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"Circle: - a closed circular shape with an equal distance from a fixed point to an edge. Radius: - a line segment that connects the center of a circle to any point on the circle. Diameter: - the diameter of a circle is twice its radius Circumference: - length of circumference The formula for calculating the circumference is: 2 shoulders r Area: - the formula for calculating the area of the circle is"

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.smartstonevr.com/vr-library/Circle%3F

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en

In this guide, we're going to show you how to get quarter from a date in Excel. To get quarter from a date, you simply need to divide the month by 3 and round up the result to the nearest integer. Since each quarter of the year consists of 3 months, dividing the month of a date by 3 returns the number of 3-month intervals. For example, 6 months is two quarters, meaning that the month is in the 2nd quarter. If a number with decimal point is returns=ed, the whole part of the number indicates the previous quarter. For example, 7 by 3 equals to 2.33 approximately which means its in the 3rd quarter. You can get the month number of a date easily by the MONTH function. The ROUNDUP function can round the given number up to the specific decimal digit. Since we need a whole number, the second argument of the ROUNDUP function should be 0. You can also add labels and even the year of the date to the quarter value. If your Excel model covers multiple years, you can easily add the year of the evaluated date in a couple of ways: - The YEAR function returns the year from a given date just like in MONTH - Alternatively, you can use the TEXT function to get the year. Prefer using the YEAR function to return a 4-digit year number. Check out the TEXT function and number formatting in Excel to modify any date without extensive formulations. To get a 2-digit year notation, use the TEXT function with “YY” format.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.spreadsheetweb.com/how-to-get-quarter-from-a-date-in-excel/

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en

Development of the mouse began in the early 1960s by SRI International’s Douglas Engelbart, while he was exploring the interactions between humans and computers. Bill English, then the chief engineer at SRI, built the first computer mouse prototype in 1964. Designs with multiple buttons soon followed. A single wheel or a pair of wheels was used to translate the motion of the mouse into cursor movement on the screen. Engelbart was named the inventor on the basic patent for what was then called the “X-Y Position Indicator for a Display System.” The patent was filed in 1967 and issued in 1970. SRI licensed the computer mouse technology to Apple, Xerox, and other companies. The mouse became commercially viable in 1984, three years before the patent expired. The mother of all demos Recognized for its impact on computing and the world, the 1968 event has been dubbed “the mother of all demos“. For Engelbart, the mouse was one part of a much larger technological system aimed at facilitating organizational learning and global online collaboration. When he was a graduate student in electrical engineering, Engelbart began to imagine ways in which all sorts of information could be displayed on the screens of cathode ray tubes, and he dreamed of “flying” through a variety of information spaces. In early 1959, Engelbart pursued his visionary ideas by formulating a theoretical framework for the co-evolution of human skills, knowledge, and organizations. At the heart of his vision was the computer as an extension of human communication capabilities and a resource for the augmentation of human intellect. In 1968, Engelbart created and became the director of SRI’s Augmentation Research Center. On December 9, 1968 he staged a 90-minute public multimedia demonstration at the 1968 Fall Joint Computer Conference in San Francisco, with a group of young computer scientists and electrical engineers from the center. It was the world debut of personal and interactive computing, featuring a computer mouse that controlled a networked computer system, which demonstrated: - Hypertext linking - Real-time text editing - Multiple windows with flexible view control - Cathode display tubes - Shared-screen teleconferencing

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.sri.com/hoi/computer-mouse-and-interactive-computing/

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en

Like any animal, phanerogamous plants also arise from an embryo in successive stages of development. The first leaf that emerges from a plant embryo in the early development of a plant is called a cotyledon. What is a Cotyledon: Definition Within botany, the term cotyledon refers to the primordial leaves of flowering plants (phanerogams) that develop with the germination of the seed, where they form the first leaf of the embryo. In botany, the number of cotyledons present in the seed is used as a way of classifying phanerogamous plants. Cotyledons, shoots, and roots of the plant are structures that develop in the process of embryogenesis before germination. Also, for the cotyledons to differentiate themselves from the rest of the leaves of the plant, their size and the number of nutrients they have, such as oil, starch, or starch, contribute. Characteristics of Cotyledons – They are the first leaf that comes out of the plant’s embryo. – They can be differentiated from other leaves due to their size. – Their number serves as a method of classifying the plants. – The cotyledon is capable of digesting the albumen (tissue surrounding the embryo) and that, after germination, is used as food. – Cotyledons have various nutrients in their tissue – Cotyledons have a short half-life because when the plants develop the leaves with which they get the energy, the cotyledons end up falling – They also have different nutrients. Functions of the Cotyledon and its Importance Cotyledons are very important structures in plants, as they provide the right nutrients that are necessary for the seeds to germinate. Another function of the cotyledon is to absorb and reserve nutrients that are stored in the seed until the seedling can generate its true leaves that are capable of carrying out the process of photosynthesis. Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons The plants can be classified according to the number of cotyledons in: The monocots include angiosperms plants that are characterized by having a single cotyledon in the seed, so that after its germination only have a single primitive leaf instead of two. These plants do not have a true secondary growth, i.e. they do not possess a true stem and do not have cambium (plant tissue composed of embryonic cells). Monocots are incapable of generating wood, and their height increases by widening the internodes as the plant grows. Typical examples of monocotyl plants are grasses (or cereals), such as wheat, corn, or sugar cane, but lilies, palms, jonquils, tulips, onions or orchids are also monocotyledons. Dicots are the most common group and the embryo found in its seed has two cotyledons that when germination occurs generate two primitive leaves that will serve as food for the new seedling. The leaves of dicotyledons can acquire diverse forms; there are heart-shaped, ribbon-shaped, or compound leaves, and they can have jagged or simple edges. The branches of these plants are composed of annual rings and made up of phloem and xylem as conductive tissues. Also, they are capable of forming wood or firewood. Dicots are the majority and up to 170,000 species are known. They belong to this group the Rosaceae, leguminous, and Rutaceae. As species, we have the tobacco, the beans, the soybean, the peas, the chickpeas, the daisies, the sunflowers, the coffee, the carob tree, the roses, the avocado, or the cherries.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.thegardenstyle.com/composting/what-is-a-cotyledon/

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en

Researchers have made the discovery that oxygen in the atmosphere reached much higher levels, much sooner by studying the composition of rock salt in ancient rocks dating back 815 million years, over 100 million years before the earliest evidence of life on earth. The salt was crushed in a vacuum, and each piece would release between five and 12 puffs of gas. By crushing the rock salt carefully, they were able to analyze the chemical makeup of the air pockets in the salt. The oxygen that was released could then be measured, and it was discovered to have an oxygen composition of 10.9% – over five times the amount that was predicted. Through this technique, they were able to show that oxygen made up 10.9% of the earth’s atmosphere 815 million years ago. This finding is revolutionary in the field, as previous estimates suggested that oxygen levels only reached 10% between 600-700 million years ago. With the earliest fossil evidence of life coming around 650 million years ago, it alters our collective understanding of how life evolved. The new evidence suggests that life could only evolve when the oxygen level reached 10%. Scientists had previously believed that a 10% oxygen level served to accelerate the evolutionary process rather than mark the start of life on earth. All previous research in the field had been done by examining examples of chemical reactions that could only take place with oxygen present. This technique led to a series of differing results and made it tough to pinpoint the exact oxygen levels and was only able to show the significant rise in oxygen levels between 600-700 million years ago. The new technique goes right to the source by examining air that has been trapped for nearly a billion years! The co-author of the paper published in this month’s Geology journal, Nigel Blamey, admitted that the results were both surprising and extraordinary. ‘We came out of left field’ Blamey said, ‘I think some people are going to embrace it, and other people are going to be very skeptical. But the data is what the data is.’ Those who are skeptical of the results argue that the rock salt they tested is likely to have been contaminated after hundreds of millions of years on a planet with high oxygen levels. Timothy Lyons, a senior geologist at the University of California, said that ‘There is nothing about the shifts you see in life or climate that demands an oxygen jump that high. That could be a worry.’ Despite the skepticism and questioning, the research reopens a significant debate about the beginning of life on earth and the potential of life on other planets in the universe. The evidence presented in the study doesn’t answer every question. If the findings are correct there is at least a 150 million year gap between the 10% oxygen level that scientist believe is required to accelerate evolution and the first living organisms on earth. Additionally, scientists will then need to reevaluate what triggered bacteria and other single celled organisms to evolve into the complexity of life that we can now marvel at today. The study and the findings only illustrate further the beautiful and complicated history of life on this unique planet. We may not have all of the answers but there is still so much to discover.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.thespiritscience.net/2016/08/05/what-came-first-oxygen-or-life-this-atmospheric-time-capsule-could-change-earths-history/

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en

Accounting consists of a series of chronological steps performed by the accountant or the person keeping the knowledge of such aspects, and the steps are recording, classifying, summarising, analysing, interpreting, and communicating with the person concerned. In order to fund an enterprise, there is a need for finance. So, finance is termed as raising funds from various sources available to determine the formulation of the best capital structure to maximise the wealth of the shareholders. What Is Financial Accounting? Financial accounting is the process of preparing, summarising and interpreting accounting records. After analysing the accounting, the information analyser communicates such information to the users and stakeholders of the financial statements. Records are mostly framed on the accrual basis of accounting unless otherwise stated. In order to determine the profitability of a business as the net result of the accounting period, the profit and loss account is prepared at the end of the year. For the evaluation of assets and liability on the given date, the position statement, called a balance sheet, is prepared at the specified date. The accounting period usually begins on 1st April and ends on 31st March. Taking into consideration the provisions of the Companies Act 2013, the balance sheet and profit and loss account have their different formats as specified in Schedule III of the Companies Act 2013, and the companies governed by the special acts have their formats as specified under their acts covered. For example, the format of banking companies, financial statements are given under the Banking Regulations Act 1949. Difference between Accounts and Finance Users of the Accounting Information Financial statements are prepared for the users in order to generate value for them. The analysis part of financial statements is used by various users to cater for their different requirements, and hence the users are listed below: In order to ensure that their money is properly managed and not being misused, the investors are interested in the information on the financial statements. The growth of employees is directly related to the growth of the company, and hence the employees are also concerned about the true and fair view of financial statements. To secure their amount, the lenders are interested in whether their principal and loan amount will be refunded or not. The companies are the major sources of revenue for the treasury of the government. So, to regulate the formulated taxation policy in India, the government is interested in the financial statements. Stakeholders Analysing Results Accountants are trusted as the most trusted persons by the people to know and analyse financial information. Accounting requires knowledge of the various other disciplines such as law, economics, taxation and many more. Hence, accountants serve as 360-degree viewers of the economy. Financial statements must be accurate in order to arrive at the correct profits so that the best decisions can be taken by the stakeholders and capital structure must be in such a manner that it reduces the cost of capital.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.vedantu.com/commerce/accounting-and-finance

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en

The pictures on the facing page show typical examples of pigmentation patterns in animals, and demonstrate that even across a vast range of different types of animals just a few kinds of patterns occur over and over again. So how are these patterns produced? Even though some of them seem quite complex, it turns out that once again there is a rather simple kind of rule that can account for them. The idea is that when a pattern forms, the color of each element will tend to be the same as the average color of nearby elements, and opposite to the average color of elements further away. Such an effect could have its origin in the production and diffusion of activator and inhibitor chemicals, or, for example, in actual motion of different types of cells. But regardless of its origin, the effect itself can readily be captured just by setting up a two-dimensional cellular automaton with appropriate rules. The pictures below show what happens with two slightly different choices for the relative importance of elements that are further away. In both cases, starting from a random distribution of black and white elements there quickly emerge definite patterns—in the first case a collection of spots, and in the second case a maze-like or labyrinthine structure. The next page shows the final patterns obtained with a whole array of different choices of weightings for elements at different distances. A certain range of patterns emerges—almost all of which turn out to be quite similar to patterns that one sees on actual animals. Evolution of simple two-dimensional cellular automata in which the color of each cell at each step is determined by looking at a weighted sum of the average colors of cells up to distance 3 away. In both rules shown the cell itself and its nearest neighbors enter with weight 1. Cells at distances 2 and 3 enter with negative weights— -0.4 per cell for the first rule, and -0.2 for the second. A cell becomes black if the weighted sum is positive, and white otherwise. Starting from random initial conditions, both rules quickly evolve to stationary states that look very much like pigmentation patterns seen in animals.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://www.wolframscience.com/nks/p427--biological-pigmentation-patterns--webview/

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en

This do sheet explores food insecurity in Australia with a focus on identifying those almost likely to endure it as well as considering its impacts. Whilst often thought of in terms of third world countries, food insecurity is too prevalent in sure groups within wealthy countries like Australia. This practise sheet is designed to assist kid and family services to address nutrient insecurity amongst their clientele. - There are three key components of food insecurity: inadequate access to nutrient, inadequate supply and the inappropriate use of food (due east.1000., inappropriate preperation of nutrient). The prevalence of food insecurity amongst the Australian population is estimated at 5% (Burns, 2004). - Sure groups in Australia are more susceptible to nutrient insecurity – including unemployed people, single parent households, depression-income earners, rental households and young people (Burns, 2004). - Indigenous, culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) and socially isolated people may also feel food insecurity at a higher rate (Strategic Inter-Governmental Nutrition Alliance of the National Public Wellness Partnership [SIGNAL NPHP], 2001). - The reasons why people experience nutrient insecurity include: a lack of resources (including financial resource and other resources such as transport); lack of access to nutritious nutrient at affordable prices, lack of access to food due to geographical isolation; and lack of motivation or knowledge nearly a nutritious diet. - Food insecurity is a concern for child and family services organisations as information technology can bear on negatively upon outcomes for children in the brusque and long-term – including children’south academic power and health issues including obesity, diabetes and heart disease. - Child and family services in Commonwealth of australia can play a key role in improving the food security of their clients via a range of practical measures also equally referrals to services such as fiscal counselling that address underlying factors which may contribute to food insecurity. What is food insecurity? Whereas food security is broadly divers as “access past all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life” (Radimer, 2002), food insecurity exists “whenever the availability of nutritionally acceptable and rubber foods or the ability to acquire acceptable nutrient in socially acceptable ways is limited or uncertain” (Radimer, 2002). There are three key components of food security (World Health Organisation, 2011): - Food access: the chapters to learn and consume a nutritious nutrition, including: - the ability to buy and transport food; - home storage, preparation and cooking facilities; - cognition and skills to make advisable choices; - and time and mobility to shop for and set up food. - Food availability: the supply of food inside a community affecting food security of individuals, households or an entire population, specifically: - location of nutrient outlets; - availability of food within stores; and - price, quality and variety of available food (Nolan, Rickard-Bell, Mohsin, & Williams, 2006). - Nutrient use: the advisable employ of nutrient based on knowledge of basic diet and care.1 There are iii different “levels” of food security (run across Effigy ane, based upon Burns, 2004): - insecure merely without hunger – where there may exist anxiety or uncertainty nearly access to food or inappropriate use of food (i.e., poor nutritional quality) just regular consumption of nutrient occurs; and - insecure with extreme hunger – where meals are frequently missed or inadequate (Burns, 2004). Figure 1: The Food Security Continuum According to the United nations World Nutrient Summit in 1996, food security is a correct for all people (Un Nutrient & Agriculture Organization, 1996). Yet conservative estimates suggest that upwards of 5% of Australians experience nutrient insecurity, 40% of those at a severe level (Burns, 2004; Temple, 2008).2 Who experiences food insecurity in Commonwealth of australia and why? According to the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Wellness Performance Framework (information 2004-05) certain groups feel food insecurity at a higher rate than the general population (Browne, Laurence, & Thorpe, 2009; Burns, 2004). These groups include: - Indigenous people (24%); - unemployed people (23%); - single parent households (23%); - low-income earners (20%); - rental households (20%); and - immature people (15%). Other people who are susceptible to nutrient insecurity include (Betoken NPHP, 2001): - some culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) groups including refugees; - people who practise non take access to private and/or public transport; - people who misuse alcohol and tobacco; and - people who are disabled, unwell or frail. The reasons why some of these groups feel nutrient insecurity are outlined below. Ethnic populations may be vulnerable to food insecurity, with 30% of Indigenous adults reporting being worried about going without food (Betoken NPHP, 2001). Rates of food insecurity are highest in remote communities (Browne et al., 2009).three However, Indigenous people living in urban environments are also vulnerable to nutrient insecurity due to poor income, household infrastructure and overcrowding, access to transport, storage and cooking facilities (Browne et al., 2009). In remote locations, nutrient supply is often limited to a “full general store” that is not always open, and is oft expensive, with a 26% higher price of a “basket of food” in remote community stores when compared with a Darwin supermarket (Saethre, 2005). Coupled with the loftier percentage of residents in remote communities earning a low income, Ethnic people must spend a greater percentage of their income on meals than not-Indigenous Australians – at to the lowest degree 35% according to Northern Territory Government statistics (Saethre, 2005). Much of this is spent on set-made meals from fast food outlets that may vary in nutritional quality. However they are oft more convenient as these outlets may be open up longer hours than the general store (Saethre, 2005). Furthermore, other resources may be limited in remote communities – such as a working stove or oven. One survey of almost four chiliad Ethnic homes in the Northern Territory found that only 38% had facilities such as stoves, ovens, running h2o and adequate storage for food (Bailie & Runcie, 2001). This further encourages a reliance on ready made, and ofttimes nutritionally poor foods. Some CALD groups have also been found to experience food insecurity due to a difference from their traditional diets when relocating to Australia, with a failure to take upwardly nutritious alternatives (Point NPHP, 2001). People who have recently relocated to Australia may lack nutritional education virtually nutrient available in their local supermarket, which may vary dramatically from what was available in their state of origin. Economical barriers to food security are common and low-income families often feel challenges in purchasing adequate quantities of food, too as appropriately good for you food (SIGNAL NPHP, 2001; Turrell & Kavanagh, 2005). Concerns about the college costs of food sometimes experienced by low income families and people living in remote areas (especially Indigenous remote communities) mean that food insecurity is loftier amongst low-income people and families (Bespeak NPHP, 2001). Middle income families who have recently had a drop in income (i.e., through chore loss) or who have high living expenses may also feel nutrient insecurity due to a lack of available funds to classify to food purchases (Burns, 2004). Lack of access to private and/or public ship Other barriers such as lack of car ownership in loftier population areas and/or poorly organised public transport to retail centres may confine disadvantaged people to buying food locally where at that place may be less choice and college prices (Point NPHP, 2001). Geographical isolation may also contribute to food insecurity, peradventure forth with inadequate transport. Remote areas may have fewer large supermarkets forcing residents to be dependent on smaller shops which stock a limited range of foods, sometimes of lower quality, and often, higher prices (Turrell, Hewitt, Patterson, Oldenburg, & Gould, 2002). People suffering illness, frailness or other forms of social isolation People suffering illness, frailness or other forms of social isolation may also experience food insecurity regardless of their financial means, due to an disability to either buy or prepare adequate food as a result of their condition. Similarly, people with substance abuse conditions may non buy or gear up adequate food for themselves or their families, either considering their material resources are spent on drugs or alcohol, or simply because they are non operation adequately to attend to these tasks (Bespeak NPHP, 2001; Burns, 2004.) Why is food security an important issue for child and family unit services? The prevalence of food insecurity amongst the Australian population (a conservative estimate of 5%) (Burns, 2004) suggests that child and family services are likely to run into families that are experiencing this trouble. Many kid and family unit services will be supporting children and families who fit one or more of the characteristics that make them more vulnerable to nutrient insecurity (e.chiliad., unemployed, single parent households and living in rented accommodation) and, as such, these services are more likely to run across clients who experience nutrient insecurity. In Australia, food security is considered to be an important social determinant of health and a meaning public health issue at national and state levels (Nolan et al., 2006). Nutrient insecurity is, however, especially important to child and family unit services considering of the negative impact food security tin accept on parents and children, both in the short and long term. For example, food security has been shown to touch academic achievement in children, both in ability upon kickoff at schoolhouse, and in learning over the school year (Wikicki & Jemison, 2003). Food insecurity is especially relevant to the current “obesity epidemic” amongst Australian children (Gill et al., 2009) as Australian data indicate that the take chances of obesity is higher in those who experience (mild to moderate) nutrient insecurity (Burns, 2004). While this might seem casuistic, it is due to the tendency of food insecure people to purchase cheaper food, which is often much lower in nutritional content and higher in fat, salt and sugar content and refined carbohydrates (starch) (Burns, 2004). Food insecurity is also associated with general poor health, and may worsen other health inequalities that are apparent in disadvantaged groups such every bit a college mortality rate, and college rates of coronary eye illness, blazon-2 diabetes and some cancers (Turrell & Kavanagh, 2005). Furthermore, poor diet is associated with low nativity weight and ill health in infancy and childhood (Browne et al., 2009). The nutritional aspect of food security is often overlooked in favor of simply ensuring people are eating regular meals. However, an important part of food security is access to “nutritionally adequate and safe foods” (Radimer, 2002). Public wellness recommendations for an adult to eat five serves each of breads/cereals and vegetables, as well every bit 2 serves of fruit per twenty-four hour period are frequently not feasible for those who are welfare dependent or earning a low income. International studies report that healthy food is more expensive than unhealthy food, and local studies have shown that people in welfare or depression-income categories are less likely to buy and eat healthy nutrient (Kettings, Sinclair, & Voevodin, 2009). In their report into the costs of a healthy diet, Kettings et al. (2009) found that welfare dependent families needed to spend at least 33% of their weekly income to eat co-ordinate to public wellness recommendations if they bought generic brands. For families earning an “average” wage, 25% of the income of a unmarried parent household and 18% of a dual parent household was required to meet these eating guidelines. They concluded that at a cost of 33% of the household income, healthy nutrient habits are economically challenging for welfare dependent families. An of import aspect of food security for families is breastfeeding. Breastfeeding tin be an effective method of reducing food insecurity for infants especially for disadvantaged families who may non exist able to afford sufficient amounts of infant formula to adequately meet infant dietary needs. Australia’s dietary guidelines recommend that infants are breastfed until 6 months of age (NHMRC, 2003). One of the many ways of addressing food insecurity is via the distribution of “nutrient parcels” through community service agencies. Nonetheless, anecdotal reports are that these parcels tend to be stocked with not-perishable goods, due to the storage capabilities of the agencies involved.* As a outcome, those families receiving food parcels miss out on fresh nutrient, which can be helpful in maintaining a balanced nutrition that meets recommended dietary guidelines. It is important to note, however, that food parcels can free up some of the nutrient budget, which may be then directed to purchasing fresh goods. Also, as there is increasing force per unit area on the customs services sector to respond to growing disadvantage, agencies and workers may need additional support, such as additional resource and training to ensure that clients’ nutritional requirements are met (Betoken NPHP, 2001). *.Nutrient banks—organisations that receive donations of food and have large storage capabilities—may exist able to supply customs service agencies with fresh foods on a regular basis. Aboriginal customs, meet Early Learnings Telstra Foundation Research Report (Higgins, 2005). These practise considerations are general principles based upon lessons from research and do designed to provide additional guidance to service providers almost working with individuals and families experiencing food insecurity. How can services support families experiencing food insecurity? Measures to address nutrient security include short, medium or long-term solutions. Some services can directly help families in the brusque-term by providing food parcels, food vouchers and/or meals. Most services will have some information available about local services that can provide these services. Every bit many services will already be providing curt-term back up, the following exercise considerations focus upon medium and long-term measures for supporting families who experience nutrient insecurity. Policy measures are as well considered. - Nutritional pedagogy is frequently poor among disadvantaged populations (Burns, 2004) and every bit such whilst the quantity of food supplies may be adequate in these households, their quality may be poor and fail to meet the nutritional needs of family unit members, particularly children. - Nutritional education in languages other than English language may be necessary for some CALD groups (The Smith Family unit & Fairfield W Chief School, 2009). - Simple techniques like planning meals in advance and writing a shopping listing with simply required ingredients help to continue food costs lower and ensure value for coin. Planning meals ahead also helps to reduce dependency on expensive and frequently unhealthy accept-away meals. - Lack of familiarity with food preparation and/or ingredients may be a deterrent to the training of fresh salubrious meals. Basic nutrient preparation techniques and a guided shopping exercise tin can help to reduce these barriers and improve cognition and confidence in food training. - A familiarity of public wellness recommendations for healthy eating is essential for staff dealing with food insecure clients. Information technology may also be useful to brainwash clients and help them to implement these recommendations through suggested meal plans or other practical examples. Questions to consider - Are there any services in the local community that can provide parents with food budgeting advice and/or offer food purchasing and grooming classes? In some localities, community kitchens these types of educational opportunities along with facilities to communally gear up and share meals (see Frankston Community Health Service, 2009). - If your service provides nutrient parcels or meals direct to clients, are staff confident almost their knowledge of diet? Could professional person development opportunities involve nutritional instruction? - Are clients provided with information about good for you eating? Is this information presented in a fashion that is attainable to clients (e.g., plain English)? Is information bachelor in languages other than English? - Families who do not have access to individual and/or public transport can accept difficulties getting their grocery shopping domicile. Another barrier for some families is a lack of adequate refrigeration. Both these factors can as well impede a family unit’s ability to purchase or maintain the quality of fresh food. - Buying groceries in majority is a practiced way to save money on goods, nonetheless this tin oftentimes be difficult for low-income families who lack the initial funds to outlay on bulk purchases. Lack of access to transport and lack of adequate refrigeration tin further restrict a family’s power to purchase food in bulk. Questions to consider - Is it possible for your service to subsidise the dwelling house delivery of groceries for clients who accept difficulties with transport? Is there another service in the community that tin can provide clients with this support? Do y’all know of supermarkets or other shops in the local area that provide gratuitous home delivery for customers? - Tin can your service assist clients to obtain refrigeration appliances? Is there another service in the customs that tin provide clients with this support? - Community kitchens could organise “buy in bulk” services for multiple families. This allows families to share the price of ownership in majority. Is there are a community kitchen in the local customs that provides this type of service? Information and referral A range of services and resource in the local community can exist useful to families experiencing food insecurity. Providing data and/or referral to these services can help these families. These resources may include: - community gardens: plots of land set aside inside a community where community members may grow plants and/or vegetables and fruit. Community garden projects can be a cost effective and enjoyable way for clients and their families to acquire fresh food; school “breakfast clubs”: offer morning meals to students whose families may be financially disadvantaged or suffer some other form of nutrient insecurity; inancial counselling or other services: may assistance to address long term bug which play a major role in food insecurity; lists of local markets or lower cost retail options for food purchasing: may aid clients to get better value out of their food upkeep. Questions to consider - Are there customs gardens, breakfast clubs or other appropriate services or resources within the local community? If and then, are clients provided with information about these services and resource? It is important to consider policy measures that may impact on food security. Service providers can advocate locally for policies that may improve food security in their geographical area such equally policies that: - encourage food manufacturers and wholesalers to dispose of surplus food through food banks – via economical incentives or other ways (SIGNAL NPHP, 2001); - reflect the college cost of food in remote areas (Betoken NPHP, 2001); - address provision for special needs diets (SIGNAL NPHP, 2001);vi - aim to improve nutritional standards and knowledge within the customs (i.e., public health policies) (Signal NPHP, 2001); and - support local production of food and improved transport to food outlets (SIGNAL NPHP, 2001). What practice food security programs wait like in practice? There are a range of programs and projects in Commonwealth of australia that accost the result of food security. CAFCA’s Promising Practice Profiles database provides some examples of these types of programs and projects. One example is a community kitchen pilot projection based in Frankston, Victoria. This program aims to improve participants’ nutrient security through acquiring food cognition and skills whilst reducing social isolation. The bug it seeks to address are nutrient access and use: the poor concrete and financial access to quality, affordable fresh produce, which in turn is a barrier to healthy eating for some community members. A diversity of community members – including anile, Indigenous, disadvantaged, youth and migrant individuals – make use of the community kitchen facilities. Using a flexible and negotiable arroyo, the project requires active participation and financial contribution from grouping members. It does not sell food merely rather educates participants in the planning and cooking of meals. Training workshops are provided for facilitators and interested participants, covering topics such as healthy eating, budgeting for food, kitchen and food safety and group facilitation. All other education for participants is breezy and involves the ongoing weekly gathering of vi-8 people and one facilitator who jointly select and prepare meals that they so share together for a small investment of a few dollars. Notable outcomes of the programme include: - improvements in cooking skills, nutritional cognition, meal planning, budgeting and shopping habits; - increased fruit and vegetable consumption (43%) and reduction of fast food consumption (64%); - improvements in food safe and hygiene practices; - significant impacts on participants mental wellness and wellbeing due to the social aspect of the project (social inclusion); and - an increase in community strength, with 43% of participants going on to bring together other community groups. - For a full list of CAFCA Promising Practice Profiles see <www.aifs/cafca/topics/index.html>. - For an example of nutrient security/nutrition program in a remote Aboriginal community, see Early Learnings Telstra Foundation Research Report - For a gendered analysis of food insecurity, see Women and Food Insecurity (PDF 72 KB) (Women’s Wellness Problems Paper No. vii), published by Women’s Health Victoria <whv.org.au/static/files/avails/64793bc2/Women_and_food_insecurity_issues_paper.pdf>. - Bailie, R., & K. Runcie. (2001). Household infrastructure in Aboriginal communities and the implications for health comeback. Medical Periodical of Australia, - Browne, J., Laurence, S., & Thorpe, Due south. (2009). Interim on food insecurity in urban Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities: Policy and do interventions to improve local admission and supply of nutritious food. Retrieved from <www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/health-risks/nutrition/other-reviews>. - Burns, C. (2004). A review of the literature describing the link between poverty, nutrient insecurity and obesity with specific reference to Australia. Melbourne: Victorian Wellness Promotion Foundation. - Council of Australian Governments. (2009). National strategy for food security in remote Ethnic communities, - Frankston Customs Wellness Service. (2004). Frankston Community Kitchens Pilot Project (CAFCA Promising Practice Profile). Retrieved from <www.aifs.gov.au/cafca/ppp/profiles/la_community_kitchens.html>. - Gill, T.P., Baur, L.A., Bauman, A.E., Steinbeck, Yard.S., Storlien, L.H., Fiatarone Singh, M.A., Make-Miller, J.C., Colagiuri, S. and Caterson, I.D. (2009). Babyhood obesity in Australia remains a widespread health concern that warrants population-wide prevention programs, Medical Journal of Australia, - Kettings, C., & Sinclair, A. J. (2009). A healthy nutrition consistent with Australian health recommendations is too expensive for welfare-dependent families. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Wellness, - National Health and Medical Enquiry Council. (2003). Food for infants (PDF xviii.6 KB). Retrieved from <www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/foodinfa.pdf?> - Strategic Inter-Governmental Nutrition Alliance of the National Public Health Partnership. (2001). Swallow Well Australia: An calendar for action for public health diet 2000-2010. Melbourne: National Public Health Partnership. - Nolan, M., Rikard-Bell, One thousand., Mohsin, M., & Williams, M. (2006). Nutrient insecurity in 3 socially disadvantaged localities in Sydney, Australia. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, - Radimer, Thou. (2002). Measurement of household nutrient security in the USA and other industrialized countries. Public Health Nutrition, - Saethre, E. (2005). Nutrition, economic science and food distribution in an Australian Aboriginal community. - Temple, J. B. (2008). Astringent and moderate forms of food insecurity in Australia: Are they distinguishable? Australian Journal of Social Issues, - The Smith Family unit & Fairfield West Primary School. (2009). Fairfield Refugee Nutrition Project (CAFCA Promising Practice Profile). Retrieved from <www.aifs.gov.au/cafca/ppp/profiles/cfc_fairfield_nutrition.html>. - Turrell, G., & Kavanagh, A. M. (2005). Socio-economic pathways to diet: Modeling the association between socio-economic position and food purchasing behaviour. Public Health Diet, - Turrell, G., Hewitt, B., Patterson, C., Oldenburg, B., & Gould, T. (2002). Socioeconomic differences in nutrient purchasing behaviour and suggested implications for diet-related health promotion. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, - United Nations Nutrient & Agronomics Organisation. (1996). Rome announcement on earth food security. Retrieved from <www.fao.org/wfs/index_en.htm> - Winicki, J., & Jemison, K. (2003). Food insecurity and hunger in the kindergarten classroom: Its result on learning and growth. Contemporary Economic Policy, - World Health System. (2011). Nutrient security. Retrieved from <world wide web.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/> Which Practice is Most Likely to Make People Sick

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A flowchart is a diagram that represents a process or system, and it can be used to model a computer program or algorithm. Here are some common flowchart symbols: - Rectangle: Represents the start and end points of a process or system. - Diamond: Represents a decision point. It is used to indicate a branching point in the flowchart, where the flow of the process or system can go in different directions based on a specific condition or decision. - Arrow: Connects the different steps in the flowchart, showing the flow of the process or system. - Oval: Represents the beginning or end of a process. - Parallelogram: Represents an input or output. - Cloud: Represent external entities such as a database, a webservice, etc. - Terminator: Represent the start and end point of a sub-process - Process: Represent the process steps in a flowchart - Document : Represent input and output documents - Data: Represent data storage and retrieval computer flowchart working model – computer science project model making – diy – simple #computerflowchart #computerworkingmodel #computermodel #modelmaking #howtofunda

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The Horn of Africa: Critical Analysis of Conflict Management and Strategies for Success in the Horn's Future Independence and Rising Conflict British and Italian Somalilands gained independence the summer of 1960 and formed the Somali Republic. Newly united inhabitants shared the general hope that Somalis living under Ethiopian rule would soon join them once the past fluctuation of the region’s provisional boundary was resolved. However, Ethiopia was not willing to offer Somalia control of the region. Unexpectedly rebuffed, irregular Somali guerillas began harassing residents of the Ogaden. The guerillas’ numbers steadily rose until Ethiopia sent its army in October 1963, causing the conflict to evolve into conventional war until a ceasefire was called in April 1964.The United States became the principal source of external support to Ethiopia as early as 1950. Still, the United States attempted to provide economic and military aid to Somalia during the Ogaden conflict in an effort to undermine Soviet influence. In 1963, the United States, Italy, and Germany offered a $10million package to Somalia to build its conventional army in order to face large Ethiopian armed forces. However, Somalia was not persuaded to reject its treaty of friendship with Russia for so meager an offer, and contracted Soviet military aid for three times the sum. Bargaining with Cold War superpowers became typical in the region, and eventually contributed to alliance swapping that directly resulted in continued regional conflict through endless arms supplies. At the same time, Eritrea, which had been an Italian colony from 1882 to 1941, was federated with Ethiopia from 1952 to 1962. It was then that the emperor of Ethiopia “made the great tactical error of abolishing [Eritrea’s] privileged status” by dissolving its parliament and annexing the country. Eritrea adamantly refused to forfeit its autonomy and broke out in revolt, “led by a number of faction-ridden but highly effective Marxist movements” that would last for 30 years, between the years 1961-1991, before gaining independence from Ethiopia (1985 p. 78). Djibouti continued under French Rule, to the chagrin of the Somalis who had expected it to join their new nation state. Unlike the Ogaden, Djibouti was a part of the Ethiopian economy. However, it had little chance of being joined with Ethiopia since it had never been under Ethiopian rule. Ethiopian interests were therefore served, along with those of the French, by staving off the Somali claim. The French refusal of a union with the other Somalis kept the colony from being absorbed by Somalia. In 1967, the colony became the French Territory of the Afars and Issas before attaining its independence as the Republic of Djibouti in 1977. Many Third World nations, once receiving independence from colonial rule, continue to be influenced by a stronger party. This is true in the Horn as well, but colonial powers were replaced by the United States and Soviet Union. This is important because superpower influence and East-West rivalry kept military stocks in endless supply, allowing rising conflicts to develop into crises that would continue far longer than they would have been able to otherwise. The Cold War and East-West Intervention The competition between the United States and the Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa helped destroy international credibility in conflict mediation; instead of lending their influence for resolution, they used it to perpetuate conflict to continue their interests in a geostrategic location. Their presence funded wars that would have otherwise been unable to continue. This funding additionally propped up dictatorial regimes that were guilty of horrific crimes against humanity, and led to the eventual collapse of Somalia and its armament of dozens of militias. The entire region was important to the United States and Soviet Union, particularly before the age of satellites, for its location. Additionally, Somalia’s extensive coastline allowed for port development opportunities to the East and the Indian Ocean. An alliance with Ethiopia provided a regional power base with opportunities for internal economic/political cooperation. Both Ethiopia and Somalia had reason to make strong allies of world superpowers. Ethiopia desired regional hegemony, and its “size, military strength, and geographic position would make it the dominant state… [but] underdevelopment and tenuous national unity kept this role out of its reach” (1985 p. 82). Somalia desired control of the Ogaden region, but could not do so without matching Ethiopia’s conventional army. Before the United States and Soviet Union left the region, they each intervened in both countries and dramatically reversed alliances mid-conflict. The United States initially aligned itself with Ethiopia, which retained control of Eritrea where the U.S. had a base for strategic global military communications. When conflict erupted between Ethiopia and Eritrea, Washington pressured Ethiopia’s leadership against using an untrained peasant militia in Eritrea. In a subsequent slaughter of Eritreans, Ethiopia was rendered ineligible for military aid when the Carter administration placed Ethiopia on a list of human rights violators. United States arms shipments to Ethiopia were suspended just as the nation was running out of ammunition in its struggles against Eritrean and Somali insurgents. Therefore, to continue fighting Eritrea and Somalia, Ethiopia needed military aid. Since arms were no longer provided by the United States or other western powers, Ethiopia turned to communist nations. The Soviets, recognizing the benefits of allying with Ethiopia, brokered a $1 billion arms deal and signed a treaty of friendship with Ethiopia. Simultaneously the Soviet Union continued their presence in Somalia. This transition of alliances briefly afforded the Soviet Union friendly relations with both nations, providing an opportunity for conflict management. This is evident when, in 1977, both sides were so low on military supplies that a stalemate would have resulted if arms providers had refused to continue stocking the region. Instead, Russia exacerbated the conflict when it signed a treaty with Ethiopia, swapped alliances, and instigated continued arms build-up. Meanwhile, the United States had lost its influence in the region and was left to the sidelines as an ineffective bystander. The war in the Ogaden is representative of conflicts that require mutually painful stalemates before bilateral solutions are considered conceivable. During the Ogaden conflict, Somali leadership ambiguously defined success against Ethiopia, and overextended Somalia’s means, which drew out the conflict. This resulted in a stalemate, but not as intolerable to Ethiopia as it was to Somalia. The continued military funding by the U.S. and Soviet Union provided each side the resources to continue, and a conclusion could not be reached. In the midst of conflicting East-West interests, tumultuous civil environments emerged. Newly independent states struggled with their identity and the result was violent opposition to emerging political ideologies. Power struggles in every nation of the Horn are responsible for regional volatility and hundreds of thousands of deaths, as highlighted below.Continued on Next Page »

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Felines, wolves, elephants, apes… We all know big mammals, but what about the smaller ones? Do you know what is a desman or a solenodon? Read on to find out more about small mammals and their importance. WHAT IS A MICROMAMMAL? The word “micromammal” has no taxonomical value: it is not a word that biology uses in the classification of mammals. However, this colloquial term, like the word “dinosaur” sometimes it is used in scientific publications to group together several orders of small mammals, although in the same taxonomic group some species can have a large size. In general, we consider micromammals animals of the following groups: - Rodents (rats, mice, squirrels, marmots, beavers, prairie dogs, hamsters, lemmings, gerbils, voles, chinchillas…) - Lagomorphs (rabbits, hares and pikas) - Insectivores (shrews, hedgehogs, moles, desmans …) As we learnt in a previous post, bats are essential animals for ecosystems, they also have unique characteristics that make them worthy of several records: they are the only mammals able to fly actively, they are distributed to nearly every continent, they don’t get sick… to find out more about bats, visit What is a bat for? In the Iberian Peninsula live eight species of bats. Learn more about them in the website Fauna Ibérica. Rodents are the largest order of mammals, accounting for over 40% of the total and inhabit all continents except Antarctica. Some rodents are not considered micromammals for its large size, such as capybaras or porcupines. Most rodents are quadrupeds with long tail, claws, whiskers and continuously-growing large incisors. This fact forces them to constantly gnaw through its specialized jaws, to wear away the incisors and always keep them sharp. They have a great sense of smell and hearing, and the sense of touch in his whiskers. They communicate by scent and various vocalizations. Most species are social and form large communities. Their anatomy is not so specialized than other mammals, allowing them to adapt to different habitats. Added to the high birth rate, they can keep populations stable in adverse conditions. The black rat, for example, can have litters every month of more than 10 babys. Some rodents, especially rats and mice, occupy the same habitats that humans and are considered a plague. In addition to eating human food, they can contaminate it with their urine and feces and they are transmitters of more than 20 diseases, including the typhus and plague. In the Iberian Peninsula inhabit about 23 species, divided into five categories: - Cricetidae: voles (8 species), water vole and southern muskrat (non-native). - Gliridae: Gray dormouse - Sciuridae: common squirrel - Muridae: mice and rats - Myocastoride: Coypu (non-native) RABBITS, HARES AND PIKAS (LAGOMORPHS) Contrary to what a lot of people believe, rabbits and hares are not rodents but they belong to the order of lagomorphs. Unlike rodents, lagomorphs have a small, round tail, paws with thick fur and hair in their foot sole that helps grip while running. All species are terrestrial and are distributed almost worldwide. They are among the most hunted animals, so its body has adapted to elude predators: - Long ears for good hearing - Eyes on top of the head with a vision of almost 360º - Elongated hind legs to reach 56 km/h Like rodents, the incisors are also continuously-growing, but behind them there is another smaller pair. They have high reproductive rates (some species can conceive a second litter before the first is born), sexual maturity within a few months of life and short gestations. Lagomorphs are herbivores and practice cecotrophy: substances that can not be diggested, are evacuated through the anus in the shape of soft balls. They eat this balls in order to do a second digestion. If you have a rabbit as a pet ¡this behavior is completely normal! In the Iberian Peninsula lives a species of rabbit and 4 species of hares (Iberian, European and Cabo del Piornal (non-native). Currently the order Insectivora is no longer used and micromammals that feed on insects (and other animals) can be classified into five Orders: - Hedgehogs, moonrats or gimnurs (Erinaceomorpha) - Shrews, moles and solenodons (Soricomorpha). - Tenrecs and golden moles (Afrosoricida) - Elephant shrews (Macroscelidea) - Treeshrews (Scandentia) They are considered to be the most primitive mammals. Many species are characterized by: - Elongated, thin and mobile snout. They have a good sense of smell - Ears and small eyes in some species, like moles - Five clawed toes on each paw - They are plantigrades - Some species, such as hedhehogs and tenrecs have spikes - The solenodonts, water shrews and shrews are among the few poisonous mammals in the world. Read this post to learn more. Most of them are nocturnal and their diet is based on insects, spiders and worms, but they also eat plants and other animals. Besides, they are not the only mammals that eat insects. In the Iberian Peninsula lives the Pyrenean desman, two species of hedgehog, about five species of shrews, two species of water shrews, and the Spanish mole. To learn more about the Pyrenean desman, in the website El Bichólogo you can find more information. IMPORTANCE OF MICROMAMMALS - In Paleozoology, the fossils of micromammal provide a lot of information as they tend to be found more often in deposits than other mammals. In addition, many times their bones are accumulated due to the eating habits of their predators. They provide valuable information on the climate of the past (paleoclimatology) and the classification of rocks in layers (biostratigraphy). - Despite its bad reputation, some rodent species are beneficial, controlling insect populations and destroying weeds, contributing to the health of forests spreading fungus… and are still used in scientific research. - Many species are responsible for the spread of pollen or seeds. - They are vital for the conservation and maintenance of their predatory species in decline, as the Pyrenean owl or Iberian Lynx. - Since some of them live in burrows (rabbits) or they are burrowers (moles), they contribute to the ventilation of the soil and its fertility. - Clutton-Brock, Juliet et al. 2002. Animal. Pearson Education - Diversidad con los micromamíferos de la Sima del Elefante (Atapuerca, Burgos) - fauna ibérica - Por qué es tan importante el conejo? - Source of cover image (star-nosed mole)

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Many common infections can spread by airborne transmission at least in some cases, including: Anthrax (inhalational), Chickenpox, Influenza, Measles, Smallpox, Cryptococcosis, and Tuberculosis. Airborne diseases can also affect non-humans. Consequently, what are the examples of airborne diseases? There are three main types of organisms that can cause airborne diseases, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Some examples of airborne diseases include the flu, tuberculosis, and valley fever. Chickenpox and the measles can also be caused by airborne pathogens. Can a virus be transmitted through the air? Viruses can spread through the air in two ways: inside large droplets that fall quickly to the ground (red), or inside tiny droplets that float in the air (gray). In the first route, called droplet transmission, the virus can spread only about 3 to 6 feet from an infected person. What are the causes of airborne diseases? Airborne diseases are caused by pathogenic microbes small enough to be discharged from an infected person via coughing, sneezing, laughing and close personal contact or aerosolization of the microbe. The discharged microbes remain suspended in the air on dust particles, respiratory and water droplets.

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In my last blog post, I introduced Matthew Maury, an American naval officer who began a citizen science project in the mid-1800s that transformed seafaring and drew society closer to science. Now let’s meet his British counterpart, William Whewell, an elite scholar who engaged the public to understand the tides, but in so doing helped to solidify the distinction between amateur and professional scientists. Whewell pursued an exemplary career at Trinity College, Cambridge. Whewell began as a student at Trinity College in 1812, served in two professorships, first mineralogy and then philosophy, and finally rose to the top as Master at Trinity College from 1841 until his death in 1866. Although Whewell’s colleagues embraced the emerging trend of specializing in particular disciplines, Whewell remained a polymath with expertise in many subjects, including geology, astronomy, economics, theology, law, and the philosophy of science. Where Maury mapped the oceans, Whewell mapped the coasts, where unpredictable tidal cycles caused shipwrecks and made coastal navigation dangerous. Tides are puzzling: as late as 1953, an “unexpected” high tide on the Thames drowned 300 people. Great thinkers have investigated the mystery of tides throughout history, and the influence of the moon was suspected as far back as Galileo. Advances in tide research were not stymied by a lack of great and curious minds, but by a lack of data – and Whewell figured out how to get it. Whewell took a citizen science approach to tidal research with a project known as the “great tide experiment.” With the consent of the British Admiralty, Whewell coordinated thousands of people in nine nations and colonies on both sides of the Atlantic in the synchronized measurement of tides. At over 650 tidal stations, volunteers followed Whewell’s instructions for measuring tides every 15 minutes, around the clock, during the same two week period in June 1835. Volunteers in the “great tide experiment” included dockyard officials, sailors, harbormasters, local tide table markers, coastal surveyors, professional military men, and amateur observers. Many participants did more than measure the tides; they also tabulated, graphed, and charted the data. Whewell brought it all together into maps illustrating how the tides progressed across the Atlantic Ocean and onto shores, inlets, ports, and into rivers and estuaries. In 1837, the oldest learned society of science, the Royal Society, awarded Whewell a Royal Medal for his work on tides. The Royal Medal is one of their highest honors, and one they later bestowed on Charles Darwin. Whewell was very different from the navy-man Maury in two important ways: writing style and academic tradition. First, Maury’s writing appealed to popular audiences; Whewell’s appealed to academics. Maury’s style was accessible, sometimes poetic , and sometimes he wrote humorous and candid political critiques using the pen name Harry Bluff. Whewell, on the other hand, fathered scientific jargon. He coined many terms, including one for his own niche in physical astronomy, tidology (it never caught on). Whewell was the go-to person when other scholars needed to describe a new concept or discovery, inventing words like ion, anode, and cathode. As early as 1833, Whewell coined the term scientist: before it caught on, such an individual was called “man of science” or “natural philosopher” and they were more likely pursuing science in their leisure, not as a profession. The second important difference was academic tradition. Both men carried out research by quite similar citizen science methods in the mid-1800s, but they were part of very different intellectual traditions. As a professor at a college founded in 1546, Whewell was part of an academic hierarchy established long ago. Maury was a military man who later taught physics at an institution (Virginia Military Institute) barely more than a decade old. Whewell was in the prestigious Royal Society, mentioned above, which was founded in 1660; Maury was a key figure presenting at the founding meeting, in 1848, of the US counterpart, the American Academy for the Advancement of Science, or AAAS. These two differences between Maury and Whewell translate into their differing views of the relationship between science and society. Both men produced results of practical and theoretical importance, but Maury popularized science and engaged the common person in applied research, whereas Whewell involved people in supporting the work of the professional elite. In two highly regarded books on the philosophy of science, Whewell defined the social and intellectual roles of scientists. Whewell emphasized that a scientist did not only make and assemble observations, but also synthesized concepts and developed theories to explain the patterns of observations. In erudite arguments with John Stuart Mill about inductive reasoning, Whewell viewed observations as pearls, and induction as the rational mental processes by which minds can string the pearls together to form a necklace. In the context of Whewell’s citizen science project, thousands gathered the pearls (he referred to the thousands of collaborators as his “subordinate labourers”), and he, the scientist, assembled the necklace. His choice of the words “subordinate labourers” illustrates the class systems which structured his thinking. Whewell’s books established a social hierarchy to science, distinguishing the hobbyist or part-time devotee from the professionals and specialists. He placed elite theorists on the top of the hierarchy. Below were those paid to help construct tide tables and make sophisticated mathematical calculations. His “subordinate labourers” were not part of the hierarchy of professional science. Today, many think of public participation in science as a way to democratize science, or at least better integrate science into society. At first it may seem ironic that Whewell – one of the first to engage a broad swath of the public in a formal, highly structured research project – led the charge to professionalize science and separate the scientist from society. Yet, sometimes we can only define something by its antithesis. As Mark Twain pondered, “What is joy without sorrow? What is success without failure? What is a win without a loss? What is health without illness? You have to experience each if you are to appreciate the other.” Before “scientist” became a clearly defined career, discovery was commonly a collective effort by those with leisure time. Early collaborations between science and society often took the form of well-to-do natural history collectors donating specimens to museums. I view the great contributions of volunteers among the upper-crust as more representative of how science, not citizen science, was accomplished at that time. By distinguishing the profession from the leisure, Whewell defined both. Now we can’t have citizen science – defined as the public engaged in professional research – without professional research. The continental-scale citizen science projects carried about by Maury and Whewell are a nice reminder of what was possible before our age of the Internet and mobile communications. Maury and Whewell were able to compile enormous amounts of data they received in handwritten logs carried in burlap sacks on sailing ships and notes delivered by stagecoaches. They didn’t have GPS, but they created useful maps. Nowadays it is hard to plan a simple lunch date without using a phone or email, but people used to communicate, coordinate, and plan complex events without the help of these technologies. Even before Maury and Whewell, the synchronized, worldwide observations of the 1779 transit of Venus allowed the calculation of the distance to the Sun and the size of the solar system. Fact is that the lack of speedy communication technologies did not prevent global collaboration, crowdsourcing of data, or the coordination of large-scale data collection by volunteers. Discovery has always been possible through collaborations among curious people working in other careers across all segments of society. The most important way that advances in science and technology have fostered citizen science often goes unnoticed: thanks to science we have more leisure time than people in the 1800s. Society and scientists are reviving a fashion from a time when scientific endeavors were highly integrated into society; a time when hobbies were damn serious, meaningful, and sophisticated commitments. I think we in the citizen science field are stylish hipsters carrying out science the original way: the way that leads to big discovery and big societal change. Speed is not essential, but it is a beautiful fashion accessory: it brings unique prospects (many of which I will cover in future blog posts). We are not the first generation to understand that to answer the big questions, you have to coordinate big networks of people around the globe. Will the current technology-driven explosion of this retro science fashion bring back that time when discovery was fair game for anybody?

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« PrécédentContinuer » The table represents the number of bones distinct and separable during adult life: Organic matter (Fat, etc., Collagen) . Single Bones. Pairs. Bones are often classified according to their shape. Thus, long bones, that is to say, bones of elongated cylindrical form, are more or less characteristic of the limbs. Broad or flat bones are plate-like, and serve as protective coverings to the structures they overlie; the bones of the cranial vault display this particular form. Other bones, such as the carpus and tarsus, are termed short bones; whilst the bones of the cranial base, the face, and the vertebræ, are frequently referred to as irregular bones. Various descriptive terms are applied to the prominences commonly met with on a bone, such as tuberosity, eminence, protuberance, process, tubercle, spine, ridge, crest, and line. These may be articular in their nature, or may serve as points or lines of muscular and ligamentous attachment. The surface of the bone may be excavated into pits, depressions, fovea, fossa, cavities, furrows, grooves, and notches. These may be articular or non-articular, the latter serving for the reception of organs, tendons, ligaments, vessels, and nerves. In some instances the substance of the bone is hollowed out to form an air space, sinus, or antrum. Bones are traversed by foramina and canals; these may be for the entrance and exit of nutrient vessels, or for the transmission of vessels and nerves from one region to another. A cleft, hiatus, or fissure serves the same purpose; channels of this kind are usually placed in the line of a suture, or correspond to the line of fusion of the primitive portions of the bone which they pierce. Composition of Bone.-Bone is composed of a combination of organic and inorganic substances in about the proportion of one to two. The animal matter may be removed by boiling or charring. According to the completeness with which the fibrous elements have been withdrawn, so the brittleness of the bone increases. When subjected to high temperatures the earthy matter alone remains. By soaking a bone in acid the salts may be dissolved out, leaving only the organic part. The shape of the bone is still retained, but the organic substance which is left is soft, and it can be bent about in any direction. The toughness and elasticity of bone depends therefore on its organic constituents, whilst its hardness is due to its mineral matter. vob Bone may be examined either in the fresh or dry condition. In the former state it retains all its organic parts, which include the fibrous tissue in and around it, the blood-vessels and their contents, together with the cellular elements found within the substance of the bone itself, and the marrow which occupies the lacunar spaces and marrow cavity. In the dri macerated bone most of these have the organic matter still remains, ore or less fossil condition. Conployed, bone possesses a remarkhilst it is capable of resisting a greater crushing strain; it is stated that a cubic inch of bone will support a weight of over two tons. Its elasticity is remarkable, and is of the greatest service in enabling it to withstand the shocks to which it is so frequently subjected. In regions where wood is scarce the natives use the ribs of large mammals as a substitute in the construction of their bows. Its hardness and density vary in different parts of the skeleton, and its permanency and durability exceed that of any other tissue of the body, except the enamel and dentine of the teeth. The osseous remains of a race over eighty centuries old have been excavated in Egypt. Structure of Bone (Macroscopic).-To obtain an idea of the structure of a bone it is necessary to examine it both in the fresh or recent condition and in the macerated state. In the former the bone is covered by a membrane which is with difficulty torn off, owing to the abundance of fine fibrils which enter the substance of the bone from its deep surface. This membrane, called the periosteum, overlies the bone, except where the bone is coated with cartilage. This cartilage may form a bond of union between contiguous bones or, in the case of bones united to each other by movable joints, may be moulded into smooth articular surfaces called the articular cartilages. The attachment of the various ligaments and muscles can also be studied, and it will be noticed that where tendon or ligament is attached, the bone is often roughened to form a ridge or eminence; where fleshy muscular fibres are attached, the bone is, as a rule, smooth. In the macerated condition, when the cartilage and fibrous elements have been destroyed, it is possible, however, to determine with considerable accuracy the parts of the bone covered with articular cartilage, since the bone here is smooth and conforms generally to the curves of the articular areas of the joint; these areas are referred to as the articular surfaces of the bone. The bone, stripped of its periosteal covering, displays a dense surface finely pitted for the entrance of the processes derived from the periosteum, which thus establish a connexion between the bony substance and that vascular layer; here and there, more particularly in the neighbourhood of the articular extremities, these pits increase in size and number and allow of the transmission of small blood-vessels. If careful examination is made, one or two foramina of larger size will usually be noticed. These vascular foramina or canals allow the passage of arteries of considerable size into the interior of the bone, and are called the canales nutricii or nutrient canals or foramina of the bone. There are also corresponding channels for the escape of veins from the interior. In order more fully to ascertain the structure of bone it will be necessary to study it in section. Taking first a long bone, such as one meets with in the limbs, one notices on longitudinal section, that the bone is not of the same density throughout, for, whilst the external layers are solid and compact, the interior is made up of loose spongy bone called substantia spongiosa (cancellous tissue). Further, it will be observed that in certain situations this spongy substance is absent, so that there is a hollow in the interior of the bone called the medullary cavity. In the recent condition this cavity is filled with the marrow and is hence often called the marrow cavity. This marrow, which fills not only the marrow cavity but also the interstices between the fibres of the spongy substance, consists largely of fat cells, together with some marrow cells proper, supported by a kind of retiform tissue. The appearance and constituents of the marrow differ in different situations. In the medullary cavity of long bones the marrow, as above described, is known as medulla ossium flava (yellow marrow). In other situations, viz., in the diploë of the cranial bones (to be hereafter described), in the spongy tissue of such bones as the vertebræ, the sternum, and the ribs, the marrow is more fluid, less fatty, and is characterised by the presence of marrow-cells proper, which resemble in some respects colourless blood corpuscles. In addition to these, however, there are small reddish-coloured cells, akin to the nucleated red corpuscles of the blood of the embryo. These cells (erythroblasts) are concerned in the formation of the coloured corpuscles of the blood. Marrow which displays these characteristic appearances is distinguished from the yellow variety, already described, by being called the medulla ossium rubra (red marrow). The marrow met with in the spongy tissue of the cranial bones of aged individuals often undergoes degenerative changes and is sometimes referre 1 as gelatinous marrow. A better idea of the disposition of the bony framework of a long bone can be obtained by the examination of a section of a macerated specimen. In such a specimen the marrow has been destroyed and the osseous architecture of the bone is consequently better displayed. Within the body of the bone is seen the marrow cavity extending towards, but not reaching, either extremity of the bone. This cavity is surrounded on all sides by a loose spicular network of bone, which gradually increases in compactness until it reaches the circumference of the shaft, where it forms a dense surrounding wall. In the shaft of a long bone the thickness of this outer layer is not the same throughout, but tends to diminish as we approach the extremities, nor is it of uniform thickness on all sides of the bone. All the long bones display curves in varying degree, and it is a uniform rule that the thicker dense bone is found along the concave surface of the curve, thus assisting in materially strengthening the bone. Towards the extremities of the long bone the structure and arrangement of the bone undergoes a change. There is no marrow cavity, the spongy tissue is not so open and irregular, and the external wall is much thinner than in the shaft; indeed in many instances it is little thicker than stout paper. A closer examination of the arrangement of this spongy tissue throughout the bone suggests a regularity in its arrangement which might escape notice; and if, in place of one bone only being examined, sections of other bones are also inspected, it will be observed that the spicules of this tissue are so arranged as best to withstand the strains and stresses to which the bone is habitually subjected. From what has been said it will be obvious that the arrangements above described are those best adapted to secure the maximum of strength with the minimum of material, and a consequent reduction in the weight of the skeleton. The same description applies, with some modification, to bones of flattened form. Taking as an example the expanded plate-like bones of the cranial vault, their structure, as displayed on section, exhibits the following appearance: The outer and inner surfaces are formed by two compact and dense layers, having sandwiched between them a layer of spongy tissue called the diploë, containing red marrow. Note that there is no medullary cavity, though in certain situations and at certain periods of life the substance of the diploë may become absorbed and converted, by the evagination of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, into air-spaces or air-sinuses. Structure of Bone (Microscopic).-True bone differs from calcified cartilage or membrane in that it not merely consists of the deposition of earthy salts within its matrix, but displays a definite arrangement of its organic and inorganic parts. Compact bone merely differs from loose or spongy bone in the denseness of its tissue, the characteristic feature of which is the arrangement of the osseous lamellæ to form what are called Haversian systems. These consist of a central or Haversian canal, which contains the vessels of the bone. Around this the osseous lamellæ are arranged concentrically, separated here and there by interspaces called lacunæ, in which the bone corpuscles are lodged. Passing from these lacunæ are many fine channels called canaliculi. These are disposed radially to the Haversian canal, and pass through the osseous lamellæ. They are occupied by the slender processes of the bone corpuscles. Each Haversian system consists of from three to ten concentric rings of osseous lamellæ. In addition to the lamella of the Haversian systems there are others which are termed the interstitial lamellæ; these occupy the intervals between adjoining Haversian systems, and consist of Haversian systems which have undergone a process of partial absorption. Towards the surface of the bone, and subjacent to the periosteal membrane which surrounds the shaft, there are lamella arranged circumferentially; these are sometimes referred to as the outer fundamental lamellæ. The periosteal membrane which surrounds the bone, and which plays so important a part in its development, sends in processes through the various Haversian systems, which carry with them vessels and cells, thus forming an organic meshwork around which the earthy salts are deposited. Ossification of Bone. -For an account of the earlier development of the skeleton the reader should consult a manual of embryology. Concerning the subsequent changes which take place, these are dependent on the conversion of the scleratogenous tissue into membrane and cartilage. A characteristic of this tissue. is that it contains elements which become formed into bone-producing cells, called osteoblasts. These are met with in the connective tissue from which the membrane bones are formed, whilst they also appear in the deeper layers of the investing tissue of the cartilage (perichondrium), and so lead to its conversion into the boneproducing layer or periosteum. All true bone, therefore, may probably be regarded as of membranous origin, though its appearance is preceded in some instances by the deposition of cartilage; in this case calcification of the cartilage is an essential stage in the process of bone formation, but the ultimate conversion into true bone, with characteristic Haversian systems, leads to the absorption and disappearance of this primitive calcified cartilage. In considering the development of bone an inspection of the skeleton of a foetus will enable the student to realise that much .of what is bone in the adult is preformed in cartilage, whilst a part of the fully developed skeleton is represented only by membrane: hence, in regard to this ossification, bones have been described as of cartilaginous and membranous origin. If the development of a long bone is traced through successive stages from the cartilaginous condition in which it is preformed, it will be noticed that ossification begins in the body; the part of the bone ossified from this centre is referred to as the diaphysis, and, since it is the first to appear, the centre is spoken of as the primary centre of ossification. As yet, the ends of the body are cartilaginous knobs, but at a later stage one or more ossific centres appear in these cartilaginous extremities. These centres, which are independent of the diaphysis and appear much later, at variable periods, are termed secondary centres, and from them the epiphyses are formed. If there is more than one such centre at the end of a bone, the associated centres unite, and at a later stage the osseous mass so formed joins with the body or diaphysis, and in this way the formation of the bone is completed. Complete fusion by osseous union of the epiphyses with the diaphyses occurs at variable periods in the life of the individual. Prior to this taking place, the two are bonded together by a cartilaginous layer which marks the position of the epiphyseal line. If the bone is macerated at this stage of growth, the epiphysis falls away from the diaphysis. In the case of the articular ends of bone it will be noticed that the surfaces exposed by the separation of the epiphysis from the diaphysis are not plane and smooth, but often irregular, notched, and deeply pitted, so that when the two are brought together they interlock, and, as it were, dovetail into each other. In this way the extremities of the bone as yet ununited by osseous growth are, during youth and adolescence, able to withstand the shocks and jars to which during life they are habitually subjected. A long bone has been taken as the simplest example, but it by no means follows that these epiphyses are confined to the articular extremities of long bones. They are met with not only in relation to the articular surfaces of bones of varied form, but also occur where bones may be subjected to unusual pressure or to the strain of particular muscles. For this reason epiphyses of this nature have been called pressure and traction epiphyses (Parsons). There occur, however, secondary independent centres of ossification, which cannot be so accounted for. Possibly these are of phylogenetic interest only, and may accordingly be classed as Atavistic. Ossification in Membrane.-Membrane bones are such as have developed from fibrous tissue without having passed through a cartilaginous stage. Of this nature are the bones of the cranial vault and the majority of the bones of the face, viz., the maxillæ, zygomatic (malar), nasal, lacrimal, and palate bones, as well as the vomer. The medial lamina of the pterygoid process (internal pterygoid plate) is also of membranous origin. In the course of the development of a bone from membrane, as, for example, the parietal bone, the fibrous tissue corresponding to the position of the primary centre becomes osteogenetic, because here appear the bone-forming cells (osteoblasts), which rapidly surround themselves with a bony deposit more or less spicular in arrangement. As growth goes on these osteoblasts become embedded in the ossifying matrix, and remain as the corpuscles of the future bone, the spaces in which they are lodged corresponding to the lacunæ and canaliculi of the fully developed osseous tissue. From the primary centre ossifica tion spreads eccentrically towards the margins of the bone, where ultimately the sutures are formed. Here the growth rendered necessary by the expansion of the cranium takes place through the agency of an intervening layer of vascular connective tissue rich in osteoblasts; but in course of time the activity of this is reduced until only a thin layer of intermediate tissue persists along the line of the suture; this may eventually become absorbed, leading to the obliteration of the suture by the osseous union of the contiguous bones. Whilst the expansion of the bone in all directions is thus provided for, its increase in thickness is determined by the activity of the underlying and overlying strata. These form the periosteum, and furnish the lamella which constitute the inner and outer compact osseous layers. Ossification in Cartilage.-Cartilage bones are those which are preformed in cartilage, and include most of the bones of the skeleton. Their growth is often described as endochondral and ectochondral, the former term implying the deposition of membrane bone in the centre of the cartilage, while the latter signifies a deposit of membrane bone on the surface of the cartilage, the osteogenetic layer on the surface of the cartilage being named the perichondrium till once bone has been formed, when it is called the periosteum. In a cartilage bone changes of a similar nature occur. The cartilage, which may be regarded histologically as white fibrous tissue + chondro-sulphuric acid and a certain amount of lime salts, undergoes the following changes:-First, the cartilage cells being arranged in rows, become enlarged; secondly, the matrix between the cartilage cells becomes calcified by the deposition of an additional amount of lime salts; thirdly, the rows of cells become confluent; and, fourthly, into the spaces so formed extend the blood-vessels derived from the vascular layer of the periosteum. Accompanying these vessels are osteoblasts and osteoclasts, the former building up true bone at the expense of the calcified cartilage, the latter causing an absorption of the newly formed bone, and leading to its conversion into a marrow cavity, so that in due course all the cartilage or its products disappear. At the same time that this is taking place within the cartilage, the perichondrium is undergoing conversion into the periosteum, an investing membrane, the deeper stratum of which, highly vascular, furnishes a layer of osteoblast cells which serve to develop the circumferential lamellæ of the bone. It is by the accrescence of these layers externally, and their absorption internally through the action of the osteoclast cells, that growth takes place transversely. A transverse section of the shaft of a long bone shows this very clearly. Centrally there is the marrow cavity, formed primarily by the absorption of the calcified cartilage; around this the spongy tissue produced by the partial erosion of the primary periosteal bone is disposed, whilst externally there is the dense envelope made up of the more recent periosteal growth. Growth of Bone. The above description, whilst explaining the growth of bone circumferentially, fails to account for its growth in length; hence the necessity in long bones for some arrangement whereby ossification may take place at one or both extremities of the body. This zone of growth is situated where the ossified body becomes continuous with the cartilaginous epiphysis. In addition, within these epiphysial cartilages calcification of the cartilage takes place centrally, just as in the diaphysis. The two parts of the bone, viz., the diaphysis and epiphysis, are thus separated by a layer of cartilage, sometimes called the cartilage of conjugation, as yet uncalcified, but extremely active in growth owing to the invasion of vessels and cells from a vascular zone which surrounds the epiphysis. The nucleus of the epiphysis becomes converted into true bone, which grows eccentrically. This arrangement provides for the growth of the shaft towards the epiphysis, and the growth of the epiphysis towards the shaft; so that as long as the active intervening layer of cartilage persists, extension of growth in a longitudinal direction is possible. As might be expected, experience proves that growth takes place more actively, and is continued for a longer time, at the end of the bone where the epiphysis is the last to unite. In consequence, surgeons sometimes term this the "growing end of the bone." Subsequently, however, at variable periods the intervening layer of cartilage becomes calcified, and true bony growth occurs within it, thus leading to complete osseous union between the shaft and epiphysis. When this has taken place all further growth in a longitudinal

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The Yellowstone supervolcano appears to be bigger than scientists previously expected. The volcano residing under Yellowstone National Park is 2.1-million-year-olds and is the center of a new study published in the journal Science. In the paper, a group of researchers says that magma levels beneath the Yellowstone Caldera are greater than we previously believed. But there’s no reason for people to worry, as the Yellowstone supervolcano isn’t likely to erupt for at least another few thousand years. And, when it does get ready to erupt, we should have decades of warnings, the researchers claim. Yellowstone National Park is one of the biggest tourist attractions in the United States, garnering millions of visitors each year. And while many knew that the Yellowstone supervolcano beneath their feet was active, most probably didn’t realize just how active it was. If there was a risk of eruption, then this would obviously be terrifying, especially considering that Yellowstone supervolcano eruptions have been Earth-shattering at least three times in the past. What the researchers discovered when looking into the volcano was that it has a 16 to 20 percent reservoir of melted rock on average. That is almost double the previous estimate of nine percent. Further, the magma reservoirs in the Yellowstone supervolcano are expected to reach much lower depths. Super volcanos like that under the national park are iconic for a number of reasons, chief among them being the fact that they can often create islands in the ocean, or just unleash thousands of pounds of ash, soot, and chemicals into the air. It’s no doubt that an eruption of the Yellowstone supervolcano would be a tragedy, endangering the lives of people and wildlife within the area. All we can hope is that the paper is right and that isn’t something we have to worry about any time soon. The post Scientists discovered more magma under Yellowstone than expected appeared first on BGR.

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https://dnyuz.com/2022/12/03/scientists-discovered-more-magma-under-yellowstone-than-expected/

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Today in Dalit History we focus on the powerful legacy of freedom fighter Jogendra Nath Mandal. His crucial role in the founding of India and Pakistan came from his strategic position as the significant Namashudra leader of United Bengal. As the Indian subcontinent was moving towards independence, Dr. B.R Ambedkar and the Congress Party of India clashed bitterly over the rights and representation of scheduled castes. Ambedkar was an unyielding critic of the Congress party’s positions on many issues, which he believed were not in the interest of the scheduled castes. Thus when members were being elected to the Indian Constituent Assembly, the Congress party in Bombay saw to it that Dr. Ambedkar was not elected. However, Jogendra Nath Mandal, who had been nominated from Jaisur and Kulna (undivided Bengal), sacrificed his seat to Dr. Ambedkar so that he could become part of the 296 member constituent Assembly. In doing so, Mandal ensured there was at least one Dalit present in the drafting committee of the Indian constitution. As a leader of the Namashudras, Mandal found common cause with the Muslim League, in their demand for Pakistan. His reasons were, “First the economic interests of Muslims in Bengal were generally identical with those of the Scheduled Castes…and secondly that the Scheduled Castes and the Muslims were both educationally backward.” He hoped that in Pakistan, Dalits would be equal, as freedom from the oppression of Caste Hindu landlords and moneylenders would cease. For M.A. Jinnah, the 1st leader of ‘Pakistan’ had assured them freedom to practice any religion; In his speech of August 11, 1947 he said, “You are free; you are free to go to your temples. You are free to go to your mosques or to any other places of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion, caste or creed—that has nothing to do with the business of the State.” Thus on August 15,1947 Mandal became a member and a temporary chairman of Pakistan’s Constituent Assembly, and agreed to serve as the Minister for Law and Labour. He also served as the second minister of commonwealth and Kashmir affairs. Sadly, his time in Pakistan was not peaceful as he could not stop the increasing violence against Dalits in the country. First, his demand to have two more Dalit members as ministers was also ignored by Liaquat Ali Khan, then Prime minister of Pakistan. Second, he countered the proposed Objectives Resolution that defined Pakistan, an Islamic state, which disregarded the rights of ethnic and religious minorities. Later in October 1950, he resigned and went to Calcutta (now Kolkata) in independent India. Mandal later tried to enter the Indian political sphere in 1967 but failed in his attempt as he was one of the founding members of Pakistan. He contested in the Barasat constituency in the year 1967 and was defeated. Jogendra Nath Mandal died on 5 October 1968 at the age of 64 years in Bangaon in the state of West Bengal, India. Check also –

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How Solar Power Works Solar power is a sustainable and renewable energy source that can be used to generate electricity or heat. Solar power works by trapping sunlight in solar panels and using it to generate electricity. Solar power is a clean and emissions-free energy source that can help to combat climate change. How Solar Power Works Solar power is one of the most popular forms of renewable energy. Solar power is harvested by trapping the sun’s energy in photovoltaic cells (solar panels). The photovoltaic cells then convert the sun’s energy into electricity. This electricity can then be used to power your home or business. Solar power is a clean and renewable source of energy. It does not produce any harmful emissions or pollutants. Solar power is also a very efficient way to generate electricity. Solar panels can convert up to 20% of the sun’s energy into electricity. There are two main types of solar panels: monocrystalline and polycrystalline. Monocrystalline solar panels are made from a single crystal of silicon. They are more efficient than polycrystalline solar panels, but they are also more expensive. Polycrystalline solar panels are made from multiple crystals of silicon. They are less efficient than monocrystalline solar panels, but they are also less expensive. Solar panels can be used to power your home or business in a few different ways. The most common way is to use solar panels to generate electricity. Solar panels can also be used to heat water or to heat your home. If you are interested in solar power, there are a few things you should know. Solar power is a great way to save money and help the environment. Solar panels are a long-term investment, but they will eventually pay for themselves. Solar power is a great way to reduce your carbon footprint. Solar power is one of the most efficient and cleanest renewable energy sources available. It has the potential to provide a significant portion of the world’s energy needs. Solar power works by converting sunlight into electricity. The sunlight is absorbed by solar panels, which are made up of solar cells. The solar cells convert the sunlight into electricity, which is then used to power homes and businesses. Solar power is a clean and renewable resource that can help to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. How Much Solar Power Costs The average cost of solar power has dropped dramatically in recent years, making it a very attractive option for homeowners and businesses alike. The initial cost of installation is still the biggest barrier to entry, but there are a number of financing options available that can make solar power much more affordable. Solar power is also a very sustainable and environmentally friendly energy source, making it a great choice for those looking to reduce their carbon footprint. How Solar Power Is Used to generate electricity Solar power is an increasingly popular choice for generating electricity. Solar panels absorb sunlight and convert it into electrical energy. This electrical energy can then be used to power homes and businesses. Solar power is a clean, renewable source of energy, and it’s becoming more and more affordable as technology improves. There are a few different ways to generate electricity from solar power. The most common way is to use solar panels, also called photovoltaic (PV) panels. PV panels are made up of cells that convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity produced by PV panels can be used to power homes and businesses, or it can be stored in batteries for later use. Another way to generate electricity from solar power is to use solar thermal collectors. Solar thermal collectors capture the sun’s heat and use it to generate electricity. This type of solar power is often used in large-scale power plants. Solar power is a clean, renewable source of energy that is becoming more and more affordable. Solar panels and solar thermal collectors are the most common ways to generate electricity from solar power, but there are other ways as well. With continued research and development, solar power will become an increasingly important part of the world’s energy mix.

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To get your School council discussion started and begin to think globally… Discussion starters are any pictures, photographs, drawings, quotes, newspaper articles in fact anything you can bring along to your school council to raise an issue and get a discussion started. Some of the best discussion starters are ‘home made’. You will need to think carefully about the kind of information you will need to get from the discussion starter and this will help you decide which questions to raise. If you are using pictures ask the group to describe what they see. - Can they identify a problem? - How do they think it is being caused? - Does this situation happen regularly? - Have any other people in the group experienced this situation? - What do they think might be some of the implications? Then you can begin to think of possible ‘solutions’ and action your school council can take. More ‘Discussion Starters’ ‘Discussion starters’ can also make great posters to raise awareness around school about an issue. An example could be a simple cartoon that shows the problem on one side of the poster and a cartoon of a possible solution on the other. - Ask members of your school council to each bring along a ‘discussion starter’ which illustrates an important issue for them which they think should be raised. This could be thought about during their> - As part of your school council meeting ask participants to draw a quick sketch or cartoon that illustrates a daily situation/problem in school. You don’t need to be a genius at art. If people are less confident about drawing they can use found objects to illustrate their issue, make a chart, graph, map, find a photograph or write a brief story or sketch about their situation. You could even work in groups. - If you’re not sure where to start take a look at the indicator quiz, choose an issue that you feel affects you or your school community and use the example to begin a discussion. - Create discussion starters which illustrate the implications of an issue, problem or action. How are you directly affected? How is your community affected? How is the global community affected?

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Scientists Develop New Catalyst That Uses Light to Convert Carbon Dioxide to Fuel Photosynthesis is the ultimate conversion of light to energy and one that scientists have been trying to replicate for years. Now, scientists have come up with a formula that may just be close enough, according to Science Mag. Zetian Mi, an electrical engineer at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and his team have developed a new copper- and iron-based catalyst that uses light to convert carbon dioxide (CO2) to methane. The innovation builds on years of work that found that copper particles proved promising in converting CO2 into other energy-rich compounds. However, the efficiency was so low that researchers were pushed into considering pairing copper with other metals. In March of 2019, Mi and his colleagues found that a ruthenium- and zirconium-based catalyst grown on top of arrays of light-absorbing gallium nitride (GaN) nanowires efficiently converted CO2 to formate. But that was not a useful fuel. Now, Mi and his team have come up with a new recipe for producing methane, a useful fuel. They used the same GaN nanowires then added tiny 5- to 10-nanometer-wide particles consisting of a mix of copper and iron. Light into methane Now, the setup works similar to photosynthesis. If light, CO2, and water are present, the system converts 51% of the energy in light into methane. And it does so pretty fast! "This work presents a unique, highly efficient, and inexpensive route for solar fuels synthesis," write the researchers in their paper published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. This is because all the materials in the current system are cheap and abundant. Now, the system simply needs to improve its rate of efficiency. Once that is done, we may actually have a setup that truly mimics photosynthesis giving us a better option to polluting fossil fuels. Tire recycling is a relatively new concept and needs to be encouraged since we will soon be producing five billion end-of-life tires every year.

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https://interestingengineering.com/science/scientists-develop-new-catalyst-that-uses-light-to-convert-carbon-dioxide-to-fuel

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The key institutions of Australia’s democratic system of government and how it is based on the Westminster system. This unit of work explores aspects of the Curriculum that deal with key concepts relating to Australia's federal Parliament. The resource is divided into three sections which explore the key institutions of Australia's democratic system of government; the roles and responsibilities of the three levels of government; and how federal laws are passed through Parliament. It contains lessons, differentiated activities, assessment items and a marking rubric. Annabel Crabb takes us on a tour of Parliament House in Canberra, explaining why her favourite parts are at the very top and the very bottom of the building. Navigate 10 kilometres of hallways, witness the "best view in Canberra", meet the Queen of the Underground and find out how to change the 12-meter flags. What unexpected jobs will you find in the underground corridors? This is a resource about the Magna Carta (Great Charter) agreed between King John and his rebellious barons in 1215 and its influence on the development of human rights and democratic freedoms to the present day. The resource consists of: an animated infographic ‘Tell the story’ with hyperlinks to further information; an animated video ‘The story of our freedom’ (4:11min) with audio description and transcript; and a set of teacher resources with study guides for years 5 - 6; and 9 -10. There are numerous links to other student and teacher resources throughout. The teacher resource screen lists six sets of resources about Magna Carta and three about human rights, while the study guides contain website links to enable students to complete the activities suggested. Annabel Crabb explains the interesting traditions that the Parliament of Australia has borrowed from the parliament of Westminster in the United Kingdom. Who is Black Rod, and what is a serjeant-at-arms? What is the Mace, and why is a hood placed over it when entering the presence of the Governor-General? And why would representatives of Australia's armed forces aim artillery at Parliament House? Not sure what the Magna Carta is? This video will turn you into an expert in no time! Join Zoe as she explains the story behind the writing of this historic document. After watching the video, make a list of all the clauses you can remember. Which ones are similar to the laws that govern us today? And which ones are different? How would you describe the relationship between the Magna Carta and Australia's parliamentary government?

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://libguides.wcc.nsw.edu.au/c.php?g=928072&p=6704842

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Dr. Ali Farghaly The ultimate aim of Artificial Intelligence is to model human intelligence inside the machine. This includes modeling natural language which enables humans to communicate with each other and transfer knowledge from one person to another and from one generation to other generations. Natural language made accumulation of knowledge possible and unique to Man. Once we create smart machines that have the natural language capacity, humans can interact with the machine the same way they interact with each other i.e without learning a programming language or to how to code. The following is an account of some of the properties of natural language we need to model inside the machine. 1. Primacy Speech Natural language is primarily spoken. Out of the 6000 wold languages, a very small number of them are written. Many have no writing script and are never written. The machine should be able to ‘listen’, ‘understand’ acoustic signals and should be able to generate appropriate vocal response. An important property of natural language is its creativity. Humans have no problem producing and understanding novel sentences they never heard or produced before. Humans do not learn their language through memorizing or storing massive linguistic data sets. On the contrary, children acquire their native language through the exposure to limited and degenerate data. By the age of five, every normal child internalizes the grammar of his native language. Productivity. Another property of natural language is its productivity. It is not limited to any domains. It serves its speakers by allowing them to talk about everything and anything. It lets them talk about the past, the present, and the future. They can create poetry, write novels, describe things that never existed. There is no limit to what we can say in our language. Natural language is inherently ambiguous. It is ambiguous at the lexical, syntactic and semantic levels. However, native speakers of the language rarely feels the ambiguity because they interpret what they hear using their linguistic and real world knowledge as well as common sense. Variability. Natural language provides its speakers with the ability to vary what they say. They can say the same thing in different ways and at different levels. They can speak formally or informally and they vary their speech automatically according to the context and the type of interlocutors they are talking to. Unlike programming languages, Esperanto and Morris code, no one knows who invented or designed any natural language in spite of the complexity and sophistication of the grammar of any natural language. Natural languages develop, grow strong and sometimes die exactly like any organism. They have a life of their own. Children acquire their native language by the age of five regardless of how easy or difficult their native language is. They also go through a uniform learning stages. They start by babbling, one word stage, putting lexical words together and then complete sentences. 8. Duality of Structure All natural languages can be analyzed at two levels: the level of the meaningless phoneme (unit of sound) and the level of the meaningful morpheme (units of meaning). Any sound like /p/, /u/, or /t/ has no meaning by itself. But once we put two or more sounds together they make sense as in ‘put’. With a small number of sounds in each language. Speakers can create an infinite number of sentences about an infinite number of topics. The challenge is how to design a smart computer with all these capabilities? Smart young brains are invited to take the challenge!

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Gingivitis is a non-destructive type of periodontal disease, but untreated gingivitis can progress to periodontitis. Signs of gingivitis include red and puffy gums, that bleed easily when the person brushes their teeth. Gingivitis often resolves with good oral hygiene, such as longer and more frequent brushing, and flossing. In addition, an antiseptic mouthwash may help. In mild cases of gingivitis, patients may not even know they have it, because symptoms are mild. However, the condition should be taken seriously and addressed immediately. There are two main categories of gingival diseases: Dental plaque-induced gingival disease: This can be caused by plaque, systemic factors, medications, or malnutrition. Non-plaque induced gingival lesions: This can be caused by a specific bacterium, virus, or fungus. It might also be caused by genetic factors, systemic conditions (including allergic reactions and certain illnesses), wounds, or reactions to foreign bodies, such as dentures. Sometimes, there is no specific cause. The most common cause of gingivitis is the accumulation of bacterial plaque between and around the teeth. The plaque triggers an immune response, which, in turn, can eventually lead to the destruction of gingival, or gum, tissue. It may also, eventually, lead to further complications, including the loss of teeth. Dental plaque is a biofilm that accumulates naturally on the teeth. It is usually formed by colonizing bacteria that are trying to stick to the smooth surface of a tooth. These bacteria might help protect the mouth from the colonization of harmful microorganisms, but dental plaque can also cause tooth decay, and periodontal problems such as gingivitis and chronic periodontitis, a gum infection. When plaque is not removed adequately, it can harden into calculus, or tartar, at the base of the teeth, near the gums. This has a yellow color. Calculus can only be removed professionally. Plaque and tartar eventually irritate the gums, causing gum inflammation around the base of the teeth. This means that the gums might easily bleed. Other causes and risk factors Changes in hormones: This may occur during puberty, menopause, the menstrual cycle, and pregnancy. The gingiva might become more sensitive, raising the risk of inflammation. Some diseases: Cancer, diabetes, and HIV are linked to a higher risk of gingivitis. Drugs: Oral health may be affected by some medications, especially if saliva flow is reduced. Dilantin, an anticonvulsant, and some anti-angina medications can cause abnormal growth of gum tissue. Smoking: Regular smokers more commonly develop gingivitis, compared with non-smokers. Age: The risk of gingivitis increases with age. Poor diet: A vitamin-C deficiency, for example, is linked to gum disease. Family history: Those whose parent or parents have had gingivitis have a higher risk of developing it too. This is thought to be due to the type of bacteria we acquire during our early life.

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More Surface Currents As you've probably gathered by now, wind and water are inseparable. To understand surface ocean currents, which, as their name suggests, occur in the open ocean, you should know a little about the winds that fuel them. Some of these wind patterns are caused by the Coriolis force. If the earth didn't rotate, wind would travel the globe in straight lines. Instead, the spin of the earth causes winds to seemingly curve to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This curvature of the winds is known as the Coriolis effect. In the Northern Hemisphere, that means that the strong trade winds that originate in the northeast and blow westward pull the surface of the ocean along with them near the equator. Thanks to the coastline and the Coriolis effect, the warm-water current then heads north, turning at about 30 degrees north latitude. The westerlies take over then, completing the circuit. Blowing from the west, these winds guide the current eastward and south after they hit land. The two wind patterns create a continual circular pattern of wind flowing clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. These circular wind patterns create spiral ocean currents called gyres. Five major gyres flow both north and south of the equator: the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific and Indian Ocean gyres. Smaller gyres also exist at the poles, and one circulates around Antarctica. Short-lasting, smaller currents often spin off both small and large gyres. The Gulf Stream, a particularly strong current that is part of the North Atlantic gyre, carries warm water north from the Gulf of Mexico up the coast of the eastern United States and over to western Europe. As a result, lucky Floridians living on the state's east coast are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than surrounding areas, and Western Europe is much warmer than other areas at the same latitude. If winds affect only the upper 100 meters (328 feet) of water, how are deeper ocean currents formed? Find out on the next page.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/oceanography/ocean-current2.htm

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Global warming triggered the evolution of giant dinosaurs. An international team of paleontologists, including LMU Professor Oliver Rauhut, finds evidence of rapid climate change 180 million years ago as the cause of the spread of the well-known long-necked dinosaurs. When we hear the word dinosaur, most of us probably immediately think of giant animals with massive bodies, long necks and tails, and tiny heads. These “quintessential dinosaurs” actually represent one prominent subgroup of the Dinosauria, the so called Sauropoda (‚long-necked dinosaurs‘ in popular culture). Sauropods were truly amazing animals, and included the largest land-living animals known, with body lengths of up to 40 m and weights of 70 tons or more. However, these giant animals did not appear directly at the beginning of the era of dinosaurs. For the first fifty million years of their evolutionary history, the Sauropodomorpha — the lineage that the sauropods belong to — were represented by several groups of bipedal to quadrupedal animals. Although some of them reached already large body sizes of about ten meters in length and a few tons in weight, these groups also included smaller, and lightly built animals, some of which not larger than a goat. Furthermore, all of these animals had rather slender teeth, indicating that these plant-eating animals fed on rather soft and lush vegetation. However, towards the end of the Early Jurassic period, some 180 million years ago, all these groups suddenly disappear, and only one lineage survived and thrived — the sauropods. What caused this faunal change during the Early Jurassic has remained enigmatic so far. An international team of researchers, led by Argentinean paleontologist Diego Pol and including Munich researcher Oliver Rauhut of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University and the Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und Geologie, now report new evidence on what might have caused these changes. In the province of Chubut, Argentinean Patagonia, they did not only discover the fossil remains of one of the oldest large sauropods known, which the team named Bagualia alba, but could also place it very precisely in its temporal and ecological context. Thus, the layers the new sauropod comes from could very precisely be dated as 179 million years ago, just after the mysterious disappearance of the other sauropodomorph groups, and finds of plant fossils in rock layers just before that time and at the time that Bagualia alba lived provide evidence for the climate and the ecology that these animals lived in. Thus, the data indicate that there was a relative rapid change in climate about 180 million years ago, from a temperate warm and humid climate, in which a diverse, lush vegetation flourished, to a strongly seasonal, very hot and dry climate, characterized by a less diverse flora, dominated by forms showing adaptations for hot climates, such as certain conifers. These environmental changes were apparently driven by a greenhouse effect due to climate gasses such as CO2 and methane caused by increased volcanism at that time; evidence of these volcanic eruptions are found on many southern continents, such as the Drakensberge in southern Africa. With their slender teeth, the non-sauropodan sauropodomorphs were adapted to the rather soft vegetation flourishing before this global warming event, but when this flora was replaced by the much tougher greenhouse vegetation, these animals died out. The sauropods represented the only group of sauropodomorphs with a much more robust dentition, well-adapted for such tough vegetation, and thus they flourished and became the dominant group of herbivorous dinosaurs at that time. Indeed the specialization for this kind of vegetation was probably one of the reasons why these animals reached their gigantic sizes: As large digestion chambers are needed to cope with such food, there was a general tendency for these animals to become ever larger. Reference: “Extinction of herbivorous dinosaurs linked to Early Jurassic global warming event” by D. Pol, J. Ramezani, K. Gomez, J. L. Carballido, A. Paulina Carabajal, O. W. M. Rauhut, I. H. Escapa and N. R. Cúneo, 18 November 2020, Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

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https://scitechdaily.com/some-like-it-hot-global-warming-triggered-the-evolution-of-giant-dinosaurs/

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Confucius was a prominent person to whom Chinese regarded as an educator, editor, elected official, and theorist. There were many teachers at those moments, but he was always at the top (Confucianism 154). He was devoted to emphasizing on personal along with legislative morality, the rightness of community relationships, integrity and honesty. The followers were competing productively with various schools throughout Hundred Schools of Thought. Confucius’s principle established a community that fought for their human rights and enriched the whole of Chineses communities (Confucianism 154). They focused on monotheistic religion where they believed that every man and woman are all the same regardless of their faith or races. Humanity for all was their primary focus on their religion. On page 162, the book shows that there were no laws and everybody did what was right. The doctrine was set apart as a structure of social and moral philosophy as opposed to the religion. It was built on an ancient religious basis to institute the social beliefs, association along with inspirational ideas of Chinese humanity. Confucianism community was to live performing three principal duties which were working, prayers and giving. Confucius was advocating for the independence of people from the oppression of government which had taken over their land and led them helpless he tried to convince people to seek freedom for their rights despite the mistreatment they faced from the government. The religion duty of calling for harmony and peace was the major event. There was violence between the religions which broke down the heart since the Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs which lead to thousands of people homeless. Gandhi’s dream was for all Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and all Christians in India to live in unity without viewing of each other differences in beliefs and culture. Confucius faced the problem of social anarchy (p. 156) although he advocated for the civil rights and was solely focused on the movement of the fight for religious harmony since there was a spiritual imbalance. He did everything in his power to make sure religion was in action. These diverse events facilitated differences in eastern and western regions. For instance, the characteristic feature in the east of religions was grounded on the point that the religions focus more on values. Different beliefs within the eastern society believe that every man and woman are all the same regardless of their faith. Humanity for all is their primary focus on their religion. Most of the world’s religious communities believe in that there is only one God and everyone can directly have access to God also they thought that their lives were centered around serving God and living honestly among each other and taking good care of the members of the community. Also, they believed that God lived in everyone even to those who were wicked which meant that anyone had the choice of change. Confucius loved to be with people and everything he did he included them in various activities such as dining, drinking and singing among others (p. 157). He was the most famous person in the act of spreading nonviolence message among the people. He had taken a role of fighting for independence and was terrified by the violence that broke between different religions. He was advocating for the liberation of people from the oppression of which had taken over their land and led them helpless he tried to convince people to seek freedom for their rights despite the mistreatment they faced from the government. His duty of calling for harmony and peace was the major event that led him to involved in the government of the Lu state. There was violence between the religions which broke down his heart since Qi decided to sabotage Lu’s reforms. Some of the followers felt that his calling for peace and harmony was preventing them from fighting for their self-defense which in return made them feel the need to leave both his post and the Lu state. His religion differed with Taoism which was a Chinese philosophy that is endorsed to Lao Tzu (c. 500 BCE). It took part in the establishment of the folk religion of the individuals mainly within the urban parts of China and later became the certified religion of the nation under the Dynasty of Tang. It is associated with philosophy and theology. Taoism differs with Abrahamic religions because they do not have a God as other believers. They do not believe in any omnipotent being above the cosmos, who they think made controls the creation. Moreover, the religions within the Eastern parts were carried out in India, Southeast Asia, Japan, and China. Nevertheless, the Western religions were situated in the Americas and Europe. It was universal to come across believers from the eastern or western nations that undertake religions from the crossways of the world. The Eastern religions comprised of Confucianism, Hinduism, Taoism, Sikhism, and Buddhism. On the other hand, Western religions contain Protestantism, Christianity, Evangelicalism, Puritanism, Catholicism, and Judaism. The Eastern religions are regarded as polytheistic whereas Western religions are known as monotheistic. Confucius advocated that, regardless of the religion, everybody was supposed to access his or her religious and civil rights. He was fighting for peace and harmony among the different faiths who had different views and believes even though he also fought for their independence they felt the need to stay distinct from each other beliefs. He fought for the civil rights of his people and also the freedom to the oppressed poor people. Fight for peace and harmony was a primary key to all human beings problems where there was harmony, Confucius reminded people that they could relate with each other efficiently hence civil right can be solved easily in light of unity for all races despite the differences in skin color, religion or cultural practices. Confucius significantly contributed to the sociology of religion whereby he advocated for his theory that explained sincerely the components that formed religious. He said that religion was merely created by two major part that is sacred which he said was composed of rites, religious beliefs and deities theses aspects coordinates which each to give religion more full extension to its followers whereby people hold firmly to these aspects of religion. The other part was profane which he said was composed of each day practical activities which are the worldly things which are not connected in any form with sacred aspects. The holy and the profane characters coordinate with each other to support religion in the everyday activities of a believer. Also according to Confucius, religious beliefs and religious rites help a believer to be able to earn honor and respect in society by following them without wavering. This factors unit people in society towards sacred things, beliefs are kinds of conviction that are supported by believers and disowned by non-believers. He contributed significantly in giving a different point of view from people’s perspective of religion. Confucius looked religion globally whereby he compared and contrasted different forms of worship. He was based on the relationship between social change and religion, whereby he said that what people believed changed they behaved socially and emotionally, he referred Christianity as salvation religion hence people escaped from daily life torments hoping for the afterlife which is free from suffering and pains. Confucius claimed that religion was a source of strength. He enabled people to accept their struggling life situation’s no matter how bad they were and driven by the postponement of rewards and happiness in the awaited afterlife. He clarified that religion was a form of aspect that helps people go through their life process by following beliefs and rites of worship. He established that faith is deeply rooted in the hope of a better afterlife where there are rewards for good work done on a day to day life processes and endless happiness after daily torments in ordinary life. Believing in religious beliefs and rites towards scared objects creates a strong foundation for a believer since they shape one to a sound being in day to day life. His belief contrasted with Judaism which was among the oldest monotheistic religions and its followers considered themselves as the chosen ones of God. He differed with the point that they were examples of holiness along with ethical values to the world. Confucius believed that moral values and treating others well were the primary basis of religions. A professional writer will make a clear, mistake-free paper for you!Get help with your assigment Please check your inbox I'm Chatbot Amy :) I can help you save hours on your homework. Let's start by finding a writer.Find Writer

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Putting the payload into orbit is very expensive. That is why, before the launch of the rocket, the load is calculated to a gram. To save weight, companies are developing compact inflatable capsules that would serve as habitation for astronauts in space. When folded, such capsules do not take up much space, their weight is small, and when deployed under air pressure, they create comfortable conditions for life in Earth orbit, on the Moon or even Mars. But how strong is this design? Lockheed Martin decided to test the limits of its prototype inflatable habitat by deliberately bursting it. The tests took place at the Lockheed Martin plant in Colorado. The company’s engineers deployed an inflatable capsule and continued testing the tensile strength of the structure. Finally, the capsule burst at a pressure of 325 kg/cm2, which is six times the maximum operating pressure. This means that the test was very successful. Watch the impressive video footage below as the structure is torn to pieces under high pressure. A similar inflatable room is already being used on the International Space Station. But Lockheed Martin wants to expand this concept to facilitate the colonization of the Solar System. “This technical demonstration is the first step in creating a new generation residential module that will make life easier for astronauts in space and allow people to explore near-Earth space further than ever before,” Lockheed Martin said. The Lockheed Martin inflatable capsule is part of NASA’s NeXTSTEP program, a public-private partnership aimed at developing deep space exploration technologies, including habitation systems. Earlier we reported on how Lockheed Martin and Goodyear were teaming up to develop the Moon. Follow us on Twitter to get the most interesting space news in time

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Standard loudspeakers comprise of 3 main components: a cone, a magnet and a coil. Passing a current through the coil causes the attached cone to move forward or backward. The coil is fed the electrical signal from an amplifier, which provides enough electricity to move the cone quickly, causing it to vibrate and make sound. Since the coil is wound from very thin wire, there is a certain amount of resistance to the electricity passed through it. This, coupled with some other electrical characteristics, is known as impedance. Impedance is measured in Ohms. Higher impedance opposes the output of the amplifier more, causing it to deliver less power, whereas lower impedance allows the amplifier to deliver more power. The amplifier needs this impedance to stop itself from over-working and burning itself out, and is an important consideration when matching amplifiers and speakers together in a system.

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Nosebleeds can be a scary occurrence, but are usually not dangerous. The medical term for nosebleed is epistaxis. They are fairly common in children, especially in dry climates or during the winter months when dry heat inside homes and buildings can cause drying, cracking, or crusting inside the nose. Many times, children outgrow the tendency for nosebleeds during their teenage years. The front part of the nose contains many fragile blood vessels that can be damaged easily. Most nosebleeds in children occur in the front part of the nose close to the nostrils. What causes a nosebleed? Nosebleeds are caused by many factors, but some of the most common causes include the following: - picking the nose - blowing the nose too hard - injury to the nose - over-dry air - colds and allergies - foreign body in the nose Many times no apparent cause for a nosebleed can be found. First-aid for nosebleeds: - Calm your child and let him/her know you can help. - Pinch the nostrils together for five to ten minutes without checking to see if bleeding has stopped. - Have your child sit up and lean forward to avoid swallowing blood. - Apply ice or a cold water compress to the bridge of the nose. - If bleeding does not stop, try the above steps one more time. - Do not pack your child's nose with tissues or gauze. When should I call my child's physician? Specific treatment for nosebleeds, that require more than minor treatment at home, will be determined by your child's physician. In general, call your child's physician for nosebleeds if: - you are unable to stop the nosebleed or if it recurs. - your child also has a nose injury that may indicate a more serious problem (such as a fractured nose or other trauma to the head). - there is a large amount or rapid loss of blood. - your child feels faint, weak, ill, or has trouble breathing. - your child has bleeding from other parts of the body (such as in the stool, urine, or gums) or bruises easily. - there is a foreign body stuck in your child's nose. Prevention of nosebleeds: If your child has frequent nosebleeds, some general guidelines to help prevent nosebleeds from occurring include the following: - Use a cool mist humidifier in your child's room at night if the air in your home is dry. Be sure to follow the manufacturer's advice for cleaning the humidifier so that germs and mold do not grow in it. - Teach your child not to pick his/her nose or blow it too forcefully. - Apply petroleum jelly inside the nostrils several times a day, especially at bedtime, to help keep the area moist. - Use saline (salt water) drops or a saline nose spray, as directed by your child's physician. - See your child's physician for treatment of allergies that may contribute to frequent nosebleeds.

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Topology deals with the relative position of objects to each other and their features. It is not about their concrete length, volume, and so on. Hence, topological features will not change if continuous transformations are applied to these objects. That is, topological features are preserved under stretching, squeezing, bending, and so on but they are not preserved under non-continuous transformations such as tearing apart, cutting and so on. Objects such as a circle, a rectangle and a triangle are from a topological point of view “equal” / homeomorphic even though the shapes are geometrically rather different. What features are therefore of interest such that it is worth studying topology? Assume that is a closed curve, i.e. a circle, a rectangle, a triangle or something like we can see in the graph above. As long as we transform a shape in a continuous fashion, the relative positions of the points and will be similar: for instance, points that have been inside of will still be inside after the continuous transformation. Points that have been on the boundary will still be on the boundary. Hence, the generalization of continuity and the concept of convergence (i.e. points being ‘close to each other’) are the two most characterizing features in topological spaces. However, convergence and continuity in a metric space were based on a notion of a distance function for points . Set-theoretic topology generalizes the features of topological metric space and ought to be based on an axiomatized notion of “closeness“. This post is based on the literature to . For English-speaking beginners, is recommended. The German lecture notes is also a good introduction to topology. Topology on a Set The term “topology on a set” is based on an axiomatic description of so-called “open sets” with respect to some set-theoretic operators. It will turn out, that a topology is a set that has just enough structure to meaningful speak of convergence and continuous functions on it. Definition 1.1 (Topological Space) A topological space is a pair , where is a set and is a family of subsets that satisfies (ii) if for an arbitrary index set ; (iii) if for a finite index set . Let — short — be a topological space in this post. The following video provides a rather unorthodox way of thinking about a topology. However, it might help to get a heuristic understanding. The connection between metrics and topologies is also mentioned. Some examples will further support the understanding. Example 1.1 (Topologies) (a) Let be a set and then is the so-called trivial, chaotic or indiscrete topology. The only open sets of the trivial topology are and . (b) The power set of a set is the so-called discrete topology. In this topology every subset is open. (c) There are four topologies on the set , i.e. , , , . It is still an open problem, which is related to combinatorics and lattice theory, to find a simple formula for the number of topologies on a finite set. (d) Let be a topological space, and let . The relative topology on (or the topology inherited from ) is the collection of subsets of . It is clearly a topology on . The space is then called a subspace of . (e) Let be a non-empty infinite set and be the family of open sets. Then is the so-called finite complement topology. First note, that an element , is of infinite cardinality. Think about what happens if we remove finitely many elements from an infinite set. Apparently, since can be considered as finite. due to the definition of the set even though is not finite. The union of arbitrary open as well as the intersection of a finitely many open sets are open again. The corresponding proof employs De Morgan’s Laws. (f) Let be a non-empty countable set and be the family of open sets. Then is the so-called countable complement topology. Apparently, since is countable and due to the definition. The corresponding proofs of the union and intersection of open sets also employs De Morgan’s Laws. According to Proposition 1.1 – Fundamentals of Topology & Metric Spaces, the set of all open sets in a metric space complies with the definition of a topology. Definition 1.2 (Induced & Equivalent Topology) A topology induced by a metric space is defined as the set of all open sets in . Two metrics and on the same basic set are called topologically equivalent if . Let us define a very basic but important term. Definition 1.3 (Neighborhood) A neighborhood of a point in a topological space is any set containing as well as an open set of , i.e. . Some examples will improve the understanding. Example 1.2 (Metrizable and Equivalent Topologies) (a) If is a metric space and is the set of all open sets, then is a topology. The topology does not depend on the particular metric since the proof of the referred Proposition 1.1 can also be done using the term neighborhood instead of the distance function. Hence, any metric on equivalent to yields the same topology. Topological spaces of this kind are called metrizable. with and . Instead of using the Euclidean metric, we could also employ the following distance functions: All three induced topologies would be equivalent, i.e. since for all . The corresponding unit open balls centered at are illustrated as follows. An open ball with as shown in Fig. 1 is actually a set of points where each point has a distance of max. 1 to the origin . This, however, is nothing but the corresponding norm . For instance, the point is not an element of the unit ball induced by since . However, the same point is element of the unit balls induced by and . From a topological point of view the shapes in Fig. 1 are all equivalent. Directly linked via the definition to open sets and equivalent in their explanatory power are closed sets. A set is open in an Euclidean metric space if and only if for every an open ball exists such that . Let us therefore consider the situation in the real plane employing the topology induced by the Euclidean metric. The open balls and are both contained in . However, the open ball cannot be fully contained in no matter how small we pick . Thus, is not an element of the open set . Let us now study sets whenever is open. Definition 1.4 (Closed Sets) A set is called closed in if is open in . The definition actually tells us that one just needs to consider the complement set to figure whether the set is closed. Example 1.3 (Closed Sets) (a) Let b a metric space. Then is closed in if and only if is closed in . For instance, an arbitrary open ball with is open. Thus, the set is closed. The situation for and the Euclidean topology is sketched in the next figure. (b) The sets are not only open but also closed for any topological space since and . The topological space is trivial / indiscrete if and only if these two sets are the only closed sets in . The closed sets of the indiscrete / trivial topology are the complements of the open sets. Hence, the closed sets are also and . (c) The topology is discrete if and only if every subset is closed. This can be seen by . (d) The subset of is closed because its complement is open. Similarly, is closed, because its complement is open. The subsets of are neither open nor closed. (e) In the finite complement topology on an infinite set , the closed sets consists of itself and all finite subsets of . This follows directly from the definition of the set as set out in Example 1.1 (e). According to this definition, the sets with need to be finite with the exception of . Let us characterize closed sets. Proposition 1.1: (Characterization of Closed Sets) (1) The set of all closed sets of complies with the following conditions: (i) and . (ii) implies . (iii) implies . (2) Let be a family of sets that complies with (i), (ii) and (iii) then there exists a topology , such that is the set of all closed sets in . (1) This follows directly from the definitions and applying the rules , , as well as . (2) The family of closed sets fully determines the topology on the same basic set since . Its existence follows from the fact that actually is a topology but this is clear given (1). The family of closed sets of a topology could also be used to define a topological space, i.e. the set of all closed sets contains exactly the same information as the set of all open sets that actually define the topology. Points, that lie at the boundary between and , are crucial for the understanding and distinction of open and closed sets. The intuitive idea of a boundary point is depicted in the next figure. Interior, Closure & Boundary The points that lie close to both the “inside” and the “outside” of the set play an important role. However, before we can define a boundary point, we need to clarify what is meant by “inside” and “outside”. Definition 1.5 (Interior & Closure) Let be a topology. The interior of is defined as the union of all open sets contained in , i.e. The closure of is defined as the intersection of all closed sets containing , i.e. Apparently, the interior of is open and a subset of while the closure of is closed and contains . Thus, the following set relation is valid for any set in a topological space: The following theorem provides some useful relationships. However, we will not prove all of the statements and refer to section 2.1 in , for instance. Theorem 1.1 (Properties of Closure and Interior) For sets in a topological space , the following statements hold: (i) If is an open set in and , then Int; (ii) If is a closed set in and , then Cl; (iii) If then Int Int and Cl Cl; (iv) is open if and only if Int; (v) is closed if and only if Cl. Proof. (i) Since Int is the union of all of the open sets that are contained in , it follows that is one of the sets making up this union and therefore is a subset of the union. That is, Int. (ii) Since Cl is the intersection of all of the closed sets that contain , it follows that is one of the sets making up this intersection and therefore is Cl is contained in . That is, Cl. (iii) Since , Int is an open set contained in . According to (i) every open set contained in is contained in Int. Therefore, Int Int. One can use (ii) to show the second statement of (iii). (v) If Int, then is an open set since by definition Int is an open set. Now assume that is open. We show that Int. First, Int by definition of Int. Furthermore, since is an open set contained in , it follows by (i) that Int. Thus, Int as we wished to show. Example 1.4 (Closure and Interior) (a) Consider in the standard topology on . Then and Int. (b) Consider as a subset of with the discrete topology . Since all subsets are open and closed we have IntCl. (c) Consider in the finite complement topology on . Since a closd set in this topology is either or finite, it is clear that only is a closed set containing the infinite set . Hence, Cl. The open sets are precisely the empty set and the cofinite subsets, i.e., the subsets whose complements are finite subsets of . Hence, Int since there are no open sets in contained in . The last example highlights that not only the actual sets matter but also the sourounding topology. The next theorem provides a simple means for determining when a particular point is in the interior or in the closure of a given set . Theorem 1.2 (Closure, Interior and Open Sets) Let be a topological space, be a subset of , and . (i) Then Int if and only if there exists an open set such that ; (ii) Then Cl if and only if every open set containing intersects . Proof. (i) First, suppose that there exists an open set such that . Then, since is open and contained in , it follows that Int. Thus, Int. Next, if Int, and we set Int, it follows that is an open set such that . (ii) Considering the contrapositive: Cl if and only if there is one neighborhood that does not intersect . If Cl then the set Cl is open and does contain , which is as claimed in the contrapositive. Conversely, if there is a neighborhood of which does not intersects , then its complement is a closed set that contains . By definition of the closure Cl, the set must contain Cl. Since it follows that Cl. Contraction. Theorem 1.3 (Relations of Closure and Interior) For sets in a topological space , the following statements hold: (i) Int = Cl; (ii) Cl = Int; (iii) Int Int Int, and in general equality does not hold; (iv) Int Int = Int. Proof. Refer to Theorem 2.6 in and to Folgerung 1.2.25 in . Now, we have all ingredients to define the so-called boundary. Definition 1.6 (Boundary Set & Points) Let , . The boundary of , denoted by . A point of is called boundary point. There are situations that challenge or defy our intuitive understanding of boundary sets. For example, what is the boundary of as a subset of in the standard topology? Example 1.4 (Boundary Sets & Points) (a) Consider in the standard topology on . The boundary set equals . (b) Consider in the standard topology on . Since , and , it follows that . The entire real line is therefore the boundary of the rational numbers, which makes sense. Every real number is arbitrarily close to the set of rational numbers and to its complement, the set of irrational numbers. (c) Let in with the discrete topology . That is, every subset is open and closed at the same time. Hence, and . In a metric space, a point is a boundary point of if for all . Let us now prove the generalized statement about boundary sets. Proposition 1.2 (Characterization of Boundary Points) Let be a subset of a topological space and let . Then if and only if every neighborhood of intersects both and . Proof. Suppose , then and due to the definition. Since , it follows that every neighborhood of intersects . Note that a neighborhood of contains . Furthermore, since , it follows that every neighborhood of intersects . Thus, every neighborhood of intersects and . Now suppose that every neighborhood of intersects and . It follows that and Cl. By Theorem 1.4 (Open Sets and Neighborhoods) Let be a topological space and let be a subset of . Then is open in if and only if for each , there is a neighborhood of such that . Proof. First, suppose that is open in and . If we let then is a neighborhood of for which . Now suppose that for every there exists a neighborhood of such that . Since we know that the union of open sets is open, the assertion follows. The set can be contained in or in : - If all boundary points are outside of , i.e. if , then it is an open set. - If all boundary points are contained within the set, then it is a closed set. Proposition 1.2 (Closure and Open Sets) Let be a topological space, be a subset of , and be an element of . Then if and only if every open set containing intersects . Proof. The closure is the smallest closed set containing as a subset. Let and let be an open neighborhood of . If then , and the latter set is closed (by definition), which leads to a contradiction. So . The property of the closure hitting an open set is so important that usually a new term is defined. Note, however, that we will not further use it in this post. Definition 1.7 (Adherent Point) Let , and . The point is called adherent point if every open of has a non-empty intersection with , i.e. for all with . Let us come back to Example 1.2 (a) – considering this example we could ask whether every topological space is metrizable? The answer is no, and the root-cause is that topological spaces have different types of separation properties. A metric enables us to separate points in a metric space since any two distinct points have a strictly positive distance. In general topological spaces, separating points from each other is more subtle. Hausdorff spaces and the Hausdorff condition are named after Felix Hausdorff, one of the founders of topology. Let us first check out the formal definition. Definition 2.1: (Hausdorff Space, Spaces) A topological space is a Hausdorff or -space if, for any pair of distinct points , there are disjoint open sets with , and . Every Euclidean space is Hausdorff since we can use the Euclidean metric to separate two distinct points. The following video outlines the Hausdorff condition and it provides a simple example of a Hausdorff space. Example 2.1 (Metric Space is Hausdorff) (a) Let be a metric space, and let be such that . It follows that . Let and . Then, is Hausdorff since . (b) Consider the indiscrete / trivial topology with . By definition, the only neighborhood of any two points is the entire set . Thus, every neighborhood of will contain and vice verca. It follows that the indiscrete / trivial topology is neither Hausdorff nor metrizable. In a Hausdorff space, distinct points can be separated by open sets. The situation in along with the topology implied by the Euclidean metric is illustrated in the graph above. For two distinct points , we take half (or less) the distance to define to come up with two distinct open balls, that can also be seen as disjoint neighborhoods. Proposition 2.1: (Subset of -spaces) Let be a topological Hausdorff space. Then, each subset of a Hausdorff space is Hausdorff. Proof. Let be in . The space being Hausdorff, let and be the two open separating sets as required in Definition 1.1. Then as well as are open since the difference of two open sets is open. In addition, and . Spaces with Weaker Separation Property The following separation properties are weaker than the Hausdorff (-) condition. This is also indicated by the index of the corresponding names of the separation axioms (from to ). Definition 2.2. ( Space) A topological space is called a – or Kolmogorov space if, for any with , there is an open set with and or and . The most striking difference between a Hausdorff / – and -space is that only one open set , that contains only one of two distinct points, is required to fulfill the definition of a -space. Apparently, every -space is also a -space. (a) Let be any set with at least two elements equipped with the so-called chaotic topology . Then, there is no open that separates the two distinct elements. Hence, this topology is not a -space and definitely also not a Hausdorff space. Hence, it is also not metrizable. (b) Let be any set with the discrete topology . Then, separates the two elements and . In a -space two open sets are required to separate two distinct points, however, the two sets don’t need to be disjoint. Definition 2.3. ( Space) A topological space is called a -space if, for any with , there are open sets with and and and . The main difference between a – and a -space is that the two required open sets do not have to be disjoint. However, one open set only contains one of the two distinct points. Hence, every -space is also a -space. Just take one of the two open sets of the -space and it fulfills all requirements of a -space. Proposition 2.2: (Characterization of -spaces) (a) Let be a topological space. Then, is a -space if and only if is a closed set for each ; (b) Each Hausdorff space is a -space. Proof. (a) Suppose is a -space, and let . For any with , there is an open subset of with , but . It follows that . Conversely, suppose that all singleton subsets of are closed, and let be such that . Then, and fulfill the requirements of a -space. (b) Let be a given point. By assumption, each belongs to an open set such that . Consequently, . Thus, is open, and is closed. One of the key features of topological spaces is the generalization of the convergence concept. A sequence in a (metric) space is a function that we also denote by , in particular, if we want to refer to the elements of the sequence. Given a sequence in a metric space, a sub-sequence is the restriction of to an infinite subset . If we exhibit as , then we write the subsequence . We say that a sequence converges to if given , there exist such that for all , we have . In other words, for all , we have as illustrated in Figure above. The finitely many elements of the sequence are, however, not contained in . We take this property to define what a convergent sequence in a topological space is. Definition 3.1. (Convergent Sequence) Let be a topological space. A sequence converges to if , the set is finite for any open set . The point is then called the limit of the sequence and we denote it by or by . Note that the set of is infinite for all open sets while (at the same time) the set is finite. Both sets/conditions matter in this situation as we will see further below! Lemma 3.1. (Limit of a sequence is unique) The limit of a convergent sequence in a Hausdorff space is unique. Proof. Assume that this is not the case and as well as with holds true. A metric space is Hausdorff, that is, we find two disjoint open balls and . Given that and are the limit points almost all elements must lie in the disjoint balls, which contradicts the initial assumption of . Lemma 1.1 is false in arbitrary topological spaces. Every of a topological space is the limit of a certain sequence . Apparently, we could simply use the constant sequence or we could define for all , . This fact should be also considered in the following examples. (a) Let be the discrete topology with . Further, let . Recall that in this topology every set is open by definition. Hence, also is an open set that must be contained in all other (open) supersets. Hence, the set has to be finite and has to be infinite. (b) Let be the indiscrete topology with . Further, let . Since is the only set that contains , the set has to be finite for every sequence . Hence, every sequence converges to every point in . Closely related to converging sequences and their limits are accumulation points. Definition 3.2. (Accumulation Point) An element of a sequence is called accumulation point (sometimes also cluster or limit point) if is infinite for every open set of . The subtle but important difference between an accumulation point and a limit is that the complement set of can also be infinite. Let us consider a simple example. Let us consider the sequence in the topology induced by the Euclidean space on the real line. There are two accumulation points but no limit of the sequence. Note that the sequence is alternating between and , such that and are both infinite but disjoint to each other. In addition, the set for an open set of are both infinite. A sub-sequence of a convergent sequence converges to the same limit . This is evident since if the condition of a convergent sequence is fulfilled for all elements , of the series . Hence, the condition is also fulfilled for a subset that represents the sub-sequence. Due to the fact that the finiteness of implies the infiniteness of in every limit is an accumulation point. The converse is not true as we can see in Example 3.2. Theorem 3.1 (Convergence in Topological Spaces) Let be a topological space. (i) Every limit of a convergent sequence is also the limit of any sub-sequence. (ii) Every accumulation point of any sub-sequence is also an accumulation point of . (iii) Every accumulation point of a sequence in is an adherence point of the set . Proof. (i) If then is finite for all open of . In particular, this holds true for any sub-sequence and thus . (ii) Let be an accumulation point of the sub-sequence, i.e. the set is infinite for every open set of . Since the sub-sequence is only a subset of the element of the sequence, the assertion follows directly. (iii) Let be an accumulation point of and be an open set of . Apparently, intersects since the set is infinite. Thus, will also intersect , which implies that Cl. Let us now assume that and is a converging sequence with for all . Then, the limit point is also contained in . A closed set contains all its limit points. The concept of compactness is not as intuitive as others topics such as continuity. In , the compact sets are the closed and bounded sets, but in a general topology compact sets are not as simple to describe. Compact sets are so important since they possess important properties, that are known from finite sets: - Set is bounded; - Set contains a maximal and minimal element; - An infinite sequence contains a constant subsequence. The famous Heine-Borel Theorem shows that compact sets in metric spaces do indeed have these properties. This analogy is also outlined in this really nice video (in German only) by Prof. Dr. Edmund Weitz. Let be a topological space. Definition 4.1 (Cover) The collection is said to cover a set or to be a cover of if the union of the elements of contains . If covers , and each set in is open, then we call an open cover of . A sub-collection of a cover is called a subcover of . A cover of is a collection of possibly overlapping sets in which, after considering their union globally, contains the set inside. Example 4.1 (Real Line) Let us consider the set of the topological space , where are the open sets of . Note that any nonempty open subset of can be written as a finite or countable union of open mutually disjoint intervals. Then, is an open cover of because . This cover apparently contains infinitely many open sets . is an open subcover of since and . This subcover, however, still contains infinitely many open sets. Now, we have the ingredients for the central definition of this section. Definition 4.2 (Compact Set) A subset of a topological space is said to be compact if every open cover of has a finite (open) subcover. A topological space is called compact if is compact. It is clear that every finite set is compact and the following example is going to illustrate that. Example 4.2 (Finite Set & Compactness) Let be a finite set in the standard Euclidean topological space . By setting with , an open set is assigned bijectively to each point . Hence, the set is an open and finite cover for any set . Each point of the finite set is contained in one of the elements of . Given any open cover , we can always use with small enough simply because there are only finitely many elements in . Let us consider another simple example. Example 4.3 (Real Line) The real line in the standard Euclidean topology is not compact since the set of Example 5.1 is an open cover, but no finite sub-collection of covers . If we picked finitely many open sets of the points before the minimum / after the maximum of this sub-collection would not be covered. The last example directly used the definition of a compact set to show that it is not compact since every open cover needs to have a finite sub-cover such that the set can be compact. Even though is a finite open cover of , this does not mean that is compact: if it were compact, all open covers (including the one defined in Example 5.2/5.3) would have to have a finite sub-cover. Example 4.4 (Converging Sequence & Compact Set) (a) The subset is compact in the standard topology on . Given any open cover of , there is an element set containing . The set contains either all points or all but finitely many of . If contains all of the points in , then , by itself, is a finite subcover of . Otherwise, let be the smallest of the points in that are not in . Then we can pick open sets for , for , , and for such that is a finite sub-cover of . Hence, is compact. (b) The compact sets of the discrete topology are finite. To see this realize that all subsets of are open and closed. Thus, all possible families of subsets can be open covers. For instance, the family is an open cover and if is of infinite cardinality, so is . If we leave out one of the elements of it would not be a cover. Hence, there can be no open subcover, which implies that the compact sets are finite. Refer also to this formal proof. Let us now extend the definition of compactness to subsets of topological spaces. Definition 4.1 (Subspace Topology) Let be a topological space. If , the collection is a topology on , called the subspace topology. With this topology, is called topological subspace of . Let us check that is indeed a topology. It contains and because and , where and on the right-hand side of the -symbol are elements of . The fact that it is closed under finite intersections and arbitrary unions follows from the equations Lemma 4.1 (Compactness & Subspaces) Let be a subspace of . Then is compact in if and only if every open cover of by open sets in contains a finite subcover of . Proof. Suppose that is compact and is a cover of by sets open in . Then the collection is a covering of by sets open in . Due to the assumption that is compact in , there exists a finite subcover in . For each chose a set . Then Suppose that every open cover of by sets open in contains a finite open subcover of . We would like to show that is compact in . Let be an open cover of by sets open in (and thus in ). By hypothesis, some finite subcollection exists that covers . Then, by definition of the subspace topology, for each , we can chose an open set via . It follows that is a finite subcover of in . Hence, is compact in . A closed subspace is a subspace , that when treated as a subset of the original space is a closed set in the original topology . Theorem 4.1 (Compactness & Closed Spaces) Every closed subspace of a compact space is compact. Proof. Let be a closed subspace of the compact space . Given a covering of by sets open in , let us form an open cover by adjoining to the single open set . Note that is closed such that its complement needs to be open. Thus, is an open cover of . Due to the fact that is compact, some finite subcollection of covers . If this subcollection contains the set , discard . Otherwise, leave the subcollection alone. The resulting collection is a finite cover of that covers . Hence, is compact. Theorem 4.2 (Compactness in Hausdorff Spaces) Every compact subspace of a Hausdorff space is closed. Proof. Let be a compact subspace of a Hausdorff space . We are going to prove that is open, so that is closed. Let . We show there is a neighborhood of that is disjoint from . For each point , let us choose disjoint neighborhoods and of the points and , respectively (using the Hausdorff condition). The collection is a covering of by sets open in . Therefore, finitely many of them cover (since is assumed to be compact). The open set contains . The open set contains all points that are disjoint from any of the open sets and thus . Hence, is a neighborhood of some arbitrary and thus is closed. Example 4.5 (Theorems 4.1 and 4.2) (a) Once we prove that the interval in is compact, it follows from Theorem 4.1 that any closed subspace of is compact. On the other hand, it follows from Theorem 4.2 that the intervals and in cannot be compact because they are not closed in the Hausdorff space . (b) The Hausdorff condition in Theorem 4.2 is necessary. Consider the finite complement topology on the real line. The only proper subsets of that are closed in this topology are the finite sets. But every subset of is compact in this topology since you can always find an open finite subcover given any open cover. (c) The interval is not compact in the Euclidean standard topology of . The open cover contains no finite sub-collection covering . Topological spaces have been introduced because they are the natural habitat for continuous functions. These spaces have been built such that the topological structure is respected. Continuous functions therefore take the same role on topological spaces as linear maps within vector spaces. The notion of continuity is particularly easy to formulate in terms of open (and closed) sets and the following version is called the open set definition of continuity. Definition 5.1: (Continuous Function on Topological Space) Let and be two topological spaces. A function is continuous if is open in for every open set in . Before we will illustrate this definition let us recall the definitions of an image and a preimage of a function with , : The condition that be continuous says that for each open set of , the inverse image of under the map is open in Example 5.1: (Simple Continuous Function) Let and be two topological spaces defined by Let be three functions defined by The functions is continuous since the pre-image of each open set in is an element of . Similarly, is continuous but note that is not an open set. The function , however, is not continuous since is open in , but is not open in . Let us now study how the functions map closed sets. By definitions these are the complements of and , i.e. Recognize that the image of a closed set in under and is contained in a closed set in . For instance, and and . The last example made the definition of a continuous function between simple topological spaces rather clear. Sometimes it is also helpful to study the properties that will not be preserved: a continuous function does not necessarily map open sets to open sets. For example, the function , given by , is continuous, but the image of the open set is , which is neither open nor closed. Let us also double-check that in Example 4.1. The function maps the open set to , which is not open. Now, let us have a look at more general examples. Example 5.2: (Identity and Constant Function) (a) The identity function id:, given by id, is continuous in all topological spaces. If a function is continuous at , i.e. if is open so is its preimage . This argument can be generalized onto subsets . (b) The constant function defined by for every . Suppose is open in , then if , and if . In either case, the preimage is open in , and therefore is continuous. Continuous functions preserve proximity as we can see in the next theorem. Also refer to Example 4.1. Theorem 5.1 (Continuous Functions & Closeness) Let be continuous and assume that . If , then . Proof. Suppose that is continuous, , and . We prove that if , then . Hence, suppose that . By Proposition 1.2 there exists an open set containing , but not intersecting . It follows that is an open set containing that does not intersect . Thus, , and the result follows. The next theorem translates the well-known – definition of continuity with Definition 4.1. Theorem 5.2 (Continuity & – Condition) A function is continuous in the open set definition of continuity if and only if, for every and every open set containing , there exists a neighborhood of such that . Proof. First, suppose that the open set definition holds for functions . Let and an open set containing be given. Set . It follows that and that is open in since is continuous by the open set definition 4.1. Clearly, , and therefore we have shown the desired result. Now assume that for every and every open set containing , there exist a neighborhood of such that . We show that is open in for every open set in . Hence, let be an arbitrary open set in . To show that is open in , choose an arbitrary . It follows that , and therefore exists a neighborhood of in such that , or, equivalently, such that . Thus, for an arbitrary there exists an open set such that . Then, the assertion follows applying Theorem 1.1. Theorem 4.2 generalizes this idea of continuity in metrizable topological spaces to general topological spaces. In a metric space, we can consider an open ball as an open set and therefore as a neighborhood. That is, for each -ball there need to be a suitable -ball , such that . For further details please refer to this deep-mind.org post and this Wikipedia article. The second important property that is preserved by continuous functions is the concept of convergence. Theorem 5.3 (Continuity & Convergent Sequences) Assume that is continuous. If a sequence in converges to a point , then the sequence in converges to . Proof. Let be an arbitrary neighborhood of in . Since is continuous, is open in . Furthermore, implies that . The sequence converges to ; thus, there exists such that for all . It follows that for all , and therefore the sequence converges to . Another important property of continuous functions is directly linked to the actual definition. Theorem 5.4 (Continuity & Pre-Image of Closed Sets) Let and be topological spaces. A function is continuous if and only if is closed in for every closed set . Proof. Let be closed in and let . We wish to prove that is closed in . We show that Cl. By elementary set theory, we have . Therefore, if then . Hence, and Cl and thus Cl. Theorem 5.5 (Continuous Functions & Compact Sets) Let be continuous, and let be compact in . Then is compact in . Proof. Let be continuous, and assume that is compact in . To show that is compact in , let be a cover of by open sets in . Then is open in for every set . Hence, is a cover of by open sets in . Since is compact there is a finite sub-collection of that covers . Thus, has a finite sub-cover, implying that is compact in . A really nice introduction to the abstract concept of a topology, however, in German language only.

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Class 8 History After the death of Mir Jafar, in 1765, the then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted the Diwani rights of the provinces of Bengal to the Company. This was a major breakthrough for the Company because Diwani allowed it to use the vast revenue resources of Bengal. From the early eighteenth century, the Company had buy most of the goods in India by paying in gold and silver which were imported from Britain. This was putting a huge drain on the treasury in Britain. After the Battle of Plassey, the outflow of gold from Britain slowed down. This outflow completely stopped after the Company got the Diwani of Bengal. The Company rarely launched a direct military attack on an unknown territory. It preferred various political, economic and diplomatic methods to increase its influence before annexing an Indian kingdom. The Company appointed Residents in Indian states. Their job was to serve and further the interests of the Company. The Residents interfered in the internal affairs of Indian states. They influenced the decisions regarding successor to the throne and appointment at key administrative posts. According to this alliance, Indian rulers were not allowed to have their independent armed forces. The Company army was to protect the Indian state but the ruler had to pay for the “subsidiary forces”. If an Indian ruler failed to make the payment, then part of his territory was taken away as penalty. For example; Awadh and Hyderabad were forced to cede territories on this ground. Mysore had become powerful under the leadership of powerful rulers like Haider Ali (1761-1782) and Tipu Sultan (1782-1799). Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar Coast. Tipu Sultan stopped the export of sandalwood, pepper and cardamom through the ports of his kingdom in 1785. Moreover, he disallowed the merchants from trading with Company. Tipu Sultan maintained a close relationship with the French in India. He modernized his army with the help from the French. Anglo Mysore War: The Company wanted to crush the rulers of Mysore. Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799). The Company could finally get victory in the fourth Anglo-Mysore War; also known as the Battle of Seringapatam. Tipu Sultan was killed and the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars was given the charge of Mysore. It was kept under subsidiary alliance. During the late eighteenth century, the Marathas were divided into many states under different chief (sardars). These chiefs belonged to different dynasties such as Sindhia, Holkar, Gaikwad and Bhonsle. These chiefs were held together in a confederacy under a Peshwa. The Peshwa was the effective military and administrative head of the confederacy and was base at Poona. A series of wars was fought with the Marathas. There was no clear victor in the first war which ended in 1782 with the Treaty of Salbai. The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) was fought on several fronts. The British gained Orissa and the territories north of the Yamuna river in this war. The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) crushed the Maratha power. The Peshwa was removed and sent away to Bithur near Kanpur with a pension. Copyright © excellup 2014

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Macular degeneration (also called AMD, ARMD, or age-related macular degeneration) is an age-related condition in which the most sensitive part of the retina, called the macula, starts to break down and lose its ability to create clear visual images. The macula is responsible for central vision – the part of our sight we use to read, drive and recognize faces. So although a person's peripheral vision is left unaffected by AMD, the most important aspect of vision is lost. AMD is the leading cause of vision loss and blindness in Americans of ages 65 and older. And because older people represent an increasingly larger percentage of the general population, vision loss associated with macular degeneration is a growing problem. It's estimated that more than 1.75 million U.S. residents currently have significant vision loss from AMD, and that number is expected to grow to almost 3 million by 2020.

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An acrostic poem is a poem in which the first letter (or sometimes the first syllable) of each line spells out a word, name, or sentence. A good example is Lewis Carroll’s untitled poem, usually called “Life Is but a Dream,” at the end of Through the Looking-Glass. The first letters of the twenty-one lines of this poem spell out Alice Pleasance Liddell, the full name of the young girl who inspired Carroll to write his novels. Some scholars claim that the Bible contains acrostic poems, but there is debate on whether the poems were intended as acrostics by the original writers. What is beyond debate is the existence of some poems in the Old Testament that show an alphabetical arrangement. Sometimes, these are called “acrostic” poems, but they are more properly called “alphabetical” or “abecedarian.” Psalm 111 is a good example of an “acrostic” poem in Scripture. After the initial “Praise the Lord” in verse 1 are twenty-two lines to correspond with the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Each line of the poetry begins with a letter of the alphabet, in order. Another example of an acrostic or alphabetical poem is Psalm 119. This psalm is divided into twenty-two sections, one for each Hebrew letter. Each section has sixteen lines, with that section’s letter appearing at the start of each alternate line. So, for example, the first eight verses contain sixteen lines of poetry, and every other line begins with aleph (א), the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The next section of Psalm 119 comprises verses 9–16, and each verse begins with the second letter of the Hebrew alphabet, beth (ב). Psalms 9 and 10, taken together, show some purposeful alphabetic arrangement, although not with the whole alphabet. Psalm 25 uses twenty of the twenty-two Hebrew letters. Each letter is given two lines of poetry. In verse 2, the expected letter comes at the beginning of the second word, rather than the first. Other acrostic poems such as Psalm 34 (two lines per letter), Psalm 37 (four lines per letter), and Psalm 145 (two lines per letter) also have some omissions or minor adjustments to the strict alphabetical sequence. Outside of the book of Psalms are two other passages that contain acrostic or alphabetical arrangements. One is Proverbs 31:10–31. The poetic description of the virtuous woman is an acrostic, with each verse beginning with a different letter of the Hebrew alphabet (two lines per letter). Finally, Lamentations chapters 1—4 contain acrostic poems. Lamentations 1 has twenty-two verses, giving three lines to each Hebrew letter in order. In Lamentations 2 there are mostly three or four lines to each letter. In Lamentations 3 there are twenty-two stanzas of three verses apiece; each verse begins with that stanza’s letter. So the last stanza of Lamentations 3 (verses 64–66) has three lines beginning with the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, taw (ת). In the twenty-two verses of Lamentations 4, there are mostly two lines of poetry to each letter. One other passage, Nahum 1:2–8, is a hymn to God with an alphabetic construction. Only half of the Hebrew alphabet is used, however, and the sequence of letters is not rigid. The acrostic or alphabetical structure of various portions of Scripture could have been a memorization aid or simply meant to enhance the beauty of the reading. In any case, such linguistic devices are a good reminder that the Bible is literature and that the biblical writers, guided by the Holy Spirit, used the literary forms and tools available to them to communicate God’s Word.

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Last week, California Governor Jerry Brown announced his state’s first-ever mandatory water restrictions, in an effort to cope with four years of the worst drought in the state’s history. The restrictions, under which cities and towns in the state were told to cut water use by 25 percent, could be the first step in what many researchers and analysts say is a fundamental change in the way California uses its diminishing water supplies. During the past year, National Geographic has reported extensively on the drought in California and on emerging water scarcity across the western United States, and shown how a warming climate and the lack of snow in the Cascades and Sierra Nevada mountain ranges have dramatically reduced snowmelt, a crucial provider of water to California and the agricultural belt in its Central Valley. Here are five things you need to know about California’s water situation: 1. The state (and much of the West) relies heavily on snowpack each winter to resupply surface water streams and lakes. Because of a lack of winter storms and record high temperatures this past winter, snowpack in California is at an all-time low. This is the fourth consecutive year that the snowpack has been below normal. The state’s hydropower supply is also threatened when snowpack is scarce. 2. When surface water supplies are low, hidden water supplies beneath the surface in aquifers, or groundwater, are drilled to make up the shortfall. A large aquifer under the Central Valley is being rapidly depleted to make up for shortfalls in surface water supply. A 2011 study indicated that the Central Valley Aquifer is losing an amount of water each year equivalent to the nearly 29 million acre-feet of water found in Lake Mead, the nation’s largest surface reservoir on the Colorado River. (An acre-foot is one acre of ground covered one foot deep in water.) California for the first time last year passed legislation regulating groundwater use, but those restrictions will not come into effect for years. 3. While the 25 percent water use restrictions announced last week are intended to help reduce demand, most of the water in California is used for farming, which was largely not included in Brown’s announcement on restrictions. California’s farms produce and export fruits and vegetables, hay for livestock, meat and dairy products. Surface water for farms is allocated from state and federal water projects. Water supply restrictions for farmers may be announced soon by the state, but farmers have been drilling groundwater to compensate for surface supply shortages. Last week’s rules require only that agricultural operations improve their reporting of water use to the state. 4. California is not the only state in the West facing water supply issues. Winter snowpack in Oregon and parts of Washington was far below normal. The Colorado River Basin, which supplies water to Phoenix, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, and San Diego, has also been in a drought for more than a decade, and the river basin’s aquifers have been declining too. 5. When California faced a major drought in the late 1970s, fewer than 20 million people lived in the state. Now nearly 40 million live there. While Californians have drastically improved the efficiency of their water use in recent years, if rain and snow do not arrive later this year, the supply of groundwater—much of which is non-renewable—will continue to decline as it is used to make up for surface shortages. Once aquifers are depleted, the state will have no backup supplies to surface water. Desalination could make up some of the difference, but can be expensive and is energy-intensive. Dennis Dimick grew up on a hilly Oregon farm named Spring Hill, where groundwater from a spring provided his family's—and the farm's—water supply. He is National Geographic's Executive Editor for the Environment. You can follow him on Twitter, Instagram, and flickr.

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Reading a Calendar A calendar allows us to keep track of the days, weeks, and months of an year. A year is divided into 12 months: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, and December. Each month is divided into approximately 4 weeks. Each week is divided into 7 days: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z The correct answer is The smallest number is the one that comes first while counting. To arrange the given numbers in order from smallest to greatest, find the smallest number among all the given numbers. 21 is the smallest number.

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Help your child build the knowledge and skills necessary to master the Spanish language. Designed for supplemental, at-home study, this workbook focuses on one topic at a time to further understanding and enhance the chance of fluency. Covers numbers, the alphabet, parts of speech, expressions, days of the week, months of the year, family terms and community terms. Features an answer key for adults. 416 pages. For grades 1-3.

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Knee Anatomy & Function The knee joint is formed by the ends of 3 bones: the lower end of the thigh bone (femur), the upper end of the shin bone (tibia), and the knee cap (patella). Thick, tough tissue bands called ligaments connect the bones and stabilize the joint. A smooth, plastic-like lining called cartilage covers the ends of the bones and prevents them from rubbing against each other, allowing for flexible and nearly frictionless movement. Cartilage also serves as a shock absorber, cushioning the bones from the forces between them. Finally, a soft tissue called synovium lines the joint and produces a lubricating fluid that reduces friction and wear. There is no known medicine or therapy that will heal or fix a torn meniscus. It is a mechanical problem that often requires a mechanical solution. This typically means you will need either a partial excision (removal) or repair of the tear. Excision versus repair is often decided at the time of arthroscopic surgery and will depend upon several factors. The patient’s age, the age of the tear, the size and location, as well as the patient’s activity level all play a role in deciding whether a tear can be repaired or must be excised. In general, due to the essential role of the meniscus in protecting the knee from early arthritis, repair when possible, is always preferable to removal. If your symptoms persist with nonsurgical treatment, your doctor may suggest arthroscopic surgery. Knee arthroscopy is one of the most commonly performed surgical procedures. In it, a miniature camera is inserted through a small incision. This provides a clear view of the inside of the knee. Your orthopaedic surgeon inserts miniature surgical instruments through other small incisions to trim or repair the tear. Meniscectomy or Partial Meniscectomy In this procedure, the damaged meniscal tissue is trimmed away. Some meniscal tears can be repaired by suturing (stitching) the torn pieces together. Whether a tear can be successfully treated with repair depends upon the type of tear, as well as the overall condition of the injured meniscus. Because the meniscus must heal back together, recovery time for a repair is much longer than from a meniscectomy.

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The Baths of Diocletian (Thermae Diocletiani) were public baths in Rome, in what is now Italy. Named after emperor Diocletian’s Baths and built from 298 to in 306, they were the largest and most impressive of the imperial baths. The project was originally commissioned by Maximian upon his return to Rome in the autumn of 298 and was continued after his and Diocletian’s abdication under Constantius, father of Constantine. The Baths occupy the high-ground on the northeast summit of the Viminal, the smallest of the Seven hills of Rome, just inside the Agger of the Servian Wall. They served as a bath for the people residing in the Viminal, Quirinal, and Esquiline quarters of the city. The Quadrigae Pisonis, a 2nd-century monument with various reliefs, some private homes, and a relief representing the temple of Quirinus once stood at the site but were demolished to build the baths. The water supply was provided by the Aqua Marcia, an aqueduct that had long served the city of Rome since the early 2nd century. To properly supply the baths, the supply of water to the city was increased under the order of Diocletian. The baths may have also been supplied by the Aqua Antoniniana, which was originally positioned to supply Caracalla’s baths in the early 3rd century. The Baths were commissioned by Maximian in honor of co-Emperor Diocletian in 298, the same year he returned from Africa. Evidence of this can be found in bricks from the main area of the baths, which distinctly show stamps of the Diocletianic period. These, according to the ancient guidebook Mirabilia Urbis Romae, were known as “Palatium Diocletiani”. This evidence shows the effect of the massive project on the brick industry in that all work by them was redirected and under control of the emperor. Building took place between the year it was first commissioned and was finished sometime between the abdication of Diocletian in 305 c.e. and the death of Constantius in July 306 AD. The Baths remained in use until the siege of Rome in 537 when the Ostrogothic king Vitiges cut off the aqueducts. One of the four inscriptions around the main entrance to the Baths of Diocletian reads, translated from Latin, “Our Lords Diocletian and Maximian, the elder and invincible Augusti, fathers of the Emperors and Caesars, our lords Constantius and Maximian and Severus and Maximin, noblest Caesars, dedicated to their beloved Romans these auspicious Baths of Diocletian, which the divine Maximin on his return from Africa ordered to be built and consecrated in the name of his brother Diocletian, having purchased the premises required for so huge and remarkable work and furnishing them with the most sumptuous refinement.” The baths take up 120,000 square metres of the district, which is about the same size as the Baths of Caracalla. The central hall of the baths was 280 by 160 metres; from it were derived plans for the Basilica of Constantine. However, the capacity of the Baths of Diocletian was said to be much greater in comparison to the Baths of Caracalla. This could be because the entrance and rooms were made larger than its predecessor in block size, which allowed more space and functionality. According to Olympiodorus, the baths were able to hold up to 3,000 people at one time. However, this claim is disputed because Olympiodorus never mentioned how he came about this figure in the first place. The word frigidarium originates from the Latin word frigeo, which means “to be cold”. The prominence of the room and its conjoining rooms showed the increase in popularity cold baths had during the early 4th century compared to the hot baths. This also could have been a result of the depletion of the surrounding forests, resulting in a lack of fuel. The frigidarium, or Cella frigidaria consisted of a pool and a host of smaller baths connected to the main room. Water entering the room would come from a pipe or cistern and would exit through a drain within the pool. The water from the pool was thought to have been reused to flush latrines within the complex. The frigidarium was used mainly as a swimming pool or a cold-water bath, depending on the time. Normally, one would continue on to the frigidarium after using the hot-water baths or after exercising in the palaestra. Noting the massive size of the room, it was believed to have also been used as a social room. This idea is supported by the presence of statues and elaborate niches along the walls. On each end of the frigidarium are large shallow pools that were made to be open-air bathing pools. The word caldarium comes from the Latin word caleo, meaning “to be hot”. It also has roots in the Greek word that means “innermost room”. The purpose of the caldarium was that of the principal bath chamber within the baths. From its namesake, the room was used for a hot-water bath or for saunas or steam rooms. The room could have also been used for oiling before or after a bath, but, in most cases, this was moved to a separate room off of the caldarium.] The caldarium, or Cella caldaria, was rectangular in shape with many octagonal rooms found near it in the corner of the structure. The area seemed to be referencing the older baths of Nero and Titus in its initial design. What set this caldarium apart was the sheer scale of the room compared to its predecessors. It continued a basilica-like theme from the frigidarium with a cross-vaulted middle bay and three projecting apses. These architectural techniques created the feeling of a more open space for the patron. Dressing rooms, also known as apodyteria, were located on either side of the calderium. Along the sides of the caldarium were private rooms that are believed to have had multiple functions, including private baths, poetry readings, rhetoricians, etc. Other areas attached to the caldarium were a garden, lounging rooms, gymnasiums, and small halls and semicircular exedrae used as lecture and reading rooms. Within the frigidarium, the use of external buttresses for the cross vaults were considered by some to be the first example of the scientific system of thrusts and counter-thrusts in architecture. Concerning the baths as a whole, it has been described as evoking the Imperial style, or a “Classical” image, which is the style of “manipulation of space”. To manipulate the space within this style, the forms of the building were simple and give the impression of a vast amount of open space. The builders of the baths used different techniques to create this effect. The exterior walls of the bath were encrusted with stucco to give the impression of stonework. This technique was quite common within the structures built during the Imperial style of Roman architecture, e.g., The baths of Constantine, the Basilica Nova, and parts of the Sessorian bridge. The interior parts of the bath were supported by vaulting ceilings and arches to create curvilinear lines. The structure of the roof is an excellent example of Classical design. Architects used sloped forms to cover curved extrados (the outer surface of the arch) of the vaulted halls.

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Teachers can tell when that kindergartener needs to be rushed into the bathroom, and we can also tell when that older student is texting under the table. There are some expressions you get to know. But in many classrooms across the country, cell phones are no longer confiscated. Instead, they’re being used for instruction. Just a few ways you can use cell phones for teaching: - Discreetly communicate with students by texting them when it’s their turn to come up for a writing conference or when their private conversations are getting out of hand. - Use texting any time to keep interruptions to a minimum. A quick text of “Help!” during quiet work time is a great way to get teacher attention without disturbing others. - Use Twitter on the Smart Board or with a projector to let all students in large classes get into class discussions. Shy students have an equal chance with bolder ones in this way, and even very lively discussions can be captured and examined calmly. - Encourage students with internet access via phone to look up data needed in the course of a class discussion or project. Today in class we got pictures of an old model of car mentioned in an essay we were reading. It enhanced comprehension in a practical, nondisruptive way — several students found the pictures and shared them with classmates. - I also like to be able to ask students to check facts — I want to encourage them in the habit of critical reading and listening, as well as increasing their research skills. - Use phones’ capabilities as cameras and audio and video recorders to make multimedia classroom projects more practical. - Allow students to use phones as recorders or note-taking devices. Some teachers may find this worrying. They associate cell phones with cheating, they worry about losing kids’ attention, and they don’t want to open classrooms to multiple sources of information. Some of these attitudes are worth getting over. Making sure that our teaching is accurate and engaging enough to compete, practicing cell phone courtesy and skills, and getting comfortable with the new technology are strategies for making cell phones practical for education. Other teachers worry that kids without cell phones will be at a disadvantage, or that costs will be an issue either for families or for schools. This is rapidly becoming less of an issue as phone services change, but certainly must be addressed. Meetings with parents to make sure that kids understand the limitations of the family data plan should be part of school orientation, and no lessons should require parents to spring for cell phones for their kids. Phones are cheaper than computers, though, from the school’s point of view. Having a few extra cell phones on hand for general use may be practical. Doug Fodeman’s book Toys to Tools: Connecting Student Cell Phones to Education goes into more detail on troubleshooting, training students in appropriate use, and creative ways use cell phones for learning. How Do Cell Phones Work? (Science in the Real World) delves into the science and technology behind the gadgets. Even if your cell phone lesson is all about why the students can’t use theirs in class, examining the technology can be a great way to up the learning quotient. In my classroom, students are welcome to bring and use phones if they care to. We all turn our phones to silent before class, and we take advantage of being hooked up. I’m inclined to think that this makes sense in high school, and possibly in middle school with adequate preparation and limits. How does it work in your classroom?

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Summarizing is the restating of the main ideas of the text in as few words as possible. Some students could understand the content if it was presented in simpler vocabulary. Other students need less to read in order to complete the assignments in the same amount of time as their peers. Summarizing the text is a way to help both types of students complete the same grade level assignments as their classmates The links below take you to free sites where you can paste an article, text or essay into the box to get a summary. You can also summarize PDF documents or online articles and webpages by uploading a file or pasting a URL. The sites below all offer different options in terms of selecting word, sentence or document length as well as text difficulty. Wikipedia also has a summarize type option. It has a language option called Simple English. This language option changes the reading level of some Wikipedia articles. Compare these two versions on Molecules: Matter is a Google Extension that summarizes text. Matter highlights the important text in a passage. It allows you to read the important parts of an article without removing or changing any of the actual text within the article. Summarizing text can benefit our students in so many ways. Please explore the options I have provided for you and see which one(s) are best for you and your students. Consider teaching your students to do the summarizing for themselves, as a way to become more independent in their learning.

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EU Code Week celebrates World Health Day! The World Health Day celebrated each year on 7 April, is an opportunity for everyone to reflect on matters that concern our well-being. In order to raise awareness, the World Health Organization (WHO) is organizing each year several events on that day. There are many factors that we take into consideration when defining well-being today including mental health awareness, successfully overcoming diseases and coping with disabilities. On the occasion of the World Health Day 2019, EU Code Week had the chance to talk to Ángel Villanueva Martínez and Álvaro Molina Ayuso, two Spanish men with different backgrounds, but very similar educational concerns, who have designed lesson plans that revolve around topics relevant for our health through coding. Ángel Villanueva is a Telecommunications Engineer from Barcelona, passionate about coding and electronics. Ángel always had in mind to create a project for children with visual impairment or students with vision loss that could still use educational robotics as a tool for learning, thus removing all obstacles children may find in their everyday life due to these problems. Because of this passion, he started to work with the Escornabot robot, a Galician Open educational robotics project that aims to bring robotics and programming to children. He developed a project using Arduino and easy to find materials that allow visually impaired students or students with vision loss to use RFID cards with Braille to in order to program the robot. This is easier and much more intuitive for children with visual impairment as they rely less on text-based programming languages. If you are interested to know more about this project , have a look at the tutorial Ángel developed (in Spanish), which has already been used as a very valuable resource in schools. Moreover, in order to help teachers with students with similar characteristics, Ángel has developed a lesson plan to be used in schools, and is available both in English and Spanish. Álvaro Molina is a Maths teacher at the IES Santa Rosa de Lima in Córdoba (Spain) who has been trying to use Scratch as a transversal tool for learning in different subjects such as Sciences, Maths, Languages or History. However, after seeing the potential this visual programming tool may have in the classroom, he decided to create a project in Scratch that could help students learn about a very important topic: healthy lifestyle habits and healthy food. While creating the game he combined the content of the game with the topic students are also working in Physical ducation, thus maintaining the school curriculum while also allowing students to create their own video game in Scratch. This project, which introduces the concept of Healthy Eating Plate developed by Harvard, aspires to introduce students to visual programming and the principles of healthy nutrition. Have a look at his lesson plan by following this link. Coding and new technologies have entered the classroom and transformed education. One of the main principles that EU Code Week is advocating is that programming empowers all students. As you have seen in the previous examples, coding can be included in all subjects and has the potential to transform students’ lives by giving them all the skills they need in order to succeed. If you are a teacher that works with visually impaired students, we encourage you to try out Ángel’s lesson plan and give a unique opportunity to your students to play and familiarize with robotics. We also invite every teacher of physical education to try out Álvaro’s lesson plan and teach students the benefits of healthy nutrition while learning programming and having fun. If you decide to try out Angel´s lesson plan or Álvaro´s, let us know via Twitter and don’t forget to add your activity to the Code Week map. Help us bring coding to all schools in Europe!

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https://blog.codeweek.eu/eu-code-week-celebrates-world-health-day/

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ABOUT GREENHOUSE GASES In the beginning, everything was fairly in equilibrium for humans to live on earth, but in the times, humans began to heat up his own house. Today, climate is changing, the temperature is globally increasing, the sea level is rising, and the ice is melting at the north and the south poles remarkably. One reason for this, is the greenhouse gas effect. What is greenhouse gas effect? According to Encyclopedia Dictionary, the greenhouse gas effect is a warming of earth’s surface and troposphere (the lowest layer of the atmosphere) caused by the presence of water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and certain other gases in the air. This article will focus on the level of impact each gas has on greenhouse gases and how they can lead to climate change through the use of human activity. THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere is the upper layer of the earth from ground that is composed by five different sub-layers. They are troposphere, stratosphere, ozone, mesosphere, and exosphere. The troposphere is up to about 11.5 miles from the surface to the sky. It is where most of the gases take place; carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases are caused by human activities. The second layer, stratosphere is up to about 31 miles from troposphere to the sky. It contains about 20 % of earth’s gas. The ozone, the protector, is part of the layer that saves us from high temperature of solar radiation above the stratosphere where the heat is generated. The mesosphere, a third and cooler layer at about -130°F, stands up about 58 miles from the second. The thermosphere is hot about 5000°F and higher about 300 miles from its position to the sky. It consumes lots of solar radiation. The last layer, exosphere, varies in temperature from hotter (the noon or day) to cooler (the night); it contained in general the Nitrogen (N2) that represents 78% of total gas in the atmosphere, 21% of Oxygen (O2), and 0.9 % of argon, Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Neon (Ne), Helium (He), Methane (CH4), and Krypton (Kr). HOW THE TERM “GREENHOUSE” DEVELOPED In fact, the scientific and famous name “greenhouse” given to the portion of the atmosphere between earth’s surface and the stratosphere, is for the troposphere where we all live. Why this name? The troposphere is like an epicarp to mesocarp of apple, the green or red skin like what surrounds the mesocarp(chair) of an apple. Troposphere is transparent like a glass and contains gases that protect us from any outrage of sun radiation that can take place in the sky. Most of the cloud and weather systems in the sky occurred in troposphere. “The natural greenhouse effect has long maintained at 59°C (15°F), which is sufficient to maintain Earth’s reservoirs of life-sustaining liquid water” (Greenhouse Gases). Above all, CO2 and water vapor are the most important. They consume most of the sun’s radiation, the cold air, and the gases caused by human activities. “Water vapor and CO2 are the most important greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere in sense that they trap more energy than others. Methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, and related compounds (used mostly as refrigerants) also play a significant role” (Greenhouse Gases). Without the greenhouse gases, “the earth would have an average of surface temperature of about 0°F (-18°C), which is too cold to sustain most life” (Greenhouses Gases). How do these gases affect the surface of the earth? THE LARGEST EFFECT OF GREENHOUSES GASES Water vapor is the only one gas which plays critical rules in the greenhouse. In effect, water vapor is the earth’s most abundant greenhouse gas. It is everywhere in atmosphere, and it plays key rules in the troposphere. It consumes more heat that CO2. As the atmosphere or troposphere warms, water vapor is absorbed in great amount to adjust the temperature in a way that we can survive. Water vapor can maintain the warm air of oxygen dioxide and methane released in the environment except human activities. Water vapor is like a “fire fighter” in the greenhouse. It responds diligently to the change of weather including temperature, the pressure of condensation, precipitation, and evaporation. By consequent, “water vapor and clouds are highly variable. They provide 75% of earth’s greenhouse effect. …Without the radiative forcing provide by the non-condensing greenhouse gases, especially CO2, earth’s global climate could cool into an icing state” ( Patrick 1). CARBON DIOXIDE’S ROLE IN GREENHOUSE GASES Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the greenhouse gases. It can trap an emission of gases as well, but not as abundant as water vapor. Human activities are responsible for almost 60% carbon dioxide in the greenhouse. The total of 1,659 million ton of trees and 325 tons of fossil fuel were exploited world wide in 1980, “There [are] significant emission rates of CO2 and H2O during the sugarcane cycle in Tucuman” (Acreche, et al. 1). Knowing that, CO2 is not a good gas compared to water vapor for human life. The carbon dioxide is removed for the air by water vapor and plants during the photosynthesis to construct their tissue. When plants die, much of the plant organs release carbon dioxide that go back into air. In the 1800s, carbon dioxide increased by 40% and 70% in 1958. “CO2 concentration at 400 ppm is the highest value in the past 800,000 years, according to analysis of air bubbles in Antarctic ice” ( Patrick ). METHANE EXCEEDS CARBON DIOXIDE Methane (CH4) is the third critical greenhouse gas “heat trapper is 21 time greater than that of carbon dioxide… The methane concentration in the year 1750 was about 700 part per billion (ppb), it has risen to more than 18,015 ppb in 2014” ( Patrick 1). Methane is composed by some substance of carbon dioxide and four hydrogen atoms. It is everywhere in the atmosphere well present in the greenhouse. THE EARTH’S SURVIVAL THROUGH GREENHOUSE GASES Greenhouse gases are still playing their key rule as today. They control the weather, maintain the equilibrium of our environment and allow clouds to provide precipitation time by time. The radiation of sun light is called short wave; when sent to the surface, it is absorbed by a soil as well as trees. During an evaporation, the reminder of the sun’s energy is sent back by reflection through the greenhouse and so does the precipitation when the rain falls. Today’s human activities including industrialization, technology, deforestation, and urbanism with waste are producing gas emission that miserably increases the amount of long wave (sun energy evaporated from the ground) that are sent back to the atmosphere. Finally, as a bottle cannot contain more than its capacity, these greenhouse gases sent the usual amount that they are accustomed to the sky and return the rest back where they come from (surface, ground, where we are living). It follows that the radiation of the sun is not responsible of our issues on the earth; we are our own destroyer. All in all, greenhouse gases are mercifully protecting us and playing an important role in our lives. Without these gases, it will be impossible to live on earth. Humans should control their activities and bring the environment to its old stage by promoting deforestation, encourage the technology in the manor that will decrease emission of gases including the renewable energy, bioenergy, and others. “Greenhouse Gases.” Gale Global issues Online collection, Gale, 2018. Gale In Context: Global Issues,Https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CP3208520164/GIC?u=cuny_nytc&sid=812c615e.Accessed 16 Nov. 2019 Abbott, Patrick L. Natural disasters / Patrick L. Abbott, San Diego State University. – Tenth edition. pages cm ISBN 978-0-07-802298-2 (alk. paper) 1. Natural disasters. I. Title. GB5014.A24 2017 904′.5–dc23 - Acreche, R. Portocarrero, A.H. Valeiro And A. Felipe “Greenhouse gas emissions from green-harvested sugarcane with and without post-harvest burning in tucuman, Argentina.” Pakistan Sugar Journal, 30 Sept. 2013. Gale OneFile: Gardening and Horticulture, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A358232670/PPGL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=PPGL&xid=362e9d4d. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019. Flavin, Christopher. “Slowing global warming.” American Forests, May-June 1990, p. 37+. Gale OneFile: Gardening and Horticulture, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A8985013/PPGL?u=cuny_nytc&sid=PPGL&xid=8478d6ac. Accessed 16 Nov. 2019.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://climateyou.org/2019/12/10/the-transparent-house-protectors-greenhouse-gases-by-city-tech-blogger-mahoutin-godonou/

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Light microscopes play an important role in many research laboratories, including electron microscopy facilities. They can be used as a primary visualization tool or in support of electron microscopy. Samples for light microscopy are prepared in an ever-increasing number of techniques, and can range from sliced biological organisms and tissue cultures to materials science and geological samples. Light and electron microscopes share many similarities in their optical principles. Understanding how a light microscope works is not only critical for obtaining optimum light images, but also for understanding electron microscopy. Principles of Light, Electrons, & Microscopy In microscopy we take advantage of waveform properties of light. These waves when produced at a particular source vibrate at right angles to the line of propagation. Each wave has a peak and trough. The distance traveled forward by the light ray is one wavelength (lambda). Wavelength varies with the color and intensity of the source. Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a wave. How the image is formed The structures the light microscope is called upon to resolve exert only a small influence on the light they transmit. What is changed is the phase of momentary vibration. Conventional brightfield illumination will lack contrast and the details of the sample remain invisible. When the emerging waves have acquired a larger phase difference due to changes in refractive index, greater contrast is produced. This manifests itself by an edge effect (diffraction, refraction, and reflection). Sample details may be resolved in a number of ways. When a light passes through stained structures intensity is reduced selectively depending on the color and density of the sample as the light is absorbed. Selective absorption of wavelengths of white light produces colored light. Refraction changes the direction of a light ray as it passes from one medium to another. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the refractive angle. Diffraction is the bending of light rays around objects with sharp edges. A new wave front is created at this edge. Diffraction can be useful, but can also reduce resolution. When light is dispersed it is separated into its constituent wavelengths as a result of refraction on entering a transparent medium. Contrast can be defined as a steep slope between bright and dark image points. Adequate contrast MUST be achieved before the specimen can be resolved. Two terms that are often confused, but are central to microscopy are magnification and resolution. Magnification is the degree by which dimensions in an image are, or appear to be, enlarged with respect to the corresponding dimensions in the object. Resolution is the act or result of displaying fine detail in an image. Magnification without resolution would be meaningless. The theoretical resolution of the light microscope was first defined by Abbe in the following equation. Abbe's equation for theoretical resolution of the light microscope: The actual resolution achievable with a light microscope is not as great. We will discuss the reasons for this later. It is important to understand and to recognize the various components of the light microscope. The first and perhaps the most important element are the lenses. Figure 2: The six simple lenses. A, B, & C are converging or positive lenses. D, E, & F are concave or negative lenses. Figure 3: Converging and diverging lenses. Parallel rays enter a convex lens converge and meet at the principle focus. The distance between the center of the lens and the principal focus is the focal length. Parallel rays entering a concave lens diverge and never meet. The Objective Lens is the first part of the imaging system; the objective lens forms a primary, enlarged image of the object. Very fine details are distinguished with the objective lens. The eyepiece sometimes called the ocular lens, is the second lens, which forms a secondary, further enlarged image. By multiplying the magnifying power of the objective lens and the magnifying power of the ocular the final magnification is found. A Substage Condenser lens is the third optical component. It is placed on a platform beneath the object. Light is directed through the substage condenser and converges to a point at the position of the specimen. The light rays diverge as they pass through the specimen and form an inverted cone, whose base is just large enough to fill the aperture of the objective. The size of the light beam is controlled by a diaphragm beneath the condenser called the aperture diaphragm. The light source should contain both a lens to project an image of the lamp filament called a field condenser and a diaphragm to control the size of the illuminated field called a field diaphragm. Figure 4: Typical lamp for light microscope. Kohler Illumination is the most common method of illumination. In Kohler illumination the image of the source is projected by the field condenser onto the substage condenser, to the top of the plane of the object. This method assures even illumination. Modern light microscopes use several different modes of operation depending on the needs of the investigator. The most common of these being brightfield microscopy in which direct light passes through the objective aperture and illuminates the background against which the image is seen. Since the structural elements being resolved have little variance in refractive index, the image will lack contrast and the details remain invisible. Small structure detail can be revealed by changing the absorption of the object by means of staining. Many microscopes have special lenses that allow an investigator to image using phase-contrast. This method reveals details in specimens possessing very slight differences in optical path or refractive index in the surrounding media. Phase contrast requires no staining and can be used with living tissue. Contrast is produced in this method by phase differences in the light leaving the object to amplitude differences in the image. A phase plate alters the optical path length traveled by diffracted light from that traveled by direct light. Figure 5: Light waves in brightfield and phase contrast after passing through an object. Pathway A represents the lightwave before encountering the object. Wave B represents the wave phase after passage in brightfield (unstained mode). C compares the wave phase of an object veiwed with phase contrast. Differential interference contrast (DIC) differs from phase contrast in that the image has a strong relief and three-dimensional appearance. It must be remembered that the impression of surface details are the results of the optics and not the specimen for most biological samples. The optics for DIC consist of a polarizer at the light source and Wollaston prisms in the condenser and above the objectives. The beam passes through the polarizer, enters the first prism where it is split in two. One beam vibration is parallel to the prism and one is perpendicular. Both beams pass through the specimen in parallel in close proximity and are recombined in the second prism. Figure 6: Differential Interference Contrast Schematic. Darkfield microscopy is a mode in which direct light is prevented from passing through the objective aperture, but a hollow cone of light forms an apex in the plane of the specimen. The image is formed by light scattering from features of the object. Details appear bright white against a dark background. Darkfield can also be used for living bacteria, algae and plankton. Some materials produce light when excited by short wavelengths of radiation. This effect is called fluorescence or auto-fluorescence. Specimens that do not fluoresce by themselves may be treated with fluorochromes which produce a secondary florescence. By illuminating with a high intensity mercury or xenon source and filtering out all but the desired excitation wave length to contact the specimen, the resulting longer (less energetic) wavelengths of emission from the specimen its self veiwed. Fluorescence microscopy can be used to enhance particular organelles, immunocytochemistry, in-situ hybridization, enzyme cytochemistry and elemental localization. Figure 7: Fluoresence microscope. Figure 8: Comparison of a dry and an oil immersion objective. Abbe in order to ease in identification of lens quality devised an equation for numerical aperture. Numerical aperture numbers can assist in comparing angles of dry, water immersion, and oil immersion objectives. Note the similarity to Abbe’s equation for theoretical resolution. This number is found on all objective lenses. N.A. = n sin u n = refractive index of medium u = 1/2 the angle of light rays taken in when focused on the object. When choosing an objective another consideration is depth of field. Depth of field is the distance from the nearest part of the subject in acceptable focus to the farthest part of the subject in acceptable focus. The efficiency (resolution) of a lens is inversely proportional to the depth of field (Table 1). |N.A.||.25 .30 .50 .65 .85 .95| |Depth (in microns)||8.0 5.5 2.0 1.0 .25 .10| Table 1: Variation in Depth of Field with Change in N.A. Two aberrations within lenses detract from Abbe's equation of theoretical resolution. These aberrations are called spherical aberration and chromatic aberration. Spherical Aberration occurs when outer rays entering a lens are diffracted differently from those entering near the center. A solution for reducing spherical aberration is introducing a diaphragm or aperture. Figure 9: Spherical aberration of a simple lens. A. Under correction. B. Over correction. The thickness of the cover glass should be chosen according to specifications of a particular objective. Deviation from the required thickness results in over correction or under correction of spherical aberration. Chromatic Aberration occurs as white light entering a lens is broken into a spectrum from red to violet. Violet rays (more energetic) are refracted more than the red rays (less energetic). Consequently an uncorrected lens will be surrounded by color fringes. The more expensive lenses have a higher degree of correction. Figure 10: Chromatic aberration of a simple lens. Each spectrum color has a separate focus. Abbe's equation- Theoretical resolution of the light microscope. Absorption- Light reduced selectively depending on color and density of the medium it passes through. Brightfield microscopy- Light passes directly through the specimen and usually requires staining. Chromatic Aberration- Caused by light waves of different energies passing through a lens. Condenser Lens- Focuses the beam onto the specimen Contrast- The slope between white and black. More slope, more contrast. Converging lens- Refraction of light to a focal point on the opposite side of the lens. Darkfield microscopy- Direct light is prevented from passing through a specimen, but a hollow cone of light is alloweed to form an apex in the specimen plane resulting in a bright specimen in a dark background. Depth of field- The distance between the nearest to farthest points on a sample that are in acceptable focus. Differential interference contrast- The mode of operation which gives the most relief in an unstained sample. Diffraction- Bending light rays around objects. Dispersion- Separation of light into its constituent wavelengths. Diverging lens- Refraction of light outward by a lens from a focal point on the same side of the lens as the illuminating light. Fluorescence microscopy- Samples produce light when excited by short wavelengths of radiation. Field aperature- An adjustable diaphragm placed near the condenser lens to help direct light to the specimen. Kohler illumination- A mechanism of alignment used to optimize even illumination of a specimen. Magnification- The degree by which dimensions in an image are or appear to be enlarged with respect to the corresponding dimensions in the object. Objective lens- The primary lens for image magnification. Phase contrast microscopy- Reveals details in specimens by changing wavelengths phases in the light path. Resolution- The act or result of displaying fine detail in an image. Refraction- The change in direction of light rays as it passes from one medium to another. Spherical aberrations- Outer rays entering a lens are refracted differently than rays passing through the center of the lens. Wavelength- Distance traveled by a light ray from peak to peak or trough to trough.

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://cmrf.research.uiowa.edu/light-microscopy

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Salt and brackish coastal marshes (coastal salt marsh) are distributed thinly along the mid- to high-latitude coastlines of all the major continents except Antarctica. Where coastlines are protected and supplied with a source of sediment, grasses and shrubs colonize and stabilize the substrate, paving the way for further marsh accretion. Salt marshes form along lagoons protected by barrier islands, at the mouths of river deltas and along the edges of protected estuaries. Salt marshes are widely distributed, but account for a small amount of land cover. Although precise quantification of the current extent of salt marsh is lacking, an estimate of 60 000 km2 seems reasonable (Greenberg et al., 2006b). Salt marsh vegetation is replaced by mangrove forest between 32°N and 40°S or coexists with it at higher tidal levels (see Chapter 2). Whatever the exact amount of extant salt marsh, it is clear that it is a fraction of what existed even a century ago. The direct and indirect effects of human activity are particularly acute for salt marshes, as most of the human population lives on or near the coasts or within the watershed that feeds the estuaries where marsh grows (Rickey & Anderson, 2004). Salt marshes show a great deal of similarity throughout the world in their simple vegetative structure punctuated by tidal sloughs and their low floristic diversity. In general, they are dominated by one to a few species of salt-tolerant grasses and shrubs (mostly of the Chenopodiaceae), often showing distinct zonation associated with the frequency of tidal inundation and salinity (Figure 7.1). However, marshes along the different continental shorelines are unique, showing differences in the dominant plant taxa, source of the colonizing fauna, specifics of the tidal regime, frequency of storm disturbance, and the tremendous variation in human activity and use. While similar to the eye, even within a region subtle differences in marsh structure give rise to distinct biotic assemblages (Figure 7.2).

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

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Billions of people now live in rapidly changing coastal areas that must develop plans to adapt to a future that includes rising seas, crumbling cliffs, and devastating hurricanes. Now they’ll have help from a dedicated satellite scanning the world’s water. Early Friday morning, NASA and its international partners plan to launch the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. The joint mission, shared with the French, Canadian, and United Kingdom’s space agencies, will survey about 90 percent of the water on Earth—almost everything except the poles—using cloud-penetrating radar in order to create high-resolution maps of oceans, rivers, reservoirs, and lakes. “The key advance for SWOT is that we’ll be able to simultaneously measure the extent and height of water. Adding that new dimension is critical because it allows us to think about things in terms of changes in volume over time,” said Tamlin Pavelsky, a University of North Carolina researcher and the SWOT team’s hydrology science lead, at a press conference earlier this week. SWOT will be able to see lakes larger than 15 acres (or about 820 feet by 820 feet) and rivers wider than 330 feet across, Pavelsky said. That means it will survey millions of lakes and track some 1.3 million miles of rivers, many of them lacking on-the-ground data because they are not easily accessible by land. This data will come in handy for a range of applications, like mapping the need for water and its availability for crop irrigation in rural areas; measuring the extent of flooding, such as the recent deluge in Pakistan; and assessing the climate vulnerability of places like the Congo river basin, which is frequently exposed to flash floods and droughts. The SUV-sized solar-powered spacecraft will collect much of this crucial data through its workhorse instrument, the Ka-band Radar Interferometer. Also known as KaRIn, the instrument sends a radar pulse of 1.5 kilowatts down to the ground and a few milliseconds later detects the reflected signal using two antennas at each end of a 33-foot boom. The slight difference between the signals allows it to triangulate to determine the height of water. With each such measurement, KaRIn images an area about 30 miles on a side with rectangular pixels about 16 by 80 feet. SWOT will orbit over each part of the planet and repeat its imaging there every 21 days during its three-year mission, seeing how the spread of water is changing over time. In 2000, NASA flew radar antennas on the space shuttle Endeavour to map the topography of land, but that was only an 11-day mission. SWOT’s KaRIn will considerably improve on the concept. “This instrument will be able to measure the height of water with centimeter accuracy. To think we can improve accuracy by a factor of 100, and from a distance of almost 900 kilometers away from the surface, is kind of incredible,” says Daniel Esteban-Fernandez, a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory engineer who helped develop KaRIn. SWOT could turn out to be a major improvement over measurements by previous satellites. “Instead of a ‘pencil beam’ moving along the Earth’s surface from a satellite, it’s a wide swath. It’ll provide a lot more information, a lot more spatial resolution, and hopefully better coverage up close to the coasts,” says Steve Nerem, a University of Colorado scientist who uses satellite data to study sea-level rise and is not involved with SWOT. And KaRIn’s swath-mapping technology is a brand-new technique, he says. “It’s never been tested from orbit before, so it’s kind of an experiment. We’re looking forward to the data.” SWOT has other instruments in its toolkit too, including a radar altimeter to fill in the gaps between the swaths of data KaRIn collects, a microwave radiometer to measure the amount of water vapor between SWOT and the Earth’s surface, and an array of mirrors for laser-tracking measurements from the ground. New satellite data is important because the future of sea-level rise, floods, and droughts may be worse than some experts previously forecast. “Within our satellite record, we’ve seen sea-level rise along US coastlines going up fast over the past three decades,” says Ben Hamlington, a sea-level rise scientist at JPL on the SWOT science team. The rate of sea-level rise is in fact accelerating, especially on the Gulf Coast and East Coast of the United States. “The trajectory we’re on is pointing us to the higher end of model projections,” he says, a point he made in a study last month in the journal Communications Earth & Environment. Hamlington sees SWOT as a boon for mapping rising sea waters and for researchers studying ocean currents and eddies, which affect how much atmospheric heat and carbon oceans absorb. The satellite will also aid scientists who model storm surges—that is, when ocean water flows onto land. The new spacecraft’s data will have some synergy with many other Earth-observing satellites already in orbit. Those include NASA’s Grace-FO, which probes underground water via gravity fluctuations, NASA’s IceSat-2, which surveys ice sheets, glaciers, and sea ice, and commercial flood-mapping satellites that use synthetic aperture radar to see through clouds. It also follows other altimeter-equipped satellites, like the US-European Jason-3, the European Space Agency’s Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich satellite, China’s Haiyang satellites, and the Indian-French Saral spacecraft. Data from these satellites has already shown that some degree of sea-level rise, extreme floods, storms, and droughts are already baked into our future. But we’re not doomed to climate catastrophes, Hamlington argues, because we can use this data to fend off the most extreme projected outcomes, like those that cause rapid glacier or ice sheet melt. “Reducing emissions takes some of the higher projections of sea-level rise off the table,” he says. “Since catastrophic ice sheet loss will only occur under very warm futures, if we can limit warming going forward, we can avoid worst-case scenarios.”

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

https://develop.motherjones.com/environment/2022/12/nasa-swot-satellite-launch-map-sea-level-rise/

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Many travellers to Australia are interested in the indigenous peoples of the country. Australia had been home to many indigenous ethnic groups prior to the arrival of the British. Much like their counterparts in the Americas, their numbers have been greatly reduced today, with many having been wiped out by European settlers either through diseases brought to Australia by the settlers, military conquests, genocides or other reasons. The indigenous Australian people are officially known by the Australian government as Indigenous Australians, and have also been officially divided into two groupings; the Aboriginal people of mainland Australia and Tasmania, and the Torres Strait Islanders from the Torres Strait Islands located between Far North Queensland and Papua New Guinea. The term "Aborigines" was common from the start of colonisation to the late 20th century, but is now deprecated in favour of the terms above. It is now considered to be a racist slur and should be avoided. Each state and territory of Australia has important indigenous heritage museums, events, activities, as well as shops with indigenous arts and crafts. Each state has organisations that coordinate promotion of Aboriginal/Indigenous tourism. - In New South Wales, it is the NSW Aboriginal Tourism Operators Council - In Western Australia, it is the Western Australian Indigenous Tourism Operators Council. Australian Aboriginal people are related to the Melanesians who are a majority in New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Torres Strait Islands and Maluku in Indonesia, and a minority in some other regions. The two groups are thought to have arrived as parts of one migration around 50 to 60 thousand years BCE. The last group of Indigenous Australians living in their traditional lifestyle was the Pintupi Nine in the Gibson Desert in Western Australia in 1984. However, there have been reports of one in the Great Victoria Desert in 1986, which is fairly recent. - Dancing With Strangers, Inga Clendinnen, 2003. Australian historian Clendinnen presents her reading of a wide range of primary sources from the 18th century describing early interactions between indigenous Australians and invading British colonisers. She illustrates very early days of genuine curiosity and attempts at cultural understanding eventually soured and thwarted. - The Battle of Parramatta: 21 to 22 March 1797, Johnathan Lim, 2016. Based on a true story, it shown the perseverance of Pemulwuy in the 1790s, having escaped 3 times, with all being successful and dared to rebel against white European settlers, haunts the story of the early European colonisation of Sydney. There are a large range of places all around Australia that have sites that reflect the full array of the indigenous experience of the last two hundred years. In each state there are museums, galleries and places where the richness of the culture can be found. There are also sites of ancient rock art and stories that go back thousands of years, there are places where you can see living expressions of indigenous art and culture, and everything between. The time of the British presence in Australia is very short in comparison to the time of the indigenous population’s presence on the continent. It is well worth looking at the places that have records of the presence. - 1 Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. Canberra's most prominent nature reserve that contains a 25,000-year-old rock shelter, which happens to be the world's oldest inhabited rock shelter. Access to the shelter is rather easy, and only requires you to walk a few kilometres. - 2 Wreck Bay Village. A small indigenous coastal fishing village. - 3 Appin. Eponymous as the site of the massacre of 14 Aboriginals in 1816 by the Colony of New South Wales. There is a memorial monument that serves as a contribution to the victims of the Dharawal people killed in the slaughter. - 4 Brewarrina Aboriginal Fish Traps (Baiame's Ngunnhu). These heritage-registered Aboriginal fish traps are believed to be about 40000 years old, which would make them the oldest human construction existing today. - 5 Finchley Aboriginal Area, Big Yengo. A traditionally significant area for the local Aboriginal community. Now offers a stunning lookout as well. - 6 Mungo National Park, Mungo. Inside the national park is Lake Mungo, now a dry lake, which contains the archaeological remains of three Mungo people. Dated to over 42,000 years old, they are the oldest human remains in the Australian continent. - 7 Myall Creek (24 km northeast of Bingara). On 10 June 1838, 28 unarmed Wirrayaraay people were massacred by 11 unprovoked, white men. Although massacres against Aboriginal people were common since the British arrived in 1787, Myall Creek was the first time when it was reported and investigated by the authorities, with 7 of the murderers who received a guilty verdict and were executed. The vast majority of massacres after Myall Creek had still not been reported. A bronze plaque and heritage-listed memorial site now stand on the site of the massacre. - 8 Mount Grenfell Historic Site. Ngiyampaa rock art in the Outback region of NSW. - 9 Mutawintji National Park. - 10 Blue Mountains National Park. See the red hands from the Goodungurra and Dharug people of the now called Blue Mountains along with the sacred Three Sisters. The indigenous people believed there were three sisters who their brothers went to war and protected them to keep them safe. However, the brothers never came back from war and so they permanently remained in stone. - 11 Tibooburra. Contains a 'Keeping Place' museum with indigenous tools and artefacts found across the Aboriginal country and home to the Karrengapa people. - 12 Worimi Conservation Lands (includes Worimi National Park). Home to the largest sand dunes in the Southern Hemisphere, these lands have plenty of cultural artifacts and you can experience them on tours. - 13 Australian Museum, 6 College Street, Sydney, ☏ . Daily 9:30AM-5PM except 25 December. The Australian Museum has an Indigenous Australia gallery. It is also involved in helping indigenous communities preserve cultural artefacts throughout New South Wales. $12 adult, $6 child, family admission and concessions available. - 14 Museum of Sydney, Corner Phillip and Bridge Streets, Sydney, ☏ . Th-Su 10AM-5PM. The Museum of Sydney has an exhibition focussing on the Cadigal people of Sydney including artefacts, paintings, film and soundscapes. $15 adults, children and concessions $12. - 15 Art Gallery of New South Wales, Art Gallery Road, The Domain, Sydney, ☏ , fax: , [email protected]. Daily 10AM-5PM, except 25 December and Good Friday. The Art Gallery of NSW has a permanent collection of indigenous art, rotated through the Yiribana Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Gallery. - Rock Carvings, can be seen in 16 Royal National Park - catch the train and ferry to Cronulla and Bundeena. There are extensive carvings in 17 Kuringai Chase National Park, near West Head that are accessible only by car. Closer to the city, there are examples at Balls Head and Berry Island, near to Wollstonecraft station. There is an interpretive walk at Berry Island. - 18 Devils Marbles Conservation Reserve (Karlu Karlu) (105 km south of Tennant Creek). A collection of huge red boulders sacred to four Aboriginal groups of the Barkly Tableland and formed over millions of years. - 19 Ewaninga Conservation Reserve. The reserve is a claypan, a natural storage of water even after light rain, which attracts flora and fauna to the area. Rock art was imprinted into the soft sandstone by the Arrente people, the precise age of which is not known. What makes the art stand out is its recurrent circular motifs. - 20 Kakadu National Park. Home to the Bininj people in the north and the Mungguy people in the south, Kakudu contains rock art before and during the last ice age, showing a unique perspective on life in northern Australia at the time. - 21 Tiwi Islands. Islands off the Northern Territory mainland where the majority of inhabitants are Tiwi people. The Tiwis traded with Macassan voyagers from present-day Indonesia for hundreds of years before the British arrived. Tiwi culture is fairly different from mainland Aboriginal culture, including neighbouring Arnhem land. For example, Tiwi art is considered to be more abstract, colourful and geometric. Wood carvings of birds is an important artistic tradition on the islands. - 22 Uluṟu-Kata Tjuṯa National Park. The heart of Australia's Red Centre and Australia itself. A part of the nation where indigenous culture continues to thrive and where the sacred Uluru (Ayer’s Rock) monolith stands. - 23 Cooya Beach (15 mins north of Port Douglas). The Kuku Yalanji people traditionally spearfished by the coast and gathered native bush plants from the neraby mangroves and mudflats. There now provide interactive tours showing their way of life. - 24 Ngarrabullgan (Mount Mulligan) (100km west of Cairns). A large tabletop mountain bounded by high cliffs, Ngarrabullgan is about ten times the size of Uluru, which runs for about 18 km along the northern Queensland landscape. It lies at the heart of the Djungan nation, whose traditional owners describe the mountain as a sacred and dangerous place inhabited by the evil spirit Eekoo, a figure in the Dreaming story, who is said to cause sickness. - 25 Mount Cooroy, Cooroy. Spiritual mountain peak in the Noosa Hinterland, once known to Kabi peoples as Kuribigilba, meaning the place where the Sun God came down to Earth (Dhar). The legend believes that the mountain turned yellow during the year, most likely due to the flowering of an unknown endemic species, particularly the Grevillea robusta. - 26 Torres Strait Islands. A part of Australia where indigenous people are still the majority. Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically Melanesian and are more closely related to Papuans to their north than to Aboriginal Australians who are native to the rest of the country. Some Torres Strait Islanders were also engaged in agriculture since precolonial times, another way in which they are distinct. - 27 Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park. Go on the Arkaroo Rock hike and see the ochre and charcoal rock paintings within the rock shelter. The Wilpena Pound is also another sacred site, which is a natural large amphitheatre. - 28 The Coorong (Coorong National Park). Its name is a corruption of a word in the indigenous Ngarrindjeri language by British settlers that means "long neck". Today, the local Ngarrindjeri people run a cultural centre where visitors can go on bush tours and learn about their origin stories, as well as their relationship with their land. - 29 Bay of Fires. The area has many impressively large shell and bone middens that grew from the local Palawa people eating seafood over thousands of years here. - 30 Kutikina Cave, Franklin-Gordon Wild Rivers National Park. The cave is archeogically rich, with over 30,000 stone artefacts and 200,000 bone fragments have been discovered with much of it still not excavated. The tools found include knives, scrapers and hammers and were made from quartz, quartzite and Darwin glass. - 31 Budj Bim. The earliest evidence of aquaculture in the world is found here. As early as 6000 BC, the Gunditjmara people created a system of channels, dams and weirs trapping eels and fish. The eels were smoked and preserved and were eaten all year around. - 32 Grampians National Park. The Grampians contains over 80% of all Aboriginal rock art found in Victoria. The rock art is primarily found in five shelters: Bunjul, Manja, Billimina, Ngamadjidj and Gulgurn Manja . - 33 Mount William Stone Axe Quarry, near Lancefield. This greenstone quarry contains over 200 mining pits, some up to 18 metres deep, over 30 flaking pits and many mounds of rocky debris. It was an important source of raw material for the production of stone hatchets which were then traded across the southeastern region. - 34 Wurdi Youang. An Aboriginal stone arrangement forming an egg-like shape from above. About twice as old as Stonehenge, the site is one of the oldest prehistoric astronomical observatories in the world, accurately measuring the setting and rising of the sun during the equinoxes and solstices. - 35 Abrakurrie Cave (48 km NW of Eucla). Holds the deepest penetration of Aboriginal art of any cave system in Australia. - 36 Murujuga National Park (Burrup Peninsula). What was an island and is now an artificial peninsula is estimated to have the largest collection of rock art in the world, with up to 1,000,000 individual petroglyphs. - 37 Parnngurr. On the edge of the Great Sandy Desert and is a remote Aboriginal community inhabited by the Marta peoples. It sits within the Karlamiyli National Park. - Bangarra Dance Theatre, Pier 4/5 Hickson Road, Walsh Bay, Sydney, ☏ , fax: , [email protected]. The Bangarra Dance Theatre combines indigenous history and culture with contemporary dance. They tour Australia-wide. - 26 January, the anniversary of the invasion of the First Fleet, and commemorated officially as Australia Day, is marked by indigenous Australians as Invasion Day, a day of political action, or Survival Day, marked with concerts and community events celebrating the survival of the indigenous peoples. In more recent times, the term "Invasion Day" is being marked by more and more non-indigenous Australians. - The National Aboriginal and Islander Day Observance Committee has a week of events in the Australian winter each year. In all of the capital cities and towns with significant Aboriginal populations (such as Cairns or Alice Springs), there are plenty of workshops and lessons where you can immerse yourself in indigenous culture. - Boomerang throwing is a popular skill that many tourists want to acquire. If you want to learn throwing a boomerang that comes back to your hand, make sure you have a suitable boomerang for returning. Most boomerangs available in Australia are in fact non-returning. It is best for beginners to not try throwing in windy weather. It will be hard to make progress and build confidence. You can also learn how to throw hunting boomerangs that move in a straight line. Similarly, spear throwing lessons are available across the country. - Didgeridoo lessons are as common throughout the country. Learning how to play the didgeridoo is not easy and it can take a long time to truly master the instrument. You will need to have strong lungs and learn the art of circular breathing. Despite that, there are many lessons suitable for novices that teach the fundamentals, which are more than useful. Note that it is disrespectful for women to even touch a didgeridoo due to its long and sacred history. However, most places don't allow women to have didgeridoo lessons due to many cultural reasons. - The practice of fire-stick farming, used by Indigenous groups to change the composition of flora and fauna, control weeds, reduce hazards and increase biodiversity, is taught in interactive cultural tours, particularly in the Top End. Aboriginal arts and crafts are among the most sought-after souvenirs when overseas tourists visit Australia. There has been a rise in fake or inauthentic Aboriginal artwork, that is, products that claim to be made by Aboriginal Australians but were not, or where the design of a particular product was not licensed to be reproduced. One way to make sure what you are buying is genuine is to look for the Indigenous Art Code logo. Not only does the logo signify that the product is authentic but that the artists have been fairly paid too. - See also: Bush tucker The food and cuisine of Aboriginal Australians, and for that matter any dish made from native Australian ingredients is known as bush tucker. Unlike the foods eaten by many of the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas, the European colonisers were not too keen on the foods encountered in Australia and did not attempt to grow most of them on a commercial scale. The one exception is the macadamia nut which spread to Hawaii in the 1880s and is now famous the world over. Meats include kangaroo, crocodile, emu, goanna and witchetty grubs. The seafood Indigenous Australians particularly on the coast ate was diverse and comprised barramundi fish, catfish, mud crabs, angasi oysters along with many other fish and crustaceans. Plant foods range from the quandong and riberry fruits to the warrigal greens leafy vegetable. Lemon myrtle is a spice that has become popularly used in teas. The traditional diets of some Aboriginal ethnic groups may include endangered species, the consumption of which is strictly limited to those specific groups using only traditional hunting methods, and unlikely to be available to you. The Indigenous Australian bread making tradition is among the oldest in the world. Breads are made by grinding seeds, roots and corms. The precise ingredients and methods used vary by group and location. Certain seeds had to be leached of their toxins before it was made into dough and cooked over an open fire. In many fine dining restaurants, many chefs are incorporating more indigenous ingredients into their dishes in what is known as "Modern Australian" cuisine. The best way for a traveller to contribute to the well being and dignity of the people is to support indigenous-run tourism and cultural ventures and to treat individual indigenous people with respect. Indigenous Australia is a complex group of living, continuing cultures: it is important to understand many aboriginal sites are not museum pieces arranged for the benefit of curious travellers. When visiting sacred sites or fragile ecosystems of cultural significance, many indigenous communities prefer that visitors arrange their trips through formal community programmes or indigenous organisations. Some communities, townships and protest sites can also be places where issues are fragile and current and can be problematic with a range of issues occurring. Understanding that some locations might best not be part of a travel itinerary is well worth researching before travelling to them. There are two flags representing Indigenous Australians; one representing the Aboriginal People, and the other representing the Torres Strait Islanders. Aboriginal athlete Cathy Freeman famously did her lap of honour carrying both the Australian and Aboriginal flags after winning the gold medal in the women's 400m event at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Some sites may not look sacred, but they are sacred for many Indigenous Australians – do not take photos of sacred sites. In particular, don't take photos of sites that are depicting rock art of a human. Until January 2022, the Aboriginal flag was under a strict copyright, and it was unavailable for most uses. However, in January 2022, the federal government bought the flag at a cost of $20 million, making it free for public use. Indigenous Australians is the official blanket term used to cover all people indigenous to Australia. Aboriginal people is generally used to refer only to those indigenous to mainland Australia and Tasmania, while those indigenous to the Torres Strait Islands are regarded as a separate group called the Torres Strait Islanders, and do not identify as "Aboriginal" as they are more ethnically Melanesian. The term First Nations is increasing in use. Avoid using the terms "Aborigine", "Abo", and "Noonga" to refer to indigenous Australians, as those terms are very derogatory and offensive. It is important to understand the diversity of the indigenous communities. There are over 400 Aboriginal nations in Australia, with over two hundred different Aboriginal languages still spoken among them. Aboriginal people in Sydney are not the same nations as those in Dubbo. In Tasmania, there are descendants of Aboriginal people who are serious about their indigenous roots. It is not correct to say the Tasmanian Aboriginal community no longer exists. Each state has variation as to how the governments have related to the indigenous population; it is not just the peoples responses. States have differing levels of involvement in indigenous rights and heritage. Due to a long history of oppression, indigenous Australians, as a whole, are disadvantaged relative to other Australians in many ways. Although they have been granted full citizenship rights on paper since 1971, many indigenous Australians are impacted by many problems arising from higher poverty rates, including higher rates of imprisonment, unemployment and drug abuse, as well as lower education levels, life expectancy and access to adequate sanitation and healthcare. When travelling, you may encounter Aboriginal people asking for money or other items. This is called 'Humbug', and should be refused. If humbug is entertained, you only encourage the problem. However, this is becoming less of a problem now. Rather than giving money to beggars, consider visiting an Aboriginal art centre (there are many around) and support those who are making a living, or if you can't access an art centre, consider giving to an Aboriginal charity, such as Conways Kids, a charity in Central Australia set up to ensure that cultural Aboriginal Children from remote communities have the same opportunities as youth from the rest of Australia.

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It is called twilight at the interval before sunrise or after sunset, during which the sky is still somewhat illuminated. Twilight occurs because sunlight illuminates the upper layers of the atmosphere. The light is diffused in all directions by the molecules of the air, reaches the observer and still illuminates the environment. The map shows the parts where they are during the day and where they are at night. If you want to know exactly the time that dawns or dusk in a specific place, in the meteorological data we have that information. Why do we use UTC? Universal coordinated time or UTC is the main standard of time by which the world regulates clocks and time. He is one of the several successors closely related to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). For most common purposes, UTC is synonymous with GMT, but GMT is no longer the most precisely defined standard for the scientific community.

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Milan is one of the members of the Electrical Engineering Community blog. Today he wants to tell you about circuit protection devices… Key word: PROTECTION. Read his essay below to know all about this topic. Hi everybody, so what we can do to make our electrical circuit safe? For instance, when we have extensive current flow due to short circuit, it is a damage that will cause heat increase and a serious damage will happen. The result is that heat will burn installation and produce more power looms and maybe cause electrical fire on aircraft. The fire is serious problem and engineers will give their best to prevent that situation from happening on aircrafts. Hopefully, we have devices that protect our electric circuits with: 2. Circuit breakers 3. Current limiters Beside these circuits protection we have other devices that protect situations such as reverse current, over/under-voltage, over/under-frequency, phase unbalance, etc., but that is out of scope for this topic. A fuse is a base element for short circuit protection. It is designed as thermal device with low melting point element engaged in glass or ceramic case. In terms of safety, the fusible element has much lower current carrying capacity, and in case of short circuit it melts and interrupts the circuit. There are various materials used as fusible element, like tin, lead silver, bismuth and other alloys of these materials. In practice, for emergency circuits deployed in aircraft landing section for example, there is need to implement fuses with highest rating possible consistent with cable protection. In deployment it is necessary to install fuses near to power source because we need to protect full length of wire. In typical aircraft installation we have fuses for AC and DC sources. These fuses are heavy-duty fuses. Beside that, the devices have their own fuses so we can say that we have double protection, one for aircraft electrical circuits and another for device only. The Picture 1. shows difference between heavy and light-duty fuses. Current limiters obviously limit current to some defined value. We have two types of limiters. One is similar to heavy-duty fuses, they are thermal devices but have different time to current characteristic. Another is limiting resistor. Limiting resistors are used to protect DC circuits where starting/initial current is very high, for example starter engine. These limiters are mostly incorporated with starter generators, and when the highest current occurs, the limiter is incorporated in series and then switched off when the current is on safe value. As you can see in the picture 2, one current limiter is installed in turbine engine starter motor. Electrical current in initializing is around 1500A. Limiter is mounted across the contacts of a shorting relay which is controlled by time switch. This method is called ”shunting”. When starter switch is on, current form main busbar flows through coil of starting relay and is energizing it. At first few seconds current is passing directly to the starter motor and limiter is off. Then, closed starting relay closes the circuit to time switch and also to starter motor through the limiter resistor. Limiter resistor is implemented to reduce current in initial starting by motor. Further, after pre-determined time interval, which allows acceleration of motor, torque load decreases and time switch closes the circuit with shorting relay. When the process of initializing is ended, and motor has constant speed, the power supply circuit is switched off. Circuit breakers are different from fuses and current limiters and they are electromechanical devices that interrupt and isolate circuit in case of failure. The working principle is that it is actuated by heating of bi-metallic element through which current passes to the switch unit. So, we can consider them as fuse with switch capability. It is simple to use and it helps a lot in maintenance. When we have a failure it is possible to repair that malfunction and to give a verification by circuit breaker, because it will not allow the contacts to switch unit if fault current exists in the circuit. Construction is based on three main elements: bi-metal thermal element, contact switch and mechanical latching mechanism and push button. As you can see from the Picture 3, normal operating position is shown on the left, when contacts are closed. If the current exceeds the normal temperature value due to short-cicruit, the thermal element is going to be destroyed and pull the latch mechanism and push the button. It is interesting that we have temperature dependency on circuit breakers. So if we have circuit breaker set on 6A and the operating temperature is +57ºC it would pass 160-140%(7-9A) higher electrical current for period of 30s. So it wouldn’t immediately break the electric circuit. Please see picture 4 which describes temperature dependency of circuit breakers. Circuit breakers are typically mounted on panels. Mostly there are separated panes for AC and DC current. In AC deployment there are three-pole circuits’ breakers and in case of malfunction in any phase all three buttons will pop simultaneously. Circuit breakers panel is shown in the picture 5. At the and we can conclude Circuit based protection is very important due to the fact that high current will cause serious damage. It is obligatory to determine the reason that caused malfunction. One of the top mistakes in practice is use of incorrect circuit breakers or incorrect wire length. If the breaker has higher current value, the wire will overheat, and if it is too small the breaker will immediately switch off the electrical circuit. If we mathematically calculate a current in electrical circuit, we can test it and prove it by forming one simple electrical circuit as shown in the Picture 6. Thanks for reading, What’s your impressions on that back to basics type of article? Do you have anything to add? Please share it below

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A sample of Mars intended to be used to hunt for alien life has mysteriously gone missing from the Perseverance rover. Last week, the rover began one of its most important and complicated tasks: drilling down into the Martian soil to take a sample from underground, with a view to using it to look for possible ancient alien life that might once have lived there. It conducted the first part of the mission successfully, leaving behind a drill hole. It should then have picked up some rock into a sample tube and stored it away. But NASA found that the sample tube was empty, something it said had never happened during the space agency’s testing on Earth. “The sampling process is autonomous from beginning to end,” said Jessica Samuels, the surface mission manager for Perseverance at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California, in a statement. “One of the steps that occurs after placing a probe into the collection tube is to measure the volume of the sample. The probe did not encounter the expected resistance that would be there if a sample were inside the tube.” It is now working to understand where that sample might have gone, and what went wrong. When it does so, engineers will be able to work out how and when to try again to gather up some more of the Martian surface. “The initial thinking is that the empty tube is more likely a result of the rock target not reacting the way we expected during coring, and less likely a hardware issue with the Sampling and Caching System,” said Jennifer Trosper, project manager for Perseverance at JPL. “Over the next few days, the team will be spending more time analyzing the data we have, and also acquiring some additional diagnostic data to support understanding the root cause for the empty tube.” NASA has struggled with work on the Martian soil and rock in the past, often encountering surprising characteristics. Recently, for instance, the InSight lander was unable to drill into the Martian surface as planned. Any samples collected by Perseverance will be stored safely on the rover but not analysed there. Instead, future NASA and European Space Agency missions hope to send spacecraft to Mars that will pick up the samples and bring them back down to Earth to be examined.

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Solution-Microsociological and macrosociological | Homework Help Please answer the following discussion questions. Each answer must be atleast 200 words and follow APA format. 1. Compare and contrast microsociological and macrosociological perspectives. Describe each perspective. Provide two examples of topics that would be studied by sociologists representing each of the two perspectives (four altogether – two for each perspective). Provide your assessment of which approach is most useful in understanding how societies work. Explain your reasoning. (SLO 5) 2. As the old saying goes, “clothes make the man.” Discuss the significance of clothing as it pertains to social class. In constructing your analysis, make sure to include material from both the textbook and the article on uniforms and social class from the interactive reading this week. (SLOs 2, 6, and 7) A number of different kinds of societies have existed through human history. Briefly describe each of these. Indicate two advantages of the societies which existed prior to postindustrial societies. In other words, what are two ways in which these earlier societies seemed to benefit people better than what we find in current postindustrial societies? Make sure to explain the basis for your judgment on this. (SLO 2) Submit responses to the Discussion Board under the appropriate thread.

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Carnot cycle is a reversible Air Standard Cycle, where Internal Combustion Engines can be compared in terms of performance to judge the degree of perfection. So it is the perfect standard engine. Sadi Carnot is a French engineer, who first proposed the Reversible cycle in 1824. In this cycle, the working medium receives the Heat energy from the high temperature and rejects the heat at the lower temperature. Carnot Engine Working Principle The engine based on the Carnot Cycle is called the Carnot Engine. The working of the Carnot Engine is explained in this article with all the different processes In Internal Combustion Engines, there are four operations in the thermodynamic cycles. They are, - Suction or intake stroke, - Compression stroke, - Expansion or power stroke, - Exhaust stroke All these four processes are explained below with the help of a P-V diagram and T-S diagram in the Carnot Cycle. 3 → 4 (Isothermal Expansion) First, the Heat is transferred from the high-temperature source (T3) to the working medium in the cylinder. As the result, the working medium expands. this process is represented as the 3 → 4 on the below P-V diagram. This 3 → 4 operation can be said as combustion stroke, where the Sparkplug gives the heat to the air-fuel mixture. This 3 → 4 process is an Isothermal Expansion Stroke. During this combustion stroke, the cylinder walls and the cylinder head are acts as the Perfectly insulated. Which means the valves will be closed. During this operation, there will be no change in the temperature of the system. You can see this from the Temperature – Entropy (T-S Diagram) diagram. From the Pressure-volume (P-V Diagram) diagram, it is observed that there will be 4 → 1 (Adiabatic Expansion) Due to Insulated valves, the working medium will be allowed to expand further. This state is represented as 4 →1. This is an Adiabatic process. Which means there will be Thermal Energy transfer without the transfer of heat or mass. So there is no change in the entropy. This is observed from path 4 →1 on the T-S diagram. From the P-V diagram, there is a decrease in cylinder pressure and an increase in the cylinder volume. This stroke is called the Expansion Stroke from the thermodynamic cycle. 1 → 2 (Isothermal Compression) Now the system will be brought into contact with the constant low-temperature sink (T1). Which means the valves in the cylinder head will be in opened condition, which means the cylinder head will act as the Perfect Conductor. From this, the Isothermal process 1 → 2 will be started. Some amount of heat is rejected to the sink without a change in the temperature of the sink. So this is also an Isothermal Process from the T-S diagram. In this operation, the working medium will be slightly compressed. This 1 → 2 operation is an Isothermal Compression stroke. 2 → 3 (Adiabatic Compression) Now the valve will be closed during this compression. so there be Energy transfer without the transfer of mass. Which means adiabatic Compression. So there is no change in entropy observed from the T-S diagram, and the working medium will be highly compressed with a very slight change in the volume. from the P-V diagram. And hence the Carnot Cycle is completed. Thermodynamically, efficiency of the Carnot cycle is given by Work done by the system = Heat supplied (QS)- Heat rejected (QR) W = QS – QR Considering the Isothermal processes, 1 → 2 & 3 → 4, we can write Considering the Adiabatic processes, 2 → 3 & 4 → 1, we can write From the T-S diagram T1 = T2 and T4 = T3, we can re-write the above equation From all the above equations we can write efficiency of the cycle is, From the above equation of the efficiency of The Carnot cycle, as the sink temperature (T1) will be the ambient or the coolant temperature. which is fixed. so to increase the efficiency of the Carnot Engine, we have to increase the Source temperature (T3). We have discussed the Carnot cycle with the P-V diagram and T-S diagram. and also we have derived the efficiency of the Carnot engine. Please let us know your thought in the comment section below.

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<storage>tracks". Each track is divided into a whole number of "sectors". Where multiple (rigid) discs are mounted on the same axle the set of tracks at the same radius on all their surfaces is known as a "cylinder". Data is read and written by a disk drive which rotates the discs and positions the read/write heads over the desired track(s). The latter radial movement is known as "seeking". There is usually one head for each surface that stores data. To reduce rotational latency it is possible, though expensive, to have multiple heads at different angles. The head writes binary data by magnetising small areas or "zones" of the disk in one of two opposing orientations. It reads data by detecting current pulses induced in a coil as zones with different magnetic alignment pass underneath it. In theory, bits could be read back as a time sequence of pulse (one) or no pulse (zero). However, a run of zeros would give a prolonged absence of signal, making it hard to accurately divide the signal into individual bits due to the variability of motor speed. Run Length Limited is one common solution to this clock recovery problem. High speed disks have an access time of 28 milliseconds or less, and low-speed disks, 65 milliseconds or more. The higher speed disks also transfer their data faster than the slower speed units. The disks are usually aluminium with a magnetic coating. The heads "float" just above the disk's surface on a current of air, sometimes at lower than atmospheric pressure in an air-tight enclosure. The head has an aerodynamic shape so the current pushes it away from the disk. A small spring pushes the head towards the disk at the same time keeping the head at a constant distance from the disk (about two microns). Disk drives are commonly characterised by the kind of interface used to connect to the computer, e.g. ATA, IDE, SCSI. See also winchester. Compare magnetic drum, compact disc, optical disk, magneto-optical disk. Suchanka's PC-DISK library. Last updated: 2007-06-14

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Treasures From the Attic: Exploring Fractions (get the book choose grades 4-5) In this unit students are introduced to two children, Tori and Jordan. In their grandparents’ attic Tori and Jordan uncover hidden treasures from a general store that their grandmother’s grandparents used to own. These treasures lead to an interesting exploration of fraction concepts. The focus of the entire unit is on making sense of fractions rather than on learning algorithms to perform computations. This is a significant departure from more traditional approaches. It is important for students to think about and picture the relative sizes of fractions and make estimates based on their mathematical thinking when ordering, comparing, adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing two or more fractions. Since fractions are such an important part of our everyday experiences, focusing on meaning rather than rules actually gives students a facility for understanding and working with fractions that will benefit them throughout their lives. This is in line with the research guiding and supporting the Common Core Standards for Mathematics as outlined in the Progressions document, Numbers and Operations – Fractions that can be found at ime.math.arizona.edu/progressions/. In the first chapter, students are exposed to a variety of models (specifically set, linear and area models) to name equivalent fractions. Using a variety of models helps students gain a firm grasp of equivalence, and this, in turn, enables them to generalize and then to apply their understanding to comparing and ordering fractions. When comparing and ordering fractions, students also learn to use multiple strategies to analyze the size of fractions, such as common numerators, common denominators, benchmarks and missing parts of the whole. Students also investigate the density of the real number system as they learn that between any two fractions, another one can always be found. This implies that there are no holes or gaps in the real number line. They also discover something quite exciting—that there is an infinite number of fractions equivalent to any given fraction! In working with addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions in the second chapter, again the focus is on the meaning of mathematical operations as they are used with fractions in a variety of contextual situations. In this chapter, as they solve problems in different situations, students first construct and discuss their own methods for adding and subtracting fractions of all sizes before they are introduced to the common algorithms. Students initially use the physical models, drawings and equivalent fraction charts that they used in the first chapter to develop written algorithms for the operations. After discussing and comparing their own methods, they then compare their methods to the common algorithms and decide which are most meaningful and efficient. This is expanded to an introduction to multiplication and division of fractions, using everyday experiences such as cooking.

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Unlike the coastal defences of the West Wight, of which all but one defended the Freshwater Peninsula, the Victorian coastal forts of the East Wight were in two distinct groups, with three very different tasks. These were: - The protection and support of the Spithead sea forts. This was covered by Puckpool Battery and later Steynewood and Nodes Point batteries. - The defence of the anchorage of St Helens. - The defence of Sandown Bay, the part of the Isle of Wight most vulnerable to invasion. The Protection Of Spithead The eastern part of the Solent known as Spithead, just outside Portsmouth Harbour, has been home to the Royal Navy since Portsmouth established itself as Britain's principal naval dockyard in Tudor times with the construction of the world's first drydock in 14971. As such, Spithead would be a principal target for any force invading or attacking Britain, and so the defence of Portsmouth and Spithead was the priority of the Royal Commission on the Defences of the United Kingdom when it published its report in 1860. The Anchorage Of St Helens A smaller consideration was the defence of the anchorage of St Helens. The waters known as St Helen's2 Roads3 were used extensively by the Royal Navy, who anchored off shore from Henry VIII's time. Water from St Helens was believed to be exceptionally pure and stay fresh, even on long voyages. St Helen's Roads leads to the harbour of Bembridge and, in mediaeval times, Brading. The French landed a considerable invasion force here in 1545. At some point between 1538 and 1545 when Henry VIII, fearing a French attack, constructed castles on the Island, an earthwork, known as St Helen's Bulwark, was built at what would later be Nodes Point to defend the eastern Yar4. St Helens Bulwark was unable to repel the large French attack on 21st July, 1545 and was captured. The Importance Of Sandown Bay The south coast of the Isle of Wight from the Needles to Dunnose Point, Ventnor, consists almost entirely of steep chalk, clay and sandstone cliffs, with little beach below for an invading force to land on. The only vulnerable parts of the Island to attack were the mouths of the rivers on the north of the Island's coast – the western river Yar, the river Medina at Cowes, and the eastern Yar – and Sandown Bay on the south-east coast of the Island. At Sandown Bay5, five miles of firm, sandy beach lay before a 2,000 yard gap in the protective cliffs between the headlands of Culver Cliff to the north and Dunnose Point to the south. Instead of the cliffs found at the rest of the Island, the only obstacle between Sandown and nearby Yaverland was a gentle slope. Furthermore, 600 yards of this bay could be landed on safely no matter what the tide, and the bay itself was shelted from the prevailing south-west winds. Although shoals meant that large vessels would be unable to approach the bay closer than a mile, Sandown Bay was viewed as a stepping stone for invasion for forces landed in small rowing boats and barges. In recognition of this, in 1537 work began on planning and constructing a small castle to defend Sandown Bay, positioned in the middle of the most vulnerable part of the bay, halfway between Sandown and Yaverland. Sandown Castle6 was built as one of Henry VIII's Device Forts to defend and fortify England. Work on constructing Sandown Castle was started in 1544. It was still being built during the French invasion on 1545, when the Mary Rose sank. The castle was thus needed most when it was still under construction, and French invaders reportedly fought defenders over the foundations of the castle. The cost of construction was approximately £3,000. It was designed as a rough square, with a semi-circular gun battery bastion on its south-east side, facing the sea. The north and west corners of the castle, the ones facing inland either side of the drawbridge over the 40 foot wide wet moat, the castle's only entrance, were further fortified. The west corner was defended by a square tower, whilst the north corner was defended by an arrow-head bastion two storeys tall, the first angle bastion built in Britain. There was also a square keep in the castle's centre, near the gatehouse. By the time the castle was finished in 1547 it mounted 11 guns and had a garrison of a captain and 23 men. By 1587, the time of the threat of the Spanish Armada, the guns were considered unserviceable. Also, the castle was built too near the sea; by the late 1580s it was unusable, and was abandoned. It has since been eroded by the sea, and the remains of it can sometimes be seen as a pile of rocks on low tide, opposite Fort Street, a road named after it. A second castle was later built further inshore (see below). The 1545 Invasion The first attempt to seriously defend the Isle of Wight from invasion was towards the end of the reign of King Henry VIII, when four castles and two minor forts were constructed on the Island. These were: - Yarmouth Castle – Built to defend the entry to the western river Yar. - Cowes Castle and East Cowes Castle – these castles defended the mouth of the river Medina, one on either side. - Sandown Castle – supported by Sharpenose Blockhouse and St Helen's Bulwark. These were constructed in the 1530s-40s at the principle landing points on the Island, as Henry feared an invasion attempt by France at the time. This fear was well-justified – as hinted at above, a full French invasion of the Island took place in 1545. In 1545 England was ruled by the now ageing King Henry VIII (1509-1547). When Henry left the Catholic church in 15387, there was a very real and imminent threat of invasion. His decision had resulted in the Pope demanding that King Francis I of France and Emperor Charles V of Spain, the nephew of Catherine of Aragon, invade and remove Henry from power. In preparation to meet this threat, in the 1540s an extensive campaign to fortify England was begun. The dissolved monasteries were demolished, and their stones reused to construct a series of castles across the coast of England. Henry VIII's castle-building strategy was to defend all harbours, and to deny the enemy any harbour or anchorage that could be used to establish a base for a more serious assault. In 1544 Henry VIII, allied with Emperor Charles V of Spain, declared war on France. His 40,000 men quickly captured Boulogne, yet Francis I negotiated a truce with Charles V and swore revenge. On 3 January, 1545, King Francis I announced his intention to invade England, 'to liberate the English from the Protestant tyranny that Henry VIII had imposed on them'. His ultimate aim was to capture Portsmouth, Henry's naval base, taking advantage of the absent English army that was spread across France, Scotland8 and Ireland. Henry called all available remaining resources to the defence of Portsmouth. In June, Henry launched a pre-emptive strike at the French fleet assembling in Le Harvre before it set sail. The English fleet was chased out of the mouth of the Seine without inflicting any damage on the French fleet, and thus failed to delay the invasion. By July Francis I had gathered a large fleet of 150 battleships, 60 decked pinnaces, and 25 galleys - 235 ships in total - under the command of Admiral Claude d'Annebault, as well as 30,000 troops poised to attack Portsmouth and Henry's Navy Royal. The English fleet gathered in Portsmouth, with 40 large warships, and about 100 requisitioned merchantmen. On 15 July, Henry and his Privy Council moved to Portsmouth to await the invading army. Henry had only some small part-time local militias (the Isle of Wight militia, for example, contained barely 2,000 men) and a few mercenaries to fight France's 30,000 men, of which over 10,000 were professional soldiers. The French fleet also had its share of problems. On 6 July d'Annebault held a state dinner aboard his flagship, the 800-ton Carraquon. During the meal, the cook accidentally set fire to the vessel – the stores of gunpowder caught fire and promptly exploded. D'Annebault was one of the few survivors. He transferred his flag to another ship, La Maitresse, which ran aground when leaving Le Havre. Despite this, d'Annebault continued in the damaged ship, which later sank outside Bembridge. By 18 July the French fleet was seen and dropped anchor off St Helens. With Henry watching its arrival from Southsea Castle, they began their attack. The 25 galleys, each with a single massive cannon in the bow (which was aimed by turning the ship to face the enemy), moved in on the English fleet, which was secure in Portsmouth Harbour. In reply, Great Harry and Mary Rose led the fleet to attack the galleys, whose main target was Great Harry. The French did little harm, and were soon chased off by English rowbarges. The English fleet was badly outnumbered and could not hope to win the battle and sheltered in the superbly defended Portsmouth Harbour. The French fleet could not approach Portsmouth harbour, and sought to lure the English ships into the Spithead, where they could be easily attacked and destroyed. The French response was to invade the Island. They would burn buildings and crops and slaughter the inhabitants in front of Henry, hoping to provoke him into ordering a fatal mistake. The Island's population was approximately 9,000, and the over-confident French felt that the Island would be easily captured. However, used to frequent raids and invasions since the Hundred Years War, the Islanders were prepared for the worst and all the men underwent regular, compulsory military training and some women even fought as archers. It was known that should anyone flee the Island, all their property would be seized. Richard Worsley was the Captain of the Island and commanded a force of almost 6,000 Island, Hampshire and Wiltshire militia. Although poorly armed they had the advantage in knowing the land as well as a fanatical desire to protect their home. While 250 men continued to work on completing the incomplete castle at Sandown, Worsley positioned half his men below the summits of Brading Down on the Island's east and Boniface Down on the Island's south. On 19 July the English fleet left Portsmouth harbour to attack the enemy, resulting in the loss of the Mary Rose. Meanwhile D'Annebault launched three attacks on the Island, at St Helens, Bonchurch, and Sandown. Pietro Strozzi, an experienced Italian mercenary, led the attack on St Helens, quickly capturing the small fort there and killing the defenders. This fort's cannon had been bombarding the French fleet. The remaining English forces in the area were forced to retreat while the French killed, raped, pillaged and burnt the villages of Bembridge, Seaview, St Helens and Nettlestone. The waters of St Helens were also used to replenish French supplies. Le Seigneur de Tais, Colonel General of the Infantry of France led a larger force to land at Bonchurch. Dunnose Point offered a safe anchorage and there were good fresh water sources at nearby Shanklin Chine for the thirsty army and fleet. The French landing was unopposed and the French advanced inland, up the steep thickly-wooded slopes of the Undercliff. Meanwhile the defenders had adopted a strong defensive position. Although they drove back the first French attack, de Tais rallied his men and attacked again. After a vicious fight, the outnumbered English line broke and the militia fled the battle. The English commander, Captain Robert Fischer9, was too overweight to run and is reported to have cried out offering £100 for anyone who could bring him a horse. Sir John Oglander, Deputy-Lieutenant of the Isle of Wight from 1596, wrote in his memoirs that 'none could be had even for a kingdom'. Captain Fischer is believed to have died, although his body was never recovered. He may have found a degree of immortality in his last words from the 1545 Battle of Bonchurch – they are believed to have inspired William Shakespeare's 1591 account of the Battle of Bosworth in his play Richard III, where Richard's last words are 'A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!'. The third French attack was aimed at the incomplete Sandown Castle and was led by Captains Marsay and Pierrebon. The French planned to capture the castle and then move swiftly across the flat coutryside and divide and isolate the English forces, allowing them to attack and destroy the defenders at will. Worsley, recognising the danger, advanced his forces rapidly to the beach before the French had the chance to assemble. Soon thousands of men were fighting them on the beaches, and on the cliffs around the incomplete building-site of the castle while a hail of arrows fell on the French. Both Marsay and Pierrebon were wounded and returned to their ships. Left leaderless, the French retreated back to their boats and the safety of the sea. While this attack had taken place, a group of reckless Frenchmen desperate to escape the confinement of their ship disobeyed orders and landed at Whitecliff Bay, a small bay to the north of Sandown Bay over Culver Cliff. After the attack at Sandown, Worsley moved his forces up the slope of Culver Down to meet this new, disorganised threat. The French retreated back to the ruins of Bembridge, where they held off the English at a defensive earthwork constructed at Centurion's Copse. The Islanders withdrew back to the west bank of the eastern Yar and cut the only bridge to Bembridge at Yarbridge, as the French occupied the whole of the tidal island of Bembridge. The French remained in Bembridge several days, but the battle was a stalemate. The Island had received additional forces and the French had been forced to retreat from Bonchurch. D'Annebault seriously considered the occupation of the Island and planned to construct two forts on the Bembridge isle. He wrote: 'having it [the Isle of Wight] under our control, we could then dominate Portsmouth... and so put the enemy to extraordinary expense in maintaining a standing army and navy to contain us.' The Isle of Wight could, at the least, be traded back for Boulogne. The idea was abandoned when it was realised that the French had no engineers or supplies available necessary to build these fortifications, with a force of 6,000 men needed to hold the Island and build the necessary defences. Sir John Oglander wrote 'This was the last assault our Island had.' The French invasion had failed. Even the sight of much of the Island ablaze did not enrage Henry enough to attack the superior French force, and the French fleet withdrew on 28 July. The frustrated French armada left the Isle of Wight, and for no apparent reason sailed to attack Shoreham in Sussex, where it was later defeated. Peace was made with France in 1546. The lasting legacy from the battle, the Mary Rose, was raised from the Solent seabed in 1982 and is on display at Portsmouth Dockyard, alongside HMS Victory and HMS Warrior. The famous Cowdray print showing the sinking of the Mary Rose also shows the fires and battle on the Isle of Wight, as well as Sandown Castle. Sandown Castle was mentioned in the Doctor Who And The Sea-Devils classic novelisation by Malcolm Hulke. The television episode was filmed in Portsmouth and on the Isle of Wight, including at Redcliff in Sandown Bay. This seems to have influenced the writing of the novelisation, where Sandown Castle appears in Chapter 2 'Visitors For The Master'. 'The Doctor stopped... 'It means,' said the Doctor patiently, that this is a bit of shoreline that is receding before the waves... Did you know that Henry VIII used to stand on the ramparts of Sandown Castle and, as he wrote, "Look out across the fields to the sea beyond"?' 'No,' said Jo apologetically, 'I hadn't heard that. I suppose you knew Henry VIII personally when you travelled back through Time?' 'As a matter of fact,' said the Doctor, 'no. I've never met him. But the significance of all that is that not only have those fields disappeared beneath the sea, but Sandown Castle has as well.' Sir John Oglander Sir John Oglander, Sheriff of Hampshire, Deputy-Governor of Portsmouth, and Deputy-Lieutenant of the Isle of Wight 1596-1648, fiercely campaigned throughout the 1620s for Sandown Castle and the defences of the Isle of Wight as a whole, to be strengthened. In his memoirs he wrote in 1627: 'The sea have infinitely eaten upon our Island, witness Sandam Castle. ...On our complaint unto him [King Charles I] he promised we should have Sandham Castle repaired (which I showed afar of unto him, together with ye consequences thereof), a fort at St. Helens [and] munitions for our country.' Despite this promise, nothing happened, and so as Sir John Oglander wrote two years later: 'In January, 1629, the gentlemen of our Island concluded to go to London, to petition his Majesty for moneys to have our castles and forts some amended, others where most need required, new erected... We delivered our petition to his Majesty which was well approved of in all things savinge in our needless fears of ye French ...our castles and forts wear either all demoliched or else so unserviceable as not able to defend us, but rather to invite an enemy; and of what consequence the loss of that Island may be to ye whole kingdome... We showed them our desires to have 2 block-houses built at Sandham, 2 at St Helens... they approved it, and demanded the estimate of ye charge, which wee told them would come to... for blockhouses at Sandham £1,000, with a running trench to go between them; £1,000 for 2 like blockhouses to be erected at St. Helens. My Lord Treasurer told me that on his honour we should have monies very shortly... and a good Engineer to be sent down according to our desire... and that we should have some ships to attend about our Island until we were fortified.' Second Sandown Castle Unusually approval to rebuild Sandown Castle was not only given, but also actually carried out. In 1631 the old castle was demolished and in 1632 work on constructing a new castle began further inland. The castle was built as a four-point star shaped castle rather than the two block-houses requested by Sir John Oglander, designed by the Chief Engineer of Royal Fortifications Thomas Rudd. This castle, also known as Sandown Fort, was finished in 1636 and was armed with 30 guns as well as weapons for 300 men. Sandown Castle was now the official residence of the Governor of the Island, such as Sir Robert Holmes. The castle was in essence a square, with an angle-bastion at each corner giving it its star profile. In the central square yard were the brick barracks, storehouse and captain's house buildings on three of the four sides, with the open side facing the gatehouse. On top of the bastions facing the sea were gun platforms. The castle was surrounded by a wet moat that was filled from a feeder ditch and could only approached by a lane that is now the road known as 'Fort Street', leading to a drawbridge. The castle was built of stone, with ramparts on top of the walls and re-enforced by turf bricks to absorb shot. The castle was described in the 19th Century as: 'A regular square flanked by four bastions, and encompassed by a wet ditch... On crossing the shallow moats of the fort by the narrow wooden bridge and entering the gateway you enter upon the small square, or parade of the fort, thirty-five paces square, three sides of the square formed by the officers' and the men's quarters and the fourth by the entry gateway. The central building opposite the gateway is the original keep of the fort, now used for officers' quarters. The buildings on each side are of a more modern erection.' John Hassell's 1790 publication Tour of the Isle of Wight, describes the castle with the words: 'Our next destination was to Sandown fort. This fort commands the bay from which it takes its name. It is a low square building, flanked by four bastions, and encompassed by a ditch. The lowness of it secures it against any attacks by sea, as the shots from the ships pass over it. ...There are several master-gunners, with a small garrison in it; so that this part of the coast is defended by it, during a war, from the attacks of an enemy.' During the Civil War, the castle's garrison declared for Parliament but played no role in the conflict. Throughout the 18th Century the castle was the main defence of the Eastern Wight. It is known to have been armed with twenty 9-pounder smooth bores in 1725. However by 1779, the year that the castle was threatened by a major international invasion threat, the Board of Ordnance survey revealed that the castle needed urgent repairs. The main fault was that its magazine was vulnerable to enemy fire and was not bombproof. The 1779 French-Spanish Alliance Invasion Threat In 1779, during the time of the American War of Independence, France again planned to take advantage of the fact that Britain's Royal Navy was dispersed between America and the West Indies by mounting a full-scale invasion of Britain with the aid of Spain. 40,000 French troops and their 400 transport ships assembled at Le Havre and St Malo. The plan was that, in May, the French fleet under the Comte d'Orvilliers would rendezvous with the Spanish fleet under Don Luis de Cordoba, sail into the English Channel, destroy the British Home Fleet, escort the transports across the Channel, capture the Isle of Wight to secure as a base of operations from which to attack and destroy Portsmouth, and then march on to London. Spain hoped at the very least to be able to trade the captured Isle of Wight for Gibraltar, the peninsula off the coast of Spain captured by Britain in 1704. Although the plan had been set for May, d'Orvilliers was unable to sail until June, as his ships were under-manned and under-provisioned. The French did not have enough men for such a fleet, so in order to increase the number of officers many men were promoted regardless of suitability, and many of the seamen had been found in prisons. It was later said that there were ships in which none of the crew or officers knew even how to take a bearing. An American fleet commanded by John Paul Jones had agreed to try to divert the Royal Navy to help the plan succeed. The British Home fleet was in a state of chaos, with politics rather than able commanders in control. In command of the Home Fleet was Sir Charles Hardy, the elderly, sick Governor of Greenwich Hospital. However, despite being small and poorly led, the British fleet contained the mightiest ships of the day. As well as the 100-gun vessels HMS Royal George, HMS Britannia, HMS Victory10 and the 90-gun HMS Prince George, the fleet had exceptionally well-trained crews. With 30 ships of the line and eight frigates, Sir Charles Hardy left harbour on 16 June. D'Orvilliers sailed to Corunna to rendezvous with the Spanish fleet. The Spanish officers, however, had not been informed of the top-secret plan, and took six weeks to organise and rendezvous. The Spanish also refused to follow French orders, and tried to dissuade the French from invading the Isle of Wight, insisting that the fleet should attack Gibraltar instead. The fleet finally set sail, completely outnumbering the British Home Fleet. In August 1779 the Armada finally entered the English Channel. The three-month delay had meant that the crews of the French fleet, which had set sail in June, had consumed most of their food and water. Smallpox and scurvy were rife throughout the fleet, and even d'Orvillier's son died. So many French sailors were sick that there were often too few men to adequately sail the ships, let alone man the guns in the event of a battle. The Armada reached Plymouth only to be blown back into the Atlantic. The French then abandoned their plan of capturing the Isle of Wight, settling on taking Plymouth and occupying Cornwall. The French Armada again reached Plymouth, only to be blown back into the Atlantic once more. Hardy decided to play for time, allowing disease and lack of food to take their toll on the enemy. Hardy avoided engaging the enemy, though monitoring its position and then decided to draw the enemy fleet away from its base at Brest by returning to the Spithead. This tactic was successful, and on 3 September d'Orvilliers abandoned the attempt to invade the Isle of Wight, returning to Brest with over 8,000 of his men sick. The cost of the expedition helped to push France into bankruptcy; its attempts to recover the cost through taxes led to the French Revolution. Had the French and Spanish fleet ever made it to the Isle of Wight, they planned to land at Sandown Bay just as the French had done in 1545. There they expected to encounter a garrison of 150 pensioners; however the real complement was one captain, 12 men and four gunners, with all the guns recorded in 1783 as being 'old and worn out'. It was unlikely that the castle would have been able to stand up to 40,000 men. An American Attack? Local legend has it that in the late 1770s or early 1780s a force of American privateers landed at Sandown, attacked the castle but were repulsed and fled out to sea. Although it is well known that American privateers, in particular John Paul Jones, did attack English ports and settlements at this time, there is no evidence to support the claim that John Paul Jones or one of his compatriots attacked Sandown other than John Hassell's 1790 publication Tour of the Isle of Wight. In this, John Hassell wrote. 'During the last war several privateers entered the [Sandown] bay and tried to destroy [Sandown Castle] but were not able to succeed in the attempt; beating down a few chimneys was the height of their achievements. It was repaired not many years later.' There are other vague references to an inconsequential attack causing little, but no real damage, but nothing mentioned in the primary source for historians at this time, Sir Richard Worsley's11 1781 The History Of The Isle Of Wight. From this it is believed that any raid must have taken place after 1781, however this would be after the period that American privateers were active. Many historians have speculated that the raiders were more likely to have been French. In either case, the raid had no lasting implications and caused little damage. The Napoleonic Wars During the Napoleonic Wars the threat of invasion surfaced once again. It was believed that France was poised and capable of landing 10,000 troops with horses and equipment at Sandown Bay within 24 hours. In addition to Sandown Castle new defences were needed. Four temporary earth redoubts holding between two and six 18-pounder smooth bore cannon and troops were constructed in Sandown Bay: one at Yaverland, one near the site of what is now Sandown Library, one near the site of Sandown Pier and possibly one at Shanklin Chine. In addition, a battery armed with two 9-pounder cannon was constructed north of Sandown Bay on the other side of Culver Cliff to defend the small beach at Whitecliff Bay. To garrison the men needed to man these forts in 1798 a barracks was constructed at Sandown Heath, (now the Heights Leisure Centre). At this stage the barracks was a set of wooden huts made with weatherboard or sod walls and roofed with thatch or deal. This was clearly unsuitable for long term use, and a permanent brick barracks was proposed in 1806 although not constructed until 1811-15. This had a two-storey central barrack block, wing buildings for field guns and horses, plus a one-storey range used as offices and a hospital. Most of these buildings have since been demolished to make way for the Council offices and the leisure centre. After 1805 and the Battle of Trafalgar, the threat of invasion passed. The temporary earthworks soon fell into disrepair and Sandown was left protected by a barracks and Sandown Castle. The Victorian Invasion Panic Even before the 1859 Royal Commission on the Defences of the United Kingdom it was realised that Sandown Castle was old and no longer able to withstand a serious assault by a well-armed invading enemy. The commissioners wrote in their 1860 report that 'Sandown Bay affords the best and indeed the only good landing-place for an enemy on the whole of that part of the Island between the Needles and Spithead to the southward'. Their proposal was to construct a whole new fort built out of granite, to be known as Sandown (Granite) Fort, supported by a further six batteries protecting the most vulnerable parts of Sandown Bay. These would be, from north to south: - Redcliff Battery - Yaverland Battery - One battery each side of Sandown Granite Fort - Sandown Barrack Battery, built on the cliff adjacent to the barracks - A battery at Landguard, Shanklin In order to save money, the batteries either side of Sandown (Granite) Fort and the proposed battery at Landguard were removed from further plans and not constructed. In the event of the enemy landing at Bembridge or Whitecliff Bay and attacking the batteries from the rear (similar to what had happened in 1545), a supporting land fort was built on the top of Bembridge Down. This acted as a keep in the same way that Golden Hill Fort was the keep for the West Wight's batteries. The second Sandown Castle, now replaced by the Sandown Bay Victorian Defences, was sadly demolished in 1901, with its site now the Sandham Grounds park. The two seaward bastions are now under the coast road embankments, with the rear two beneath the tennis courts and the site of the bowling green. The Second World War In addition to the batteries still in use during the Second World War, further defensive measures were made. Sandown and Shanklin Piers were sectioned to prevent their use as landing stages for enemy vessels filled with troops. The beaches were closed to the public and covered with barbed wire. Anti landing craft scaffolding, concrete blocks nick-named 'dragon's teeth', and iron rails were erected on the beaches as well as land mines on the beaches. Defensive trenches were dug and concrete pill boxes were constructed at strategic points. Surplus old naval 6-pounder guns were mounted for beach defence too. One of these was in a coastal cottage near the library – almost the same spot that the Napoleonic earth fort had been located – and there were additional guns at Yaverland, Bembridge Point and, in 1941, one in Shanklin. Also in 1941, a Royal Marine Mobile Naval Base Defence Organisation 4-inch breech-loading gun was temporarily emplaced near the Coast Guard station at Foreland, Bembridge. This was primarily a coastal defence training centre. There was also a searchlight battery here, manned by 391 Battery, 48 Searchlight Regiment, Royal Artillery, equipped with Lewis guns and rifles. Fortunately during the Second World War the feared invasion never came, and the Battle of Britain was fought in the air rather than at sea. The age of the coastal defence fort had ended.

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By: David Schonfeld, MD, FAAP After any disaster or crisis, families struggle with what they should say to children and how to help them cope. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) encourages parents, teachers, child care providers, and others who work closely with children to filter information about the event and present it in a way that their child can understand, adjust to and handle in a healthy way. Where to start No matter what age or developmental stage your child is, you can start by asking what they've already heard. Most children will have heard something, no matter how old they are. After you ask them what they've heard, ask what questions they have and how they feel about what's happened. Older children, teens, and young adults might ask more questions. They may ask for and benefit more from additional information. But no matter what age your child is, it's best to keep the dialogue straightforward and direct. Avoiding graphic details & exposure to media In general, it is best to share basic information with children, not graphic details, or unnecessary details about tragic circumstances. Children and adults alike want to be able to understand enough so they know what's going on. Graphic information and images should be avoided. Keep young children away from repetitive graphic images and sounds that may appear on television, radio, social media, the internet, etc. With older children, if they will be viewing news coverage, consider recording it ahead of time. That allows you to preview it and evaluate its contents before you sit down with them to watch it. Then, as you watch it with them, you can stop, pause and have a discussion when you need to. Children will generally follow good advice, but you have to give them some latitude to make decisions about what they're ready for. Most children will have access to the news and graphic images through social media and the internet right from their cell phone. You need to be aware of what's out there and take steps in advance to talk to children about what they might hear or see. Talking to very young children The reality is that even preschool-age children will hear about major crisis events. It's best that they hear about it from a parent or caregiver, as opposed to another child or in the media, or through overheard conversations. Even the youngest child needs accurate information, but you don't want to be too vague. Simply saying, "Something happened in a faraway town and some people got hurt," doesn't tell the child enough about what happened. The child may not understand why this is so different from people getting hurt every day and why so much is being said about it. The underlying message for a parent to convey is, "It's okay if these things bother you. We are here to support each other." Talking to gradeschool children & teens After asking your child what they have heard and if they have questions or concerns about what occurred during a school shooting, community bombing, natural disaster, or even a disaster in another country, a parent can say something such as: "Yes. In [city], [state]"(and here you might need to give some context, depending on whether it's nearby or far away, for example, 'That's a city/state that's pretty far from/close to here'), there was a crisis [explain what the crisis was]and many people were hurt [add more information]. The police and the government are doing their jobs so they can try to make sure that it doesn't happen again." You can follow-up as needed based on your child's reactions and questions. Talking with children with developmental delays or disabilities Parents who have a child with a developmental delay or disability should gear their responses to their child's developmental level or abilities, rather than their chronologic age. If you have a teenage child whose level of intellectual functioning is more similar to a 7-year-old, for instance, gear your response to what you might share with most 7-year-olds. Start by giving less information. Provide further information in the most appropriate and clear way you can. Talking with children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) What's helpful to a child with an ASD may be different. For instance, the child may find less comfort in cuddling than some other children. Parents should try something else that does calm and comfort their child on other occasions. Ask yourself, "Given who my child is, their personality, temperament and developmental abilities and what generally helps calm them when they are worried. What might work for them?" Signs a child might not be coping well You may see signs that children are having difficulty adjusting. Some of things to look for are: Sleep problems: Watch for trouble falling asleep or staying asleep, difficulty waking, nightmares or other sleep disturbances. Physical complaints: Children may complain of feeling tired, having a headache or stomachache, or generally feeling unwell. Changes in behavior: You may notice your child eating too much or less than usual. Look for signs of regressive behavior, including social regression, acting more immature or becoming less patient and more demanding or irritable. A child who once separated easily from their parents may become clingy. Teens may begin or change current patterns of tobacco, alcohol or substance use. Emotional problems: Children may experience undue sadness, depression, anxiety or fears. Sometimes it can be hard to tell if a child is reacting in a typical way to an unusual event or whether they are having significant problems coping, and might benefit from extra support. If you are concerned, talk to your child's pediatrician, your child's teacher, or a mental health professional or counselor in the school or community. Don't wait for symptoms. Children often do a good job of hiding their distress. Start the discussion early, and keep the dialogue going.

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Researchers have come up with a solution for the problem of too much plastic waste and insufficient, reliable clean energy for the masses. By turning the tons of discarded plastic bottles into fuel, we could kill two birds – or, rather, save two seabirds – with one stone. Polyurethane makes up so much of the plastic products we use once and toss away. From water bottles to grocery bags, the non-biodegradable material lingers in our shared habitat for years. It is the most widely produced plastic in the world and its ubiquitous presence pollutes the oceans and kills marine life. Hopefully, however, this won’t be the case for long. Related: Newly discovered plastic-eating bacteria could help clean up plastic waste around the world Scientists from the University of California Irvine and Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry have found a way to basically melt the substance into a usable fuel with a process that requires no harsh chemicals and produces no harmful byproducts. Alkane, an oil refinery byproduct, is used in the process, which creates a purpose for an additionally useless substance. The only drawback is that the other two elements needed in the process, iridium and rhenium catalysts, don’t come cheap. The researchers are working on making the materials more affordable, possibly by making them recyclable. Regardless, the potential is remarkable. The fuel will burn cleanly and can power current combustion engines. George Britovsek, a Catalysis Expert at the Imperial College London not associated with the research, said, “if the kinks can be worked out, this approach may become favorable compared to the current options of recycling or burning the waste plastic.” Images via Wikipedia and Pixabay (1,2)

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As I have mentioned in previous posts about fractions, starting with hands on and pictorial activities is vital for helping primary intermediate level students understand fractions. Today I would like to share my top 5 tips for decomposing fractions. These are mainly focused on 3rd – 5th grade, but may be helpful for some older and younger students as well. 1.) I love using my pizza game for hands on fractions! If you don’t have a pizza game, you can use plastic fraction circles or make pizza fractions from paper plates. Show your students a fraction of a pizza such as 5/6. After guided them to name the fraction, show them one way to decompose it by giving 2/6 to one student and 3/6 to another student. Point out that 2/6 + 3/6 is a way to decompose 5/6 and ask if they can name any other ways. Act out other representations such as 2/6 + 1/6 + 2/6 by giving those slices to other students. Try this with several different students. 2.) Give students color tiles or unifix cubes. Give specific directions such as make a rectangle with 3 red, 2 blue and 7 yellow. What fraction of your tiles are not yellow? (5/12) Move the red and blue apart a little to show how 5/12 can also be represented as 3/12 + 2/12. Do this with a few other fractions as well. 3.) Give students pictures of fractions and have them cut them up to show ways to decompose the fraction. 4.) Coloring Practice – Give students pictures of fractions with nothing shaded. Give them directions on what color to color different parts. Then guide them to write number sentences to decompose the fractions. 5.) Play Games! Make your own games to practice decomposing fractions or try one of the games I have available on my TpT page. Yesterday I wrote about making math real for children at home. Connecting Math to everyday life helps children be successful in school by showing them Math is important, building vocabulary and math fluency, and promoting critical thinking and problem solving skills. If you missed yesterday’s post: Getting Real With Math – Part 1 of 2 (@ home) click here to check it out. Today I am going to add onto yesterday by pointing out ways to make Math connections outside of the house. Just like yesterday, I would suggest that you keep it real by discussing problems with your child, give them time to think, reflect, talk it out and try to come up with solutions in a way that is natural and does not feel forced or too much like a “lesson”. Math at the grocery store: The grocery store is a great place to use math. Weighing produce, counting soup cans, and comparing prices of cereals are ways to use math skills and expose younger children to math and numbers. As your children get older you can increase the difficulty of your math conversations. My kids and I used to make a game out of estimating our total as we grocery shopped. This helped with rounding and mental math. When we got to the checkout we would see who was closest to the actual total. We haven’t actually played the estimating game lately, but they are older now and really good at comparing prices and figuring out an estimate for a total when we are shopping (especially when they are spending their own money). You can also promote problem solving skills by asking questions such as: - If these apples are $1 per pound, how much would 3 pounds cost? How did you figure that out? - These potatoes are $4 for a 5 pound bag. How much is the cost per pound? - If I use this coupon, what is my final price going to be? - Which package is a better deal? How can you tell? - How many packages do we need to buy to make sure we have enough toilet paper for the week? Beyond the grocery store: Once you start thinking of connecting math to your child’s world you will probably find all sorts of teachable math moments as you are out and about. Here are a few ideas: - Comparing a value meal to buying items a la carte at fast food places. - Finding total cost of an outing to a water park or movie. - Elapsed time: keep track of start and end time and figure out time spent somewhere. - Calculating distance traveled on a trip (out of town or just running an errand). - Shopping for clothing, toys, books, etc. I hope you enjoyed my post. Please feel free to leave comments with more ideas for using math out and about. One of my favorite children’s books is “Math Curse“, written by John Scieszka and illustrated by Lane Smith. It is a picture book about a child who has been “cursed” by looking at everything in her world as a math problem. The illustrations are fabulous and the story is clever, but that is not all that I love about it. As a teacher, I love reading the book to my students and challenging them to find math problems around them. It leads into great discussion about how we use Math in “Real Life”, not just in school. Continue reading

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Phonological Awareness Online In this mini-course, Lyn defines and explores reading and writing fluency. The composite parts are explained and exemplified. Identifying and Connecting Parts of Speech Grammar beyond naming/doing/describing: Learn how Lyn and the Lifelong Literacy team introduce and practise parts of speech and syntax with their students. The 4-Step Process: In this self-paced online course, Lyn will take you through the four steps she uses in her practice to study words. She will use a variety of words, from simple to complex to demonstrate how the 4 Step Process can be used with students of all ages and abilities. The IPA for beginners: The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a chart of symbols that represent the human speech sounds. Each one has its own symbol and its unique voice, placing and manner combination. The IPA allows linguists to transcribe words in any human language. In this session, Lyn will outline the various aspects of the chart to give educators a working knowledge of what the IPA is and how it can and can’t be used.

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Balbharti Maharashtra State Board Class 8 History Solutions Chapter 9 Last Phase of Struggle for Independence Notes, Textbook Exercise Important Questions and Answers. Maharashtra State Board Class 8 History Solutions Chapter 9 Last Phase of Struggle for Independence Class 8 History Chapter 9 Last Phase of Struggle for Independence Textbook Questions and Answers 1. Rewrite the statements by choosing the appropriate options : (Andaman and Nicobar, August Kranti, Vinoba Bhave, Sane Guruji, Indian National Congress) ……………….. was the first satyagrahi of individual satyagraha. The nation wide movement of 1942 is also called ……….. . In November 1943, Japan conquered ………. islands and handed them over to Azad Hind Government. Andaman and Nicobar 2. Explain the following statements with reasons: In November 1939, provincial ministers of Indian National Congress gave their resignations. - Viceroy Lord Linlithgo declared in 1939 that India had joined the Second World War on the side of England, without consulting the Indian leaders. - England claimed that it was fighting to save democracy in Europe. - Thereupon, the Congress claimed that if that claim is true then England should grant Independence to India immediately. ’ - So the provincial ministries of the Indian National Congress resigned in November 1939 as England did not accept this demand. The Indian National Army had to lay down their arms. - The Indian National Army fought against the British in adverse circumstances under the leadership of Subhash Chandra Bose. - The Imphal Campaign of Indian National Army remained incomplete as the Japanese stopped helping the Indian National Army. - In the same period, Japan accepted defeat in the Second World War. - On 18 August 1945, Subhash Chandra Bose died in a plane crash. Under these circumstances, the soldiers of the Indian National Army had to lay down their arms. The Parallel Government became a source of inspiration to the people. 1. During the Quit India Movement, parallel governments were established in many parts of India. 2. It rendered great service by doing work like : - Opposition to money lenders - Prohibition of liquor - Spread of literacy 3. Opposition to caste distinctions, etc. Due to this, the Parallel Government became a source of inspiration for the public. 3. Complete the following table. |Forward Bloc||Subhash Chandra Bose| |Indian Independence League||Rash Behari Bose| |Toofan Sena||Krantiagrani G.D. alias Bapu Lad| 4. Answer the following questions in brief: Why did the British Prime Minister send Sir Stafford Cripps to India? - During the Second World War, England sided with America against Japan. - As England was ruling India, there was possibility of Japan attacking India. - The Japanese forces came closer to the eastern border of India. - It was necessary to have co-operation of India to resist Japanese invasion. Therefore, the British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India in March 1942. What kind of reaction was seen during the spread of news of arrest of main leaders of the Indian National Congress? - Quit India Resolution moved by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, was passed on 8th August with an overwhelming majority. - On the same night, the leaders of the Indian National Congress were arrested. - The news of these arrest aroused strong resentment. - The angry people took out processions, tried to take control of government offices and attacked jails, police stations and railway stations. - School children took out processions and shouted slogan “Vande Mataram”. - Even though the police resorted to lathi charge and firing, the people were not afraid. The young and old showed determination and courage. What appeal did Mahatma Gandhi make in the Quit India session of Indian National Congress? Gandhiji made the following appeal to the people of India during the Quit India session of Indian National Congress at Mumbai: - Everyone of you, should from this moment onwards, consider yourself a free man or woman. - Everyone should behave like a citizen of free India. - Either we shall free India or die in the attempt. - Through the appeal he stated that Indians should be ready to make a sacrifice with the feeling of ‘Do or Die’. Do you Know? Inspirational account of brave children: - Under the leadership of Shirishkumar, school children carried out procession holding the tricolour at Nandurbar in Maharashtra. - The slogan of Vande Mcrtaram was given. - In the police firing, along with Shirishkumar, Dhansukhlal, Shashidhar, Ghanashyam, Laldas became martyrs. Let us Know….: - As the British government was constantly neglecting the demands, the Indian National Congress decided to start anti war propaganda. - Instead of a collective movement every person should individually disobey the law. This is called Individual Satyagraha. - Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first individual Satyagrahi. - After him, nearly 25,000 Satyagrahis participated in individual Satyagraha and were imprisoned. Prepare a timeline of the events of the struggle of Indian National Army. With the help of internet collect the pictures of Quit India Movement of 1942 and organise an exhibition on occasion of a national day. Class 8 History Chapter 9 Last Phase of Struggle for Independence Additional Important Questions and Answers 1. Rewrite the statements by choosing the appropriate options : Provincial Ministers of …………… resigned in November, 1939. Indian National Congress Songs of ……………. inspiration during the movement. Identify the wrong pair : Organisation – Founder 1. Azad Dasta – Bhai Kotwal 2. Lai Sena – General Awari 3. Azad Radio – Aruna Asaf Ali 4. Azad Hind Government – Subhash Chandra Bose Wrong pair: Azad Radio – Aruna Asaf Ali Corrected pair: Azad Radio – Usha Mehta. Rewrite the statements by choosing the appropriate options : In 1937 elections, the Indian National Congress gained a majority in …………… provinces and came to power. Parallel government was formed by …………… in Satara. (a) Krantisinh Nana Patil (b) N.G. Gore (c) Rashtrasant Tukdoji Maharaj (d) S.M. Joshi (a) Krantisinh Nana Patil Netaji founded the …………… in 1943 in Singapore. (a) Free India Centre (b) Azad Hind Sena (c) Parallel Government (d) Azad Hind Government (d) Azad Hind Government …………… tried to destroy the railway along with his campaigners in Sindh. (a) Khudiram Bose (b) Ashfaqulla Khan (c) Hemu Kalani (d) Maganlal Bagdi (c) Hemu Kalani …………… had formed the Azad Hind Sena with the help of Captain Mohan Singh. (a) Rash Behari Bose (b) Subash Chandra Bose (c) Anand Mohan Bose (d) S.M. Gore (a) Rash Behari Bose Name the following: Viceroy who announced India’s involvement in Second World War. President of Mumbai session of Indian National Congress. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Leader who put forth Quit India Movement resolution at the Mumbai session of the Congress. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru The outburst of Navy and Air Force on this British warship. His songs inspired the National Movement. Rashtrasant Tukdcji Maharaj. Answer the following in one sentence each: State the resolution passed by the Congress Working Committee in the Wardha session. The Congress Working Committee at its Wardha session passed the resolution that - the British rule in India should be ended immediately and - India be given independence. What was the warning given by the Congress Working Committee in the Wardha session? The Congress Working Committee had given the warning that if the demand for complete independence was not met, it would launch a non-violent movement for the freedom of India. Why did the British Government imprison Subhash Chandra Bose? The British Government imprisoned Subhash Chandra Bose because through his speeches he made appeal to the people of India to revolt against the British rule. What did the British Government realise after the Navy and Air Force revolted? After the revolt of Navy and Air Force, the British Government realised that their rule in India was about to end. Do as Directed: Complete the graphical presentation: Prepare a Timeline of the events of the struggle of Azad Hind Sena: Write short notes : Provincial Cabinets : - According to the Act of 1935, working of the British administered provinces were transferred to the elected representatives. - Although not satisfied with the act. Congress contested elections to the Provincial Legislatures of eleven provinces in 1937. - Indian National Congress gained a majority in eight provinces. - Congress ministries did a lot of useful work for the benefit of the people. - As the British government refused their demand of Independence the Congress ministries resigned in November 1939. Individual Satyagraha : - As the British government was constantly neglecting the demands the Indian National Congress decided to start anti-war propaganda. - Instead of a collective movement they decided every person should individually disobey the law. This is known as Individual Satyagraha. - Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first Individual Satyagrahi. - After him nearly 25,000 satyagrahis participated in individual satyagraha and were imprisoned. Rash Behari Bose : - Rash Behari Bose was living in Japan since 1915. - He had established the ‘Indian Independence League’ by organizing the Indian patriots living in the South East Asia. - Japan conquered the territories of South-East Asia controlled by the British. - Rash Behari Bose, with the help of Captain Mohan Singh, formed the Indian National Army or Azad Hind Sena from the Indian prisoners of war captured by Japan. Revolt of Indian Navy and Air Force : - Inspired by the heroics of the Indian National Army, the soldiers on the British warship ‘Talwar’ revolted on 8th February 1946. - They hoisted the tricolour flag on the ship and raised slogans against the British Government. - The exchange of fire between the rebels and the British army took place. - The workers and common people extended their support. - To support this uprising, the Air Force from Delhi, Lahore, Karachi, Ambala, Meerut went on strike. - The naval soldiers laid down their arms after the mediation by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. Answer the following questions in brief: What work did the Azad Radio Centre do during the 1942 underground movement? During the 1942 underground movement Vitthal Zaveri, Usha Mehta and her companions established a secret transmission centre, ‘Azad Radio’. The work done: - News of agitations in the country were broadcast on it. - Patriotic songs were sung. - Patriotic speeches were telecast. This gave inspiration to the agitators during the Quit India Movement. Explain the significance of the Quit India Movement. 1. On 8th August 1942, in the Mumbai session, the Indian National Congress gave the order of ‘Quit India’ to the British government. This was the beginning of a nationwide agitation. 2. To fulfill the objective of independence, lakhs of Indians sacrificed their lives in this movement. 3. The number of people who participated were so large that even all prisons in the country were not enough to contain them. 4. The movement shook the foundation of British rule in India. State the impact of the events from 1942 to 1946 on the British rule. Many important events took place between 1942 to 1946. The following effects were seen on the British rule : - It shook the foundation of British rule in India. - The Quit India agitation manifested the strong anti-British feeling of the Indian people. - The Army, Navy and Air Force considered to be backbone of the British power revolted against it. - The British rulers realised that now their rule will not last long in India. Explain the following statements with reasons: The plan of federation mentioned in 1935 Act did not materialise. - The Act of 1935 provided for the formation of a federation of the British administered provinces and the Indian princely states. - The working of the British administered provinces were transferred to the Indian representatives. - On joining the federation, the princely states would lose their autonomy. - So, the proposal of federation did not materialise as the rulers of the princely states refused to join the federation. The Cripps proposal was rejected. - The Indian National Congress rejected the Cripps’ proposal because there was no clear mention of the grant of complete independence to India. - The Muslim League rejected the Cripps’ proposal as it had no mention of creation of Pakistan. Subhash Chandra Bose resigned from the office of Congress President. 1. Subhash Chandra Bose became the President of Indian National Congress twice. 2. He became the President of Congress when Second World War had commenced. He was of the opinion that as England was engaged in war, the Congress should intensify the agitation by taking advantage of this situation. 3. If needed, India should seek the help of the enemies of England. 4. Other senior leaders of the Congress did not agree with this view. As a result, Subhash Chandra Bose resigned from the office of the Congress President. The British government suspended the punishment of INA officers. - After surrender of the soldiers of the Indian National Army, the British government charged them with treason. - Expert lawyers like Pandit Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapre defended the INA officers. - But the military tribunal held them guilty and sentenced them to life imprisonment. - There was severe unrest in the minds of the Indian people against the British Government. So, they had to suspend the punishment given by the military tribunal. Answer the following in detail: Write about the Session of Indian National Congress held in Mumbai in August 1942. - On 14th July, 1942 the Congress Working Committee passed the Quit India Resolution at Wardha. - It warned the British government of launch of a non-violent struggle for India’s independence. - With this background, Quit India Session of the Indian National Congress began at Gowalia Tank (Kranti Maidan) in Mumbai on 7th August, 1942. - Maulana Abul Kalam Azad presided over this session. - The resolution passed at Wardha § session was finally approved in the Mumbai session. - On 8th August, Quit India Resolution, moved by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was passed with an overwhelming majority. - Congress decided to launch a nationwide non-violent movement under the leadership of Gandhiji. - Gandhiji gave inspiring message of ‘Do or Die’ to the people and appealed them to be ready to sacrifice for the nation. Give detailed information about Underground Movement. - At the end of 1942, the young socialist leaders started the Underground Movement. - S. M. Joshi, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayprakash Narayan were among the many leaders who led the movement. - Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta, Sucheta Kriplani were the women leaders who led the movement. - The activists disrupted transport and communication by breakdown of railway routes, cutting telephone lines, blowing up 8 bridges, etc. - Hemu Kalani tried to destroy railway carrying British troops and supply, in Sindh province. - Groups like Azad Dasta of Bhai Kotwal in Karjat and Lai Sena of General Awari in Nagpur made the government helpless and witless for months. - Usha Mehta and Vitthal Zaveri started a secret transmission centre of Azad Radio in Mumbai. - Many such centres operated at Kolkata, Delhi and Pune. - Krantisinh Nana Patil formed parallel government in Satara. - Parallel governments were formed in Midnapore in Bengal, Ballia and Azamgrah in Uttar Pradesh and Purnia in Bihar. - Krantiagrani GD (Bapu Lad) established ‘Toofan sena’ at Kundal. Identify the given picture and write information about the work done by him. The given picture is of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. - Subhash Chandra Bose became the President of Indian National Congress twice. - He was of the view to intensify the agitation and seek help from the enemies of England during the Second World War. - He had difference of opinion with other senior leaders on these points. - Therefore, he resigned from the office of the Congress President and formed a party, ‘Forward Bloc’. - Subhash Chandra Bose was imprisoned by the British because he made an appeal to the people of India to revolt against the British. - He was interned in his house by the British but he managed to escape in disguise and reached Germany in April 1941. - He founded the ‘Free India Centre’ in Germany. - He made an appeal to the people of India to join in the armed struggle for the independence of India from Berlin radio station. - On the invitation of Rash Behari Bose, he went to Japan and led the Indian National Army. - He formed the Azad Hind Government in Singapore in 1943. - Under his leadership, Azad Hind Army captured the Aarakan province in Myanmar and posts on the eastern border of Assam. - Netaji appealed to the people of India : ‘You give me blood and I will give you independence’. - On 18 August, 1945 Netaji died in a plane crash. How do you find the contribution of Shirishkumar to be inspirational? - Under the leadership of Shirishkumar, the school children took out a procession holding the tricolour flag at Nandurbar. - ‘Vande Mataram’ was the slogan given to them. - The police fired on them. In the firing Shirishkumar and many other children became martyrs. - His sacrifice gives inspiration to us to do work for the society and country. - Gaining independence is no more our objective but to keep the environment clean, to maintain unity among people, and collectively solve the problems is our responsibility. - As all this is equally challenging we get inspiration from courage and determination of Shirishkumar. - Shirishkumar inspires us to do our work fearlessly without being a victim of injustice and oppression. - He also inspires us to make sacrifice, have faith in work and determination. 1

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Students compare and contrast the language in preambles to two state constitutions; compare state preambles with the preamble of the U.S. Constitution; draft a new preamble for the U.S. Constitution; and discuss the process of amending the U.S. Constitution This unit examines continuity and change in the governing of the United States. Lessons one and two are focused on a study of the Constitution and Bill of Rights and provide access to primary source documents from the Library of Congress. Lesson three investigates important issues which confronted the first Congress and has students examine current congressional debate over similar issues. Lesson four features broadsides from the Continental Congress Students will understand the meaning and central ideas of the Declaration of Independence; cite textual evidence to analyze this primary source; and analyze the structure of the document. This lesson explores some ideas in the Preamble to the Constitution. Students learn that the power to govern belongs to the people who have created the government to protect their rights and promote their welfare. In this lesson, students examine a copy of twelve possible amendments to the United States Constitution as originally sent to the states for their ratification in September of 1789. Students will debate and vote on which of these amendments they would ratify and compare their resulting “Bill of Rights” to the ten amendments ratified by ten states that have since been known by this name. This lesson teaches students about the development and role of the Constitution of the United States. Students will learn about the relationship between the Constitution and a democratic government American colonists had some strong ideas about what they wanted in a government. These ideas surface in colonial documents, and eventually became a part of the founding documents like the Declaration of Independence and Constitution. But where did they come from? This lesson looks at the Magna Carta, Mayflower Compact, English Bill of Rights, Cato’s Letters and Common Sense. This lesson focuses on the drafting of the United States Constitution during the Federal Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia. Students will analyze an unidentified historical document and draw conclusions about what this document was for, who created it, and why. After the document is identified as George Washington’s annotated copy of the Committee of Style’s draft constitution, students will compare its text to that of an earlier draft by the Committee of Detail to understand the evolution of the final document. This lesson focuses on the various problems under the Articles of Confederation between 1783 and 1786 that led to the call for the 1787 Convention. By examining documents of Congress, the state governments, and prominent American founders—both public and private—students better understand why many Americans agreed that the Articles should be revised and amended. Students learn how the U.S. Constitution came to exist by looking at the tensions and differences of opinion that existed among early American states and citizens. Students learn about the Articles of Confederation, why the first “constitution” didn’t work, and how compromise led to the Constitution.

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Education is more than just sitting in a classroom. When students are actively engaged with their teachers and peers, they learn more quickly and retain the information longer. As a result, students are motivated to learn and feel satisfied with their ability to succeed. Educators should not just rely on traditional methods of instruction, to get students to learn. Teachers should encourage their students to create their own learning environments, think outside the box, and use different methods of teaching to expand their knowledge. As the world is becoming more technologically advanced, many of today’s students are learning with the use of interactive digital devices rather than with traditional textbooks. What can teachers do to make learning more fun? Teachers can also make learning fun by playing interactive games, making the classroom a more interactive environment, and looking for ways to differentiate learning for every student. At the beginning of every class, it’s a good idea to greet your students with inspiring quotes like those you can find from Buongiorno. There are many ways that teachers can engage students in fun and interesting ways. Teachers can have them play educational games, create their own games, and collaborate with others to create games on a level that is appropriate to their ages. Another fun way to engage students is to teach students how to use different technologies, and then have them incorporate these technologies into their learning environments. This will not only promote creativity and collaboration but will also promote more interactive learning. Classrooms can also be fun by teaching students about the history and current events. Students can learn about the person behind the politician, the history behind the recent event, and the face behind the politics. Teachers can also use humor in the classroom, to make learning more fun. Humor can be used in many different ways, such as to lighten up tense situations, increase the student’s interest in a topic, and to make a learning environment more enjoyable. In summary, It is important for teachers to realize that children learn best when they grow from their experiences and when their emotions are in check.

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Random assignment is a procedure used in experiments to create multiple study groups that include participants with similar characteristics so that the groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study. The procedure involves assigning individuals to an experimental treatment or program at random, or by chance (like the flip of a coin). This means that each individual has an equal chance of being assigned to either group. Usually in studies that involve random assignment, participants will receive a new treatment or program, will receive nothing at all or will receive an existing treatment. When using random assignment, neither the researcher nor the participant can choose the group to which the participant is assigned. The benefit of using random assignment is that it “evens the playing field.” This means that the groups will differ only in the program or treatment to which they are assigned. If both groups are equivalent except for the program or treatment that they receive, then any change that is observed after comparing information collected about individuals at the beginning of the study and again at the end of the study can be attributed to the program or treatment. This way, the researcher has more confidence that any changes that might have occurred are due to the treatment under study and not to the characteristics of the group. A potential problem with random assignment is the temptation to ignore the random assignment procedures. For example, it may be tempting to assign an overweight participant to the treatment group that includes participation in a weight-loss program. Ignoring random assignment procedures in this study limits the ability to determine whether or not the weight loss program is effective because the groups will not be randomized. Research staff must follow random assignment protocol, if that is part of the study design, to maintain the integrity of the research. Failure to follow procedures used for random assignment prevents the study outcomes from being meaningful and applicable to the groups represented. Case example of random assignment

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Model covalent bonding with moving electrons! Covalent bonding is easy to understand with our unique molecular model that shows how electrons behave during bond formation. Buy once, print forever! Perfect for use in class or for distance learning at home! Your students first build their easy to make paper models of atoms and electrons. They use these to form simple molecules by sharing electrons between the atoms. The differently coloured electrons make it easy to see how the covalent bonds are formed. The models can then be used to show: molecular hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine. It can also be used to make water, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, ethene and ammonia. For more advanced students, coordinate bonding in the ammonium ion can also be covered. Includes full colour Powerpoint presentation! Takes about 30 minutes! Model atom diameter 10cm/4in Download includes: instructions, model templates, and Powerpoint presentation. All you need: paper, scissors and tape Important Information about licencing This download is licenced for unlimited use on a single site/campus only. If you intend to use it on more than one site/campus please email [email protected] for discounted pricing. Unauthorised distribution, copying, downloading, uploading, commercial exploitation or modification by the purchaser or any third party of this document or any part of it is strictly prohibited. Registered Design nos: 4043767, 4043768, 4043769, 4035980, 4035981, 4035982, 4035983, 4038435, 4038437, 4038436, 4038438, 4041830, 4041829.

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“An effect when occurring when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field and orientated so that the field is at right angles to the direction of the current.”This is the Hall effect, named after E. H. Hall who discovered it in 1879. The difference of potential produced is called the Hall emf. An electric field is produced in the conductor at right angles to both the current and the magnetic field. The field produced is related to the vector product of the current density J and magnetic flux density B by the relation. EH =-RH (J×B) The constant RH is the Hall coefficient. The electric field results in a small transverse potential difference, the Hall voltage, VH, being set up across the conductor. In metals and degenerate semiconductors, RH is independent of B and is given by 1/ne, where n=carrier density and e=electronic charge. In non-degenerate semiconductors, additional factors are introduced due to the energy distribution of the current carriers. The hall effect is a consequence of the Lorentz force acting on the charge-carrying electrons. A sideways drift is imposed on the motion of the electrons by their passage through the magnetic field. For materials in which current is carried by positive charge carriers (Holes), the direction of the Hall field, EH, is reversed. Under certain conditions, the quantum Hall effect is observed. The motion of the electrons must be constrained so that they can only move in a two-dimensional “flatland”: this can be achieved by confining the electrons to an extremely thin layer of semiconductor. In addition, the temperature must be very low and a very strong magnetic flux density must be used. The magnetic field applied normally to the semiconductor layer produces the transverse Hall voltage as in the ordinary Hall effect. The ratio of the Hall voltage to the current is the Hall resistance. At certain values of flux density, both the conductivity and the resistivity of the solid become zero, rather like in superconductors. A graph of Hall resistance against flux density shows step-like regions, which correspond to the values at which the conductivity is zero. At these points, then, the Hall resistance is quantized; calculations show that Where n is an integer,h is the Planck constant, and e is the electron charge. The Hall resistance can be measured very accurately. It is equal to 25.8128 kΩ. Hence the quantum Hall effect can be used to calibrate a conventional resistance standard, and can also be used in the determination of h and e. Applications of hall effect (video) Because the Hall emf is proportional to B, the Hall effect can be used to measure magnetic fields. A device to do so is called a Hall probe. When B is known, the Hall emf can be used to determine the drift velocity of charge carriers. Watch also the animation of H effect.

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Introduction to the Trilobites: Morphology, Macroevolution and More Skills and concepts that students must have mastered How the activity is situated in the course Content/concepts goals for this activity The learning goals for this lab are the following: 1) to familiarize students with the anatomy and terminology relating to trilobites; 2) to give students experience identifying morphologic structures on real fossil specimens, not just diagrammatic representations; 3) to highlight major events or trends in the evolutionary history and ecology of the Trilobita; and 4) to expose students to the study of macroevolution in the fossil record using trilobites as a case study. This laboratory exercise mixes the traditional taxon approach and the conceptual framework approach to teaching paleontology by covering information on the anatomy and ecology of the trilobites while also delving into macroevolutionary concepts. This lab introduces the basic anatomy and ecology of the Trilobita and then requires the students to apply that new knowledge immediately to complete an exercise on macroevolution. This should reinforce the anatomy and vocabulary multiple times in the same lab to increase retention and demonstrate to students why understanding anatomy is important to tackling modern problems in paleontology. This lab does not cover each of the trilobite orders in detail and places emphasis on understanding ecology and evolutionary concepts over memorization of groups. Higher order thinking skills goals for this activity Padian (2010) suggests that teaching macroevolution is a way to defeat creationist arguments that typically only refute microevoltuion. In particular, Padian (2010) suggests increasing the coverage of macroevoltuionary concepts at the college level where he has demonstrated it is currently lacking in upper level biology, evolution, and paleontology textbooks (Padian, 2008). By combining a discussion of macroevolutionary theory with the latest published research on trilobite pattern and process, this lab aims to do just that. Other skills goals for this activity Description and Teaching Materials Laboratory Assignment : Introduction to the Trilobites Lab (Acrobat (PDF) 1.9MB Jul3 14) Laboratory Key: Introduction to the Trilobites Key (Acrobat (PDF) 1.9MB Jul3 14) References and Resources Padian, K. (2008). Trickle-down evolution: an approach to getting major evolutionary adaptive changes into textbooks and curricula. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 48(2), 175-188. Padian, K. (2010). How to Win the Evolution War: Teach Macroevolution! Evolution: Education and Outreach, 3(2), 206-214.

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Females have two X chromosomes, males have one X and one Y. An egg always carries a single X, while sperms carry either an X or a Y. That is how sex is determined in humans, and in most other mammals. Although females have two X chromosomes, each cell can only have one X chromosome active. During early development, a process called X-inactivation occurs. In each cell one of the X chromosomes randomly deactivates. This causes different parts of the body to have different X-linked genes, and is responsible for the black and orange coloration of calico cats. Related pages[change | change source] References[change | change source] - See sex determination for a fuller account. - Bainbridge, David A. 2003. The X in sex: how the X chromosome controls our lives. Harvard.

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An Apostille or an Authentication certifies the authenticity of the signature, seal and position of the official who has executed, issued or certified a copy of a public document. An Apostille or an Authentication enables a public document issued in one country to be recognized as valid in another country. While they accomplish the same objective, there are differences between Apostilles and Authentications. An Apostille is a certification form set out in The Hague Convention abolishing the requirement of legalization for foreign public documents (1961). An Apostille may be obtained to transmit public documents executed in one signatory country to another signatory country in which the documents need to be produced. The Hague Convention defines a “public document” as: - Those originating in a court, clerk of a court, public prosecutor or process server; - Administrative documents; - Notarial acts; and - Official certificates are placed on documents. An Authentication may be obtained to transmit public documents to countries that have not subscribed to The Hague Convention.

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The Palace of Knossos is the largest and most impressive remnant of the Minoan civilization. This ancient civilization thrived on Crete 2000 years B.C. and planted the seeds for the later classical culture in Greece and throughout the Mediterranean. The roots of the Western culture lie here. The remains of the colossal building are crucial to our understanding of the Minoans’ history, art, and architecture. Despite the questionable restoration work by archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, the palace still manages to convey to visitors a sense of its former glory. “They fashioned a tomb for you, holy and high one, Cretans, always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies. But you are not dead: you live and abide forever, For in you we live and move and have our being.” (Epimenides of Knossos) The history of the palace The palace of Knossos was erected on the ruins of an older building constructed around 2000 BC and likely destroyed by the earthquake caused by the gigantic (ca. 1628) eruption of the volcano on Thera (the present-day island of Santorini). Arthur Evans was the archaeologist who, in 1900, began to excavate Knossos. He was also in charge of restoring the ruins of the palace. He tried to recreate the original appearance of the building by rebuilding the missing parts with modern materials like reinforced concrete. For this reason, he was later much criticized. But he was certainly not the only archaeologist to work this way during his era. However, the added materials are not easily recognizable. The columns, for example, were originally made of wood and did not survive into the modern age. The existing concrete columns are painted red and black with the same colors typically used by the Minoans and give a general idea of the palace’s original appearance. The palace is enormous and grew over years of use to occupy about 20,000 square meters. Walking through its complex multi-story buildings, one can understand why the Palace of Knossos has been associated with the mythological labyrinth of the Minotaur. According to Greek mythology, the building was designed by the architect Daedalus. King Minos, who commissioned the palace, kept him prisoner to make sure he would not reveal the secrets of the project. Daedalus, who was a great inventor, built two pairs of wings to fly away and escape from the island with his son Icarus. The father warned his son not to fly too close to the sun because the wax that held the wings together would melt. But, in a tragic turn of events during the escape, young and impulsive Icarus flew higher and higher until the sun melted the wings and the young man died falling into the waters of the Aegean Sea. Greek myths also tell that the labyrinth at Knossos was home to the monstrous Minotaur, later slain by Theseus. Though the legend is enduring, walking through the ruins of Knossos, it’s hard to imagine that it was a place of torment and death. The frescoes that decorated the elegant walls speak of a people with a rich and joyous approach to life. The living space of the complex included the accommodation of the king, queen, and administrative officials, as well as halls for worship and receptions. The central area was a courtyard where performances of bull-leaping by gymnasts were carried out. Bulls were sacred animals to the Cretans, as evidenced by the numerous frescoes found in the building. The dangerous bull-leaping ceremonies are thought to be a historical basis for the Minotaur myth. The bathrooms of the Queen’s apartments, with underground pipes, sewers, and drains; Minoan technology was even able to provide running hot water. Many of these buildings were destroyed and abandoned in the early part of the 15th century BC, although Knossos is thought to have remained in use until it was destroyed by fire about one hundred years later. Knossos showed no signs of ever being a military site. It had neither fortifications nor stores of weapons, so the reasons for its abandonment remain a mystery.

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Having learnt how to fly an aircraft, and cope with emergencies and abnormalities, the teaching of navigation brings the student to the point of using the aircraft to travel somewhere. It brings together much of what has already been learned into the context of a cross-country flight, where the student learns not only how to fly but also how to manage a flight. It is in this phase of training that a student’s ability to build and maintain situational awareness, assess differing conditions and situations, and make good decisions needs to “step up” to a higher level. In this sense, it is much more than navigation training, and the instructor needs to make sure they emphasise these non-technical skills whilst teaching through this phase. Visual navigation is a time-based activity, supported by map reading, and its success is dependent on good time management. There are many tasks for a pilot to remember and carry out, and good workload management is essential. A major emphasis the instructor must impart during navigation training is that of managing time and planning moments where specific tasks can be accomplished. A workflow or “routine” needs to be taught, based around a timescale. Whilst technology in the cockpit brings many advantages and enhancements to flight safety it is imperative that the basics of visual navigation are thoroughly taught, using dead-reckoning techniques, supported by use of a paper chart. Instructors may find their students resistant to learning these basics when the technology is so good and will need to provide strong reasoning as to the importance of learning the basics first. There are two reasons for this; Navigation is much more than simple map-reading, and this navigation section to the FI Guide refers to the guide Practical Flying Guide 1 - Visual Navigation. The techniques recommended in the guide are thoroughly explained and are not repeated here. To understand the intent of the lessons, the techniques to be taught, and the briefings in this section, it is essential the instructor is familiar with the guide. Before embarking on the navigation phase of training, there are some essential elements of learning which need to have been achieved. Whilst the student’s skill in these areas may not be perfect, or complete, the basic principles and techniques need to have been well grasped. Prior to the navigation phase the student must be able to climb the aircraft, whilst maintaining a heading to an altitude, level off and trim for straight and level flight. An ability to maintain the heading and altitude whilst ‘in trim’ will be essential, and without these basic skills, attempting to learn navigation will be frustrating or even counter-productive. The navigation phase, should not be the first time that a student has identified their position, or estimated a direction to head in, on an aeronautical chart or map. In fact, the basic skills of map reading should have been instilled through the early lessons. The ability to use a chart should be introduced in small steps from the very first lesson. Initially pointing out key landmarks in the local area and relating them to their depiction on the chart. On subsequent lessons, teach the student to hold the chart “track up” as well as pointing out airspace boundaries. When teaching climbing and descending, introduce the vertical aspects of navigation by checking airspace altitudes and planning a climb or descent accordingly. In pre-flight briefings, always tell the student where the lesson will be conducted and point it out on the chart. Refer again to the chart during the debriefing, reviewing where the aircraft had been. At the end of each lesson, where a join will be necessary, a discussion can take place between instructor and student as to their present position with direct reference to the chart. Key features to assist in finding the airfield can be identified and followed. Airspace can be identified and in the later lessons, and a heading and distance can be estimated. Bear in mind that the student’s estimates will be somewhat wayward to begin, but with the experience built up through practice, they will be building the skill and knowledge needed for navigating and cross-country flights. The use of the radio should be phased in over the early lessons, with limited exposure during the initial exercises building up to the student taking more responsibility as the training progresses. By the end of the circuit phase the student should be dealing with all the communications prior to leaving the circuit and after joining. Competency with the calls necessary for departing and joining the circuit, as well as changing frequencies should quickly follow thereafter. It is all too easy for the instructor to make the joining call on completion of each lesson, especially when the frequency is busy, and time is pressing to get back for the next lesson. In some circumstances this is the correct course of action, but whenever possible the student should be encouraged to make the R/T call(s). During the post circuit training (such as Advanced Turning or Forced Landings) instructors should teach their students how to make an accurate position report. They should also teach how to contact FISCOM (or another suitable station) to obtain information such as an Area QNH, a NOTAM, or a METAR. Instructors should be gradually introducing the use and interpretation of the AIP, the Supplements and NOTAMs. It is important to keep this very simple to start with, to avoid over-whelming the student. But, like map reading, make small steps progressively building up knowledge. At an early stage take the time to teach how to assess the suitability of the weather from the available weather information. Teach the principle of assessing the ‘big picture’ of weather and asking the question such as is the weather expected to improve, remain stable or deteriorate? How will the weather be towards the end of the flight? Teach the comparison of a TAF with actual conditions experienced so and by ‘looking out of the window’. Relate visibility to the distance of a nearby visible feature. Encourage the student to check the forecast weather before each lesson and, with some help, compare that with actual conditions particularly as it relates to a Go/No go decision. In-flight teach the student to make reasonable assessments of cloud base, visibility and wind at typical cruising altitudes. Their initial attempts may not be very accurate, but will improve rapidly with experience, provided you remember to include it during the lesson. Threat and Error Management (TEM) techniques should be discussed from the outset of the training course, with the practical application of the techniques demonstrated and practised throughout the early lessons. Whilst the student pilot will have thoroughly studied navigation for the purpose of passing the theory examination, a comprehensive ground course will need to be delivered to apply those principles in a practical sense before airborne navigation training commences. Appendix 1 provides a suggested syllabus for a typical ground course and is based on the techniques depicted in the guide Practical Flying Guide 1 - Visual Navigation. This list can be used or adapted as required to take account of the local environment. The content of the ground course would take at least a whole day to deliver but could be spread over several briefings. As previously stated, this navigation section of the FI Guide assumes the use of the techniques described in the guide Practical Flying Guide 1 - Visual Navigation. As such it can be used as a reference text for students to understand and learn these techniques. It is well worth encouraging students to thoroughly learn or even over-learn, the techniques and “rules of thumb” from the guide, on the ground. This would include WHAT checks, track error estimation, standard closing angle calculations, practising the free hand drawing of track lines, estimating the degrees in True, and converting to Magnetic. The material and guidance to instructors offered in this section should be used alongside the requirements stipulated in AC61-3, and the FTSG PPL Cross-Country Demonstration of Competency. The lessons complement the ‘stages’ described in the AC as shown in the table below. Included in Lesson 4 is the recovery from an inadvertent entry into IMC. This is an additional and optional item to those listed in the AC and is recommended as a safety enhancement. The variables of aircraft type, student ability, local airspace considerations and weather patterns will ultimately dictate the construction of each flight lesson and the exact order of events. Therefore Lessons 1 to 4 provided in this section are templates designed to be adjusted as appropriate to accommodate differences in operating environment. Ideally Lesson 1 should be a triangular route with 20-minute legs but can be adjusted if required. The remaining lessons should be adjusted to suit the training location. For instance, a relatively long flight may be required to reach a controlled aerodrome, or terrain may influence a route and individual legs. It may be more suitable to have 3 lessons, or even 5 lessons rather than 4. When making such adjustments it is important to ensure that the techniques are taught in a logical sequence and that enough time is available on each leg to prevent the student from becoming over-loaded. Equally, the whiteboard briefing must be adjusted to represent the actual route to be flown. Routes to be planned by the student, should be determined by the instructor to ensure that they are suitable for teaching the techniques during a dual flight, and for safe practice and consolidation during solo flights. Solo flights must be integrated with the dual flights in a similar manner to the Stages of the AC. Equipment used in the cockpit should be well managed and kept to a minimum. Using the techniques of the Practical Flying Guide 1 - Visual Navigation, the only equipment that needs to be ‘to hand’ is the chart, a pen or pencil, a time piece and a navigation log. All other equipment such as a circular slide rule, a protractor or navigation ruler are for planning on the ground and should be stowed. This is the first flight in the navigation phase and lays the foundational methods and techniques which will be built upon in further lessons. The instructor needs to focus on three areas in this lesson; flight planning, DR navigation and workload management within defined time frames. To ensure the integrity of the taught exercise, unlike other lessons, the instructor should not introduce deliberate errors. Instead fly accurately and allow errors, changes in the wind for example, to present themselves naturally. And then correct these using the appropriate techniques. [For full details of the techniques used refer to: Practical Flying Guide 1 - Visual Navigation.] Before the day of the flight, the instructor should have given the student a simple triangular route to plan that will take approximately one hour, each leg covering approximately 20 minutes of flight time at normal cruising speed. On the day of the flight ask the student to check and interpret the AIP, supplements and NOTAMs as applicable. They should also check and assess the suitability of the weather conditions. They can then complete their planning but will probably need help with this. Their navigation log and chart or map should be prepared as per the Visual Navigation guide and the instructor should check this and point out any corrections that may be needed. Even if the school has a flight following system installed in the aircraft, the student should still be taught how to file a VFR Flight Plan. The final stage of the planning process is to review the route, identifying, or ideally refreshing from the chart what might be seen at each of the fixes and turning points so that there is an awareness of what to expect prior to getting airborne. This is the time to identify potential threats (e.g. lowering cloud, changes of wind, danger areas, likely traffic, circuit or instrument traffic at aerodromes) and human errors (e.g. misreading headings or times, airspace boundaries including altitude changes) and discuss error prevention and mitigation (checking danger area status, radio calls, gross error checks and WHAT checks). Workload will be high when learning to navigate. The structured and time-based approach to navigating will help in distributing tasks and managing workload. Self-discipline needs to be applied to achieve accurate flying, particularly in holding a heading. Guesswork must be resisted, and the heading only changed, when properly re-calculated. Care must be taken to avoid becoming too absorbed in the navigating alone, but to ensure other important tasks are being attended to, such as lookout, radio calls and cruise checks. Regular cruise checks need to be integrated using time as a prompt into the overall workload management of the flight. The alignment of the Direction Indicator (DI) must be checked frequently. The DI should also be checked after a Turning Point as a large change of heading can lead to the DI being out of alignment. During a cross country flight, where the aircraft is in the cruise configuration for most of the time, it is appropriate to lean the mixture for performance and economy. Remaining fuel and endurance should also be noted in the Fuel Log section of the Navigation Log. Always maintain a thorough lookout. Avoid too much time “head down” by determining when to put away the map and concentrate on flying and looking outside of the aircraft. When looking at the map, hold it up so that peripheral vision outside, is maintained. The student can suffer from a strong tendency toward confirmation bias, particularly when identifying a key feature to confirm their position, i.e.; “seeing what they want to see”. To prevent this, teach them not to accept the feature until it is properly identified using it’s “distinguishing features”. The student may sometimes feel uncomfortable in not being certain of the aircraft position. Using the method of TIME – MAP – GROUND, should establish approximate position and dispel such discomfort. The student should pre-flight the aircraft, start up, taxi and complete run ups and take-off checks. Prior to take off, the initial stage of the flight should be reviewed or briefed, including circuit departure, visual references, speeds, airspace and altitudes. The student conducts the take-off and initial climb and then the instructor should take control and teach how to correctly identify the Start Point (SP), reading from map to ground. The instructor should position the aircraft over the SP at the planned altitude, speed and on heading, and ask the student to take note of the time overhead. Having established the aircraft straight and level, in trim and on track, teach the gross error check. Orientate the map to “track up” and compare features on the ground with the track drawn on the chart. Ideally use features straight ahead and in the distance. Then teach the WHAT check: Stow the map and hand over control to the student to fly straight and level. This is an important step as it demonstrates to the student that the map is not required all the time during navigation, and that there is no need to follow progress with a finger on the chart. Point out the time available till the first fix and suggest a task that fits within this time frame, such as a cruise check. Emphasise that during this period the student should have capacity, to lookout and maintain situational awareness, such as weather conditions or traffic in the area. Not less than 2 minutes before the first fix, take control and teach how to fix the position of the aircraft. Emphasise TIME – MAP – GROUND and then using “large to small”, “lead in” and “distinguishing” features identify the fix and establish the aircraft position. Mark this on the map and teach how to correct for any error in track and time. Begin by considering why the error exists. If it’s due to the wind, then teach correcting for track error by calculating a new heading. Then apply Standard Closing Angle (SCA) to regain the track. In the same way teach for any error in time using the Proportional Technique. Write down the new heading or ETA in the Navigation Log, if these have been changed. Teach the method for correcting heading or time on an opportunity basis. Do not artificially induce an error. Point out the time available till the second fix, stow the map and hand over control to the student to fly straight and level, and suggest another task that fits within the time frame, such as an appropriate radio call. Make sure the student has had an opportunity to contact FISCOM. In this flight it could be as simple as obtaining the Area QNH or amending the SARTIME. With 2 minutes to run to the second fix, take control and repeat the process of identifying the fix, establishing aircraft position and making corrections where necessary, noting this down on the Navigation Log. Then hand control back to the student, point out the time available to the turning point (TP) and suggest another task within the time frame. With approximately 2 minutes to run to the TP, take control and teach the actions to identify the TP and execute the turn onto the next leg so that the aircraft is overhead the TP and on the next heading. The student can carry out a gross error check, followed by the WHAT check. Make it clear to the student that this is the same routine as was completed at the SP. Developing these workflows and routines are an essential part of the navigation training. Essentially, during the first leg navigation tasks are completed by the instructor while flying, with the student only handling the controls during the straight and level portions of the cruise. A common instructor error is to leave the student in control whilst teaching the navigation elements. This will quickly lead to the student being over-whelmed and the instruction being in-effective. It is vital the student can give their full attention to the navigation instruction being given. During the second leg the same workflows are used, with time being the prompt to instigate the next actions. The emphasis now changes with the student given practice in managing time and completing the navigation tasks (position fixing, calculating corrections to heading and ETA, and amending the Navigation Log), whilst the instructor flies the aircraft. Again, the exception is the portions of the leg when the map is stowed, during which the student should be in control. At the end of the second leg, the student should be able to carry out the procedures at the TP whilst retaining control of the aircraft. For the final leg, the student will have been taught all the necessary workflows and routines to complete the leg from both a navigation and flying perspective, so should be tasked both to fly and navigate. However, the student may still require some assistance, particularly with any corrections at the fixes. Avoid multiple prompts, but instead try to give the student the opportunity to practise, only intervening if it seems the purpose of the leg will be lost. As this is the final leg of the flight, during portions when the map is stowed, you might suggest the student reviews and briefs the arrival and join, if their capacity allows. Having navigated on the third leg, the aircraft should be close enough to the aerodrome to allow the student to organise the join, enter the circuit and land. To prove the accuracy of the student’s estimate for the field, it may be useful, if appropriate, to join overhead. This would then provide an ideal opportunity to practice a Standard Overhead Join.

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You’ve heard about toxins – but what are they and are they really that harmful? Toxins are poisonous agents that can cause health issues when absorbed by the body. Toxins – of varying levels of toxicity – are found everywhere. From the products we use to the air we breathe, we’re exposed to thousands of chemicals each day in what’s been labelled a ‘toxic avalanche’. In fact, the World Health Organisation estimates that 12.6 million people die every year from diseases caused by exposure to chemicals, pollution and radiation, all of which are caused by human activity. Toxins are also present in the food we eat. The media often features product recalls due to the detection of toxins or contaminants in everyday products such as seafood and baby formula. Another common toxin that is concerning is Bisphenol-A (BPA) – a chemical found in plastic food packaging that has been shown to disrupt hormones.Signs of toxic overload While our gut, kidneys, liver and skin all work together to eliminate toxins from our body, our system can sometimes be overwhelmed by the amount of toxins it needs to process. Symptoms of toxic overload include: - Digestive issues - Headaches and migraines - Joint pain - Fatigue and insomnia - Sinus congestion - Skin conditions (such as eczema and psoriasis). Chlorophyll to the rescue Chlorophyll – the naturally occurring green plant pigment – is known for its ability to detoxify the body of chemicals and heavy metals. It does this in two main ways: 1. During digestion, blood passes through the liver. The liver uses enzymes to convert toxic substances into less toxic substances that can be eliminated by the body more easily. Chlorophyll has been shown to help facilitate this process, as well as regenerate damaged liver cells. 2. Chlorophyll is almost identical at a molecular level to haemoglobin – the protein in our blood that carries oxygen. Chlorophyll oxygenates our bodies by enabling oxygen to be taken up more efficiently by our red blood cells. Without sufficient oxygen, our energy levels and metabolism decrease, leading to the inability to eliminate toxins effectively. Adding chlorophyll to your day One of the best sources of chlorophyll is Chlorella - a single-celled, freshwater algae. Chlorella contains more chlorophyll per gram than any other plant. Chlorella also has a unique ability to bind to heavy metals and radioactive particles and flush them from the body. That’s why it’s often used to help people recover from radiation exposure and chemotherapy. Because Chlorella absorbs toxins so easily, it’s important to choose a product which is grown to the highest standards in clean water and air. Otherwise, the Chlorella could easily contain toxins such as mould, heavy metal and bacteria, which could then be absorbed by the body and lead to health problems. The BioGenesis difference BioGenesis Chlorella is TGA and FDA-approved to be 100% toxin free. This means our Chlorella is completely free of any chemicals and heavy metals. We know this because throughout the day, we take samples from the algae ponds as well as each harvest to ensure purity levels are maintained. Getting your daily dose of Chlorella is easy. BioGenesis Natural Chlorella is available in both tablet and powder form, making it a simple addition to your daily routine. It’s also packed full of nutrients such as magnesium, Omega 3/6, zinc, B12 and dietary fibre. Our Chlorella is ‘clean and green’, with a rich fresh aroma and flavour, and a vibrant green appearance. How to detox naturally 1. Take 3 – 6 BioGenesis Natural Chlorella tablets twice a day, or add 2 teaspoons of powdered BioGenesis Natural Chlorella to water, juice or a smoothie. We recommend starting with half the daily dose for the first week, so that your body can adjust. 2. Drink plenty of water throughout the day.

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Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6 When we are talking about someone doing an action, it is very easy to focus on the action itself and not on the manner in which it is being done. The addition of an adverb of manner is an excellent way to add description to the sentence and make it more interesting. Let’s have a look at an example. - She writes. - She writes beautifully. In the second sentence we have added an adverb of manner and it automatically adds some interesting context to the sentence. We can use an adverb of manner immediately after the verb it is describing. It can also go after a noun. It is also possible to use an adverb of manner before the verb. Let’s take a look at all of these uses in action. - The rain fell relentlessly. Here we are using the adverb of manner immediately after the verb “fall” to say that the rain was falling without end. Next one – - The woman played the piano expertly. Here we are using the adverb of manner after the noun “piano” to say what she was playing like an expert. And the last one – - She angrily slammed the door. Here we are putting the adverb before the verb. It tells us that she was angry when she slammed the door closed Another thing to remember is that the positioning of the adverb can have a dramatic effect on the meaning of the sentence. For example – - He quietly asked them to leave the room. - He asked them to leave the room quietly. The difference here is that in the first sentence the speaker is being quiet whilst asking the people to leave the room. In the second one the speaker is asking the people to be quiet whilst they are leaving. So, as you can see there is a big difference between the two sentences. Another example – - He left the room quickly after answering the question. - He left the room after answering the question quickly. Again we have two very similar looking sentences with two different meanings. The first tells us that the person answered the question and then quickly left the room, whereas the second one tells us that he answered the question quickly and then left the room in an unspecified manner. The positioning of the adverb is therefore very important. The trick is understanding which verb we are trying to describe in the sentence. This may take time and practice but it is quite easy once you get the idea. Try some examples for yourself or try our example questions. Good luck. Come and see our school and take a free level test - The present Continuous - Remember vs Remind - Much, Many, Few, Little - Tail Questions – Part II - Using ‘Should’ for the Past and Future Resources by levels

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In computing, something is referred to as native when it is designed to run on a particular platform. The platform is usually an operating system or a processor but it could also be a device. If software runs on a computer natively, it means that it runs without any external layers. For example, to run software native to Windows on macOS, an emulator is necessary. It is a layer that makes one computer system behave like another computer system. But software native to macOS doesn’t need an emulator layer to run on a Mac. Native code is code that is written for a certain processor. This phrase is mostly applicable when talking about differences in CPUs. In general, native code is machine code – a low-level numerical programming language used to directly control the CPU. Developers mainly write code in higher-level languages and this code is then compiled into machine code. Since CPUs differ, the machine code differs. That is why the phrase “native code” is used when wanting to emphasise the differences.

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Nickel-cadmium battery (Ni-Cd battery) is a type of rechargeable battery. It was once widely used in portable electronics such as power tools, flashlights, toys and model boats. Since it is considered reliable and robust, it is still used in demanding areas such as aviation safety, medical equipment and emergency lighting. How do nickel-cadmium batteries work? Ni-Cd batteries consist of a negative electrode (anode), a positive electrode (cathode), a separator between them and an electrolyte. When fully charged, the cathode consists mainly of nickel oxide hydroxide (NiO(OH)) and the anode of cadmium (Cd). The electrolyte is usually a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. The anodes and cathodes, isolated by the separator, can be rolled into a spiral inside the case to provide a high maximum current. When using the battery, nickel oxide hydroxide reacts with water, producing nickel hydroxide and hydroxide ions. On the anode, cadmium reacts with the hydroxide ions, releasing electrons that move from the anode to the cathode. Total reaction during discharge: 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O → 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 During charging, the reverse reaction takes place. Advantages and disadvantages Ni-Cd batteries are extremely reliable and robust. They are difficult to damage, perform well at low temperatures and can also withstand high temperatures. They also have a relatively good cycle life and high discharge rate. For these reasons, they are a good choice for use in harsh conditions and for demanding applications such as in the field of aviation safety. The two main downsides of Ni-Cd batteries are their high cost and toxicity. Because of this, they have mostly been replaced by nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries which are cheaper, less toxic and have a higher energy density. From an environmental standpoint, Ni-Cd batteries are a huge problem. Cadmium is a heavy metal that is highly toxic to organisms. Because of this, the use of Ni-Cd batteries has been restricted in the European Union. They can only be used in emergency systems and lighting and in medical equipment. - Ni-Cd battery - Ni-Cd battery - NiCd battery - Ni-Cad battery - NiCad battery

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Endodontics is a special discipline in dentistry that deals with maintaining the health of the living tissues (pulp) inside a tooth and preventing or managing infection in the surrounding tissues. The most common endodontic procedure is known as root canal treatment (RCT). The aim of RCT is to eliminate the damaged pulp as well as the bacteria that are causing the infection, and to restore the tooth to a pleasing appearance and functional state. The procedure involves removing inflamed or dead nerves and blood vessels from the centre of the affected tooth, which is accomplished by creating an access through the top of the tooth to the root canals and removing the dead tissue. The empty root canal system is then cleaned, shaped, and filled with special materials, and finally, a permanent seal is put over the top of the tooth. The procedure may be carried out over one or two visits to a dentist. At Sunrise Dental Clinic, your dentist will take an x-ray of the affected tooth and possibly administer a temperature sensitivity test before deciding if RCT is required. The x-ray image will reveal the number of roots on the tooth, the extent of the decay (if any), and presence of any abscess. If you have a dead tooth or one with severely damaged pulp, RCT may be the only treatment option. Your dentist will discuss the diagnostic results and recommend possible treatment options to help you make the right decision to restore the health of your tooth. Your teeth have a core of blood vessels and nerves at their centre. This tissue is referred to as pulp, and it occupies spaces called root canals. The number of root canals in a tooth varies, depending on the location of that tooth in your mouth. Front teeth often have just one root canal, while back teeth may have three or more. If your tooth is injured or severely decayed, the pulp can become damaged, and the blood vessels may die. This results in a “dead” tooth, which is prone to infection because it is no longer protected by your immune system. Sensitivity to hot and cold foods and drinks may be a warning sign of tooth decay. This symptom warrants a visit to your local Coquitlam dentist, who can evaluate the cause of discomfort and administer preventive or corrective measures. A tooth’s pulp can be damaged by decay, injury, or even gum disease. All of these conditions can lead to bacterial infection, causing blood vessels and nerves to die. Without treatment, a collection of pus known as an abscess can form at the root tip, causing pain, swelling, and even damage to the surrounding jawbone. Failure to treat the infected tooth may worsen the damage and lead to the extraction (removal) of the tooth. Root canal treatment is needed to remove the damaged tissue, disinfect the root canal system, and restore the tooth to function. Certain teeth may have complex anatomy or may be part of a bridge and require careful treatment. However, modern endodontic practices, such as the use of a microscope for greater visual access, allows for the completion of such cases to a high standard. Occasionally, RCT is undertaken in a previously root-filled tooth in which the treatment is inadequate or has failed. The outcome for such cases can be very favourable and usually results in complete resolution and healing of extensive infections. If you do need to have RCT, your dentist will give you a local anaesthetic, which will block all sensation within the treatment area without causing you to sleep. An anaesthetic may not be necessary if your tooth is dead, but your dentist will discuss this with you before starting the procedure. During the procedure, your affected tooth will be separated from the rest of your mouth using a thin sheet of rubber called a rubber dam. This keeps your tooth dry and protects your airway. It also allows for effective cleaning of the root canal system and prevents re-contamination. Your dentist will first make a hole in the top of your tooth, through which the dead or diseased pulp is removed. The empty pulp cavity is then cleaned, and your dentist may also put in some medication to treat the bacterial infection. If more than one visit is required to treat the affected tooth, your dentist will put a temporary filling on your tooth to keep it sealed until your next visit. However, if the infection has not caused serious problems or damage, your dentist may decide to fill the cavity immediately. If you have had a temporary filling, your dentist will remove this during your subsequent visit and then fill the root canals with a suitable material—usually a putty-like substance. A permanent filling or crown is then placed over the top of the tooth to protect your filled root canal and the vulnerable tooth structure. Your dentist will help you choose between a gold or porcelain crown. If your dentist thinks it is necessary, he or she may also place a metal or plastic rod inside the canal to help support the crown. The management of traumatic injuries to the mouth, particularly in children, is an important aspect of endodontic practice. The front teeth (incisors) are often involved and may sustain fractures or chipped crowns. Such teeth require careful monitoring to ensure that they remain healthy and develop naturally. Our Coquitlam tooth repair experts may decide to perform RCT to avoid pulp death and infection. Even so, the teeth can be restored to normal appearance and function. Endodontically involved or treated teeth may discolour over time. Where appropriate, bleaching of the tooth can restore the tooth to its original colour and normal appearance. Let’s make your smile shine

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Consequences of extreme weather: There are lots of weather we can see every single day. Some of them are pleasant, giving peace to our mind, whereas some are extreme, and such severe weather conditions affect lives to a large extent. These conditions are not new; however, the consequences of those extreme weather conditions have increased from the past few years. These conditions seem natural as we feel these naturally, but these are significantly affected by human activities. Deforestation, pollution, mining, and resource depletion are some examples of human activities affecting our climate. And as a result of such climate change or global warming, we are facing problems such as drought due to prolonged heating and lack of rain, flood by extreme rainfall, thunderstorm, tornadoes, snowstorms, etc. We human beings are responsible for destroying our own habitat. And after knowing the reality, we should take preventive measures in order to cancel the effects. Here in this article, we will discuss the major types of extreme weather along with the consequences of them. So, let’s dive right in. Table of Contents - 1 What Are the Different Types of Extreme Weather and Their Effects? - 1.1 Cyclone or Hurricanes Extreme Effects - 1.2 Flood Extreme Consequences - 1.3 Drought Extreme Effects - 1.4 Severe Storms (Thunderstorm, Tornadoes, Hail storm, Blizzards, Dust storm) - 1.5 Conclusion of Extreme Weather Consequences What Are the Different Types of Extreme Weather and Their Effects? As we already know, there are several kinds of weather, and these include different extreme weather scenarios. We have not only felt them, but we already get their effects from how much loss they can do. So, let’s discuss those extreme weather conditions with their causes, effects, and examples. Cyclone or Hurricanes Extreme Effects If a large mass of air rotates in an inward spiral fashion to an area of low pressure, it is known as cyclones or hurricanes. In the northern hemisphere, these spirals revolve in an anti-clockwise direction, whereas the rotation is clockwise in the southern hemisphere. There are lots of evidence showing the effects of intense cyclones or hurricanes. Hurricane Dorian was a great example of the most recent cyclones occurred in 2019. It was a tropical cyclone with a rate of 185km/hour. Some examples of super-cyclones in India are Amphan, Vayu, Fani, etc. Some other hurricanes occurred in 2020 are eta in the Atlantic Ocean, Nangka in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean, Norbert in the Eastern Pacific Ocean, etc. A vast majority of the population gets affected by the consequences of such extreme weather in Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the western pacific. According to research, the effects of cyclones or hurricanes between 1980 and 2009 include the death of 412,644 people, and 290,654 people found injured. Besides, 466.1 million people get affected by losing their homes, crops, and cattle. Based on a report by WHO, the human-made causes for higher hazard rates are habitats in coastal regions, poor construction of buildings, insufficient time for spreading awareness, and further the unavailability of sufficient shelters for the rescue. The direct effects of intense cyclones include injuries, traumas, the collapse of buildings, crop loss, electricity and communication loss, etc. However, some indirect consequences of such drastic extreme weather include the spreading of water-borne diseases, flood, drought due to scarcity of food, and also mental trauma. For the reconstruction and providing relief against the loss, economic loss occurs. Flood Extreme Consequences A submerged land within a large quantity of overflowing water is the condition of the flood. There are lots of causes for flooding; however, we can take flood as the consequences of the previously discussed extreme weather condition. Yes, a super-cyclone can cause severe flooding in a tropical region. Some other causes of floods are prolonged rainfall, infiltration, basin shape, a large amount of discharge, deforestation, etc. According to the report published in the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and some other information, flooding is an extreme weather condition, that affects many people. There are lots of instances showing flood conditions, their effects as well the control measures taken in different parts of the world. However, the most flood-prone region of the world in Asia and specifically India. Most of the flood conditions in India are due to heavy prolonged rainfall and super-cyclones. The effects of this type of extreme weather issue are also intense, which affects the region socially, ecologically, and further economically. These effects include the destruction of agricultural lands, habitats, essential services, and also increased spread of vector transmitted and water-borne diseases. Drought Extreme Effects Drought is an extreme weather condition, which affects the population to a large extent. Drought is characterized by little water availability (groundwater, streams, rivers, etc.) in a particular region. The primary cause behind a deadly drought situation is the rate of precipitation, which is generally below average in this condition resulting in dry soil (lack of moisture). It can be a condition of prolonged extreme weather, which brings the consequences of a large population’s death in that particular area. According to FAO, 2013, It was found that since 1900, about 11 million loss of human lives occurred due to the dramatic drought situation worldwide. Based on a report by WHO, about 55 million people globally are impacted by the effects of drought every year. Drought causes drying of rivers, lakes, ponds, or even groundwater bodies, which results in little availability of drinking water. Further, drying of soil and lack of watering causes food loss, which results in ultimate death. Severe Storms (Thunderstorm, Tornadoes, Hail storm, Blizzards, Dust storm) Besides, the above said extreme weather, several kinds of storms affect our social, ecological, and economic life. Let’s talk about some of them one by one. First of all, thunderstorms – a deadly weather condition comes along with thunder and lightning on the hot summers when the atmospheric condition remains unstable. Thunderstorms can be combined with tornadoes, hail, or any other extremities. However, solely this type of storm causes massive damage. About 10% out of one hundred thousand thunderstorms in the U.S. effects at a severe level. Furthermore, about 16 million thunderstorms take place each year globally. Lightning during a thunderstorm is the most dangerous event that solely affects fatalities and injury, forest fire, impact on aviation and other modes of transportation, damaging wind turbines, etc. Tornadoes Extreme Weather Effects Tornado—a storm that seems like a funnel is a deadly rotating wind usually extending from a cumulonimbus cloud. “According to NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), there are about 1,180 tornadoes until mid-October 2020, which is lesser than in 2019”. The U.S. is the most affected country by the consequences of such extreme weather. And this year, about $2.6 billion insured loss took place due to these convection storms. According to a study in Marion, Illinois, it came to know that about 50% of injuries regarding tornadoes take place during post-tornado events like cleanup and rescue. Besides injury by falling of enormous objects, tornadoes further cause a drastic loss in communities by damage to electrical systems, gas lines, or power lines. This results in electrocution and explosion like deadly situations. Hail Storm Consequences Hail is a type of precipitation that generally brings rounded or jagged pieces of ice (solid) to the ground along with a storm. Asian countries like India and China experience more hail storms at the beginning of the monsoon season. Further, the great plain regions of Canada and the U.S., also known as the area of hail storms and named “hail alley.” The consequences of this type of extreme weather cause destruction of crops, buildings, vehicles, and sometimes loss of lives. An excellent instance of a deadly hail storm includes a storm with hail in Moradabad, India, in 1988. At that time, about 250 people had lost their lives due to the effects. Blizzard is a type of extreme weather, specifically a snowstorm, which results in heavy snowfall, low atmospheric temperature, and intense wind movement. At the time of such severe storms, the rate of airflow is usually 35 miles per hour. The significant effects of blizzards include increased car accidents, and further, the low temperature in the atmosphere causes snowbite or hypothermia. An example of such extreme weather includes a blizzard in March 1993, which expanded from Canada to mid-America, causing 10 million power outages along with about 300 deaths. Dust storm Consequences In Arid and semi-arid areas, a strong wind rises into an extreme storm, which brings a considerable quantity of fine dust particles, causing the loss of soil on dry land is known as a dust storm or sandstorm. Strong pressure gradients with cyclones or thunderstorms are the primary causes behind these severe conditions. Dust or sand storms seems a minor case; however, this can cause critical illness. Dust or sand particles of size 10 Micrometer or more results in skin and eye irritations, increased susceptibility to eye infection, and much more. Relatively smaller size Particles can be captured by the nose and cause diseases related to the respiratory tract. Various other health issues are also associated with dust storms. Some agricultural effects of sandstorms include loss of plant tissues, soil erosion, reduced phosphorylation, etc. A massive quantity of deposition can result in water quality loss and blockage of transportation routes and canals. Conclusion of Extreme Weather Consequences We enjoy some kind of weather and climatic conditions; however, extreme weather, as discussed above, can bring eternal consequences. Most of those severe atmospheric conditions are due to increased human activities, and thus we can categorize them into human-made destruction’s. Our government is working to prevent such calamities from reducing the extent of social, agricultural, and economic damages. Furthermore, several rescue services and control measures are also taken to save lives as much as possible. Preparation before the extreme condition is the only way to reduce the extent of the loss. So, this is all about the effects of extreme weather, and we hope this is helpful to you. For further queries, comment down below. Follow us for more such useful content.

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They are found throughout the southern U.S. (especially in the southwest), in Mexico, Central America and southwestern South America. They roost in caves, buildings and under bridges. They can reach up to 4” long and weigh up to only .5 oz. The “free” part of their tail extends beyond the flap of skin between their legs and tail (which is called the uropatagium). Their wingspan is about 11” across. They have large ears and a short snout. They are nocturnal, hunting at night using echolocation. Echolocation is a kind of radar that uses the bat’s high pitched calls to bounce off objects. They can actually “see” what is around them by how their calls bounce off their surroundings. They are strong flyers and climbers. They live in large colonies and are thought to be very social bats, calling and interacting in their roost. Because their colonies are large, they often spread over a larger area to feed at night than other bat species. They migrate south in the fall and return north in spring to raise their young and feed on emerging insects. They use echolocation to find prey. They eat insects (insectivorous) – mostly moths, but will also eat ants, flies, beetles, dragonflies, etc. Predators include hawks, owls, raccoons, snakes and opossums. Females are pregnant for 3 months (gestation). They have one pup in June. They are dependent on their mother for care and nursing for 1- 2 months. Females will form group of pups (called a creche), so they can leave them to feed. They find their pups to nurse by smell and call. They have just 1 pup a year. They can live up to 10 years in the wild, but most live a much shorter time. They are exposed to pesticides because of their insect consumption, which can build up in their systems and cause a population decline. Roosting habitat disturbances can also affect populations. Species: Tadarida brasiliensis When you research information you must cite the reference. Citing for websites is different from citing from books, magazines and periodicals. The style of citing shown here is from the MLA Style Citations (Modern Language Association). When citing a WEBSITE the general format is as follows. Author Last Name, First Name(s). "Title: Subtitle of Part of Web Page, if appropriate." Title: Subtitle: Section of Page if appropriate. Sponsoring/Publishing Agency, If Given. Additional significant descriptive information. Date of Electronic Publication or other Date, such as Last Updated. Day Month Year of access < URL >. Amsel, Sheri. "Bat (Mexican Free-tailed or Brazilian Free-tailed)" Exploring Nature Educational Resource ©2005-2023. January 31, 2023 < http://www.exploringnature.org/db/view/Bat-Mexican-Free-tailed-or-Brazilian-Free-tailed >

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The battle for doctrinal control of Christianity began with the declarations of St. Paul in the New Testament. In the religion's first three centuries, numerous sects, many arising from Gnosticism, were in conflict. The first Council of Nicaea (AD 325), which addressed the challenge of Arianism, was among convocations at which a Christian orthodoxy was established. Excommunication was the usual method of dealing with heretical individuals or small groups. The medieval church undertook military action (as against the Albigenses, in 1208) and extensive legal and punitive campaigns (such as the Inquisition) in striving to suppress large-scale heresy. The Protestant Reformation created new churches that at first campaigned against heresy from their own doctrinal bases; over time, however, the Roman Catholic church has remained the only Christian body that has continued with any frequency, on the basis of canon law, to prosecute heretics. See also blasphemy. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2023, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. See more Encyclopedia articles on: Religion: General

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To help you get into full teacher and tour-guide mode, we’ve teamed up with Dictionary.com to put together an educational language guide for you to reference as you’re exploring the aquarium with your kids. Here is an example: – – – Fish don’t breathe the same way that humans do. Fish have gills! A gill is the respiratory organ of aquatic animals that allows them to breathe the oxygen that is dissolved in the water. Water is forced past the fish’s gills, which contain a number of tiny blood vessels. Oxygen seeps into the fish’s blood through these tiny gills, and carbon dioxide seeps out. – – – Review the rest of the words and phrases to help learners at every level get the best out of their virtual field trip experience at dictionary.com.

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- Step 1: Draw bubble style Draw bubble style by printing numbers and letters of the alphabet in the common block style, and them draw over them, fattening and rounding them until you have the look you want. - Step 2: Create graffiti Create different graffiti styles by first drawing stick letters and numbers, leaving ample space between them, and then adding straight, wavy, or other contoured lines around them. Then fill them in with colors or patterns. - TIP: Practice the different styles you want to master, focusing on the more difficult letters of the alphabet, like A, R, B, S, and Q. - Step 3: Draw 3-D letters Draw 3-D letters and numbers by beginning with 2-D versions characterized by length and width. Shade these by placing the darkest values along the outer edges, or in the centers with the lightest values at the outer edges. - Step 4: Apply creativity Apply creativity to your letters and numbers by exaggerating forms, outlining, and coming up with your own special effects and style. - Step 5: Erase unwanted lines Erase any unwanted lines and step back and appreciate your composition. Share your new talent to wow your friends. - FACT: American communities spend an estimated $12 billion annually in cleaning unwanted graffiti written on buildings and other places. You Will Need - Pen or Graphite pencil - Colored pencils or markers

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A new species of shark has been identified in the Gulf of Mexico by a team of researchers, and the creature has one very distinctive feature — it glows in the dark. The glowing shark measures just 5.5 inches long, according to a study published in the Zootaxa journal. The researchers from NOAA and Tulane University determined the small kitefin shark, which was found in 2010, is an American pocket shark based on five features, they explained in a Tulane press release. It has two pockets near its gills that secrete a luminous fluid, which could help the shark attract prey. The only other known variety of pocket shark was discovered in the eastern Pacific Ocean in 1979. That shark is now in the Zoological Museum in St. Petersburg, Russia. “In the history of fisheries science, only two pocket sharks have ever been captured or reported,” Mark Grace of NOAA’S NMFS Mississippi Laboratories said in the press release. “Both are separate species, each from separate oceans. Both are exceedingly rare.” While this shark was caught in 2010 during a mission to study sperm whale feeding, Grace first came across it in 2013 while examining specimens that were collected during the NOAA survey. Grace and researchers at Tulane then began studying the shark, examining its external features as well as taking X-rays and CT scans. Researchers also got help from the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in France, which produced X-rays 100 billion times brighter than the X-rays used in hospitals. Researchers identified several notable differences between the original Pacific Ocean pocket shark and the newly discovered species from the Gulf of Mexico. While both species both produce the glowing fluid, they have a different number of vertebrae, different teeth, and the Gulf specimen has light-producing photophores that cover much of the body. “The fact that only one pocket shark has ever been reported from the Gulf of Mexico, and that it is a new species, underscores how little we know about the Gulf — especially its deeper waters — and how many additional new species from these waters await discovery,” Henry Bart, director of the Tulane Biodiversity Research Institute, said.

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The lightweight, streamlined passenger car was a product of the Great Depression. While the heavyweight steel cars built in the teens and 1920s were dependable and often luxurious, their dark colors and solid, battleship-like exteriors did little to lift the spirits at a time when the entire nation needed a pick-me-up. As noted railroad historian John H. White, Jr. put it in The American Railroad Passenger Car, “Some hope during these gloomy years was offered by a new design concept called streamlining. It presented a sleek, modern image of speed and innovation. What had been an obscure technical term in aerodynamics was made into a household word through an astute publicity campaign mounted by several railroad traffic departments. It succeeded in creating a general interest in railroading practically unknown since the opening of the first transcontinental line… According to Railway Age, ‘For the first time in many years, the words ‘sold out’ re-entered the ticket clerk’s vocabulary.’” But as White notes, the real change in passenger car construction was in weight, not the streamlined appearance that was largely for show: “Weight, not air friction, was the chief obstacle to economic operation.” Unlike the heavyweights, the lightweight cars that debuted in the mid-1930s featured sides and roofs that contributed to their structural strength, eliminating the need for the heavyweights’ massive underframes. Trucks went from six wheels to four, non-revenue space was decreased by using a vestibule on only one end of the car, and lighter, stronger, more rust resistant steel alloys came into widespread use. A typical new lightweight could be 15-20 tons lighter than the heavyweight car it replaced. As with the diesel revolution that was simultaneously taking place, one of the key players in the changeover to lightweights was not an established industry name, but an upstart new player from the automotive industry: the Budd Company of Philadelphia, a supplier of auto body stampings. In 1928, Edward G. Budd had heard about stainless steel, a lightweight, rustproof metal introduced in 1912 by Krupp of Germany. Budd was the first to grasp the potential of stainless beyond cutlery and novelty items. The key problem was the inability of stainless steel to be fabricated with normal welding techniques. Budd’s chief engineer, Colonel Earl J.W. Ragsdale, spent five years developing the key process needed to make stainless into a viable structural material: the patented Shotweld electric welding process. Beginning with the Burlington’s Pioneer Zephyr of 1934, gleaming Budd-built trains, constructed almost entirely of stainless, helped define the look of the streamlined era to the American public — even on railroads like the Pennsylvania and Norfolk and Western that painted over the stainless with company colors. While other car builders such as Pullman countered with stainless-sheathed steel cars like the Southern Pacific’s Daylights, they were forced to use rivets rather than welding for construction. In later years, the result was that Budd cars lasted almost indefinitely, while the stainless-sheathed imitators were plagued with out-of-sight rusting under the sheathing. The majority of lightweights were 80’–85’ long, which scales out to about 21” in O gauge. Many O gauge modelers, however, find cars of this length impractical, as they require large curves and create long trains that can overwhelm a typical-sized layout. For those reasons, our Premier lightweights are about 70 scale feet in length — reproducing the look and feel of prototype streamliners in a model that will round O-42 curves with ease and look at home on most scale-detailed O gauge layouts.It is hard to match the excitement and beauty of a long, sleek passenger train speeding down the rails. M.T.H.'s Premier Line scale streamlined passenger cars and sets will bring exactly the right, realistic look to your passenger consists. No other manufacturer matches the quality and value found inside an M.T.H. Premier Line passenger car. Using an intricately detailed, yet durable ABS body atop smooth rolling die-cast metal trucks results in a lightweight car that won't bog down a locomotive struggling to pull heavy aluminum passenger cars. What's more, each Premier Line passenger car features detailed car interiors and overhead lighting for a realistic and authentic appearance.

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The display cases in the middle of the room contain a selection of tools that were used for harvesting grain, for grinding it to make flour, and for eating with; they include flint sickle blades, querns consists of stones and runners and spoons. Several sickle blades have been attached to lightly curved wooden shafts. Some of these flint blades appear to have a layer of varnish along the cutting edge; this is known as ‘sickle gleam’, and was caused by the silicic acid contained in grasses such as cereals for example. Einkorn and emmer were originally grown, which were early forms of the wheat that is grown today. They were cultivated from wild grasses more than 10,000 years ago in the Near East. Inside the well, were not only charred and non-charred grains, but even two entire ears. What’s more, pulses such as peas and lentils and oil-bearing plants such as flax were cultivated as well. A rarer find were the large quantities of poppy and henbane seeds found inside the well. Poppy seeds were used as intoxicants and for medicinal purposes and henbane, black henbane otherwise known as the “witches’ herb,” was used as a narcotic. The bone finds provided evidence of the early presence of house mice. Insect remains include corn weevils, cadelle beetles, and golden spider beetles; all parasites that posed a threat to harvests and stores. The fields and gardens lay close to the settlements. After the harvest, the ears of grain would be threshed. Containers and earth pits were used for storage. The grains were ground into flour with a quern while, dome ovens built of clay and willow rods were used to bake bread. Clay pots above an open fire were used for cooking. Wooden implements such as spoons were used for stirring and eating with.

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The Level E Student Worktext includes 32 weekly lessons consisting of 5 days of Spelling exercises, activities and games. The week begins with a read-aloud story (found in the Teacher Guidebook) to introduce the topic and theme Scripture text for the week. Students then complete a preview exercise that gauges which of the 25 weekly Spelling words will require the most focused practice. In the following days, students complete a variety of learning activities and word games to help master the Spelling list and underlying concepts. The week concludes with a post-test to allow the student to demonstrate his progress. Note: The weekly theme Scripture text in A Reason For Spelling Level F corresponds with the same week's verse in A Reason For Handwriting Level F, thus reinforcing the Scripture values found in each lesson. There are other curriculums on the market, and some offer very good spelling programs; however, if you're looking for something different, Reason for Spelling provides it. A theme story and scripture verse begin each week's lesson. When your child knows the alphabet, recognizes letters, and can read single-syllable words, he or she can begin with the A-level spelling series. This level also includes a 65-page review section if your first-grade student needs extra practice before beginning the program. The pacing of the levels creates a system that equates each with a grade in school. In other words, A through F is suitable for grades one through six. A varied approach for homeschoolers to teach spelling The six levels maintain the same schedule each week. Following the initial story and verse, a discussion segment is encouraged. The teacher's guide includes activities designed to evaluate the child's comprehension while motivating interest. The spelling section is introduced with a pretest. Each week's words are grouped according to phonetic and spelling pattern principles. Teacher-led activities and workbook exercises are included with each lesson. The work includes dictation practice, proofreading, and dictionary skills. A final test concludes each lesson. Key features of each level: - Teacher guidebook and student workbook included in set - Optional CD set available for the story and verse segments - Curriculum objectives included - Colorful student workbooks containing cartoon illustrations - Phonetic and visual activities included - A variety of activities provided with each level, as well as the workbook to accommodate different learning styles - Additional activities provided for multi-student groups, such as a homeschool spelling program in which one child moves ahead quicker and requires extra work - "Fun Ways to Spell" allowing the students four activity options from which they can choose one to complete - Language arts section included in the lessons - Writing incorporated into the lessons by having students complete a journal entry of their experiences and opinions about the week's activities and vocabulary From the same company that produces A Reason for Writing comes this impressive spelling program. A placement test at the beginning of each level helps you determine how to implement the program for your child or if you should place him in a lower level. Basically, a child should begin the first level book (A) as soon as he knows the alphabet, can recognize letters, and can spell short vowel, one-syllable words. For first-grade students who lack some of these skills, a rather extensive (65 page) phonics review section at the beginning of this level can be used before beginning the spelling program. The format of lessons in each level is similar and follows the same weekly schedule. Each lesson begins with a scripture verse and theme story developing the verse (theme stories are also available on audio CD). Optional discussion questions for the story are included. A pre-test of the week's words is given next. Following correction of the words, students complete a Word Shapes activity in which they write each spelling word into a sequence of shaped boxes to help them form a correct visual image of each spelling word. Throughout the series, word lists consist of phonetically-grouped words. This series approaches spelling from both angles - phonetic and visual - which is realistic and should be effective. On Day Two, spelling words are studied using the "Hide and Seek" activity. This is a highly successful way to learn and retain word spelling. Other forms of the spelling words are listed on the lesson page. Students should read through these. An optional activity which incorporates this list is given in the Teacher Guidebook for use with students who are proficient spellers. A "Fun Ways to Spell" section lists four options (students choose one to complete) for additional spelling reinforcement. On Day Three, students complete a language arts activity that uses the week's words in the context of a meaningful activity to aid retention. These activities vary from level to level, incorporating more dictionary skills at the higher levels. On Day Four, the teacher dictates complete sentences, which include several of the target words in context, to the student. At the lower levels, students fill in one or more words in each sentence. At upper levels, students will transcribe the entire dictated sentence. A Proofreading activity is also completed. This has students fill in an oval next to the word (out of a group of words) that is misspelled. On Day Five students take a post-test, update their progress charts and add any missed words to their spelling dictionaries. Optional for this day is a learning game and weekly journaling activity. Student texts are full-color, adding visual appeal to the program. Scripture verses appear at the bottom of many pages for added inspiration. Teacher Guidebooks are essential to the use of this program. Most of the benefit of the program and all specific teaching instructions for using the worktext will be lost without them. We therefore strongly recommend purchasing the sets (which include both the Teacher Guidebook and Student Worktext). The newly revised 2nd edition includes updates to weekly read-aloud stories, dictation sentences, student exercises, and more. For avid and good spellers this book can prove to be rather boring as there is not much variety in the kind of exercises provided. They are very repetitive and all that changes is the word list. My 5th grader got really bored with this book. over 3 years ago

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Mexican Muralism (c. 1920–1940) By Stigberg, Sara The Mexican Muralist movement was a nationalistic movement that aimed at producing an official modern art form distinct from European traditions, thus embracing and clearly expressing a unique Mexican cultural and social identity. Shortly after the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920), expatriate Mexican artists were summoned to return to the country. They were charged with creating public murals on government buildings, which would visually communicate unifying ideals to a largely illiterate population. Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, known collectively as Los Tres Grandes or The Great Three, were key figures in the movement. The architectural aspect of the large murals created during this period underscores the government’s and artists’ belief in art as a social and ideological tool, and reflects a desire to establish permanent expressions of a national identity. The works embraced and elevated mural painting in Mexico from a popular form to a form of high art. Further, the movement embodied social ideals manifested in the muralists’ work alongside carpenters, plasterers, and other laborers. The 1930s saw the solidification of a leftist national discourse, but by the 1940s, the major political developments in Mexico and Europe resulted in significant redefinition of this ideology, and Mexican Muralism became out-dated.

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In this photo from the U.S. space agency, the Bell Aircraft Corporation X-1-2 and two of the NACA pilots that flew the aircraft shown together in September 1949. The one on the left is Robert Champine with the other being Herbert Hoover. The X-1-2 was equipped with the 10-percent wing and 8 percent tail, powered with an XLR-11 rocket engine and aircraft made its first powered flight on December 9, 1946 with Chalmers "Slick" Goodlin at the controls. As with the X-1-1 the X-1-2 continued to investigate transonic/supersonic flight regime. NACA pilot Herbert Hoover became the first civilian to fly Mach 1, March 10, 1948. X-1-2 flew until October 23, 1951, completing 74 glide and powered flights with nine different pilots, when it was retired to be rebuilt as the X-1E. The National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) was a precursor to NASA. NACA was created by Congress in 1915. Each weekday, SPACE.com looks back at the history of spaceflight through photos (archive).

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Human Decomposition Odor The human decomposition odor is caused by the release of gasses from the decomposing body. These gasses are composed of methane, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide. The smell of human decomposition can be overwhelming and is often described as smelling like rotting flesh or a sewage plant. The odor can linger in an area for weeks or even months after a body has been removed. In some cases, the odor may be so strong that it can cause nausea and vomiting. If you come across a human decomposition odor, it is important to ventilate the area as much as possible. This will help to dissipate the smell and make it more bearable. You should also avoid touching or moving the body, as this can cause the release of more gas and make the smell worse. If you must move the body, be sure to wear gloves and a mask to avoid inhaling the fumes. If you are unable to ventilate the area, you may want to consider using an air purifier or ozone generator to help neutralize the odor. There are four main stages of decomposition: autolysis, putrefaction, black putrefaction, and skeletonization. Autolysis is the self-digestion of tissues that occurs when cells die. This process starts immediately after death and is accelerated by warm temperatures and moisture. Putrefaction is the breakdown of tissues by bacteria. Black putrefaction is the further breakdown of tissues by fungi. Skeletonization is the final stage of decomposition when all soft tissues have been decomposed and only the bones remain. Grave Wax Adipocere Adipocere, also known as grave wax or corpse wax, is a waxy substance that forms on human corpses in certain conditions. It is produced by the anaerobic decomposition of fatty tissues and can occur in environments where the body is not exposed to oxygen. Adipocere is generally white or yellowish in color and has a greasy, oily texture. It often has a strong odor, due to the presence of volatile fatty acids. Adipocere can form on corpses that are buried in the ground, or that are submerged in water. It typically takes several weeks or months for adipocere to develop, but it can form within days if conditions are favorable. Once formed, adipocere is very resistant to decomposition and can preserve a corpse for many years. Adipocere is not poisonous and is not known to cause any harm to humans. However, it can make corpses difficult to identify, as it can change the appearance of the body. In some cases, only the skeleton may be remaining after adipocere has formed.If you come across a corpse that has been partially or completely converted into adipocere, it is important to contact the authorities so that they can properly dispose of the body. Adipocere can also be removed from corpses before burial or cremation if desired. Exhumed Rotting Corpse The exhumed rotting corpse is a sight that is not for the faint of heart. This grotesque creature was once a human being, but now its flesh has been corrupted and its body parts have begun to rot away. The stench of death emanating from this creature is enough to make even the most hardened individual gag, and their appearance is truly horrifying. Seeing an exhumed rotting corpse is an experience that will stay with you for the rest of your life. The smell of rotting flesh is one of the most repulsive smells imaginable. It is the smell of death, and it is incredibly difficult to get rid of. If you have ever had the misfortune of smelling rotting flesh, then you know just how bad it can be. There are a few things that you can do to try and mask the smell of rotting flesh, but unfortunately, there is no guaranteed way to completely get rid of it. The best thing that you can do is to ventilate the area as much as possible and try to keep the affected area as clean as possible. If you are dealing with a dead body, then it is important to remember that the body will continue to decompose even after it has been removed from the premises. This means that you need to be extra careful when handling the body and make sure that you dispose of it properly. If you are dealing with a smaller amount of rotting flesh, then you may be able to mask the smell by using scented candles or incense. However, if the smell is too strong, then you may need to resort to more drastic measures. One of the most effective ways to get rid of the smell of rotting flesh is to use bleach. Bleach is a powerful disinfectant and will kill any bacteria that may be causing the problem. However, you need to be very careful when using bleach as it can also damage your skin and clothing. If you need professional unattended death cleanup services, contact Unattended Death Cleanup today! We are always available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week for all emergency biohazard cleanup services.

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Inflation means the decline of the purchasing power of a particular currency over a specified period of time. The quantifiable estimate of the rate at which the currency declines in the purchasing power that occurs can be reflected in the increase of an average price level of selected goods and services in an economy over a period of time. The rise in the level of prices has often expressed a percentage which means that a unit of currency effectively buys less than it did in the previous periods. Deflation runs in contrast to the term inflation. Inflation Rate Formula The economy can be of a complex nature, then the nature of the inflation rate will not be tough to understand. Essentially, the inflation rate is a quantitative measure of the rate at which the average price level of the selected goods and services in an economy will gradually increase over a certain period. As a result of this increase over the period, a larger quantity of the currency is to be required to purchase the said goods. This measurement is generally to be expressed as a percentage which will indicate the decrease in the purchasing power of a nation’s currency. With all these factors being considered, the importance of the inflation rate will then lie in how the economy will get affected. If the average cost of the items increases, the currency loses its value, and the increased funds are then required to acquire the same goods and services as before. To measure inflation, we can use the CPI method Inflation = (CPI x +1 – CPI x) * 100 Here, CPI x is the Initial Price of the Index. Real Rate of Return Formula The Real rate of return is the annual percentage of the profit which is earned on an investment that is adjusted for inflation. The real rate of return exactly indicates the purchasing power of a given amount of money over a particular time period. Adjusting this nominal return to compensate for inflation allows the investor to determine how much of a nominal return is a real return. In addition to adjusting for the inflation rate, the investors should consider the impact of the factors like taxes and investing fees which are required to calculate the real returns on their money or to choose among various investing options. The real rate of return is thereby calculated by subtracting the inflation rate from the nominal interest rate. The formula for calculating the real rate of return Is: Real Rate of Return = (1+Nominal Rate / 1+ Inflation Rate) -1 The value of money can be reduced by inflation. Calculating a rate of return in real value rather than a nominal value, while particularly during a period of high inflation, will offer a clearer picture of an investment's success rate. Money Value Calculator Time The time value of money is the basic financial concept which holds that the money in the present is worth more than the same sum of money that is to be received in the future. This is quite true as the money which we have right now can be invested and from that, we can earn a return, and this will happen by creating a larger amount of money in the future. (Even with the future money, there is an additional risk that the money will never be received, for one reason or another.) The time value of money is at times referred to as the net present value or the NPV of money. [Image will be uploaded soon] Calculating Inflation Formula Inflation is a measure of the rate of change in the prices when they are compared to a selected basket of goods over a specific period of time. Inflation is generally indicated by a rise in the prices of goods and services hence this indicates a fall in the purchasing power. An inflation calculator can be used to calculate the effect of inflation on purchasing power. The uses of the inflation calculator are as follows: The inflation calculator is found online thus, it's easy to use. One needs to only enter the amount of money to calculate the purchasing power of the same in the future. The calculator is available on the web itself and is free to use multiple times. The calculator gives the accurate worth of money in the future. This also provides the worth of the same money if it is invested. The inflation calculator uses historical rates to calculate the same. Hence the results are then accurate. Using the inflation calculator gives results within seconds and thus saves time for the investor. However, the same calculation might take time if done manually.

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Celiac disease (also called celiac sprue, non tropical sprue, and gluten-sensitive enteropathy) is genetic. All individuals who develop celiac are born with a genetic predisposition for the disease, but the age of onset can vary from infancy to old age. Some people are diagnosed at birth or during childhood, bit in many people, the disease lies dormant until it is triggered later in life. No one knows exactly what causes celiac disease to become active, but experts believe that times of extreme emotional or physical stress—including surgery, a viral infection, pregnancy, or childbirth—can set the stage. Researchers are also beginning to explore whether changes in the types of bacteria living in your gut may be the spark that initiates adult-onset celiac. It’s important to remember that celiac disease is not a food allergy. Some people call it an allergy as a shorthand way to explain why those with a diagnosis need to avoid certain foods, but that description is both misleading and dangerous. Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder, a category of diseases in which the body’s immune system attacks itself. The immune system reacts to a protein called gluten, which is found in wheat, and related proteins found in rye and barley. When even the smallest amount of gluten enters the digestive system, it sets in motion a cascade of inflammatory processes. The immune system begins to attack the body’s own tissue, resulting in damage to the small intestine, which is not merely a smooth tube connecting the stomach to the colon. The inner lining of the small intestine is jam-packed with protruding ridges called villi, which absorb nutrients as food passes through. Celiac disease causes inflammation that damages and sometimes destroys the villi, which means they can’t do their job, and the nutrients your body needs pass through your digestive system unabsorbed and are eliminated in waste. The outcome of this damage varies depending on the extent of the disease. In mild cases, there are no overt symptoms, but blood tests might reveal a deficiency in certain nutrients, especially folate, vitamin B12, or iron (which can result in anemia). Over time, poor calcium and vitamin D absorption can lead to osteoporosis. In some people, celiac disease causes embarrassing and sometimes life-altering gastrointestinal systems, including gas, bloating, diarrhea or constipation, and weight-loss. Other problems associated with celiac disease include nerve damage, migraines, seizures, infertility or miscarriages, joint pain, and even some cancers, including non-Hodgkin lymphoma and cancer of the esophagus or small intestine. The longer celiac goes untreated, the greater the risk of harm. How food affects Celiac disease There is no cure for celiac disease, and at present, the only treatment is to eliminate gluten from your diet. If you follow a gluten-free diet strictly, your villi will eventually heal, and, with the right foods, you can replenish stores of nutrients you’ve been missing. In terms of limiting damage, nutritional treatment for celiac disease is all about which foods to avoid. However, because the list of forbidden foods is so extensive, it is also critically important that you pay attention to the vitamins and minerals that most people normally get from gluten-containing foods and be sure your diet is rich in other sources. Avoiding foods the contain gluten If you have an allergy to cars or you know people who do, you’ve probably noticed that not every cat allergy sufferer suffers in the same way. Some people start to sneeze if they are just in the same house with a cat, while others remain sneeze free until they bury their face in the animal’s fur. That’s not the case with celiac disease. Even the tiniest bit of gluten—the amount found in ⅛ teaspoon of wheat flour—can signal the body’s immune system to respond with a full attack. The tricky part of celiac disease is that damage can occur without you noticing much in the way of symptoms. But the longer you eat foods containing gluten, the further the damage will progress until eventually, you become noticeably sick. I wish the guidelines for avoiding gluten were as easy as telling you to stop eating wheat, barley, and rye flour. That’s part of what you need to do, but it is much more complicated than that. There are many hidden sources of gluten, and beyond that, some naturally gluten-free products can be contaminated with gluten. Common foods that contain gluten - Barley (and anything with the word barley in it, such as barely malt) - Beer (all types) - Bleached flour - Blue Cheese (sometimes made with bread mold) - Bran (also called wheat bran) - Bread flour - Cake flour - Communion wafers - Cracker meal - Flour (this usually means wheat flour) - Gluten, glutenin - Graham flour - Malt (and anything with the word malt in it, such as, rice malt, malt extract, or malt flavoring) - Malt beverages - Oats and oat bran - Pasta (all varieties made with wheat, wheat starch, oats, barley, rye, or any ingredient on this list) - Rye (and anything with the word rye in it) - Soy sauce (check ingredients—it’s often made with wheat) - Tabbouleh [if made from bulgur or cracked wheat] - Teriyaki sauce - Unbleached flour - Vital gluten - Wheat (and anything with the word wheat in it, such as wheat grass, wheat berries, wheat germ, wheat starch; buckwheat is okay and is the only exception) This article is excerpted by permission from Joy Bauer's Food Cures: Eat Right to Get Healthier, Look Younger, and Add Years to Your Life*. As the nutrition and health expert for The TODAY Show, Joy Bauer shares reliable, practical, and straightforward advice that helps millions of Americans eat better and lead healthier, more fulfilling lives. Read more about Joy and her work on JoyBauer.com. - For more tips on plant-based nutrition, make sure to browse VegKitchen’s Nutrition page. - For lots more features on healthy lifestyle, please explore VegKitchen’s Healthy Vegan Kitchen page. *This post contains affiliate links. If the product is purchased by linking through this review, VegKitchen receives a modest commission, which helps maintain our site and helps it to continue growing!

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SWIR is the short form for Short Wave Infrared, which is light invisible to human eyes between the wavelength range from 900nm to 1700nm. Together with Medium Wave Infrared (MWIR) and Long Wave Infrared (LWIR), the three wavelengths constitute the infrared wavelength. SWIR can not be seen with human eyes, but it has excellent sensitivity, as well as the ability to penetrate through fog, smog, cloud, and haze. SWIR imaging (Short-wave Infrared imaging) is an advanced technique, which is used to produce images based on radiation in the region of the electromagnetic spectrum invisible to the human eye. InGaAs, short for Indium Gallium Arsenide, is an alloy of Indium Arsenide and Gallium Arsenide, which is a perfect material for short wave infrared imaging sensor with a sensitivity range from 900nm to 1700nm. InGaAs sensor is operable in low light environment under room-temperature without cooling, and it has good responsivity, low noise and low dark current at a reasonable cost.

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IQ stands for ‘Intelligence Quotient’ and is a numerical score based on standardized tests which attempt to measure general intelligence. However, an IQ test does not measure intelligence in the same way a ruler might measure the height of a person. Instead, IQ scores are always relative to the median score (typically 100) that reflects the general intelligence of the population. As such, it is challenging to compare scores across different populations or cultures. Modern IQ tests measure a person’s ability to reason and use information to solve problems through questions and puzzles. Some of the things that an IQ test will typically measure are short-term and long-term memory, how well a person can solve puzzles, and how quickly. Because there is no single standardized test that measures intelligence, determining the highest IQ ever will always be contentious. Bearing these caveats in mind, it is generally believed that the highest IQ score ever recorded is that of William James Sidis, who is believed to have had an IQ of between 250 and 300. This would place him in the top 0.000001% of the population in terms of intelligence. To put this into perspective, the average IQ is 100, and a score of 130 or above is considered to be “gifted.” Sidis was a child prodigy who was able to read at the age of 18 months and could speak several languages fluently by the time he was a teenager. However, some critics claim his score may have been inflated due to the media attention he received as a child prodigy. The most reliable record-high IQ score belongs to mathematician Terence Tao, with a confirmed IQ of 230. People have always been aware that some are better at mental tasks than others, but it wasn’t until a French psychologist by the name of Alfred Binet that a qualitative lens was cast on the diversity of human intelligence. Together with colleague Théodore Simon, in 1905, the psychologists devised the Binet-Simon test, which focused on verbal abilities and was designed to gauge ‘mental retardation’ among school children. These tests, which in time also included questions that gauged attention, memory, and problem-solving skills, quickly showed that some young children were better able to answer complex questions than older children. Based on this observation, Binet concluded that there is such a thing as ‘mental age’ which can be higher or lower than a person’s chronological age. In 1916, Stanford University translated and standardized the test using a sample of American students. Known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, this test would go on to be used for decades to quantify the mental abilities of millions of people around the world. The Stanford-Binet intelligence test used a single number, known as the intelligence quotient (or IQ), to represent an individual’s score on the test. This score was computed by dividing a person’s mental age, as revealed by the test, by their chronological age and then multiplying the result by 100. For instance, a child whose chronological age is 12 but whose mental age is 15 would have an IQ of 125 (15/12 x 100). The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale – Fifth Edition test measures five content areas, including fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. Building upon the Stanford-Binet test, psychologist David Wechsler developed a new IQ test that better measures a person’s different mental abilities. The first test, known as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), was released in 1955. Later, Wechsler released two different IQ tests: one specifically designed for children, known as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), and the other designed for adults, known as the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). The modern adult version of the test is known as the WAIS-IV and has gone through numerous revisions to accommodate recent research. A WAIS-IV is made of 10 subtests and 5 supplemental tests, which score an individual in four major areas of intelligence: a Verbal Comprehension Scale, a Perceptual Reasoning Scale, a Working Memory Scale, and a Processing Speed Scale. These four index scores are combined into the Full-Scale IQ score (what people generally recognize as the ‘IQ score’). There’s also the General Ability Index which is based on six subset scores, which are good at identifying learning disabilities. For instance, scoring low in some areas of the General Ability Index but scoring well in other areas may indicate a specific learning difficulty, perhaps warranting specialized attention. The modern WAIST test does not score IQ based on chronological and mental age but rather based on the scores of other people in the same age group. The average score is fixed at 100, with two-thirds of the population scoring between 85 and 115, while at the extremes, 2.5% of the population scores above 130 and 2.5% scores below 75. Basically, the IQ score moves 15 points in either direction with each standard deviation. Some IQ tests measure both crystallized and fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence refers to knowledge and skill gained through life, meaning it’s based on facts and grows with age. Situations that require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension and vocabulary exams. For instance, a test might ask “what’s the difference between weather and climate” or “who was the first president of the United States”. These sorts of questions test a person’s knowledge of things that are valued in a certain culture. A person from India might not know the answer to many IQ test questions given in the US, but that doesn’t make them any less intelligent. Fluid intelligence, on the other hand, is the ability to reason, solve problems, and make sense of abstract concepts. This ability is considered independent of learning, experience, and education. For example, participants of an IQ test might have to figure out what a shape would look like if it were rotated by 90 degrees. What’s the highest IQ score ever? When IQ scores are plotted on a graph, they follow what’s known in statistics as a ‘bell curve’. The peak of the “bell” lies at the mean, where the majority of IQ scores lie. The bell then slopes down to each side; one side represents scores that are lower than the average, and the other side represents scores that are above the average. Where the slope of the bell trails off, you’ll find the extremely high (gifted) and extremely low (disabled) IQ scores. Most people have average intelligence. IQ scores can be interpreted in brackets, as follows: 71-84: below average; 116-130: above average; The problem is that IQ tests can get really fuzzy in the uppermost bracket, the reason being that the higher the IQ, the smaller the population group there is to use for scoring against. For instance, people with an IQ of 160 have a population size of only 0.003% — that’s only 3 out of 100,000 people. That being said, although there is no known upper IQ limit, all of this implies some practical limitations when evaluating the IQ of super-gifted individuals. Was William Sidis the most intellectually gifted person in the world? This brings the question: who’s the person with the highest IQ ever? According to some, that would be William James Sidis (1898-1944), with an IQ estimated between 250 and 300. A true child prodigy, Sidis could read English by the time he was two and could write in French by age four. At age five, the young Sidis devised a formula whereby he could name the day of the week for any given historical date. When he was eight, he made a new logarithmic table based on the number 12. At age 12, Sidis was admitted to Harvard where he wrote theories on “Fourth Dimensional Bodies” and graduated cum laude before his sixteenth birthday. At this age, Sidis could already speak and read fluently in French, German, Russian, Greek, Latin, Armenian, and Turkish. Young Sidis’ achievements did not fly under the radar, with the foremost newspapers of the time following his academic record and reporting outlandish stories. But journalists also constantly harassed the young Sidis, who came to loathe the press and the “genius” staple. The celebrity and pressure might have gotten to him in the end. After a brief stint in 1918 teaching at Rice University in Texas, Sidis went through various clerk jobs. Reclusive in nature, all Sidis wanted in life was a job that paid his most basic expenses and which made no further demands from him. Sidis died poor and with not much to show in terms of academic achievements. Harvard professors would speak of the young Sidis, while he was still attending the university, that he would grow to be the greatest mathematician in the world. His only published work is a three-hundred-page treatise on collecting streetcar transfers. According to American Heritage: “The book, Notes on the Collection of Transfers, contains densely printed arcana about various interconnecting lines, scraps of verse about streetcars, and some simple, foolish streetcar jokes that the author might have enjoyed in his childhood, had he had one. Sidis published it under the unlovely pseudonym of Frank Folupa, but reporters managed to ascribe the book to him, tracked him down, and again he fled.” Sidis’ IQ is said to have been tested by a psychologist, and his score was allegedly the very highest ever recorded. William Sidis took general intelligence tests for Civil Service positions in New York and Boston, gaining phenomenal records which are the stuff of legends. But this information could not be verified at this date, and perhaps never will be. Terence Tao: the man with the highest confirmed IQ score The most reliable record-high IQ score belongs to Terence Tao, with a confirmed IQ of 230. Tao is an Australian-American mathematician born in 1975, who showed a formidable aptitude for mathematics from a very young age. He entered high school at the age of 7, where he began taking calculus classes. He earned his bachelor’s degree at 16 and his Ph.D. degree at 21. Tao, who reportedly had a normal social life while growing up and is now married with children, really exploited his talent. Over the years, Tao has garnered a bevy of prestigious awards for his work, including the Fields Medal (which is like the Nobel Prize of math), and the MacArthur Foundation grant (which is often referred to as the “genius prize”). At the moment, Tao is a professor of mathematics and the James and Carol Collins Chair at the University of California (UCLA). In an interview with National Geographic, Tao rejected lofty notions of genius, claiming that what really matters is “hard work, directed by intuition, literature, and a bit of luck.” The second highest confirmed IQ belongs to Christopher Hirata, with an IQ of 225. He was only 13 years old when he won the gold medal in 1996 at the International Physics Olympiad. From age 14 to 18, Hirata studied physics at Caltech, graduating with a bachelor’s degree in 2001. While at Caltech, Hirata did research for NASA on the colonization of Mars and received his Ph.D. in 2005 from Princeton University in Astrophysics. The 36-year-old works for NASA where he supervises the design of the next generation of space telescopes. His theoretical research deals with Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB), dark energy and accelerated expansion of the universe, galaxy clusters, and the large-scale structure of the universe. In 2018, Hirata was awarded the prestigious New Horizons in Physics Breakthrough Prize for fundamental contributions to understanding the formation of the first galaxies in the universe and for sharpening and applying the most powerful tools of precision cosmology. Terence Tao and Cristopher Hirata have both taken actual IQ tests, but you’ll find on the internet so-called “top 10 smartest people” lists that include many individuals who have never been tested. For instance, some websites include in their lists people such as Gary Kasparov (IQ 180), Johann Goethe (IQ 225), Albert Einstein (IQ 160), and even personalities like Leonardo da Vinci (IQ 160) or Isaac Newton (IQ 190) who lived centuries before the intelligence tests were invented. These scores are estimated based on the individuals’ biographies so they shouldn’t be trusted, which doesn’t mean such famous personalities weren’t highly intelligent individuals — after all, the magnitude of their success speaks for itself. How much does an IQ score matter? According to the scientific literature, a person’s IQ is highly correlated with measures of longevity, health, and prosperity. According to one study involving one million Swedes, having a high IQ also protects people from the risk of death — so much so that there was a three-fold difference in the risk of death between the highest and the lowest IQs. IQ is also positively correlated with career success, unsurprisingly showing that more intelligent people make for better employees (see graph below). The correlation is not perfect though — measured from -1 to 1, where a correlation of 1 would mean in this case that every IQ point would result in an incremental increase in career success — so there’s plenty of room for other factors not measured by standard intelligence tests that explain success. That being said, there’s a lot of leeway as to what makes a person successful or helps him or her master a craft. Luck certainly plays a role (terminal illness on one end of the negative extreme or having a loving, wealthy family while growing up at the other end of the positive extreme). But then there’s a far more important and, at the same time more controllable, variable: that’s grit. Angela Duckworth, a psychologist at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, interviewed people from all walks of life, attempting to determine what characteristics made some of them successful in life. She found grit was the one trait that stood out among the people who had ‘made it’. Grit, Duckworth told Science News, has two parts: passion and perseverance. In one of her studies, Duckworth found that students with higher grades in university tended to have more grit (unsurprisingly). However, students with higher university entrance exam scores tended to be less gritty than those who scored lower. In other words, by the end of university, grit is a better predictor of success (graduation score) than intelligence (as measured by entrance-exam scores). Let’s talk a bit about the higher end of achievement, or what’s traditionally considered the domain of geniuses. In the early 21st century, Professor Lewis M. Terman evaluated a large sample of children who score at the top end of the IQ scale and followed them as they aged to see if they would become veritable geniuses in adulthood. By the end of his evaluation, the researcher wound up with 1,528 extremely bright boys and girls who averaged around 11 years old. Their average IQ was 151, with 77 children claiming IQs between 177 and 200 — that’s on the extremely gifted scale. Until they reached middle age, the original study participants (affectionately called “Termites”) were periodically tested, the results of which were included in the five-volume work, entitled the Genetic Studies of Genius. No one among the study’s participants went on to achieve what society truly deems genius — a person who has made an outstanding contribution in a certain field of study, let’s say. Many became more or less successful lawyers, engineers, doctors, scientists, and other respectable professionals. Although we should bear in mind many of the participants grew up between the two world wars, it’s perhaps surprising to learn that many other participants were far less likely to graduate from college or to attain professional or graduate degrees. When the IQs of the most successful Termites were compared to the comparatively least successful ones, researchers found little differences, suggesting intelligence is not a good predictor for high achievement. As chances have it, this fact is nowhere better illustrated than the cases of Luis Walter Alvarez and William Shockley, Nautilus wrote. When they were little boys, the two were tested by Terman but didn’t make the cut. However, both were monumentally successful. Alvarez went on to become one of the most brilliant and productive experimental physicists of the 20th century, earning the 1968 Nobel Prize in Physics. Shockley earned his P.h.D. from MIT and wrote his first patent at age 28. In 1956, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with two other colleagues for inventing a device without which our rich digital lives would be all but impossible — that’s the transistor. No Termite ever won a Nobel Prize. Yes, having a high IQ score is a good predictor of achieving success and living a better life than the mean — it’s a nice head start, but that’s not enough in and of itself. You can make up for a lack of special aptitude (as perceived by an IQ score) through grit, resilience, and working on something you truly love to do. Did you ever take an IQ test? Share your results and opinion on the matter in the comment section below.

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Cancer can be diagnosed at any stage. It may appear as a local disease or systemic compromise of multiple organs (metastatic disease). Staging is the method used to evaluate cancer-spreading behavior. It might progress from local tumor to regional lymph nodes and metastatic disease. The staging is based on international criteria used to better describe the patient prognosis. It also guides the treatment's recommendation. When browsing the following icons, you will better understand the importance of the staging in guiding cancer treatment decisions. Cancer is usually diagnosed in the primary tumor. However, spreading of cancer cells is the main characteristic of malignant tumors, which occurs predominantly through blood or lymphatic routes. Cancer could be diagnosed at anytime during its natural history. The evaluation of the disease extent is called staging. The stage is based on the primary tumor location and size, which is described by the letter T. The stage also includes lymphatic spreading, designated by the letter N and blood metastatic disease, which is represented by the letter M. The combination of the three descriptors creates a classification called TNM. Based on TNM, each cancer type is further categorized from stage I up to stage IV, indicating progressive disease involvement. For each stage there is a specific treatment recommendation and a higher or lower cure rate. Based on the pathological diagnosis and tumor natural history, the attending physician decides which exams are necessary to evaluate the extent of the disease. The tests used for cancer staging include image methods such as X-ray, computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). More recently, PET-CT has been included, which evaluates both tumor anatomy and metabolic function. Eventually, even more invasive methods such as bone marrow biopsy are required, especially in leukemia and lymphomas. Staging abdominal surgery is routinely used in ovarian cancer. Physicians are very concern about precise cancer staging, selecting the most accurate exams for each specific tumor biological behavior. Staging follows international classification systems, which describe progressive tumor local invasion and systemic spread. The most used are the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). Staging consists on universal communication criteria with precise implication on cancer prognosis and treatment. Both AJCC and UICC are based on TNM criteria. The descriptor T shows the tumor size and invasion of surrounding tissues or organs. The descriptor N is associated with detection of cancer cells in lymphatic nodes. The descriptor M characterizes the spread through the bloodstream, affecting organs located away from the primary tumor, which is called metastases. For each tumor there are specific criteria that can be found in the international system AJCC, which might be accessed through www.cancerstaging.org. The correct treatment recommendation and its curative or palliative intention are based on the cancer stage. Cancer cells can be in different stages of differentiation. Undifferentiated cells tend to be more aggressive, expressing a high proliferative index. Differentiated cells resemble to the original shape. During tumorigenesis, normal cells are transformed in cancer cells. Under the microscopy the chance to point out the original tissue varies according the cell differentiation grade. The tumor should be classified according its histological grade. Lower grades are associated with better prognosis. The best example is the Gleason tumor classification used in prostate cancer. A tumor Gleason 4 is less aggressive than a tumor Gleason 8. In some tumors, the histologic grade has been already incorporated in the TNM classification, adding the descriptor G. You can better understand the prognosis importance of the descriptor G assessing the staging for soft tissue sarcomas in AJCC. Some solid tumors produce circulating markers, which might give an idea of the extent of the disease. These markers are measured in blood tests. They have little diagnostic value, but have defined implications for prognosis and treatment. An example is the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). The CEA is a circulating tumor marker, very useful in the follow-up of colorectal cancer. When it remains high after tumor's surgical removal, might indicate persistent disease. The CA-125 is widely used for monitoring treatment of ovarian cancer. The CA-125 should normalize after a well-succeeded ovarian cancer treatment. Beta-HCG and alpha-fetoprotein markers are used for monitoring patients with testicular tumors and cure is obtained only after normalizing these markers. The LDH is very important in monitoring lymphomas. The PSA is used in prostate cancer. However, caution is required in its interpretation. A high PSA does not diagnose prostate cancer. PSA is not specific to cancer and might be abnormally elevated in benign prostatic hyperplasia, which consists in a large prostate, but without malignant tumor. However, when cancer is already diagnosed, a rising PSA is directly related to the tumor extension. After surgical treatment of prostate cancer, the PSA should go down to zero, indicating that the surgery was radical, which means that the entire prostate tissue was removed. Although tumor markers do not participate directly in the AJCC, often very high values indicate more advanced disease.

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LED lights have been in the news recently for some very big reasons: they won the Nobel Prize in physics. Okay, the lights didn’t win, but three scientists won for their work in creating this amazing source of light. If you’re a flashlight aficionado, you already understand the value of the bright, clean light produced by Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). They’ve been used for years in electronic devices such as VHS players, cell phones, and coffee makers. They light everything from your computer monitor to your big screen television. So, why is something that’s been around for a while just now being recognized? It has to do with blue. Red and green diodes were created decades ago, but the blue diode evaded scientists. They tried for nearly 30 years to create one, but it wasn’t until the 1990s that three Japanese scientists succeeded in creating one. It was only when the blue diode was added to the red and green diodes that scientists could achieve the full color spectrum that allows for true white light. Once that happened, it opened the door to more environmentally friendly, cost efficient bulbs. According to Per Delsing, a physicist at the Chambers University of Technology and head of the Nobel physics committee, the award was in line with the wishes of Alfred Nobel who founded the award with the aim of honoring discoveries which had the “greatest benefit to mankind.” It was presented to Shuju Nakamura of the University of California at Santa Barbara, Isamu Akasaki from Meijo University and Nagoya University in Japan, and Hiroshi Amano, also of Nagoya University. The secret to creating the blue diode was the right mix of crystals and chemicals for a semiconductor when electricity was passed through it. In addition to that bright white light for your flashlight, work is underway to develop a portable LED-based device that could someday use ultra violet emissions to sterilize water. The LED requires less power to operate and provides a brighter, whiter light in bulbs that last longer than traditional incandescent bulbs. That humble flashlight looks just a little more impressive, doesn’t it?

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by Richard L. Thornton, Architect & City Planner From Virginia to Georgia, several “Native American” place names can be translated with a Late Medieval Duets (Dutch) dictionary! In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle was shocked to discover that for decades white traders, who were neither French, English nor Spanish had been selling European manufactured goods, even fire arms, to the Indians as far west as the Mississippi River. Clearly, something was missing from the American History books we were given in high school. Research for this article began while I was practicing architecture in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley about 25 years ago. I couldn’t figure out what had happened to the advanced indigenous civilization in the valley. The effort culminated in the publication of “William Berkeley the Butcher” in Bacon’s Rebellion Magazine 2007. This magazine was then devoted to research into Virginia’s early history, but the online version now is mostly targeted toward contemporary politics. The year is 1646. England was being torn apart by a civil war between Parliament and supporters of King Charles I. The elderly leader of the Powhatan Confederacy, Opechancanough, launched a blitzkrieg like assault on the farmsteads and plantations of coastal Virginia. Someone had told the Native American leader that no reinforcements would come from England because of the Civil War. What few people knew then was that Opechancanough could speak, read and write several languages. He received the best education possible in Spain and Mexico. The Sephardic Jewish traders, based in Nieuw Nederland, certainly knew how to speak Spanish. As a child, Opechancanough had been abducted by Spaniards with the specific intent of training him to be a priest’s assistant and translator. The Spanish re-named him Don Luis. In 1570, Don Luis was sent along with eleven Jesuit missionaries and a teenage boy name Aloncito to found a mission on the Chesapeake Bay. Don Luis immediately escaped as soon as he got on land. In February 1571, Opechancanough killed three priests, who approached his village, wanting food. He then led a war party to the mission, where all the priests and lay brothers were killed. Aloncito, a fellow victim like Don Luis, was spared and adopted by the village chief. You see . . . Also, left out of the standard history books was the practice back in the 1500s and 1600s of furnishing Spanish friars in remote missions with teenage boys. The responsibilities of these teenage boys, such as Don Luis and Aloncito went far beyond cleaning up the dishes after mass . . . if you get my gist. Many a Spanish priest was “martyred” after he took the same liberties with Native American youth. Getting back to 1646 After the Powhatan warriors and colonists had fought to a draw, 400 warriors of a tribe that no one had ever heard of marched down the James River valley, devastating almost everything in their path, except the large plantation of the Governor William Berkeley, and a few plantations of his closest friends. These seemingly invincible warriors were called the Rickohockens. Like Sherman marching to Savannah, the Rickohockens burned their way almost to the walls of the capital of Virginia, Jamestown. With total victory in their grasp, the Rickohockens sued for peace, because supposedly they had run out of arrows! “Cut and paste” histories, that duplicate themselves across the internet, will all tell you the same story. The Rickohockens defeated the Pamunkey warriors and Virginia militia in 1656 when they attacked one of the Rickohocken towns. Late 18th century maps show the Rickohockens controlling a region that included SW Virginia, SE Kentucky, NE Tennessee and NW North Carolina. Shortly thereafter, the Rickohockens disappeared from history and probably were the real name for the Cherokees; at least that is what the “cut and paste” histories say. Many ”cut and paste” websites sites quote varying opinions from professors living 500 or more miles away from the Rickohocken’s stronghold in Virginia, who speculate that the Rickohockens were originally Erie, Lenape, Cherokee, Algonquin, Yamasee or Yuchi Indians. However, no anthropologist has been able to find a Native American language that translates the word, Rickohocken. The Rickohockens were actually known to have at least three names. In Virginia they were called either Rickohocken or a word similar to Recherren. In South Carolina they were called Recherren, the Weste by Creek Indians and Westo by coastal planters. The word, weste, is now used as pejorative adjective by Creek Indians to describe an ill-kept person with long, scraggly hair. Surviving colonial lore about the Rickohockens states that their capital was named Otari and that it was located high in the Virginia Mountains near the Peaks of the Otter. That location is near Bedford, VA. Supposedly either the word Otari or the word, Rickohocken, meant “high place.” There may be something to that Creek usage of the word, Weste. Spanish friars, whose parishioners on the coast of Georgia were repeatedly victims of Rickohocken slave raids, called them the Chichimecas in their reports to Spain. Historians have generally been disdainful of this label, because the word Chichimec is an Aztec word used to describe the wild tribes of northern Mexico. The Chichimecs DID have long, scraggly hair, however. What else “cut and paste” histories don’t tell their readers There are some other things that “cut and paste” histories don’t generally tell their readers about early Virginia. As soon as Neiuw Amsterdam was founded in 1610, perhaps earlier, Dutch traders, most of them Sephardic immigrants from Spain, began trading journeys down the Great Appalachian Valley, which runs from New York to Georgia. In the early and mid-1500s, the Netherlands were ruled by Spain. As such, Christian Dutch merchant ships would have been able to trade with and explore Spanish-claimed territories. During that period, the Sephardic Jewish ships captains primarily were associated with the French Huguenots in France and the Calvinists in Scotland. Both in Scotland and France, the Jewish families altered their family names to appear more “local.” Both Daniel Boone and David Crockett were of Sephardic ancestry. We recently learned that Elvis Pressley was also primarily Sephardic and Choctaw. The “French Huguenot” Morel family, who owned Ossabaw, Wassaw and St. Catherines Islands on the Georgia Coast, were originally the Jewish Morelos Family of Spain. Late in 1646, after the big Rickohocken raid down the James Valley, Governor Berkeley signed a contract between his trading company and the Rickohockens. His company would buy all the Native American slaves the Rickohockens could deliver. He would also buy any furs or skins that the Rickohockens could trap or steal from other tribes. The Native American slave trade was born. At the same time, Governor Berkeley and his Royalist buddies were buying up the lands of massacred owners along the James River, plus the forfeited tracts of the defeated Indians. Berkeley despised democracy, middle class folks, yeomen farmers, Puritans, Quakers, Presbyterians, Anabaptists and anyone else, who was not a rich, white, Royalist Anglican. He later wrote in his memoir: “I thank God, there are no free schools, nor printing in Virginia; and I hope we shall not have these for a hundred years; for learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against the best government. God keep us from both.” There is more. The English Commonwealth fired Berkeley in 1652 and replaced him with a supporter of Oliver Cromwell. Berkeley did just fine without his governor’s salary . . . living off the profits from his fur and slave trade. At the time of the 1656 attack on the fortified Rickohocken town, the Rickohockens were the primary contractors for Berkeley’s trading company. They had complained to Berkeley because white settlers were locating ever closer to the mountains. Berkeley saw the situation as an opportunity to “kill two birds with one stone.” Establishing a fortified Rickohocken town, where Richmond is now located would stop western settlements and create a perceived “terrorist threat.” He pressured the Commonwealth leaders to attack the town. Berkeley then forward intel about the planned attack to his Rickohocken business partners. The humiliating defeat of the Virginia Militia made a colonial government, run by “commoners,” seem ineffective in combating terrorism. Some things never change, do they? After the Restoration of King Charles II in 1661, Berkeley was reinstated. Up until 1661, Native American and African servants were not legally slaves, but bond-servants. Their time of servitude was supposedly limited to a certain number of years. Their children were born free. Between 1661 and 1665 Governor Berkeley pushed through a series of laws that institutionalized slavery, declared the children of slaves to be slaves in perpetuity, forbade citizenship for Native Americans, Africans and mixed-heritage offspring, plus made sexual intercourse between a white woman and a Native American or African man a felony. That last law was on the books in Virginia until the late 20th century. Of course, exactly 200 years after the institutionalization of slavery, the soil of Virginia would be covered in blood in a Civil War that ended the curse of slavery. In 1665, plans were formalized for a new colony south of Virginia to be called Carolina. Charles II used the scheme to pay off debts to those, who had financed his restoration to the throne. William Berkeley was one of the colony’s eight Proprietors. There was a problem, though. The region was densely populated by Native American provinces, particularly in what is now South Carolina and Georgia. The government of Virginia fixed that problem by cutting a deal with the Rickohockens. The Rickohockens would be furnished with fire arms, munitions, hatchets and knives, if they would supply Virginia with an unlimited number of Native American slaves. The Rickohockens swept down through the Southern Appalachians and Piedmont. Many smaller tribes were helpless against the firearms. Typically, the Rickohockens killed anybody, who was not capable of walking back to Virginia, while being bound. This ruthless strategy resulted in vast areas of the Lower Southeast being depopulated. So when Charlestowne was founded in 1670, the surviving indigenous peoples were too weak to put up much resistance and often welcomed the arrival of British colonists to protect them from the Rickohockens. During the 1660s, many Rickohockens relocated to what is now Augusta, GA. Their principal town was called Rickohocken, but once settlement began on the South Carolina coast, these southern slave raiders were generally known as Weste by the Creeks, Westebo by the Panoan-speaking coastal tribes and Westo by British colonists. “Bo” means “place of” or “living place” in Panoan. It is does not mean “river” as you read in articles by South Carolina academicians. Initially, the Colony of South Carolina had the same contract with the Westos as Virginia had with the Rickohockens. However, by 1680 this had proved to be a problem. The Westos were hated by all the other tribes. This inhibited trade between the other tribes and the Carolina colonists. Secondly, the Westos occasionally raided plantations to steal their slaves then resold them to other plantations. To solve the “Westo problem” Carolina officials cut a deal with the Savanos, a southern Shawnee tribe. The Savano were armed and then persuaded to attack the Westos en masse. Many Westos were either killed or sold into slavery. The survivors fled to the Chattahoochee River and eventually joined the Creek Confederacy. The word, Rickohocken, was not mentioned in the records of the Virginia House of Burgesses after 1684. The few remaining northern Rickohockens apparently were either killed by the Iroquois or became the Long Hair Clan of the emerging Cherokee Alliance. Virginia state history texts teach that the word Cherokee was just a new name for the Rickohockens. This may or may not be true. A mysterious period in American history Researchers have found many things odd about the official history of the Rickohockens. British maps show the Rickohockens controlling all of SW Virginia, SE Kentucky, NE Tennessee and NW North Carolina until around 1784. However, James Needham and Gabriel Arthur went on an expedition that traveled through the heart of Rickohocken country; from Petersburg, VA to the capital of the Tamahiti in northeastern Tennessee (or perhaps even NW Georgia) in 1673. They never saw a Rickohocken village or mentioned the word, Cherokee, but did mention seeing many Spaniards & Portuguese*, a brick town with an Armenian Christian church and a wood-framed town occupied by Northern Africans. *More likely, they were Spanish and Portuguese-speaking Sephardim. Cut and paste histories state that Needham and Arthur traveled to the capital of the Cherokees at Chota on the Tennessee River. In actuality, the words Cherokee, Chota and Tennessee are never mentioned in the original text about Needham and Arthur’s expedition. In 1991, a history professor at the University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill (not Virginia!) created an “edited” version of that text, which was intended to make it appear that the Cherokees were aboriginal to eastern Tennessee. He substituted “Cherokee” for “Tomahitan,” “Chota” for “Tomahitan’s capital” and deleted references to the non-indigenous towns, Christians, Spanish and Africans. - The Tamahiti (Tomahitan in Algonquin) were a Creek tribe that returned to their ancestral home in southeast Georgia in the 1720s because of the Creek-Cherokee War. Their mother town was Tama, which was visited by de Soto. Tamahiti means “Merchant People” in Itza Maya. - Virtually all families in Northeast Georgia, who have long claimed to be Cherokee descendants find that they have little or no Native American DNA, but high levels of Portuguese and Semitic DNA. - In 1580, Portugal was merged with Spain. Almost immediately the Spanish crown began dispatching the Inquisition to Portugal and Andalusia. Many, many thousands of Jews were forced to flee to Scotland, the Netherlands and the Americas. - Many of the crypto-Jewish families initially congregated in Cartagena, Colombia, the Bahama Islands, Jamaica or the northern frontier of Mexico, which is now New Mexico, Texas, Durango, Zacatecas, Chihuahua and Coahuila. Dutch Jewish ship captains, based in the Bahamas provided transit to the mainland of North America, plus delivered contraband to Spanish colonies in the Caribbean Basin. Especially in Cartagena and northern Mexico, the Crypto-Jewish families became very wealthy from involvement with gold mining and the slave trade. These were two of the only three areas in Spanish Empire in which slavery was permitted. - Cryto-Jewish families in northeastern Mexico recruited fierce, long haired Chichimeca warriors as private armies to raid sedentary Indian villages for slaves and Spanish missions for food, gold and silver. When pressured by the Spanish army, these private armies moved northward and evolved into the Comancheros. - In 1600, Spanish authorities in St. Augustine received reports of a band of over 100 white men on horseback crossing eastward over what is now the Georgia Piedmont. - In 1610, the Inquisition showed up without warning at Cartagena. In a matter of weeks, over 3,000 Jews left Cartagena on Dutch Jewish ships, headed to parts unknown. - Most of the mining timbers in the ancient gold and silver mines of northern Georgia and western North Carolina have been dated to the period between 1585 and 1620. Archaeologists have noted a sudden abandonment of large indigenous towns in northwest Georgia around 1585. It could well be that the original core of the Rickohockens were Chichimacas imported from Mexico. Over time, they probably recruited men from other tribes. However, with so little linguistic evidence, it is difficult to assign a specific ethnic origin for the Rickohockens. Hopefully, the reader is sitting down at this point. All three words . . . Rickohocken, Rikcherren and Westo are Archaic Nederlandische (Dutch)! In Late Medieval Duets, the words would be spelled Rijkehoogen, Rijkeherren and Woeste. They mean “High or lofty kingdom”, “Nobility” and “Wild or Savage.” These Dutch words are actually pronounced very similar to how the Rickohocken’s names were spelled in English. The Bohurons of Northeast Georgia appear to have also originated as Dutch cronies. By the mid-1700s they were a multi-ethnic division of the Creek Confederacy, known for its horsemanship. Bohuron is the Moorish and Jewish Ladino word for “nobility.” Within the Bohuron territory is a dormant mud volcano within a dried-up swamp. Its name is Nodoroc. That is a Late Medieval Duets word, meaning “Swamp Smoking.” The Rickohockens were an artificial Native American tribe originally created by Dutch investors to capture Native American slaves and squelch the expansion of Virginia. Sephardic Jewish traders were the main agents of this plan. There is also circumstantial evidence that unbeknownst to their kings, wealthy Spaniards, Sephardic Jews and Englishmen were probably also involved with this scheme. Now you know!

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CC-MAIN-2023-06

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The solitary sea squirt Ascidiella aspersa is native to the Northeastern Atlantic, from the Mediterranean Sea to Norway. Living in shallow sheltered sites and harbors, this species has a fast growth rate and is able to produce a large number of larvae. These attributes have helped make it a successful colonizer of non-native environments, such as the Southwestern Atlantic, where it has become an invasive species introduced likely via ships. Dr. Evangelina Schwindt, Head of the Grupo de Ecología en Ambientes Costeros from CONICET in Argentina, studies Ascidiella aspersa as part of her research as a marine invasive ecologist. Her work involves researching the interactions between invasive and native species, the patterns and processes occurring in biological invasions from the historical and present-day perspectives, the impact caused by invasive species, and the management strategies that can be applied.

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A mobile phone is a portable device. Mobile communication is based on cellular networks. A cellular network is nothing but a radio network. In a cellular network, land is divided into areas called cells. Every cell in the network has a transmitter and receiver known as the base station of the cell site. Each cell in the network uses a different frequency for the transmission of signals. When joined together, these cells provide radio coverage over a large geographical area. The network of cells enables the mobile device to communicate even if it is moving from one cell to another via base stations. The mobile industry has grown dramatically in the last decade, both in terms of mobile communication technology and subscribers. The first system offering mobile communication service was introduced in the 1940s and early 1950s in the US. In Europe, these single-cell systems were severely constrained by restricted mobility, low capacity, limited service, and poor speech quality. Also, the equipment was heavy, bulky, expensive, lighter, and susceptible to interference. The use of semiconductor technology and microprocessors made mobile systems smaller, lighter, and more sophisticated. GSM (global mobile phone system), also known as “unicatis ann,” is an open digital cellular technology that transmits mobile voice and data service. The GSM emerged in the early 1970s from Bell Laboratories’ concept of a cell-based mobile radio system. GSM is the most recent standardization effort, established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard. The GSM standard is the most widely accepted standard and is implemented globally. GSM allows for eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency and uses “narrowband” TDMA, the technology that enables digital transmission between a mobile phone and a base station. With TDMA, the frequency band is divided into multiple channels, which are then stacked together into a single stream, hence the term “narrowband.” The users of GSM use subscriber identity module (SIM) cards for their connection with the service provider. SIM cards are small in size with removable memories and hold a lot of data and identification numbers, which are required to access any wireless service provider. Advantages of GSM - On the market, there are numerous handsets and service providers. Hence, the buyer can choose from a variety of options. - They come with a variety of plans with cheaper call rates, free messaging facility, limited free call and so on. - The quality of calling GSM is better and also better secured than CDMA. - A number of value-added services such as GPRS (general packet radio service) are making GSM a perfect choice. - The consumption of power is less in GSM mobiles. - With the tri band and GSM, one can use the phone anywhere around the world. - The SIM card or subscriber recognised unit card which transmits subscribers and exchange info, secures purchaser info. - SIM cards also permit consumers to handover their subscription info and telephone book info from one receiver to add at any period. - Clienteles are capable to Roam global without alerting their device or their facility plan. - Less signal distortion inside the building. Disadvantages in GSM - Per unit charge of roaming calls is higher in GSM than in CDMA. - Calls made through GSM mobiles can be tempered. - If the SIM gets lost, one can lose all the data. if the same is not saved in the phone. - Signals can be detected easily in GSM compared to CDMA.

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Compared to the Earth, the exoplanet Kepler-78b has a similar size (1.2 R⊕) and an orbital period a thousand times shorter (8.5 h). It is currently the smallest planet for which the mass, radius, and dayside brightness have all been measured. Kepler-78b is an exemplar of the ultra-short-period (USP) planets, a category defined by the simple criterion Porb < 1 day. We describe our Fourier-based search of the Kepler data that led to the discovery of Kepler-78b, and review what has since been learned about the population of USP planets. They are about as common as hot Jupiters, and they are almost always smaller than 2 R⊕. They are often members of compact multi-planet systems, although they tend to have relatively large period ratios and mutual inclinations. They might be the exposed rocky cores of “gas dwarfs,” the planets between 2–4 R⊕ in size that are commonly found in somewhat wider orbits. All Science Journal Classification (ASJC) codes - Astronomy and Astrophysics - Space and Planetary Science - Time-series photometry

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Supervolcano is the popular term for a large volcano that usually has a large caldera and can potentially produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such eruptions would be able to cause severe cooling of global temperatures for many years afterwards because of the huge volumes of sulfur and ash erupted. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. A supervolcano is capable of producing a volcanic eruption with ejecta greater than 1,000 cubic kilometers (240 cubic miles). This is thousands of times larger than most historic volcanic eruptions. It can result in a mini Ice Age or an Ice Age. Volcanologists and geologists do not refer to "supervolcanoes" in their scientific work, since this is a blanket term that can be applied to a number of different geological conditions. Since 2000, however, the term has been used by professionals when presenting to the public. The term megacaldera is sometimes used for calderas with supervolcano characteristics, such as the Blake River Megacaldera Complex in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec, Canada. Eruptions that rate VEI 8 are termed "super eruptions". Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the Earth rises into the crust from a hotspot but is unable to break through the crust. Pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure. This kind of eruption is typically sufficient to cause a long-lasting change to weather (such as the triggering of an ice age) sufficient to threaten the extinction of species, and cover huge areas with lava and ash. Though there is no well-defined minimum explosive size for a supervolcano, there are at least two types of volcanic eruptions that have been identified as supervolcanoes: large igneous provinces and massive eruptions. Although there are only a handful of Quaternary supervolcanoes, supervolcanic eruptions typically cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash and cause a long-lasting change to weather (such as the triggering of a small ice age) sufficient to threaten species with extinction. Eruptions resembling supervolcanoes have been identified by the Voyager spacecraft on the moons of Jupiter and Saturn. The outer solar system volcanoes are mostly cryovolcanoes, not magma volcanoes. Theoretically a supervolcano could be a cryovolcano, but none has been found within the solar system so far. Continue reading 1. La Garita Caldera - Colorado 2. Lake Toba - North Sumatra 3. Cerro Guacha - Bolivia 4. Yellowstone Caldera - Wyoming 5. Taupo Vocano - New Zealand 6. Galan - Argentina 7. Island Park Caldera - Idaho & Wyoming 8. Vilama Caldera - Bolivia & Argentina 9. La Pacana - Chile 10. Pastos Grandes - Bolivia A Supervolcano in New Zealand Is Rumbling So Much It's Shifting The Ground Above It - Lake Taupo Science Alert - July 12, 2022 The vast expanse of Lake Taupo's sky blue waters, crowned by hazy, mountainous horizons, invokes an extreme sense of tranquility. And yet, deep in the ground below, geological unrest is brewing. PLANET EARTH INDEX PHYSICAL SCIENCES INDEX CRYSTALINKS HOME PAGE PSYCHIC READING WITH ELLIE BOOK: THE ALCHEMY OF TIME DONATION TO CRYSTALINKS ADVERTISE ON CRYSTALINKS

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Each questions needs to be answered independently and they only need to be 350 words. Select a target behavior for change that will meet naturally existing contingencies of reinforcement. Describe Ayllon and Azrin’s (1968) concept of the ‘relevance of behavior rule’, and how your behavior meets this rule. Why is this so important to consider when designing a behavior change plan, and how does your target behavior fit this rule? With your target behavior in mind, specify all desired variations of the target behavior and the settings/situations in which it should (and should not) occur after instruction has occurred. Determine whether and to what extent generalization is desirable for all of the behavior changes listed, and include a prioritized list of the variations of the target behavior you would like to see as a generalized outcome. What are some of the ethical, practical and sociocultural considerations to explore when selecting target behaviors? Using the various strategies and tactics for promoting generalized behavior change listed in figure 28.4 of your text on p.626, design a behavior change plan that promotes generalization of behavior change. Use the target behavior(s) which you identified on the first Discussion Board this week. Be sure to describe whether or not you will use each of the different strategies and tactics listed in figure 28.4, and why or why not they would be appropriate to use in your specific example. Include a brief analysis of any practical, sociocultural, or ethical considerations to explore. Discussion from 1st Discussion board: Functional communication training (FCT) is a differential reinforcement method in which a person is shown an alternative response which results in the same reinforcement identified as causing problem behavior (Carr, 2011). In addition, Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007) explain that FCT is an antecedent intervention that teaches functional communication to decrease problem behaviors. Problematic behavior is put on extinction. Functional communication training objective is to establish a better communication behavior to compete with problematic behaviors. FCT changes alternative behaviors by motivating operations or establishing operations. Communication response may vary or be a combination of strategies for a single person, but the key function remains (Wacker D. P, 2005). It aims at improving communication with others. A teacher to teach a student who shouts every time he wants to go to a toilet can use functional Communication Training (FCT) method or behavior change. The student causes disruption and is often teased by other students. The teacher should teach that student a non-verbal communicative form such as using gestures or pictures. The student can use that sign to request for permission every time he wants to go to the toilet. Shouting is embarrassing and causes disruption. Sign/gesture will be better in a learning environment because many can recognize it and the task is easy to do.

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Plants react to their immediate environment in a number of ways and use the information so gleaned to make crucial decisions about growth and survival. In a new study, researchers from the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal have discovered a new molecular mechanism via which seedlings react to the absence of light and use it to modulate their growth rate to ensure optimum conditions for survival. Seeds germinate only when they find the right environmental conditions. Once germinated, the seedling starts developing in preparation for emerging above the ground and commencing life as an independent entity. But what happens when the conditions are not optimum after the seed has already germinated? One way that this can happen is if the seedling gets buried under the soil, resulting in prolonged dark conditions. In a recent study, Sourav Datta, Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Bhopal and his group show that just as a seed does not germinate if the conditions are not right, seedlings also do not grow unless certain conditions are met. In particular, the authors studied the importance of the presence of light for the growth and survival of seedlings. The researchers uncovered a mechanism by which seedlings can perceive when it is dark, resulting in a pause or arrested growth in the absence of sufficient light. This involves a plant growth hormone called abscisic acid (ABA). Plant cells receive signals from the environment (light, temperature, pH, humidity), through sensors present on their surface. They also secrete plant hormones like ABA, auxins, gibberellins, etc. that serve a variety of functions. Signals from the sensors as well as the plant hormones instruct the cells to carry out the appropriate metabolic activities required for a given stage of plant growth. This is facilitated through a series of signals passed on from one molecule to another, like a baton in a relay race. Every environmental cue results in activation of a specific set of signalling pathways, helping the plant make complex decisions. Identifying the molecular players in this relay race is vital to studying plant functions and growth. When light is optimum for seedling growth, a certain signalling pathway is activated through light-sensing photoreceptors on the cell surface, providing a “go” signal for growth and development. Datta’s group found that in darkness (caused by the seedling getting buried under soil layers), a molecule called COP1 communicates with the plant hormone ABA, arresting the growth of developing seedlings.The team that worked on this study. From left to right, Sourav Dattta, Yadukrishnan P, Nevedha Ravindran and Rahul PV (Image: Datta lab) Datta explains that while seedlings normally slow down their growth in dark conditions, the presence of excess ABA makes seedlings more sensitive to growth arrest. This observation prompted them to hypothesize that there might be a signalling molecule activated only in the dark, working hand-in-hand with ABA to promote growth-arrest. Their search pointed towards COP1, a protein found to be active in dark conditions, while less active in the presence of light. The researchers found that when COP1 levels are high in seedlings, they are more responsive to ABA-mediated arrest in seedling development, compared to when it is absent. Using mutant plant lines, they found that seedlings lacking COP1 did not lower their growth rate even in the presence of ABA. These studies suggested that COP1 was the primary player responsible for making seedlings sensitive to ABA-mediated growth arrest. Early stages of plant growth are highly regulated and crucial for the survival of seedlings. Newly germinated seedlings face stresses like low light, water scarcity, abnormal pH or salinity of soil, etc, all of which compromise their ability to make food. With limited energy stored in their tiny leaves, they have to conserve energy to adapt and survive in stressful conditions. Thus, prioritizing survival over growth, the seedlings choose to remain in an arrested state under unfavourable conditions, while keeping defence mechanisms active. The researchers used the plant model Arabidopsis thaliana for their experiments, but this molecular interplay could be investigated for similar roles in other plants, as COP1 and many components of ABA-associated signalling are conserved across plant species. Jitendra K. Thakur, Scientist at National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), New Delhi, who was not associated with this study, adds “This study may have implications in agriculture as the optimum timing of seed germination and seedling establishment is critical to ensure high plant yields, which can be utilized to enhance crop productivity especially under changing climatic conditions.” This is a companion discussion topic for the original entry at https://indiabioscience.org/news/2020/shall-we-grow-in-the-dark-a-cop-story

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https://discuss.indiabioscience.org/t/shall-we-grow-in-the-dark-a-cop1-story-indiabioscience/1799

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Every spring, the expansive pack of sea ice that coats the Beaufort Sea during the winter starts to thin and break up when the spring sunlight arrives and temperatures rise. Normally, that breakup does not reach full swing until late May. In 2016, much of the Beaufort Sea’s ice started breaking up by mid-April. “It really is quite remarkable,” noted Walter Meier, an ice specialist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. “There is always fracturing of the ice, but it seems to have become more prevalent and more widespread in recent years. This region used to be mostly multi-year ice, which is quite a bit thicker. Now, most of the Beaufort is seasonal, first-year ice. The thinner ice is weaker and more easily broken up by the winds.” In 2016, unusually warm temperatures during the first few months of the year set the stage for the early breakup. In April, a high-pressure system producing strong southeasterly winds parked itself over the Beaufort Sea and sent chunks of ice swirling in a clock-wise direction in the Beafort Gyre. The images in the lowest strip above, captured by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor on Terra, show different stages of the ice breakup in April 2016. For comparison, the upper two strips show what conditions were like in April 2014 and April 2015. Notice how much more open water appears in 2016 than in the other years. Extensive fracturing of Beaufort Sea ice also occurred in March 2013, but the 2016 fracturing appears to be more widespread. At points, there were fractures that reached from the Beaufort Sea all the way to the top of Greenland and the pole, noted Meier. While the early breakup offers a hint that Arctic sea ice may be headed for an unusually low minimum this summer, that will depend on weather conditions in the coming months. In 2013, the minimum extent ended up being higher than other recent years despite the early ice breakup in the Beaufort Sea. NASA Earth Observatory images by Joshua Stevens, using MODIS data from LANCE/EOSDIS Rapid Response. Caption by Adam Voiland.

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https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/88065/early-breakup-of-the-beaufort-sea-ice

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