approval from the regulatory authorities. So, we’ve established that copper coloured proteins give lobsters their blue blood, but that’s not the explanation for the shell changing colour when the lobster is cooked. For this we have to look at another protein called crustacyanin, and its best buddy astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid pigment so it absorbs blue light and gives off red/orange colour. Astaxanthins are mostly synthesised by microalgae and enters the marine food chain. In shellfish the astaxanthin becomes concentrated in the shell. Its likely that astaxanthins have a string antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect and may protect against age-related degeneration. Astaxanthins are also found in some sponges, starfish and in species of octopush and cuttlefish. They give the muscle tissue of the salmon its characteristic colour. Crustacyanin is a very interesting chromoprotein, that changes colour depending on whether it is in water or dehydrated. When it’s bound to the lipid like astaxanthin it has a distinctly blue colour. While a lobster is alive, crustacyanin stays bound tightly to astaxanthin, so tightly that the astanxanthin’s light-absorption properties are quashed and the complex appears to be blue-green in colour. That all stops when the lobster hits the boiling water. Crustacyanin is not heat stable, so the boiling temperatures cause it to unravel and lose its grip on astaxanthin. The true colours of the astaxanthin then shine through in the red lobster shell. In fact, they were there all the time, you just couldn’t see them. It’s the same mechanisms for cooking shrimp too. Flamingos rather cleverly digest the crustacyanin protein to release the astaxanthins that colour their feathers soft pink. Stefano Lorenzini was an Italian physician born in Florence in 1652. One of his teachers at the medical school in Pisa was Francesco Redi who as well as being a physician spent time experimenting to prove that spontaneous generation (life just appears) was a myth, mostly with maggots and flies. As part of his work Redi, like all scientists of a time without cameras, made incredibly detailed anatomical drawings. Redi inspired Lorenzini, who in 1678 published the work that he is best remembered for, an in-depth study on the anatomy and physiology of sharks. This work contained the discovery of the Ampullae of Lorenzini, the special electromagnetic sense organs found in sharks and rays. But although Lorenzini described and drew the Ampullae, it would take nearly 300 years before modern science could explain how sharks had an additional sensory organ not seen in most other animals. The Ampullae of Lorenzini form a network of jelly filled canals that open in small pores through the surface of the skin which can be seen as dark spots on the skin. At the back end of the canal is a collection of receptor cells that have a unique structure and allow the shark to sense electric and magnetic fields. The gel in the canals is keratan sulfate which has one of the highest known conductivity of any known biological material (about 1.8 milliSiemens/cm). The ampullae are clustered and each cluster connects to a different part of the skin, so the shark can get detailed directional information from this network. The cells that actually detect the electrical field have a very special structure. There is a single layer of excitable cells closely packed together. The membrane of these cells facing into the canal is packed with voltage dependent calcium channel proteins. The rest of the canal lining has a very high resistance, which means that any voltage difference is effectively concentrated on the electroreceptor cells. A change in the electric field in the jelly allows these proteins to open and calcium floods into the cells. This causes the other side of the cell (away from the canal) to release neurotransmitter signalling to the shark. Sharks have been shown to be more sensitive to electric fields than any other animal, possibly as low as 5 nanoVolts/cm – that’s 5/1,000,000,000 of a volt detected in a 1cm long ampulla. All living creatures produce an electric field by muscle contractions and as a result of the internal body chemistry. So being able to detect weak electrical stimuli probably allows sharks to hunt prey animals, including those buried in sand. Basking sharks have been observed swerving around jellyfish whilst feeding, after all the last thing you’d want clogging up your gill rakers would be lots of jellyfish and their stinging nematocysts. It’s likely that the Ampullae of Lorenzini also allow sharks to sense magnetic fields. Any moving conductor will induce an electric field, so seawater moving on ocean currents, with the Earth’s magnetic field will produce electric fields well within the range that sharks can detect. Behavioural studies have shown that magnetic fields can change the behaviour of sharks. The ability to sense and orientate along magnetic field lines may help explain some of the large distance migrations that have been found using shark tagging experiments. Great white sharks have been shown to migrate over 2000 miles in open ocean to feeding grounds in the Pacific Ocean. Whale sharks have been tracked on journeys over 4800 miles. That is an astonishing figure considering that they don’t have sat nav guiding the way! So next time you’re up close and personal with any shark or ray, have a look for the black dots around their snout and remember that 340 years ago an Italian doctor and fish fanatic spotted the same thing. Comb jellies are a common sight around British waters, particularly the sea gooseberry (Pleurobrachia bachei). With a clear body and measuring only a couple of centimetres long, it’s easy to overlook these beautiful little animals apart from one thing, stunning rows of rainbow coloured hairs running along their body. With no skeleton and composed of 99% water, you’d be forgiven for thinking that these were very simple creatures, but actually they have some pretty neat stuff going on. Firstly, let’s start with where the comb jellies fit in, they are not the same phylum as jellyfish. Jellyfish (Cnidaria) have complex lifecycles and stinging cells. Comb jellies (Ctenophora) have a simple life cycle and make glue to catch prey. The problem for scientists trying to study the evolution of the Ctenophores is that they don’t make very good fossils so the records are patchy at best. Genetic studies indicate that Ctenophores are much older in origin than other animals, and predate the bilaterian animals (those with bilateral symmetry) by millions of years. There are 2 major cell layers, the external epidermis and the internal gastrodermis. Between these layers is the mesoglea, a jelly like layer. The Ctneophores have muscles running through them and the outer epidermis contains a basic nervous system known as the nerve net. Comb jellies are named for their unique feature, plates of giant fused cilia (small hair-like cells) which run in eight rows up and down their bodies. These cilia are used to propel the comb jelly through the water. Many comb jellies have a single pair of tentacles and often these tentacles are branches and give the illusion of many tentacles. The branched tentacles are used to catch prey, but unlike the toxins from jellyfish, comb jellies use glue. Special cells called colloblasts respond to touch by firing a spiral filament and releasing sticky glue. Once the prey is stuck the comb jelly reels in the tentacles and brings the food to its mouth. Most comb jellies are carnivorous and will eat anything. Until recently it was believed that comb jellies spat out the indigestible waste particles, but it now seems like they release them through pores in the rear end – which is probably part of the evolutionary puzzle in explaining when animals developed anuses. What about the beautiful rainbow coloured pulses of light? Whilst some comb jellies can produce light by a special chemical reaction to give photoluminescence, our sea gooseberry can’t. The rainbow colouring is caused by refraction of light through the hair like cilia cells. Light travels at a constant speed in a vacuum, but when light encounters a material that is more dense, it slows and its pathway bends. The different wavelengths in visible light bend at slightly different angles. This means that the cilia act like the glass prism you played with in physics classes as a schoolchild, splitting the light into separate wavelengths. The refractive index (how much the light will bend is almost the same for the comb jelly tissue as it is for the salty sea water. The hair like cilia amplify the refractive effect creating an iridescent pulse that is mesmerising to watch. The effect works across the visible and UV light wavelengths, meaning a fluorescent torch will also give a great image. Lastly, there’s a few things you should know about comb jelly reproduction. Comb jellies are hermaphrodites (both sexes in one individual) and can spawn eggs and sperm freely into the sea, through their mouths. They do this on a continuous basis unless they are starved of food, when they will shrink down and stop breeding. But feed them up again and they will start spawning again. Rainbow coloured hair, sticky glue fishing nets and continual reproduction – what’s not to admire? Normally the ferries coming to the Isle of Man run at sensible times, but there is one particular scheduled service that leaves the port of Heysham at 02.15. In the winter, when the only other crossing is 14.15, I seem to find myself on the ‘overnight’ boat far more often than I would like. The boat doesn’t load until at least 01.30, so for a couple of hours I usually try to sleep in the carpark. Cold, rainy and situated next to the nuclear power station, it’s not exactly conducive to any restful sleep. Even if I do doze off I still have that dreadful anticipation of being woken by the port staff to drive onto the car deck. I’ve learned now to book one of the cabins on the ferry. Head to the customer services desk, collect the key and find the cabin with the beds made up ready. If I’m quick I can kick my shoes off and be asleep before the safety announcement. The journey is just under 4 hours and the arrival in the Isle of Man is accompanied by an announcement and the lights in the cabin coming on. It doesn’t feel like I’ve actually slept at all. After a short drive home, I usually try for more sleep, but it’s not always easy during the day. I usually need a good night’s sleep to recover from my acute sleep deprivation. As divers we often travel some distance by road, ferry or plane to get to our dive destinations. Travel arrangements can involve early check-ins and sleeping in unfamiliar places. There is considerable research into the effect of sleep deprivation and its effect on behaviour, particularly for in relation to driving. Sleep deprivation has the same hazardous effect as being drunk. Research has shown that being awake for 17-19 hours impairs performance to an extent that is comparable to having a blood alcohol level over the drink driving limit for the UK. As drink-driving has now become socially unacceptable, how many of us are aware that our driving could be as impaired by lack of sleep? I think back to my days living in London, getting up at 4am to tow the club boat to the South coast, two waves of two dives and some food followed by the drive home. The boat would be stowed away by about 10pm, so the last few hours of towing a rib would have had me well into the fatigue zone. The evidence suggests that performance decline sets in after 16 hours awake, add this to sub-clinical decompression related post-dive tiredness and I think I was in dangerous territory. How many times though do our trip risk assessments include fatigue? I got up at 5am this morning to collect a group coming in from the ferry. During the summer there is an 03.00 crossing from Liverpool arriving in the Isle of Man at 05.45. If I think I felt tired as I arrived at the ferry terminal – you should have seen the divers we collected! Some of them had managed a little sleep in the airline style seats, but not much. We’ve brought them back to the accommodation and sent them all to bed. We expect to be diving this afternoon, and one of the risks I’m now assessing is how much sleep they haven’t had. I can’t find any specific research into the impact of fatigue on diving, but I am happy to accept that driving is a reasonably good surrogate activity. Drowsy drivers experience difficulty remembering the last bit of road and slower reaction times. Impaired cognitive and motor performance aren’t good for divers either. We learn about the impairment due to narcosis (with that amazing slide that has several pints of beer on!), but being awake for long periods is going to cause those effects without even stepping in the water. Maybe there are hints about this in our training, we do advise to have a good interval between flying and diving, but there’s nothing explicit regarding sleep deprivation. If you aren’t convinced that this is a problem, perhaps you should know that it’s been estimated that sleep deprivation is implicated in 1 in 5 road accidents. Sleep deprived drivers are much more likely to get angry with other road users and deal poorly with stressful situations (like navigating unfamiliar roads). Caffeine can help, but only in the short term and not with all the aspects. It can improve alertness and reduce reaction time, but fine motor control isn’t improved even with high doses. So, I could send all the divers to the local coffee shop and insist they top up their espresso quota, but I know that won’t last. Instead, I hope they have their heads down and are napping now. Me? I’m too wide awake and writing columns instead! Scallops (Pecten maximus) are a national concern on the Isle of Man. We have some of the most protected scallop populations in the British Isles. Licensed boats can only fish during daylight hours in certain areas of the sea and not during the summer months when the scallops are breeding. The catch is landed into harbours around the island; creamy, pink shells in 25kg bags loaded onto pallets for the forklift truck to move them into wagons. If you glance down into the harbour its usually possible to spot the white inside of a few discarded shells shining on the seabed below. These shells eventually wash across the bay and onto the beaches, but they don’t always arrive in the same colour as when they were discarded. Many of the shells are stained dark brown or black, colours we never see during dive surveys of scallops. Shells are mostly made of calcium carbonate which is white in colour, mixed in with about 2% of protein. As molluscs develop they absorb minerals from their environment and secrete calcium carbonate from their mantle to create their shell. The protein makes the shell very strong, but lightweight and resistant to dissolving in water. Shells are self-repairing, and the mollusc can secrete more shell material as needed for repair or growth. Naturally occurring colour and patterns in shells is as a result of mineral ions incorporated into the shell structure. But that doesn’t explain the post-mortem colouration of the scallop shells. Shallow burial of shells causes iron oxides to form in the tiny pits on the surface of the shell and causes brown staining. The black colour is usually due to microscopic crystals of iron sulphide. These crystals form in the absence of free oxygen which can occur if shells become buried deeper in mud or sand. Although my local harbour is sheltered, it doesn’t provide the deep mud conditions required to blacken shells, but there is a much more common cause. Burial under just a few centimetres of seaweed rotting on the beach will provide suitable anoxic conditions for sulphide formation. Hence blackened shells on the beach is a relatively quick process occurring under mounds of kelp and wrack. There are some mollusc species that live well buried into deeper sediment. The Ocean Quahog (Arctica islandica) is a subtidal species of clam that is renowned for it’s longevity. Some individuals have been recorded at over 500 years old. The shells of Quahogs have dark black colouration, but they have a long time to absorb the necessary pigment. Whilst the shell is buried in the sediment, a siphon to the water provides for food and oxygen to the creature below. Naturally acquired pigment probably strengthens the shell. Colour patterns often align with spiral or axial sculpture. Instead of producing and transporting a thicker shell, it might be more energy efficient for molluscs to make pigments. Pigments impede propagation of a crack in the shell. The structural explanation also works for colour inside of shells. A good example is Mercenaria mercenaria (the quahog or cherrystone clam). The purple inside the shell, hidden when the animal is alive, lies along the edges of the shell, just where predator whelks are likely to attack. Strangely young Merceneria don’t make the purple pigment. Their shells are too thin to resist attack anyway, so they concentrate their efforts on growing a thicker shell and surviving to when their pigment strengthened shell is going to ensure a long life. There are lots of other reasons for shells to have different colours. A favourite project for marine science students is to send them to look for colour variation in Flat Periwinkles (Littorina obtusata). In this case pigment is used for camouflage, allowing the winkles to hide amongst the bladder wrack on the shore. Pigments may serve as a warning to possible predators, or the pigmentation pattern may provide a template for future growth of the shell. But there doesn’t have to be a reason for pigmentation in all cases. Oxygenated mammalian blood is red, not for any evolutionary reason, but because that’s the chemistry of the situation. Seals are collectively known as pinnipeds, which means from the Latin pinna (fin) and pes (foot). This classification includes the walruses, eared seals and true seals. The Isle of Man and the rest of the British Isles are home to resident populations of Grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and Common seals (Phoca vitulina). Common seals (also known as Harbour Seals) are found in both the North Atlantic and North Pacific. About 35% of the European population of common seals lives in UK waters. By contrast Grey seals are only found in the North Atlantic, Baltic and Barents Sea. The entire world population of Grey seals is probably no more than 400,000 individuals, with about 40% of them living in UK waters. Although we tend to take seals for granted, we should perhaps appreciate how lucky we are to have them in the waters around us and see them so often. There’s been a long understanding that the pinnipeds evolved from land based mammals. This concept in itself is a little strange, as the general gist of evolution is that our ancient ancestors left the watery environment for a life on land. But somewhere millions of years ago, some of the mammals returned to the sea to take advantage of the feeding opportunities that existed there. Whales and dolphins have definitely taken their return to the marine environment to the extreme and evolved to the point that they can no longer safely return to the land. When they do, the amazing guys from the British Divers Marine Life Rescue swoop in and work their hardest to throw them back into the briny again. In the pinnipeds we have a group of species who spend their time mostly in the marine environment, returning to land only when necessary. On land seals are ungainly, slow and clumsy, which made them an easy target for hunting. In the water, they are agile hunters, capable of diving to about 200 metres for up to 15 minutes. The clues to the pinnipeds evolutionary past are clear in a number of ways. Their forelimb has five webbed fingers, with claws that are used for grooming and fighting. This five fingered (pentadactyl) limb structure is a common evolutionary feature, linking many vertebrates including reptiles, birds, mammals and amphibians. Just let that sink in for a moment. You can see the same bone structure in pretty much every group of animals with bones. The humerus at the top, an elbow where the radius and ulna join, a wrist connecting to fingers. It’s there in the bats wing (with elongated fine boned fingers and skin stretched over them), it’s there in frogs (although the ulna and radius have partly fused), and cats and dogs and tigers and crocodiles and in us.. In seals the flipper bones that would be the equivalent of your arm are shortened, so that what appears to be their armpit is in fact their elbow (front flipper) or ankle (hind flipper). Their metatarsals (fingers) are elongated compared to ours and the skin in between gives them something akin to swimming gloves. Close interaction with a seal will reveal that they can still bend their webbed fingers to grip and hold onto objects or, if you are lucky enough, onto you as you are diving. Their flippers are well adapted to propel them through the water. When swimming quickly, the hind flippers are used in a side to side motion, and the front flippers are held against the body. If you have watched seals turn under water, you’ll know that they stick out a front flipper to perform sudden changes of direction. Cruising speed for seals is about 2 to 3 knots, but when hunting seals can move at an astounding 20 knots (that’s probably faster than most club ribs!). Seals are part of the Caniformia (dog like) sub order of the Carnivora group of Mammals. In fact, most divers that have had encounters with seals will tend to describe them as being like big puppies. Despite this, there have been many studies suggesting that seals are in fact more closely related to bears than they are to dogs. Perhaps the fact that we are more likely to have encountered and interacted with dogs rather than bears gives rise to our misconception? Remember that Grey seals are the largest living carnivore in Britain, can grow up to 2.3 metres and weigh over 300kg and treat these amazing creatures with the respect they deserve. When you get to shake hands with a seal next time, count his fingers and say hello to a very distant cousin. Sellafield is located across the Irish Sea on the Cumbrian coast and is approximately 32 miles from the Isle of Man, on a clear day you can just about see it. The main activities at the plant include reprocessing of spent fuel from nuclear power reactors and storage of nuclear waste. There are no longer any nuclear power plants in operation at the Sellafield site. It was built in the late 1940s to manufacture plutonium for atomic bombs and Sellafield is one of the most radioactive places on earth. In its prime the plant was releasing eight million litres of contaminated waste into the sea every day. In 1957 the plant became the site of the worst nuclear accident in Great Britain's history, The Windscale Fire. This was a blaze that raged for three days, releasing radioactive gases into the air. The discharge of low level liquid wastes from the Sellafield site in the north west of England is the most significant source of artificial radioactivity in the Irish marine environment. Now the site is mainly used for nuclear fuel reprocessing, and this and other activities gives rise to the discharge of low level radioactive materials in the form of liquids and gases into the environment. These discharges are regulated by the UK authorities and limits for releases are set by the Environment Agency of England and Wales (EA). Liquid radioactive waste is discharged from the plant into the Irish Sea via a pipeline, about 3 km from land. Gases are released from the plant via a number of chimneys (referred to as ‘stacks’). Discharges into the Irish Sea peaked in the mid-1970s and have dropped significantly in recent years. This is as a result of improved waste treatment facilities at Sellafield, which convert much of this radioactive waste into a solid for long-term storage. As a result of the discharges from Sellafield, low levels of artificial radioactivity can be detected in sediments, seawater, seaweeds, fish and shellfish taken from the Irish Sea. A wide range of marine samples are collected and analysed on a regular basis by both the EA and the Manx Government. This monitoring can show where the radioactive particles become concentrated. As expected many particles end up in sea bed sediment, so there are sometimes slight increases when the winter storms have been especially ferocious and stirred up the seabed. Generally, levels are falling from their peak in 1998. There are several radioactive isotopes that are monitored, Technetium-99, Caesium-137 and 134 and Cobalt-60. Of these, Tc-99 is regularly tested for by catching lobsters. Tc-99 concentrations in our local lobsters have declined from a peak of around 400Bqkg-1 in February 1998 to average 10 Bqkg-1 during 2015. These Tc-99 concentrations are lower than the levels found in lobsters caught off the Cumbrian coast. The EC recommended maximum permitted level for Tc-99 in seafood which is 1250 Bqkg-1, so these lobsters are safe to eat and regularly eating seafish will only make a minor contribution to your overall radiation exposure. Now it’s not true to say that lobsters are immortal, but once they reach adulthood they don’t have many predators except humans. Good lobster fishery management sets minimum landing sizes for lobsters, ensuring that they are at least able to breed once before being caught. Small lobsters can get out of pots through the escape hatch or they are returned to the sea anyway. Just as lobster pots discriminate against small lobsters, they also prevent very large lobsters from getting in. Consequently, larger lobsters do tend to live a very long time. The lifespan of European lobsters has been estimated at between 30 and 50 years. Large lobsters have lived through the peak discharges from Sellafield, unlike their smaller 3-4 year old counterparts who got caught in lobster pots and tested. Lobsters have a fairly high affinity for Tc99 and they accumulate the radioactive particles in their bodies. But the only real predator for the large lobsters is, you’ve guessed it, divers. Something to think about the next time you wrestle a monster lobbie from under a rock Some years ago I craved having a tropical fish tank. I’d had coldwater fish starting with the short-lived goldfish I won at the carnival hoopla stand, but tropical fish seemed like they were more interesting. The big problem is that a fish tank is a bugger of a thing to move and at that time in my life it became a chore and a burden. I relocated 6 times with the fish in bags inside a coolbox, hence it was with some relief that when the last fish died I emptied out the last of the water and put the tank away, promising that when life was a little less hectic I’d get it back out and set it up again. About 6 months later disaster struck when I cracked the glass at one end, but I didn’t get rid of the tank, just planned on repairing it. One of those tasks on my endless to-do list. And then my goals changed. Stuff the guppies and their frilly tails, why not set up a coldwater marine tank? After all I spend a large amount of my life underwater, why not bring some of the great critters back? Several times a year I visit schools on the Isle of Man and bring a variety of sea creatures in to meet the children and explaining something about their lifecycles. I’ve developed a habit of going and collecting little stuff anyway. A chance conversation with one of our club members who wanted to rehome one of his tanks, ended up in him loaning me a pump and a chiller unit as well as a fish tank without a crack in the end. At 10am we were having a brew in the dive centre and by 2pm I was stood ankle deep on the slipway filling a cleaned out sofnolime container with seawater. Our marine tank was installed and populated within 24 hours. And if I thought the tropical freshwater tank was hard work, I had another shock coming. Weekly 50 litre seawater changes are just hard work. I now spend my time thinking about the ecological balance of the tank much more than I ever bothered with guppies. When you keep tropical fish there is loads of info about how many fish per litre of water etc, for British marine life tanks there isn’t the same guidance. A small edible crab was a disaster and massacred poor Kevin the Masked Crab within 24 hours. Kevin had a dodgy past himself, and was often seen amputating limbs from small brittle stars, so he was called Kevin the Killer Crab, but we had grown fond of him and it was sad to see parts of his exoskeleton scattered around the tank. Our current population includes about 10 hermit crabs, who mainly seem to fight over shells and ignore the rest of the inhabitants. We have two small shore crabs, although one of them is getting a little larger and consequently even hungrier. I’ve a feeling he’ll be heading back to the shore next weekend. We’ve ended up with about 30 North Atlantic Prawns who pounce any food in the tank, and will come to your hand if you put it in. Small Purple Henry starfish, a juvenile scallop, a small common sea urchin, some limpets, Top Shells and Periwinkles complete the scene. We’ve had small fish (they get eaten). The current star of the show is our Leach’s Spider Crab (Inachis phalangium). Leachy has a small triangular carapace which will reach a maximum of 3cm. I picked him as he ran across a sandy patch between rocks. I’ve seen small spider crabs before, but never really bothered too much about them. Leachy’s small size made him a target for the tank. After a short trip in an old ice-cream container, he was released in the tank. On the same day, another diver brought in 3 small Snakelocks Anemones. It turns out that Leach’s Crabs have a commensal relationship with Snakelocks Anemones, the crab benefits but not to the detriment of the anemone. Females stay with their anemone and males will rove around looking for a mate and then return home. They are beautifully camouflaged, with legs covered in sponges and algae. This isn’t by chance, Leach’s Spider Crab actively collects sponges and algae and attaches them to specially shaped spines on their legs and carapace. The sponges are unpalatable and stop predators from attacking the spider crab. The algae form a part of the diet, which also includes food debris from the anemone and the mucus from the tentacles. Our intrepid little Leachy has beautifully evolved to fit into his ecological niche. Admittedly, that’s not meant to be in a dive centre tank, but on the plus side, none of his natural predators are there. We’ve so far avoided large fish or octopus. Periwinkles occasionally find their way out past the pipe work so we’d have no chance of keeping a cephalopod and Leachy is safe for now and I’ve learned a lot more about him. Once upon a time my Editor and I went diving together. It was a few weeks after he had penned an opinion that back entry dry suits were an integral part of the buddy relationship. It was, he opined, important to trust your dive buddy to close the ridiculously expensive brass zip without trapping your undersuit or that annoying flappy bit of neoprene stuck in the back of several suits. Relying on your buddy to ensure the zip was closed all the way, contributed to the mutual support aim of buddy diving. As we stood kitting up for our dive, I happily fastened my front-entry plastic zip with the minimum of fuss and decided to tackle Simon about his ill thought-out piece. I have a front entry suit because I like being responsible for myself…or more precisely I don’t always trust my buddies, especially if my buddy is a trainee or new to dry suit diving. I lack the ability to rotate my neck like a barn owl to check that everything is OK behind me. It only takes one trainee, who earnestly assures you that the zip is closed when in fact it’s half an inch open, to make you reconsider. When that cold rush of sea water starts running down your shoulder, you know that this is one mistake you won’t be making again! But how do you get the dive manager or boat crew to double check your zip without offending your buddy? Surreptitiously sidle over to the crew as you leave harbour, keep your voice low so it can barely be heard above the engines (and definitely not by your buddy) and assume some wistful position that doesn’t look like you’re hugging a large imaginary tree? And of course all the while you must try not to offend your buddy and generate “trust issues” because at the very first time you are supposed to rely on their assistance you bailed and found another source of help. So for me a front entry suit solves all of these problems. If my zip isn’t closed properly, then that’s my fault and my soggy right leg. For anyone thinking of getting a suit with a plastic dry zip, they are fabulous but never ignore the need for silicon greasing the stop end, even between dives if you’ve peeled out of your suit. But it’s my responsibility and I’m good with that. Front entry suits frequently have two zips, the dry one and a cover zip, and this can cause endless problems too. I took my eye off the ball one day whilst doing a dry suit introduction in the pool. I will accept some of the blame, but we had just done a session at the dive centre trying on suits, and the concept of a dry zip and a cover zip had been discussed as we established that this particular suit was a good fit. I am to blame for thinking that our discussion would be remembered barely an hour later when we kitted up on poolside. When I turned to look at my two eager divers, they had closed their zips and were ready for the stride entry. Yes, the cover zip was closed. No, the dry zip wasn’t. Yes, the suit filled with water (luckily the warm pool version). No, the diver couldn’t climb up the pool ladder unaided. The phrase “I seem to be getting a little wet” was a total understatement on her part. Once dekitted, we laid the unfortunate lady down and rolled her around on the pool surround to empty the water. To give her credit she laughed nearly as much as we did and gamely carried on the orientation session. Five years on she is still diving, in a front entry suit, which she knows has two zips and one of them is very important. Sadly she’s not the only one who’s been caught out in this way. Even some quite experienced visiting divers have missed the ‘hard to do up’ brass zip and relied on the ‘easy to do up’ cover zip in one of our rental suits. A cold shot of Irish Sea water down the leg is a salutary lesson in the need to familiarise yourself with hired equipment. So for anyone who read, noticed and remembered Simon’s treatise on the importance of back zipped suits for buddy trust and diving, maybe I was wrong to criticise him and perhaps divers with front entry zips could do with their buddy’s assistance, just sometimes. Michelle has been scuba diving for nearly 30 years. Drawing on her science background she tackles some bits of marine science. and sometimes has a sideways glance at the people and events that she encounters in the diving world.

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The Indian Tricolor’s History Every free nation in the world has a flag of its own. It represents a free country. The Indian National Flag was chosen in its current shape during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly on July 22, 1947, just days before India’s independence from the British on August 15, 1947. Between 15 August 1947 and 26 January 1950, it was the national flag of the Dominion of India, and afterwards the Republic of India. The Indian national flag is referred to as “tricolour” in India. The Indian national flag is a horizontal tricolour with equal proportions of deep saffron (kesari) at the top, white in the middle, and dark green at the bottom. The width of the flag is two to three times its length. The chakra is represented by a navy blue wheel in the centre of the white ring. Its design is based on the wheel found on the abacus of Ashoka’s Sarnath Lion Capital. Its diameter is about the same as the white band’s breadth, and it has 24 spokes. Colours of the flag The upper band of India’s national flag is saffron-colored, symbolising the country’s power and courage. With Dharma Chakra, the white centre band represents peace and truth. The last ring, which is green in colour, represents the land’s fertility, growth, and auspiciousness. The Ashok Chakra The Chakra is the energetic centre of the body. The “wheel of the law” was symbolised in this Dharma Chakra in the Sarnath Lion Capital, which was built by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. The chakra is meant to demonstrate that life is found in movement and death is found in immobility. Code of the Flag The Indian flag code was changed on January 26, 2002, and inhabitants of India were now allowed to hoist the Indian flag above their homes, offices, and factories on any day, not only national holidays, as was previously the case. Indians can now proudly display the national flag anywhere and whenever they want, as long as the Flag Code is rigorously obeyed to avoid any disrespect to the tricolour. The Flag Code of India, 2002, has been broken into three parts for your convenience. The National Flag is described in general in Part I of the Code. The display of the National Flag by members of the public, private organisations, educational institutions, and other entities is addressed in Part II of the Code. The National Flag is displayed by the Central and State governments, as well as their organisations and agencies, according to Part III of the Code. Based on law passed on January 26, 2002, there are some guidelines for flying the flag. The following are some of them: - The National Flag may be flown in educational institutions (schools, colleges, sports camps, scout camps, and so on) to inspire respect for the Flag. The flag flying in schools now includes an oath of allegiance. - On all days and occasions, ceremonial or otherwise consistent with the dignity and honour of the National Flag, a member of the public, a private group, or an educational institution may hoist/display the National Flag. - Section 2 of the new code recognises that all private persons have the right to fly the flag on their property. - The Do’s and Don’ts: The flag may not be used for communal purposes, draperies, or clothing. It should be flown as much as possible from sunrise to sunset, regardless of the weather. - The flag cannot be permitted to contact the ground, the floor, or the water’s surface. Vehicles, trains, boats, and aircraft cannot have it draped over the hood, top, sides, or back. - There can be no other flag or bunting higher than the flag. Also, no object can be placed on or above the flag, including flowers, garlands, or symbols. A tricolour festoon, rosette, or bunting cannot be used. More information on India’s Flag Code The Indian National Flag depicts the people of India’s ambitions and dreams. It is a symbol of our country’s pride. Several people, including members of the military forces, have unselfishly sacrificed their lives over the previous five decades to maintain the tricolour flying proudly.

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A new curriculum for 2- to 5-year olds The International Early Years Curriculum (IEYC) is a new research-based curriculum recognising global best practice in early childhood education and the developmental needs of 2- to 5-year olds. It supports key areas of learning through holistic enquiry and play-based approaches that cover all curriculum areas including personal, social and emotional development. Fieldwork Education are developing a wide range of units with titles that will spark children’s imaginations, based on eight guiding principles: - The earliest years of life are important in their own right. - Children should be supported to learn and develop at their own unique pace. - Play is an essential aspect of all children’s learning and development. - Learning happens when developmentally appropriate teacher scaffolded and child-initiated experiences harness children’s natural curiosity in an enabling environment. - Independent and interdependent learning experiences create a context for personal development and are the foundation of international mindedness. - Knowledge and skills development lead to an increasing sense of understanding when children are provided with opportunities to explore and express their ideas in multiple ways. - Ongoing assessment, in the form of evaluation and reflection, is effective when it involves a learning-link with the home. - Learning should be motivating, engaging and fun, opening up a world of wonder for children where personal interests can flourish. The IEYC offer to schools consists of: - IEYC process of learning, philosophy and pedagogy. - Learning Strands to describe what students will experience. - Learning Outcomes to describe the knowledge, skills and increasing understanding children will have as they progress. - Units of Learning that guide teachers’ planning and provide lesson ideas. - My-Fieldwork online portal to support planning, sharing, webinars, and resources. - Self-Review process that provides guidance on effective use of IEYC. - Accreditation Process (optional) that validates the use of IEYC. - Full professional learning programme for IEYC (F2F, online and blended).

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Although they are very similar, there are a few ways you can tell a moth from a butterfly. The most obvious is when you are likely to see them. Butterflies are active during the day and most moths at night. Though there are a few moths, such as the Queensland Day Moth Alcides metaurus and the Jacob’s Coat Moth Agarista agricola, which fly during the day. If you are able to take a closer look, the antennae of moths differ from that of butterflies. Butterfly antennae are mostly smooth and thin with a small club on the end. Moth antennae are usually brush-like, feathery or pointed at the ends. Another give away is their different landing styles – butterflies land with wings closed, and moths with wings open. Moths are usually duller colours while butterflies are usually brighter colours. Moths also have fully developed forelegs, whereas butterflies have reduced forelegs, with the end segments missing.

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Transformers – versatile help in adjusting the voltage to the needs By creating various electronic and robotic projects, such as an automatic lighting control system at home, we will have to deal with the way our prototype is powered. In such a situation, we will have to learn more about how they work and what transformers are. In most situations, the transformer will allow the entire project to run. Why it is so? The principle of a transformer is to transfer AC electricity by induction from one electrical circuit to another, maintaining the original frequency while changing the electrical voltage. What is changed is the voltage: from higher to lower, from lower to high. Transformers consist of two basic elements - a steel core and windings (primary and secondary windings) made of copper or aluminum. The most commonly used type of winding is a cylindrical winding. In this scheme, the primary and secondary windings take the form of concentric cylinders. Nevertheless, there are many other types of windings. The type of bonding also defines the type of the transformer. Hence, we distinguish, for example, colloidal transformers. Transformer – to change the electrical voltage Transformers are designed to change the electrical voltage. The key to understanding how transformers work is their specific design. As we said above, an integral element of any transformer is the winding (and they can be made of various materials and have various shapes). The key point is that one of the windings is connected to an alternating current, which creates an alternating magnetic field. The flux conducted by the core of this magnetic field flows through the remaining coils in the transformer. The change in the magnetic flux in the coils causes electromagnetic induction. In other words, this is how an electromotive force is created in the transformer's coils - it is just electrical voltage. If a transformer has fewer secondary than primary windings, it induces a lower voltage, and this type of transformer is called step-down. The first transformers were built at the end of the 19th century. However, the most important discovery enabling their future production was made much earlier – it was Faraday's law of induction (1831). Types of transformers Over the years, many different transformers have been manufactured depending on the type of application. The basic criterion that distinguishes these devices is phase. In multi-phase systems, multi-phase (three-phase) transformers are used. Another type of device are plane transformers. For low voltage, the transformers are air-insulated. In turn, special transformer oils are an insulator in high voltage transformers, which also cool the entire machine. The autotransformer is also worth mentioning. In such devices, one winding is part of the other. This equipment is characterized by a greater number of windings and winding leads. In addition to the above, there are also many other types of transformers, including: power transformers, toroidal transformers, special transformers for measuring systems, variable voltage transformers with taps and safety transformers.

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Money Management Worksheets is useful for students to improve their financial management skills. They are used by them in order to learn financial management. These worksheets are prepared by the school administrator in order to teach and train students to prepare them for college. The following tips are for the students who are planning to take the worksheets for the first time. Money Teaching for Mastery in Primary Maths Ç Tes from money management worksheets for students , source:tes.com The first thing that the students have to do is to open an excel file and enter the information that they want to input into the excel spreadsheet. The students should enter the data only for the amounts that they need to input. It is advisable to do this in rows rather than as a table. This is because the row format will make it easier for the student to enter the data. After entering the required information, the students can now click on the worksheets in order to edit them. If the worksheet contains any chart data, then the student should click on the option of changing the chart type to change the shape and size of the chart. This is very useful in making the chart more visible so that the students can easily see the information that they want to input. After doing this, the students should then click the save button. Create a Bud for Your In e and Necessities from money management worksheets for students , source:thebalance.com It is important for the student to change the default values of the charts to those that the student needs. The default value is the value that the students will use for the initial work in the spreadsheet. The student can then click on the save button. When he wants to remove the chart, he should click on the remove option. This will make the chart disappear and will be moved to another location. The students can now add new formulas that they want to use. The formulas that they are going to add should be compatible with the functions that they have already entered. When adding new formulas, the students should be careful in checking if they need to modify or delete any functions that are already existing in the worksheet. The students should also make sure that the formulas that they add to the worksheet are compatible with the functions that they have already entered in the spreadsheet. Money Worksheets Free Printables from money management worksheets for students , source:education.com The students can also add formulas to help them calculate the amounts that they have entered. If a student enters the amount of money that he needs to enter in a formula, he should be careful in using the formula. There are many formulas that will help a student in calculating the amount that he has entered. After using the calculator, the students should be careful in using the formula. The student should not forget to save the worksheet when he is finished with the calculation. The last thing that the students should do is to check if the calculator has been properly set up. If the calculator has been properly set up, then the students can just click on the save button. The students should then delete the worksheets that they have not used before. Simple Interest Worksheets With Answers from money management worksheets for students , source:thoughtco.com These are some of the things that the students can do in order to set up money management worksheets for the students. The students can learn how to manage their finances by using these worksheets. It is important for them to know that there are many different methods that they can use to calculate the amounts that they have entered in the money that they have spent or will spend during their life. The students are encouraged to do their homework for getting money management worksheets for the students. They should do their research on the Internet for finding the best worksheets that are available for them. The students should also remember that they should always update the information that they have entered in their spreadsheet. The students can update the information for the different items that they have entered on the worksheet and update the values. Don t Miss These Essential Bud Worksheets from money management worksheets for students , source:thebalance.com Students should also take note of the online web sites that are available for the different types of worksheets. The web sites may offer the students the option of purchasing the worksheets from there site. Some sites may even offer to print the worksheets so that can be given to the students for their own personal use. In order for the students to make the most out of the online money management worksheets, they should try to go to more than one site and look through each of them to see which one offers what they need. The money management worksheets are available for the students to learn how to make the most out of the money that they have spent and saved. The students should learn how to manage their budget and keep track of the money that they have spent and saved. The students should take time to understand how these worksheets work in order to get the most out of their financial situation. Weekly Bud from money management worksheets for students , source:spreadsheet123.com Consumer Action English Banking from money management worksheets for students , source:consumer-action.org The 50 30 20 Bud ing Rule—How It Works from money management worksheets for students , source:thebalance.com Personal Bud Spreadsheet Free Awesome Bud Spreadsheet Template from money management worksheets for students , source:mylq.org NEW Redstart Goal Setting and Saving Lesson Pack Money from money management worksheets for students , source:twinkl.co.uk

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The first lesson of this ACT course provides an overview of the English section of the ACT and introduces fundamental skills, strategies, and tactics. This lesson reviews fundamental English skills that are tested on the ACT. Find out what types of structure and punctuation questions you can expect. The English section of the ACT test assesses your understanding of English grammar. In this lesson, review the most common grammar issues tested on the ACT. In this ACT test prep lesson, dive deeper into English grammar. Learn about adjectives, adverbs, idioms, and the difference between "fewer" and "less." In this lesson, you work through about 10 practice problems. After each practice problem, I give a brief explanation of the topic. - Recommended Recommended - History & In Progress History - Browse Library - Most Popular Library Get Personalized Recommendations Let us help you figure out what to learn! By taking a short interview you’ll be able to specify your learning interests and goals, so we can recommend the perfect courses and lessons to try next.Start Interview You don't have any lessons in your history. Just find something that looks interesting and start learning!

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UG Coursework Unit Level of learning Examines major changes in politics, economy and society beginning with reconstruction in 1865. The unit takes a critical approach to the subject of American history. Students question, connect, source and argue to consider a range of perspectives on the history of modern America. This class involves weekly discussions that rely on a combination of secondary historical analyses and primary sources. - Reconstruction 1865–1877 - America's Gilded Age, 1870–1890 - Progressive Era, 1900–1916 - US and World War I, 1916–1920 - Roaring Twenties to Great Depression, Business to Bust 1920–1932 - The New Deal, 1932–1940 - World War II 1941–1945 - Cold War and American Culture, 1945–1960 - Sixties 1960–1968 - Nixon to Reagan: Conservatism 1969–1988 - Globalisation, 1989– - America After September 11, 2001 Unit Learning Outcomes express learning achievement in terms of what a student should know, understand and be able to do on completion of a unit. These outcomes are aligned with the graduate attributes. The unit learning outcomes and graduate attributes are also the basis of evaluating prior learning. |On completion of this unit, students should be able to:||GA1||GA2||GA3||GA4||GA5||GA6||GA7| |1||articulate what they know of American history, explain how they came to know it and on what basis it can be claimed| |2||formulate a question for historical inquiry| |3||identify the arguments made in American history sources| |4||consider arguments that are different to their own| |5||connect disparate sources of information| |6||organise and evaluate evidence to support claims about US history| |7||narrate an episode in modern American history.| On completion of this unit, students should be able to: articulate what they know of American history, explain how they came to know it and on what basis it can be claimed formulate a question for historical inquiry identify the arguments made in American history sources consider arguments that are different to their own connect disparate sources of information organise and evaluate evidence to support claims about US history narrate an episode in modern American history. - Foner, E, 2017, Give Me Liberty: An American History Volume II, 5th edn, WW Norton and Company, New York. ISBN: 978-0-393-61414-5.

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A cataract is a clouding of the natural intraocular crystalline lens that focuses the light entering the eye onto the retina. This cloudiness can cause a decrease in vision and may lead to eventual blindness if left untreated. Cataracts often develop slowly and painlessly, so vision and lifestyle can be affected without a person realizing it. Worldwide, cataracts are the number one cause of preventable blindness. There is no medical treatment to prevent the development or progression of cataracts. Modern cataract surgery, which is the removal of the cloudy lens and implantation of a clear intraocular lens (IOL), is the only accepted treatment for cataracts. Cataract surgery is the most effective and most common procedure performed in all of medicine with 3 million Americans choosing to have cataract surgery each year, with an overall success rate of 97 percent or higher. Cataracts often develop slowly with a gradual decline in vision that cannot be corrected with glasses. Common complaints include blurry vision, difficulty reading in dim light, poor vision at night, glare and halos around lights, and occasionally double vision. Other signs of cataracts include frequent changes in the prescription of glasses and a new ability to read without reading glasses in patients over 55. There are several types of cataract including age related, traumatic, and metabolic. Age related is the most common type and the pathogenesis is multifactorial and not fully understood. A traumatic cataract can occur following both blunt and penetrating eye injuries as well as after electrocution, chemical burns, and exposure to radiation. Metabolic cataracts occur in uncontrolled diabetics, patients with galactosemia, Wilson disease, and Myotonic dystrophy. A cataract is defined as any opacification of the eye’s crystalline lens, and any of these changes that then lead to a degradation in the optical quality of the lens can cause visual symptoms. As there are a wide variety of cataract types, there is a large spectrum of visual symptoms associated with cataractous changes. These symptoms may include: - Blurred vision at distance or near (different types may affect distance greater than near or vice versa, see below) - Glare (halos or streaks around lights, difficulty seeing in the presence of bright lights) - Difficulty seeing in low light situations (including poor night vision) - Loss of contrast sensitivity - Loss of ability to discern colors - Increasing near-sightedness or change in refractive status (including “second sight” phenomenon)

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It is well known that deforestation is shrinking the carbon storage capacity of tropical forests, one of the world’s great land-based carbon sinks. Now a pair of studies confirms that two key marine CO2 stores — mangroves and kelp forests — are also in peril from human activity. The findings, scientists say, highlight the need to protect carbon- and biodiversity-rich ocean forests from development and global warming by including them in existing forest-conservation programs. Mangrove forests — trees and shrubs that thrive in brackish waters — have declined 30 to 50 percent in the past 50 years, according to one study out this week in the journal Nature Geoscience. The seaside carbon sinks are generally being razed for coastal development such as houses, roads, railways, as well as to turn wetlands into farmland and expand fishing. Towns built on coasts nearby can also leach toxins into the forests and poison sediment, harming life-giving root systems. Mangroves suck up carbon through the atmosphere during photosynthesis and store it in their leaves, branches and above-ground roots. Because their thick, mucky soils have fairly low oxygen levels, the natural decay of the biomass is slow, resulting in a steady but heavy buildup of carbon over time. For the first time, scientists have crunched the numbers on the carbon sequestered in these trees, dead organic matter and soil in 25 sites across Micronesia, Indonesia and Bangladesh — which house a large portion of Earth’s mangroves — and gleaned insight into salty forests worldwide. The international team, led by Daniel Donato, an ecologist with the U.S. Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station in Hilo, Hawaii, said soils account for a massive 45 to 98 percent of carbon storage in mangrove ecosystems. Because of this, “coastal mangrove forests store more carbon than almost any other forest on Earth,” the research station said via release. Earlier research by Steven Bouillon, a mangrove ecologist with Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium, estimated that the world’s mangroves take in more than 200 million metric tons of carbon dioxide annually, with some of it being stored and the rest getting cycled through to nourish other ecosystems. Uproot the trees and degrade the soil, and the carbon gets spewed back into the atmosphere, the new study affirms. In total, mangrove destruction releases as many as 120 million metric tons of carbon dioxide annually, it finds — an amount nearly equivalent to the yearly emissions of Norway, Finland and Sweden combined. The emissions footprint of clearing mangroves is disproportionate to their presence. While mangroves encompass only 0.7 percent of the world’s tropical rainforests, their discharge of stored carbon accounts for roughly 10 percent of all deforestation-related emissions, Donato said in an interview. In total, forest loss is responsible for nearly a fifth of the greenhouse gases blamed for climate change. Kelp Forests At Risk from Climate-Related Storms Kelp plants, known as the “underwater forest,” are another vital ecosystem at risk, though for different reasons, according to a report published online on Mar. 24 in the journal Global Change Biology. The large beds of seaweed, which can grow up to 50 feet high, are scattered across the globe in temperate and polar regions, including the entire west coast of North America. They are widely considered one of the most productive ecosystems on Earth because of a high rate of carbon cycling, the process by which carbon travels through the ecological community. In giant kelp plants, most cycling of carbon works this way: the seaweed takes in carbon through photosynthesis; marine life such as sea urchins graze on the kelp to provide them life, inhaling the carbon. It then moves through the food web relatively quickly as one organism consumes another. While large swathes of carbon get recycled through the ecosystem, the kelp forests are believed to store as many as 60 million metric tons of carbon, according to a 2009 report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). But their long-term health is now very much in question. Kelp is particularly susceptible to damage from storm waves, which rip the seaweed out of the earth as they tear through. The new research by a California-based team of ecologists, led by Jarrett Byrnes of the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, finds increased storm strength and frequency from human-caused climate change will stop kelp from growing back after wave damage. Wave height records collected over the last 60 years by government agencies and universities show that winter storms have on average been getting stronger and more frequent. Most climate science models argue this trend will continue as greenhouse gases accumulate and global ocean circulations get disrupted. Using a decade of field records from the Santa Barbara region, satellite imagery, wave records and data on kelp forest food webs, Byrnes found that if strong storms start happening annually — as predicted by models — kelp won’t be able to regenerate fast enough to replenish its stock. The result will be that the forests get replaced by other seaweeds. The researchers say this will eventually shrink diversity and complexity of animal species in the ecosystem, slow carbon turnover and trigger a decline in storage carbon capacity. Unlike mangroves, though, the loss of kelp won’t necessarily lead to a sudden reduction in the sequestration of carbon from the atmosphere because the replacement algae also have absorptive capacity, Byrnes and co-author Dan Reed of the University of California, Santa Barbara told SolveClimate News. However: “Other species of algae that grow in the absence of giant kelp do not appear to provide a comparable source of carbon,” Reed said via email. Research Supports Need for Conservation Programs According to Byrnes and Reed, kelp plants have a large role in maintaining the biological health and carbon cycling in many other marine environments. “A key ecological function provided by giant kelp forests is the physical export of kelp carbon via wave and currents to other ecosystems,” Reed said. The IUCN says that projects like artificial reefs that provide the hard bottom structure necessary for kelp growth may help expand the kelp ecosystem, or at least restore those plants that have been lost. As far as mangroves are concerned, climate change-fighting programs like the United Nations scheme that pays developing countries to limit CO2 emissions by keeping carbon locked in forests, known as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, or REDD, do not cover mangrove protection. Donato of the U.S. Forest Service says the reason for this was the lack of research on mangrove loss and global carbon dioxide emissions. “There have been a few localized bits of evidence suggesting [mangroves are a major carbon sink], but there really hadn’t been this sort of broad-scale, whole-ecosystem study,” he told SolveClimate News. “I think that is a key reason they haven’t been on the radar in terms of REDD programs. Hopefully this research will help change that.” Writing in a commentary accompanying the research in Nature Geoscience, Bouillon of the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium said: The results “highlight the need for scientists and funding agencies to address uncertainties regarding the fate of carbon after land clearance” and “provide a strong incentive to consider mangrove ecosystems as priority areas for conservation.”

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School boards are usually made up of elected members who make policy decisions about local public school districts. In the United States, some school boards have representatives who are students. There are issues that have made some school board meetings places of disagreement. These issues include measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19, how the issues of race and sexuality are taught, and the place of religion in the classroom. Until recently, most school boards were thought of as non-partisan. But some school boards have been affected by political disagreements. Some candidates for local, state and national office in November’s elections considered school policy an important campaign issue. Conservative groups like Moms For Liberty and The 1776 Project spent millions of dollars helping elect conservative school board members. Liberal organizations also support candidates and causes. They include Stand for Children, the Campaign for Our Shared Action Fund, and Education Reform Now. Teachers’ labor unions like the American Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association, also spend money in support of political candidates and causes. Debates about school policy can involve local and state school officials, school board members and parents. However, some districts permit student members on school boards. They provide the board with a student opinion on the board’s decision-making. The National School Boards Association found that in at least 31 states, local districts can choose to have student board representatives. But just 14 percent of the country’s 495 largest districts have student members. And just one state—Maryland—permits student representatives to have voting power like other school board members. Some student representatives are elected by students in their district. Others must apply for the position. Most are high school students and serve for one-year terms. VOA spoke with five student board members from Maryland, Wisconsin, and Virginia. Each said they felt it was very important for school boards to have a student voice. Zachary Nowacek is a student board member at the Wauwatosa School District outside Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He said school board members “don't always get to see the whole school experience from a student perspective. And because we are the ones receiving the education, it's important for us to be a part of the conversation as well.” Janare Davis, who recently finished his term as student representative for Portsmouth city schools in Virginia, agrees. “That was my big thing [as a student representative]. Students having a voice.” As a member, he visited each of the district’s schools to hear students’ concerns. Even before he became a board member, he supported legislation that removed school uniforms for the only school in Portsmouth that required them. “In my opinion, an adult can’t speak for a student. Students can speak for students,” Davis said. Some of the student members say that they have witnessed some of the debates about school policy during their time on a board. Noa Blanken is the student representative in Harford County schools in northern Maryland. The county favored Donald Trump over Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election by 55 percent to 43 percent. She described the county as the “perfect mix of every single demographic you can imagine.” Blanken said that many adults from outside the district have come to speak to the board during meetings. She said many have spoken out against critical race theory, an idea that makes race a central consideration. During public comments in meetings “groups come and they get pretty loud and rowdy,” she said. Blanken said some people who have spoken to the board support reducing funding for programs for poor students, like free school lunches. Blanken said she wanted to be a board member to support low-income students, who make up a large percentage of students in Harford County. “These people are coming in and they there are arguing that we need to focus all of our money on science and math and reading and history [to improve test scores] and take away all these other resources that these students so desperately need. And it's really upsetting to see.” Nowacek said his district in Wauwatosa County recently passed a new teaching plan, which introduces students to sexual and gender ideas. On Nowacek’s first day on the board, he said a man told the board to “‘go home and look in the mirror and consider whether they believe themselves to be moral people.’” Blanken said another issue that came before the board this fall concerned the county’s mixed-gender locker rooms. A Maryland state senator wrote a letter to the school board opposing the policy. “I am appalled…that boys can be in girls bathrooms and locker rooms and vice versa," said a woman during the board’s public comments section of a board meeting. However, each of the student members said the board members they serve with cooperate and work well together. “We have a lot of different people with different views and opinions, but every single person that sits on the board is there for the wellbeing of students,” Blanken said. Zach McGrath said he believes student members have a “moderating effect on the discourse between the board members, because you don't want to get into a fit when it's in front of a student. You want to set a good example.” McGrath sits on Anne Arundel County Maryland’s school board. He said he has not seen divisive debates play out during his time on the board. Each student representative also said other board members value their opinion and care about what they have to say. McGrath said that especially as a voting member in Maryland, “I am very much treated as if I was an adult in the boardroom. It just so happens to be that I’m representing students.” Emmett Joselyn represents students in the Shorewood School District in Wisconsin. He said having student board members is good for both students and the school board. He said: “I feel like a lot of the time students—they're not aware of what's going on at the district level. And I hope I can connect the students and the school board and sort of make both parties a little bit more familiar with each other.” I’m Dan Novak. And I'm Faith Pirlo. Dan Novak wrote the story for VOA Learning English. Words in This Story district — n. an area set up by a government for a special purpose non-partisan — adj. not linked with a political party, aimed at not taking a political side perspective — n. a person’s way of thinking about and understanding something uniform — n. special clothes that are worn by all members of a group to show that they are together demographic — n. a quality, such as age, sex or race, that are present in a group of people desperately — adv. to do something in a way that is sad or upset and shows little hope gender — n. the state of having two sexes view –n. a person’s way of thinking about something, an opinion discourse — n. the exchange of thoughts and ideas fit –n. an uncontrolled expression of strong emotion

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The living part of the tooth is the pulp. The pulp is the nerve and blood vessels of the tooth. When a cavity (decay) goes deep enough into a tooth, or if a tooth is traumatized, the pulp can die. This will eventually lead to pain and/or infection. To alleviate these problems, the pulp is removed from the tooth using various tiny instruments. Once the pulp is removed, the canal (or tunnel) that the pulp once occupied is now cleaned and shaped and disinfected. Once this is done a root canal filling material is placed in the canal. This material is warmed and condensed within the root so the canal is sealed from the tip of the root to the base of the tooth. This is what root canal treatment is. The treatment is done while the tooth is anesthetized (frozen), so the patient doesn’t feel a thing.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://northshoresmile.com/services/endodontics/

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en

The United States is a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of the United States (the head of state and head of government), Congress, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government, and the federal government shares sovereignty with the state governments. The executive branch is headed by the President and is independent of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The judicial branch (or judiciary), composed of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, exercises judicial power. The judiciary’s function is to interpret the United States Constitution and federal laws and regulations. This includes resolving disputes between the executive and legislative branches. The federal government’s layout is explained in the Constitution. Two political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party, have dominated American politics since the American Civil War, although other parties have also existed. There are major differences between the political system of the United States and that of most other developed democracies. These include increased power of the upper house of the legislature, a wider scope of power held by the Supreme Court, the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive, and the dominance of only two main parties. The United States is one of the world’s developed democracies where third parties have the least political influence. The federal entity created by the U.S. Constitution is the dominant feature of the American governmental system. However, most residents are also subject to a state government, and also subject to various units of local government. The latter can include counties, municipalities, and special districts.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://oakcityhandyman.com/fullwidth/

s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500273.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20230205161658-20230205191658-00640.warc.gz

en