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4188464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945%20Balochistan%20earthquake

1945 Balochistan earthquake

The 1945 Balochistan earthquake () occurred in British India at 1:26 PKT on 28 November 1945 with a moment magnitude of 8.1 and a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. Earthquake The earthquake's epicenter was 97.6 kilometers south-southwest of Pasni in Balochistan and a tsunami caused damage along the Makran coastal region. Deaths from the event were reported to be at least 300 and as many as 4,000 people. Another very large earthquake (7.3 ) occurred in nearly the same location on August 5, 1947, but not much is known about the event or its effects. See also List of earthquakes in 1945 List of earthquakes in Pakistan References Sources Further reading External links Earthquake and Tsunami of 28 November 1945 in Southern Pakistan – George Pararas-Carayannis Search for Eyewitness Accounts and Historical Documents on 1945 Makran Tsunami – UNESCO 1945 Balochistan 1945 Balochistan History of Balochistan Balochistan 1945 Balochistan November 1945 events in Asia 1945 in British India 1945 disasters in Asia

4194548

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935%20Quetta%20earthquake

1935 Quetta earthquake

An earthquake occurred on 31 May 1935 between 2:30 am and 3:40 am at Quetta, Balochistan, British India (now part of Pakistan), close to the border with southern Afghanistan. The earthquake had a magnitude of 7.7 and anywhere between 30,000 and 60,000 people died from the impact. It was recorded as the deadliest earthquake to strike South Asia until 2005. The quake was centred 4 km south-west of Ali Jaan, Balochistan, British India. Quetta and its neighbouring towns lie in the most active seismic region of Pakistan atop the Chaman and Chiltan faults. Movement on the Chaman Fault resulted in an earthquake early in the morning on 31 May 1935 estimated anywhere between the hours of 2:33 am and 3:40 am which lasted for three minutes with continuous aftershocks. Although there were no instruments good enough to precisely measure the magnitude of the earthquake, modern estimates cite the magnitude as being a minimum of 7.7 and previous estimates of 8.1 are now regarded as an overestimate. The epicentre of the quake was established to be 4-kilometres south-west of the town of Ali Jaan in Balochistan, some 153-kilometres away from Quetta in British India. The earthquake caused destruction in almost all the towns close to Quetta, including the city itself, and tremors were felt as far as Agra, now in India. The largest aftershock was later measured at 5.8 occurring on 2 June 1935. The aftershock, however, did not cause any damage in Quetta, but the towns of Mastung, Maguchar and Kalat were seriously affected. Aftermath Casualties Most of the reported casualties occurred in the city of Quetta. Initial communiqué drafts issued by the government estimated a total of 25,000 people buried under the rubble, 10,000 survivors and 4,000 injured. The city was badly damaged and was immediately prepared to be sealed under military guard with medical advice. All the villages between Quetta and Kalat were destroyed, and the British feared casualties would be higher in surrounding towns; it was later estimated to be nowhere close to the damage caused in Quetta. Infrastructure was severely damaged. The railway area was destroyed and all the houses were razed to the ground with the exception of the Government House that stood in ruins. A quarter of the Cantonment area was destroyed, with military equipment and the Royal Air Force garrison suffering serious damage. It was reported that only 6 out of the 27 machines worked after the initial seismic activity. A Regimental Journal for the 1st Battalion of the Queen's Royal Regiment based in Quetta issued in November 1935 stated, It is not possible to describe the state of the city when the battalion first saw it. It was razed to the ground. Corpses were lying everywhere in the hot sun and every available vehicle in Quetta was being used for the transportation of injured … Companies were given areas in which to clear the dead and injured. Battalion Headquarters were established at the Residency. Hardly had we commenced our work than we were called upon to supply a party of fifty men, which were later increased to a hundred, to dig graves in the cemetery. Rescue efforts Tremendous losses were incurred on the city in the days following the event, with many people buried beneath the debris still alive. British Army regiments were among those assisting in rescue efforts, with Lance-Sergeant Alfred Lungley of the 24th Mountain Brigade earning the Empire Gallantry Medal for highest gallantry. In total, eight Albert Medals, nine Empire Gallantry Medals and five British Empire Medals for Meritorious Service were awarded for the rescue effort, most to British and Indian soldiers. The weather did not help, and the scorching summer heat made matters worse. Bodies of European and Anglo-Indians were recovered and buried in a British cemetery where soldiers had dug trenches. Padres performed the burial service in haste, with soldiers quickly covering the graves. Others were removed in the same way and taken to a nearby shamshāngāht for their remains to be cremated. While the soldiers excavated through the debris for a sign of life, the Government sent the Quetta administration instructions to build a tent city to house the homeless survivors and to provide shelter for their rescuers. A fresh supply of medicated pads was brought for the soldiers to wear over their mouths while they dug for bodies in fears of a spread of disease from the dead bodies buried underneath. Significance The natural disaster ranks as the 23rd most deadly earthquake worldwide to date. In the aftermath of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, the Director General for the Meteorological Department at Islamabad, Chaudhry Qamaruzaman, cited the earthquake as being amongst the four deadliest earthquakes the South Asian region has seen; the others being the Kashmir earthquake in 2005, 1945 Balochistan earthquake and Kangra earthquake in 1905. Notable survivors Indian space scientist and educationist Yash Pal, then eight-years-old, was trapped under the building remains, together with his siblings, and was rescued. See also List of earthquakes in 1935 List of earthquakes in India List of earthquakes in Pakistan List of earthquakes in South Asia References Further reading External links 1935 Quette Earthquake – Dawn 1st Queen's at Quetta – The Earthquake 1935 Balochistan History of Quetta District Balochistan 1935 Quetta earthquake Quetta earthquake 1935 disasters in Asia Strike-slip earthquakes

4194575

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%20Pattan%20earthquake

1974 Pattan earthquake

The 1974 Pattan earthquake occurred in the rugged and isolated Hunza, Hazara and Swat districts of northern Pakistan at 12:11 UTC on 28 December. The 6.2 surface wave magnitude quake had a shallow focal depth of 22 km and was followed by numerous aftershocks. An official estimate of the number killed was 5,300 with approximately 17,000 injured, and around 4,400 homes were destroyed. A total of 97,000 were reported affected by the tremor. Most of the destruction was centered on the village of Pattan. The village was almost completely destroyed. The epicentral region is characterized by steep-walled narrow canyons and valleys. Most of the population was concentrated along the rivers. Much of the destruction was caused by the numerous landslides and rockfalls which came tumbling down from high above. The main road leading into the area was blocked for about by landslides and rockfalls, hampering relief efforts. The government flew in emergency supplies by helicopter until the roads were reopened on 13 January. The earthquake, which reached MMI V in Kabul, Afghanistan, affected some of the Indus Valley region. Several nations contributed money and supplies to aid the inhabitants of the stricken area. See also List of earthquakes in 1974 List of earthquakes in Pakistan Sources Earthquake information Bulletin, March–April 1975, Volume 7, Number 2 Further reading External links Earthquakes in Pakistan Pattan earthquake Pattan earthquake Pattan earthquake Pattan earthquake

4335013

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20weather%20%28disambiguation%29

Earthquake weather (disambiguation)

Earthquake weather is a type of weather popularly believed to precede earthquakes. Earthquake Weather may also refer to: Earthquake Weather (album), a 1989 album by Joe Strummer "Earthquake Weather", a song by Beck from Guero Earthquake Weather (novel), a 1997 novel by Tim Powers Earthquake Weather, a novel by Catherine Ryan Hyde

4467896

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Pakistan

List of earthquakes in Pakistan

Pakistan is one of the most seismically active countries in the world, being crossed by several major faults. As a result, earthquakes in Pakistan occur often and are destructive. Geology Pakistan geologically overlaps both the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates. Balochistan, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Gilgit-Baltistan provinces lie on the southern edge of the Eurasian Plate on the Iranian Plateau. Sindh, Punjab and Azad Jammu & Kashmir provinces lie on the north-western edge of the Indian plate in South Asia. Hence this region is prone to violent earthquakes, as the two tectonic plates collide. Earthquakes See also List of faults in Pakistan National Disaster Management Authority Earthquake Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Authority References Sources Further reading External links Northern Pakistan 1974 December 28 12:11:43 UTC Magnitude 6.2 USGS accessed Jan 2009 Earthquakes Pakistan

4470184

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20earthquake

1976 earthquake

1976 earthquake may refer to: Earthquake geological events 1976 Bali earthquake 1976 Çaldıran–Muradiye earthquake (Turkey) 1976 Friuli earthquake (Italy) 1976 Guatemala earthquake 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake (Philippines) (great, tsunami) 1976 Papua earthquake (Indonesia) 1976 Songpan–Pingwu earthquake (China) 1976 Tangshan earthquake (China) (great), also known as the "Great Tangshan earthquake" Sports 1976 San Jose Earthquakes season, a year involved for the professional soccer club San Jose Earthquakes (1974–88)

4513048

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20P%C3%A1ez%20River%20earthquake

1994 Páez River earthquake

The 1994 Páez River earthquake occurred on June 6 with a moment magnitude of 6.8 at a depth of . The event, which is also known as the Páez River disaster, included subsequent landslides and mudslides that destroyed the small town of Páez, located on the foothills of the Central Ranges of the Andes in Cauca in south-western Colombia. It was estimated that 1,100 people, mostly from the Páez, were killed in some 15 settlements on the Páez River basin, Cauca and Huila departments of which the eponymous town of Páez suffered 50% of the death toll. In response to the disaster, the government created the Nasa Kiwe Corporation to bring relief to the area, and begin the reconstruction of the affected areas. See also List of earthquakes in 1994 List of earthquakes in Colombia References and notes . Sismo del 6 de junio de 1994 El sismo de Paez de 1994. "(…)A causa del sismo se registraron 20 personas muertas y algunos heridos, cifra nada comparable con la cantidad de víctimas que dejaron las avalanchas, calculada en más de 300 muertos y 500 desaparecidos." . Detailed descriptions and photographs of the events, the outcomes, the handling of the emergency and later developments and social consequences can be seen in Nasa kive the government corporation for the reconstruction of the Páez River basin. . A detailed report with complementary information about this particular disaster and several others that took place around the same time in the Andean countries can be obtained in a special issue of the journal Desastres y Sociedad, published by La Red de Estudios Sociales en Prevención de Desastres en América Latina in 1995. Further reading Martinez, J.M., Avila, G., Agudelo, A., Schuster, R.L., Casadevall, T.J., and K.M. Scott, 1995. Landslides and debris flows triggered by the 6 June 1994 Paez earthquake, southwestern Colombia. Landslide News, no. 9:13–15. Kyoto: Japan Landslide Society. Schuster, R.L., 1995. Landslides and floods triggered by the June 6, 1994, Paez earthquake, southwestern Colombia. Association of Engineering Geologists, AEG News 38:1:32–33. External links Landslides and lahar at Nevado del Huila Volcano, Colombia from the United States Geological Survey 1994 Paez Paez, 1994 Paez June 1994 events in South America Landslides in 1994 1994 disasters in Colombia

4652475

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939%20Erzincan%20earthquake

1939 Erzincan earthquake

An earthquake struck Turkey's eastern Erzincan Province at with a moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XII (Extreme). It is the joint second most-powerful earthquake recorded in Turkey, tied with the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake. Only the 1668 North Anatolia earthquake was more powerful. This was one of the largest in a sequence of violent shocks to affect Turkey along the North Anatolian Fault between 1939 and 1999. Surface rupturing, with a horizontal displacement of up to 3.7 meters, occurred in a 360 km long segment of the North Anatolian Fault Zone. The earthquake was the most severe natural loss of life in Turkey in the 20th century, with 32,968 dead, and some 100,000 injured. Preface The North Anatolian Fault in Asia Minor is a major transform fault boundary where the Eurasian Plate slides past the smaller Anatolian Microplate. Running for over 1,600 km, the fault stretches from Eastern Turkey to the Sea of Marmara. The North Anatolian fault has been, and remains very active. Erzincan has been destroyed by earthquakes at least 11 times since 1,000 AD. Between 1942 and 1967, there were six major earthquakes along the same fault, with three above 7 . Earthquake With an epicenter near the city of Erzincan, the earthquake rupture propagated westwards for a length of 400 km. Surface ruptures are still visible to this day. Up to 360 km of surface rupture was formed. An average surface displacement of between 2.3 meters and 8.8 meters was calculated. Vertical displacements measured 0.5–2.0 meters. The maximum horizontal slip was 10.5 meters. The shaking lasted for 52 seconds. It resulted in a tsunami with heights of that hit the Black sea coast. Coulomb stress transfer from the 1939 earthquake promoted westward-progressing ruptures along the North Anatolian Fault. Ten earthquakes greater than magnitude 6.7 have ruptured a 1,000 km portion of the fault since 1939. Damage The earthquake seriously damaged some 116,720 buildings. Occurring in winter, it was difficult for aid to reach the affected areas. Initially, the death toll was about 8,000 people. The next day on 27 December, it was reported that it had risen to 20,000. During the same day, the temperature fell to . An emergency rescue operation began. By January 5, almost 33,000 had died due to the earthquake and due to low temperatures, blizzard conditions and floods. Aftermath The total destruction of the earthquake prompted Turkey to adopt seismic building regulations. So extensive was the damage to the city of Erzincan that its old site was entirely abandoned and a new settlement was founded a little further to the north. See also List of earthquakes in 1939 List of earthquakes in Turkey Osman Nuri Tekeli References Further reading External links 33 bin kişinin can verdiği Erzincan Depremi'nin acısı 82 yıldır dinmiyor - Anadolu Agency 1939 Erzincan 1930s tsunamis 1939 in Turkey 1939 earthquakes History of Erzincan Province Tsunamis in Turkey December 1939 events Strike-slip earthquakes

4706614

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Visions

Earthquake Visions

Earthquake Visions is the album that the glam-style metal band It's Alive recorded for Cheiron Studios in 1994. Earthquake Visions eventually sold a disappointing 30,000 copies, but furthermore established the contact between Cheiron and the band's vocalist Martin White – better known as the famous-to-be producer/songwriter Max Martin. Track listing "Give Us A Place" 3:51 "Someone In The House" 4:13 "I'm Your Man" 4:25 "Pretend I'm God" 3:23 "Sing This Blues" 4:29 "Wild" 4:08 "Metalapolis" 3:39 "Maybe You Are But I'm Not" 3:11 "Pain" 3:52 "There Is Something" 4:11 "Where I" 3:38 Note that the 1993 Music for Nations UK release adds two bonus songs; one, called "Play That Funky Music" (4:43) is slotted between "I'm Your Man" and "Pretend I'm God". The other track, called "Parasite" (3:10), is tacked on to the end of the disc, bringing it to a total of 13 songs. Personnel Max Martin - lead vocals Per Aldeheim - lead guitar Kim Björkegren - rhythm guitar Peter Kahm - bass guitar Gus - drums John Rosth - keyboard 1994 albums It's Alive (band) albums

4714080

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%20Andreanof%20Islands%20earthquake

1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake

The 1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake occurred at 04:22 local time on March 9 with a moment magnitude estimated between 8.6 and 9.1 and a maximum Modified Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It occurred south of the Andreanof Islands group, which is part of the Aleutian Islands arc. The event occurred along the Aleutian Trench, the convergent plate boundary that separates the Pacific Plate and the North American plates near Alaska. A basin-wide tsunami followed, with effects felt in Alaska and Hawaii, and strong waves recorded across the Pacific rim. Total losses were around $5 million. Tectonic setting The Aleutians Islands lie between Kamchatka and mainland Alaska. They were formed as the result of the long convergent boundary that accommodates the subduction of the oceanic Pacific Plate underneath the continental North American Plate. This oceanic trench runs from the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench in the west to the Yakutat Collision Zone in the east. Most of the trench ruptured in a sequence of earthquakes from east to west. Earthquakes in 1938, 1946, 1948, and 1965 generally progressed westward with smaller earthquakes filling in any gaps. At each terminus of the subduction zone, convergence ends in favor of right-lateral transform faults. In the west, convergence becomes increasingly oblique until the Commander Islands where faulting is nearly completely strike-slip—a 2017 earthquake was associated with this tectonic setting. The plate boundary ends at the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench. In the east, the Pacific Plate continues to subduct underneath the North American plate until the Yakutat microplate. There, a transition from subduction to strike-slip faulting exists. When this transition ends, faulting is completely right-lateral transform and is largely accommodated along the Queen Charlotte Fault. Earthquake The seismic intensity peaked at VIII (Severe) on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale at Adak and Umnak. As the shock occurred before the World Wide Standardised Seismological Network was in operation, few instruments recorded the event, and its mechanism is not understood well as a result. Some effort was made with the limited data to gain an understanding of the rupture area and the distribution of slip. One aspect of the event that was certain was that the aftershock zone was the largest that had ever been observed. The aftershock zone may slightly overlap other ruptures, however there is minimal overlap between the aftershocks of the 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake to the east and the 1965 Rat Islands earthquake to the west. Studies of the event differ on rupture characteristics. Some suggest a rupture zone greater than , stretching from Amchitka Pass in the east to Unimak Pass in the west. Other studies have the rupture area at a significantly longer . Yet other studies conclude that the entirety of the aftershock area ruptured in the earthquake, for a total rupture length of . The western portion of the rupture stopped at Bowers Ridge. Studies also disagree on whether the easternmost area near Unalaska ruptured. Some of the early scientific papers conclude that this area remained unruptured during the event and remains a seismic gap. Others, especially ones written decades after the fact, conclude that slip did occur here, but signals from it were blocked by the coda of the main slip. However, the amount of slip is not agreed upon. Some studies support a low amount of slip, while others conclude that there was large amounts of slip in this area, up to . A maximum slip of was estimated in the eastern portion of the rupture. If the eastern portion of the megathrust did rupture, then a magnitude of is more reflective of the event. The tsunami created by the earthquake suggests a () event. Tsunami Tsunami waves were reported in far way places such as in Chile. The tsunami's strength led to suspision that a landslide may have contributed to its severity, but there is no evidence of a landslide. A submarine landslide is considered inconsistent with the wave patterns recorded, and the high wave heights could be explained by large amounts of near trench slip. Alaska Wave heights were the highest in Alaska. On Unimak Island, waves reached as high as . Also on Unimak, near the Scotch Cap Lighthouse that was destroyed in the 1946 earthquake, run up heights of were observed. Trappers Cove recorded wave heights of . At Sand Bay, the tsunami reached . Dutch Harbor in Unalaska recorded waves of , Massacre Bay in Attu recorded waves up to high and Sitka had waves reaching . At Yakutat run-ups measured , while Women's Bay, Kodiak, Seward, and Juneau had recorded tsunami heights of . Hawaii On the island of Kauai, the wave height reached at Haena. In northern Oahu, wave heights reached . Various areas around Big Island recorded tsunami waves with heights ranging , including a reading of at Hilo. In Kahului, Maui, tide gauges recorded waves up to . Coconut Island was submerged by . California Crescent City recorded a tsunami wave of . Los Angeles recorded run-ups of , Santa Monica experienced a -high tsunami, while Anaheim Bay had waves. San Francisco's tide gauge recorded run-ups of . In San Diego, a wave caused minor damage, however the tide gauge only recorded a wave high. Other tide gauges across the state recorded run-up heights of . Elsewhere At Fagasā, American Samoa, tsunami run-up heights reached . Pago Pago recorded wave heights of , however the amplitude of the wave was . Midway recorded tsunami waves up to high. Wake Island recorded amplitudes of , Kwajalein and Enewetak recorded heights of . Johnston Atoll experienced waves of , while waves less than were recorded at Guam and Chuuk Lagoon. In Mexico, the tidal gauge in Ensenada, Baja California recorded the strongest waves at . Many countries in Central America also recorded tsunami run-ups including at Puntarenas, Costa Rica, at Puerto San José, Guatemala, and waves at La Unión, El Salvador. Peru and Chile were favorably oriented for large waves from the tsunami, and as a result strong waves were recorded. In Peru, the strongest wave heights of were recorded at Matarani, with other coastal areas recording wave heights of . Valparaiso, Chile recorded wave heights of , which were the highest across the country. Across the rest of the country, wave heights of , , , and were recorded at Arica, Antofagasta, Caldera, and Talcahuano, respectively. Damage Prompt warnings from the Seismic Sea Wave Warning System were credited with preventing major damage or loss of life. The earthquake caused severe damage to roads and buildings on Adak including a crack in size, however there were no deaths. Two bridges and some oil and fuel-related structures at a dock were also destroyed there. On Umnak, a concrete mixer and some docks were lost. At Chernofski, Trappers Cove, and Vsevidof, strong waves drowned sheep. Oil pipelines were damaged at Sand Bay. Many boats were damaged from strong waves. The tsunami caused twice the damage the tsunami of the 1946 earthquake did. In Hawaii, damage was much more extensive, including two indirect fatalities that occurred when a pilot and photographer were killed while attempting to document the tsunami's arrival from an airplane. About 50 homes were flooded on the north shore of Oahu and significant effects were seen in Waialua Bay. Buildings and bridges were also flooded in Haleiwa. In Hilo, the tsunami damaged buildings. The total damage cost was over $5 million ($46 million in 2017). See also List of earthquakes in 1957 List of earthquakes in Alaska List of earthquakes in the United States Mount Vsevidof Notes References Sources External links USGS Earthquake Hazards Program – Andreanof Islands, Alaska, Magnitude 8.6 Tsunami! – 1957 Aleutian tsunami The March 9, 1957 Aleutian Tsunami – George Pararas-Carayannis 1957 earthquakes 1957 in Alaska 1957 1957 Andreanof March 1957 events in the United States March 1957 events in Oceania

4789906

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Earthquake%20Authority

California Earthquake Authority

The California Earthquake Authority is a privately funded, publicly managed organization that sells California earthquake insurance policies through participating insurance companies. Established in September 1996 by the California Legislature, it is based in Sacramento, California. External links California Earthquake Authority website Financial services companies established in 1996 Insurance companies of the United States

4790615

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%20Baku%20earthquake

2000 Baku earthquake

The 2000 Baku earthquake occurred on November 25 at 22:09 (18:09 UTC) local time with an epicenter just offshore Baku, Azerbaijan. It measured 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale and the maximum felt intensity was VI on the Mercalli intensity scale. It was followed three minutes later by a quake measuring 5.9. It was the strongest for almost 160 years, since 1842 in the Baku suburbs and in addition to the capital affected Sumgayit, Shamakhi and neighboring cities. According to the United States Geological Survey, the epicentre was in the Caspian Sea, 25 km to the south-southeast of Baku. The earthquake was felt as far away as e.g. Tbilisi, 600 km northwest of the epicentre, Makhachkala and the Karabudakh and Isberbas settlements in Dagestan. Tectonic setting Baku lies on the Absheron peninsula close to the northern edge of the broad and complex zone of deformation caused by the continuing collision between the Arabian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. There are two main active seismic zones on the Absheron peninsula. The northern zone is part of the North Caucasus thrust belt that continues to the east along the Apsheron Sill, which is interpreted to be a zone of active subduction. Earthquakes recorded in the northern zone are mainly deep reverse or shallow normal in type. The southern zone is interpreted to be a continuation of the Greater Caucasus thrust. Earthquakes in this area are mainly reverse or right lateral strike-slip in type. Earthquake The earthquake consisted of two closely spaced events 90 seconds apart. The first event had an oblique reverse fault mechanism on a steeply-dipping fault trending northwest–-southeast, while the second was pure reverse in type on a moderately-dipping reverse fault trending west-northwest–east-southeast. Within the uncertainties, the two events occurred at the same depth, at about 40 km. Damage According to the Azerbaijani government, 26 people died as a primary result, but only three people in collapsing buildings. A total of 412 people were either hospitalised or sought medical assistance. President Heydar Aliyev announced that more than 90 buildings and apartment blocks have been seriously damaged. Damage was identified at the German church, the 15th century Shirvanshahs' Palace, the Opera and Ballet Theatre, the Taza Pir Mosque, the Blue Mosque and the Palace of Marriage Registrations. Despite affecting northeastern coastline of Azerbaijan no damage to the offshore oil exploration infrastructure has been reported. Many phone lines were down and the electricity was out in much of the city. Due to anxiety caused by possible fires the natural gas supply was reduced to 80%. Baku and Sumgait residents spent the rest of the night on the street. After the disaster seismologists have banned the construction of buildings with over nine floors. On the same day the earthquake in Saratov, Russia caused by tectonic changes in the Volga region after the Baku earthquake took place. Aftermath Following the presidential decree of November 28, 2000, the State Emergency Commission was provided with an amount of ca. US$5,5 million in order to deal with the consequences of the earthquake. The SEC dispatched assessment teams to the affected areas. In Baku, as of November 27, 19 families have been evacuated from three severely damaged houses. Schools have been temporarily closed. The UN Disaster Management Team, composed of UNDP, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNFPA, and WHO, was established in order to consider opportunities to support the governmental efforts. The IFRC launched an emergency appeal for international assistance amounting to US$590,000. See also List of earthquakes in 2000 List of earthquakes in Azerbaijan References External links Massive earthquake rocks Caspian Sea port – CNN The only existing video footage of the earthquake Azerbaijan: Earthquake – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Baku earthquake Baku earthquake, 2000 Articles containing video clips History of Baku Baku Baku 2000 disasters in Azerbaijan 2000 disasters in Asia November 2000 events in Asia November 2000 events in Europe

4928941

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1897%20Assam%20earthquake

1897 Assam earthquake

The Assam earthquake of 1897 occurred on 12 June 1897, in Assam, British India at 11:06 UTC, and had an estimated moment magnitude of 8.2–8.3. It resulted in approximately 1,542 human casualties and caused catastrophic damage to infrastructures. Damage from the earthquake extended into Calcutta, where dozens of buildings were severely damaged, with some buildings partially collapsing. Trembles were felt across India, reaching as far as Ahmedabad and Peshawar. Seiches were also observed in Burma. Earthquake The earthquake occurred on the south–southwest-dipping reverse Oldham Fault that forms the northern edge of the Shillong Plateau. There was a minimum displacement on the main fault of 11 m, although some calculations have placed this figure at as high as 16 m; one of the greatest for any measured earthquake. The calculated area of slip extended 180 km along the strike and from 9–45 km beneath the surface, indicating that the entire thickness of the crust was involved. Damage Thought to have happened 32 km beneath the surface, the earthquake left masonry buildings in ruins over 400,000 km2 area and was felt over 650,000 km2 from Burma to Delhi. Numerous buildings in the neighboring country of Bhutan were heavily damaged. Dozens of aftershocks were felt in and around the region with the last event being felt on 9 October 1897 at 01:40 UT in Calcutta. The earthquake resulted in Shillong Plateau being thrust violently upwards by about 11 meters. The fault was about 110 km in length while the fault slip was about 18 m (accuracy more or less by 7 m). At the epicenter, vertical acceleration is thought to have been greater than 1g and the surface velocity estimated at 3 m/s. In Shillong, the earthquake damaged every stone house and half the houses built of wood. The shock leveled the ground and resulted in 13 deaths. The fissure was also reported in the area. In Sohra Cherrapunji, it resulted in a landslide, which led to 600 deaths. In Goalpara, it resulted in waves from the Brahmaputra River, on which bank the town is situated on, destroying the market. In Nalbari, there were reported sightings of earth-waves and water waves. In Guwahati, the earthquake lasted for 3 minutes. the Brahmaputra river rose by 7.6  ft. Damage was caused to Umananda Island temple and railway lines, where five people died. In Nagaon, every brick house was damaged, while traditional houses made of wood, with grass roofs, were bent. There were many small fissures/volcanos and the road was impassable for vehicles. In the Sylhet region, shocks took place at 16:30 local time, according to villagers living at the foot of the hills north of Sunamganj. There were 545 casualties; 55 in Sylhet town; 178 in North Sylhet; 287 in Sunamganj; seven in Habiganj; eight in South Sylhet and 10 in Karimganj. Many building collapses, fissures and drownings furthered the number of deaths. A woman in Sunamganj is said to have fallen through a fissure whilst on a river with her husband. The husband tried to hold onto her hair but lost hold of her. The woman's body was not recovered from the crevasse. The Assam Bengal Railway was severely damaged. Richard Dixon Oldham, the Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India, analysed seismic records of the earthquake, mainly from stations in Italy, and reported the first clear evidence of different type of seismic waves, travelling through the earth on different paths and at different speeds. See also 1905 Kangra earthquake List of earthquakes in India List of historical earthquakes References Further reading External links Tom LaTouche and the Great Assam Earthquake of 12 June 1897: Letters from the Epicenter (with photographs of damage at Shillong, Rowmari and Calcutta, detailed field report with diagrams, and mapping of the epicentre) 1897 Assam 1897 earthquakes 1897 in India 1897 June 1897 events Disasters in Assam 1897 disasters in India

4929027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950%20Assam%E2%80%93Tibet%20earthquake

1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake

The 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake, also known as the Assam earthquake, occurred on 15 August and had a moment magnitude of 8.7. The epicentre was located in the Mishmi Hills. It is the strongest earthquake ever recorded on land and is tied with the 2012 Indian Ocean Earthquakes as the strongest Strike-slip earthquake to date. Occurring on a Tuesday evening at 7:39 pm Indian Standard Time, the earthquake was destructive in both Assam (India) and Tibet (China), and approximately 4,800 people were killed. The earthquake is notable as being the largest recorded quake caused by continental collision rather than subduction, and is also notable for the loud noises produced by the quake and reported throughout the region. Geology In an attempt to further uncover the seismic history of Northeast India, field studies were conducted by scientists with the National Geophysical Research Institute and Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar. The study discovered signs of soil liquefaction including sills and sand volcanoes inside of at least twelve trenches in alluvial fans and on the Burhi Dihing River Valley that were formed by past seismic activity. Radiocarbon dating identified the deposits at roughly 500 years old, which would correspond with a recorded earthquake in 1548. Earthquake The earthquake occurred in the rugged mountainous areas between the Himalayas and the Hengduan Mountains. The earthquake was located just south of the McMahon Line between India and Tibet, and had devastating effects in both regions. This great earthquake has a calculated magnitude of 8.7 and is regarded as one of the most important since the introduction of seismological observing stations. It was the sixth largest earthquake of the 20th century. It is also the largest known earthquake to have not been caused by an oceanic subduction. Instead, this quake was caused by two continental plates colliding. Aftershocks were numerous; many of them were of magnitude 6 and over and well enough recorded at distant stations for reasonably good epicentre location. From such data the Indian Seismological Service established an enormous geographical spread of this activity, from about 90 deg to 97 deg east longitude, with the epicentre of the great earthquake near the eastern margin. Impact The 1950 Assam–Tibet earthquake had devastating effects on both Assam and Tibet. In Assam, 1,526 fatalities were recorded and another 3,300 were reported in Tibet for a total of approximately 4,800 deaths. Alterations of relief were brought about by many rock falls in the Mishmi Hills and surrounding forested regions. In the Abor Hills, 70 villages were destroyed with 156 casualties due to landslides. Landslides blocked the tributaries of the Brahmaputra. In the Dibang Valley, a landslide lake burst without causing damage, but another at Subansiri River opened after an interval of 8 days and the wave, high, submerged several villages and killed 532 people. The shock was more damaging in Assam, in terms of property loss, than the earthquake of 1897. In addition to the extreme shaking, there were floods when the rivers rose high after the earthquake bringing down sand, mud, trees, and all kinds of debris. Pilots flying over the meizoseismal area reported great changes in topography. This was largely due to enormous landslides, some of which were photographed. In Tibet, Heinrich Harrer reported strong shaking in Lhasa and loud cracking noises from the earth. Aftershocks were felt in Lhasa for days. In Rima, Tibet (modern-day Zayü Town), Frank Kingdon-Ward, noted violent shaking, extensive slides, and the rise of the streams. Helen Myers Morse, an American missionary living in Putao, northern Burma at the time, wrote letters home describing the main shake, the numerous aftershocks, and of the noise coming out of the earth. One of the more westerly aftershocks, a few days later, was felt more extensively in Assam than the main shock. This led certain journalists to the belief that the later shock was 'bigger' and must be the greatest earthquake of all time. This is a typical example of the confusion between the essential concepts of magnitude and intensity. The extraordinary sounds heard by Kingdon-Ward and many others at the times of the main earthquake have been specially investigated. Seiches were observed as far away as Norway and England. (p. 63–64.) Future threat An article in Science, published in response to the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, calculated that 70 percent of the Himalayas could experience an extremely powerful earthquake. The prediction came from research of the historical records from the area as well as the presumption that since the 1950 Medog earthquake enough slippage has taken place for a large earthquake to occur. In 2015, the Himalayas were hit by a 7.8-magnitude earthquake with an epicenter further west in Nepal. See also 1897 Assam earthquake 2009 Bhutan earthquake April 2015 Nepal earthquake List of earthquakes in 1950 List of earthquakes in India List of earthquakes in China References External links At Khowang – A photo by Dhaniram Bora 1950 in India 1950 in Tibet 1950 earthquakes 1950s in Assam August 1950 events in Asia Disasters in Assam 1950 Assam 1950 Assam 1950 Assam Earthquakes in Myanmar 1950 in Nepal 1950 disasters in China 1950 disasters in India

4947282

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Kamchatka%20earthquake

2006 Kamchatka earthquake

The 2006 Kamchatka earthquake occurred on . This shock had a moment magnitude of 7.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (Extreme). The hypocenter was located near the coast of Koryak Autonomous Okrug at an estimated depth of 22 km, as reported by the International Seismological Centre. This event caused damage in three villages and was followed by a number of large aftershocks. Two M6.6 earthquakes struck on April 29 at 16:58 UTC and again on May 22 at 11:12 UTC. These earthquakes caused no deaths; however, 40 people were reported injured. Tectonic setting The northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula lies away from the convergent boundaries of the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench and the Aleutian Trench but across the boundary between two blocks within the North American Plate, the Kolyma-Chukotka and Bering Sea microplates. This boundary accommodates both active shortening and right lateral strike-slip across a series of large SW–NE trending faults. Earthquake The focal mechanism of the earthquake was consistent with reverse faulting on a northwest-dipping fault. Fieldwork carried out immediately after the earthquake and in the following summer identified a 140 km long zone of surface rupture. This rupture consisted of a series of en echelon surface breaks. The type of observed displacement varied from dominantly reverse faulting to oblique reverse-right lateral to dominantly strike-slip. The vertical component of displacement was locally in the range 4–5 m, the horizontal component was always less than 3 m. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Russia Kamchatka earthquakes Kamchatka Peninsula References External links The earthquakes on Kamchatka РИА "Новости" M7.6 - near the east coast of Koryakskiy Autonomnyy Okrug, Russia – United States Geological Survey Earthquake 2006 Kamchatka Earthquake, Kamchatka 2006 Earthquake 2006 2006 April 2006 events in Russia

4996310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Tonga%20earthquake

2006 Tonga earthquake

The 2006 Tonga earthquake occurred on 4 May at with a moment magnitude of 8.0 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII (very strong). One injury occurred and a non-destructive tsunami was observed. Earthquake The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii issued a warning 17 minutes after the earthquake for coastal areas around the Pacific. An hour later, the center downgraded the warning to only the region within 600 miles of the epicenter, and an hour after that, it canceled the alert. The earthquake was followed by a pair of large aftershocks the next day. Damage The event caused very limited damage. The previous large earthquake in Tonga, in 1977, was of a lower magnitude but resulted in more severe damage. A likely cause is that the 2006 quake generated other frequencies that only resulted in resonance in small items. In shops, cans and bottles fell from shelves. The century-old Catholic church in Lapaha had new cracks in the tower and several stones fell down, leaving the steeple in a somewhat unstable position. The tower of a 60-year-old church of the Free church of Tonga in Veitongo collapsed, the steeple came down and several walls cracked beyond repair. A Korean business man jumped in panic from his second floor hotel room and was hurt in the fall. He was brought to the hospital where he had to wait a long time for any help as power was off and most staff off duty (as that day was a public holiday). The American wharf in Nukualofa sustained cracks in addition to those caused by the 1977 earthquake. A ship, sunk in 1949 near Toula, Vavau apparently burst open and its load of copra came floating to the ocean surface. A landslide occurred at Hunga island in Vavau, when the ground at a steep cliff along the shore began sliding into the sea. In Haapai, the islands closest to the epicentre, the wharf was damaged and a number of water-pipes and telephone lines were broken. Niuui hospital was damaged. Tsunami Since the earthquake occurred underwater, tsunami warnings were issued, but then lifted. A small tsunami was observed. Later analysis showed the earthquake to be a slab-tearing event and so less conducive to tsunami generation. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Tonga References External links Poster of the Tonga Earthquake of 3 May 2006 - Magnitude 7.9 – United States Geological Survey 2006 Tonga Tonga Tonga Earthquake, 2006 May 2006 events in Oceania 2006 disasters in Oceania

5082433

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Alabama%20earthquake

2003 Alabama earthquake

The 2003 Alabama earthquake took place on April 29 at 3:59 A.M. Central Daylight Time (local time when the event occurred) eight miles (13 km) east-northeast of Fort Payne, Alabama. The number of people who felt this quake was exceptionally high as the earthquake could be felt in 11 states across the East Coast and as far north as southern Indiana. The earthquake was strongly felt throughout metropolitan Atlanta. The Georgia Building Authority was called out to inspect the historic Georgia State Capitol in downtown Atlanta and other state-owned buildings but found no problems. However, this is not out of the ordinary as earthquakes east of the Rocky Mountains can be felt several times the area felt on West Coast earthquakes. The earthquake was given a magnitude 4.6 on the moment magnitude scale by the USGS (other sources reported as high a magnitude as 4.9) and reports of the duration of the shaking range from 10 seconds to as long as 45 seconds. It is tied with a 1973 earthquake near Knoxville, Tennessee as the strongest earthquake ever to occur in the Eastern Tennessee Seismic Zone, which is the second most active seismic zone east of the Rocky Mountains, with the New Madrid Seismic Zone the most active. The April 29 earthquake caused moderate damage in northern Alabama including a wide sinkhole northwest of Fort Payne. The quake disrupted the local water supply. There were numerous reports of chimney damage, broken windows, and cracked walls, particularly around the area near Hammondville, Mentone and Valley Head, Alabama. Many 9-1-1 call centers were overloaded with worrisome and panicked residents, who thought it was a train derailment, a bomb, or some other type of explosion that had awakened them. There were several aftershocks, all of magnitude 2.0 or lower, and were not widely felt. See also List of earthquakes in 2003 List of earthquakes in the United States References External links Geologic Survey of Alabama; Geologic Hazards Program; Earthquakes in Alabama Center for Earthquake Research and Information, University Of Memphis, TN Indiana University PEPP Program; April 29, 2003 Fort Payne, Alabama Earthquake - contains extensive collection of media reports about the event 2003 earthquakes 2003 natural disasters in the United States Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Alabama 2003 in Alabama April 2003 events in the United States

5126056

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20zones%20of%20India

Earthquake zones of India

The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year. Geographical statistics of India show that almost 58% of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. A World Bank and United Nations report shows estimates that around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version, which consisted of five or six zones for the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. National Center for Seismology The National Center for Seismology Ministry of Earth Sciences is a nodal agency of the Government of India dealing with various activities in the fields of seismology and allied disciplines. The major activities currently being pursued by the National Center for Seismology include a) earthquake monitoring on a 24/7 basis, including real time seismic monitoring for early warning of tsunamis, b) operation and maintenance of national seismological network and local networks, c) seismological data centre and information services, d) seismic hazard and risk related studies, e) field studies for aftershock/swarm monitoring and site response studies and f) earthquake processes and modelling. The MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) intensity broadly associated with the various seismic zones is VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, corresponding to Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). The IS code follows a dual design philosophy: (a) under low probability or extreme earthquake events (MCE) the structure damage should not result in total collapse, and (b) under more frequently occurring earthquake events, the structure should suffer only minor or moderate structural damage. The specifications given in the design code (IS 1893: 2002) are not based on detailed assessment of maximum ground acceleration in each zone using a deterministic or probabilistic approach. Instead, each zone factor represents the effective period peak ground accelerations that may be generated during the maximum considered earthquake ground motion in that zone. Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like the Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale. Zone 5 Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risk of suffering earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or more significantly. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for the earthquake-resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 (the maximum horizontal acceleration that a structure can experience) is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquakes in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The regions of Kashmir, the Western and Central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North-East Indian region, the Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone.Generally, the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes. Zone 4 This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains (North Punjab, Chandigarh, Western Uttar Pradesh, Terai, a major portion of Bihar, North Bengal, the Sundarbans) and the capital of the country Delhi fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koynanagar) is also in Zone 4. Zone 3 This zone is classified as a Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3. Several megacities like Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata and Bhubaneshwar, Jamshedpur, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Lucknow, Vadodara, Mangalore, Vijayawada and the entire state of Kerala lie in this zone. Zone 2 This region is liable to MSK VI or lower and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns a zone factor of 0.10 for Zone 2. It is the zone with low chances of having earthquakes. Cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Nagapur, Raipur, Gwalior, Jaipur, Tiruchirappalli, Madhurai are in this zone. Zone 1 Since the current division of India into earthquake hazard zones does not use Zone 1 no area of India is classified as Zone 1. See also List of earthquakes in India Geology of India Notes Further reading Saikia, Arupjyoti. "Earthquakes and the Environmental Transformation of a Floodplain Landscape: The Brahmaputra Valley and the Earthquakes of 1897 and 1950." Environment and History 26.1 (2020): 51–77. External links India Meteorological Department Zoning Geology of India Emergency management in India Geographic areas of seismological interest Seismology Seismic zones by country

5216241

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20San%20Simeon%20earthquake

2003 San Simeon earthquake

The 2003 San Simeon earthquake struck at 11:15 PST (19:15 UTC) on December 22 on the Central Coast of California, about northeast of San Simeon. Probably centered in the Oceanic fault zone within the Santa Lucia Mountains, it was caused by thrust faulting and the rupture propagated southeast from the hypocenter for 12 miles (19 km). The most violent ground movement was within 50 miles of the epicenter, though the earthquake was felt as far away as Los Angeles. With a moment magnitude of 6.6, it was the most destructive earthquake to hit the United States since the Northridge quake of 1994. Damage The area around the epicenter being sparsely populated, the most severe damage was in Paso Robles, 24 miles (39 km) east-southeast. Two women were killed when the Acorn Building, an unreinforced masonry structure built in 1892, collapsed. Other unreinforced masonry buildings, some more than a century old, were extensively damaged. No structure that had even partial retrofitting collapsed. Two sulfur hot springs in Paso Robles erupted after the earthquake. One was underneath the parking lot of the recently opened city hall/library building. There was formerly a bath house at the location, and the spring was capped after it closed down. Hot water and sediment were released at a rate of about 1,300 gallons per minute (4,900 liters per minute), forming a large sinkhole and endangering the building. Emergency efforts saved the building. However, it took until 2010 to fully repair the damage and fill in the hole. This was mainly caused by the requirement for a full Environmental Impact Study, and the inability to do any work on the project, other than the initial emergency work. Another hot spring flowed out of the embankment at the Paso Robles Street exit on U.S. Route 101. There was a wrongful death lawsuit filed by the relatives of the 2 women killed in the earthquake against Mary Mastagni, and several trusts which owned the Acorn Building. The jury found Mastagni negligent in the care and maintenance of the Acorn Building, due to not retrofitting the building, in violation of city ordinances. The jury awarded nearly $2 million to the plaintiffs. Outside of Paso Robles the damage was less severe, with unreinforced masonry buildings taking minor to moderate damage. Buildings even 40 miles from the epicenter in San Luis Obispo suffered minor damage such as ceiling tiles falling. Brick veneers were also disproportionately affected. In addition, water tanks in Paso Robles, Templeton and Los Osos were damaged. Residential buildings, predominantly one- to two-story wood-frame structures, weathered the quake with little or no damage. The building that housed Atascadero's City Hall was damaged and vacated shortly after the quake. After extensive repairs, it reopened in August 2013. Some wineries, especially those near the epicenter along State Route 46, reported damage such as barrels toppling and bursting. The Mission San Miguel Arcángel had $15 million worth of damage. The earthquake also caused extensive damage to George H. Flamson Middle School. The main building was damaged and had to be demolished in 2004. A new building reflecting the original 1924 building was opened for use in August 2010. In Templeton, Bethel Lutheran Church (ELCA), sustained major damage to its 110+ year old building and the apse had to be rebuilt. Aftermath Following the event, California enacted A.B. 2533, amending the California Business and Professions Code § 8875.8, requiring that certain unreinforced masonry buildings that have not been seismically retrofitted have posted notice of the potential earthquake hazard. The law was called Jenna's Bill, after Jennifer Myrick, who died in the quake. Faulting The area where the quake struck displays a complex faulting geometry, between the active Oceanic Fault and the older Nacimiento Fault, along with possible interaction from the Hosgri and San Simeon segments of the mainly offshore San Gregorio-San Simeon-Hosgri fault zone. See also List of earthquakes in 2003 List of earthquakes in California List of earthquakes in the United States Notes Sources 2003 San Simeon Earthquake: Preliminary Earthquake Analysis – California Integrated Seismic Network Preliminary Observations on the December 22, 2003, San Simeon Earthquake – Earthquake Engineering Research Institute M6.6 - Central California – United States Geological Survey External links San Simeon, California – Earthquake Engineering Research Institute 2003 2003 earthquakes History of San Luis Obispo County, California 2003 in California 2003 natural disasters in the United States Paso Robles, California Buried rupture earthquakes

5309730

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Yogyakarta%20earthquake

2006 Yogyakarta earthquake

The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake (also known as the Bantul earthquake) occurred at with a moment magnitude of 6.4 and a maximum MSK intensity of VIII (Damaging). Several factors led to a disproportionate amount of damage and number of casualties for the size of the shock, with more than 5,700 dead, tens of thousands injured, and financial losses of Rp 29.1 trillion ($3.1 billion). With limited effects to public infrastructure and lifelines, housing and private businesses bore the majority of damage (the 9th-century Prambanan Hindu temple compound was also affected), and the United States' National Geophysical Data Center classified the total damage from the event as extreme. Although Indonesia experiences very large thrust earthquakes offshore at the Sunda Trench, this was a large strike-slip event that occurred on the southern coast of Java near the city of Yogyakarta. Mount Merapi lies nearby, and during its many previous historical eruptions, large volume lahars and volcanic debris flowed down its slopes where settlements were later built. This unconsolidated material from the stratovolcano amplified the intensity of the shaking and created the conditions for soil liquefaction to occur. Inadequate construction techniques and poor quality materials contributed to major failures with unreinforced masonry buildings (then the most prevalent type of home construction), though other styles fared better. Tectonic setting The islands of Indonesia constitute an island arc that is one of the world's most seismically active regions, with high velocity plate movement at the Sunda Trench (up to per year), and considerable threats from earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunami throughout. Java, one of the five largest in the Indonesian archipelago, lies on the Sunda Shelf to the north of the Sunda Trench, which is a convergent plate boundary where the Indo-Australian Plate is being subducted under the Eurasian Plate. The subduction zone offshore Java is characterized by a northward dipping Benioff zone, frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity that influence the regional geography, and direct or indirect stress transfer that has affected the various onshore faults. Sedimentation is closely related to tectonics, and while the volume of offshore sediment at the trench decreases with distance from the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta at the Bay of Bengal, the onshore accrual of sediments near the Special Region of Yogyakarta has been shaped by tectonic events. Earthquake According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the shock occurred south-southeast of Yogyakarta at a depth of , but other institutions provided source parameters (location and depth) that were not in agreement. No information was present on the extent of the faulting or the direction of propagation and there was no link to the eruption of Mount Merapi. The USGS suggested that the focal mechanism was most likely associated with left-lateral slip on a NE trending strike-slip fault, as that is the orientation of the Opak Fault, but this has not been validated. No surface breaks were documented, but the location of the greatest damage that was caused does align with the Opak Fault as a possible source. A group of Japanese and Indonesian scientists visited the area in March 2007 and confirmed the lack of surface ruptures, and pointed out that any visible expression of the fault would likely have been rapidly destroyed due to the tropical climate, and have acknowledged the widely varying locations (and the preference for the Opak Fault) that were reported by the various seismological institutions. Their investigation resulted in a different scenario, with an unknown or newly formed NE trending fault as the origin of the shock. Evidence for one of the proposed faults was found in the form of alignment of portions of the Oyo River near the USGS' epicenter, which is parallel (N°65E) to the Nglipar fault in the Gunungkidul region. If the shock occurred in this area it could indicate the reactivation of a major fault system. The second proposed fault further to the east is nearly parallel to the Ngalang and Kembang faults that lie to the north of the Oyo River. InSAR analysis While the densely populated area that saw significant destruction is adjacent to the Opak River Fault, both the USGS and Harvard University placed the epicenter to the east of that fault. Few seismometers were operating in the region, but a group of temporary units that were set up following the mainshock recorded a number of aftershocks that were east of the Opak River Fault and were aligned along a zone striking N°50E. Due to the ambiguous nature of the available information on the source of the Yogyakarta earthquake, a separate group of Japanese and Indonesian scientists applied one of the first uses of interferometric synthetic aperture radar to determine the source fault. Several data sets (one captured in April 2006 and another post-earthquake batch from June) were collected from an instrument on board the Advanced Land Observation Satellite and were compared to each other to show potential ground deformation patterns. A lack of any dislocation found on the images along the Opak River fault made evident the lack of movement along that fault, and though the aftershocks were occurring at a depth of , the deformation was distinct at the surface. The observed ground deformation that was detailed by the differential satellite images and Global Positioning System measurements was roughly east of (and parallel to) the Opak River Fault, along a zone that passed through the USGS' epicenter, and delineated a NE trending vertical fault (a dip of 89°). The displacements were not more than and indicated left-lateral strike-slip motion as well as a component of reverse slip, and to the west of the Opak River Fault (and closer to the areas of damage) strong ground motion triggered subsidence of volcanic deposits from Mount Merapi. Strong motion In 2006, Mount Merapi had not been active for more than four years, but on May 11 a pyroclastic flow triggered the evacuation of more than 20,000 people from the northern sector of Yogyakarta. While authorities expected a larger eruption to follow, the earthquake occurred instead. The volcano's previous eruptions deposited loosely bound sedimentary material in the valley during lahar flows and this material was found to have played a significant role in the effects of the shock. For example, German and Indonesian scientists set up instruments at several locations situated on different soil types to measure aftershocks. Of nine events that were analyzed, it was found that the station at Imogiri (a heavily affected village that was built on of sediment) showed signs of local amplification when compared to a location that was built on bedrock, and that the deposits amplified the impact of the shallow crustal rupture. Liquefaction A separate post-event study looked at the relationship with the layer of sediment and the occurrence of soil liquefaction during earthquakes near Bantul. Researchers stated that the Yogyakarta region is seismically active, with four known events in the 19th century and three in the 20th century, with peak ground acceleration values of 0.038–0.531g. The type and properties of sediment control the occurrence and distribution of liquefaction, and other environmental conditions (like the water table) also play a part, as well as the peak ground acceleration of the earthquake. The Bantul-Klaten plain consists of alluvium (sand, silt, clay, and gravel) and volcanic deposits from Merapi (sand, agglomerates, tuff, and ash), as well as limestone and sandstone. Borehole and magnetic data surveys show that the alluvium and lahar deposits at the Bantul graben are thick and at places over 200 meters, and the water table is below ground level. Most liquefaction events took place near the wide Opak Fault zone. Sand boils, lateral spreading, settling, and slides led to some tilting and collapse of buildings. Damage Altogether, eleven densely populated districts comprising 8.3 million people were affected, but the regencies of Bantul, Sleman, Gunung Kidul, Kulon Progo, Klaten, and the city of Yogyakarta were especially hard hit. More than 5,700 people were killed in the early morning shock, with tens of thousands injured, and hundreds of thousands made homeless. Total financial losses from the event are estimated to be Rp 29.1 Trillion ($3.1B), with 90% of the damage affecting the private sector (homes and private businesses) and only 10% affecting the public sector. The damage to housing accounted for about half of the total losses and a comparison was made to the damage to homes in Aceh following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Damage in central Java was more pronounced because of the substandard construction practices and the high population density, but on the other end of the scale, damage to infrastructure was very limited. Housing With 154,000 houses destroyed and 260,000 units experiencing damage, the event was one of the most costly natural disasters in the previous ten years. With 7% of housing units lost, more houses were damaged than during the 2004 Sumatra–Andaman and the 2005 Nias–Simuele events combined. With 66,000 homes destroyed, the Klaten District saw the heaviest damage, followed by Bantul, with 47,000 destroyed. In the most heavily damaged areas, 70–90% of units destroyed, contributing to a total of 4.1 million cubic meters of debris. Of the three home construction styles used in the area, the most common type fared badly. Low quality materials and improper construction styles led to unreinforced masonry buildings being responsible for the large loss of life and the high number of injuries. The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute stated that there was a "lack of wall integrity in the transverse direction for out-of-plane forces" and "no mechanical connection between the top of the wall and the roof or floor, and inadequate out-of-plane strength due to a lack of reinforcement". Prambanan The Prambanan Temple Compounds (also known as the Roro Jonggrang Temple) was constructed near the border of Yogyakarta and Central Java in , and was abandoned shortly thereafter. The site, which has experienced about 16 earthquakes since the 9th-century (including the 2006 event), consists of three yards of varying sizes with different stone block temples, and was rediscovered by a Dutch explorer in 1733. The smallest yard (110 m2) houses the main temple, and a slightly larger yard (220 m2) houses the Perwara temple. The main Prambanan Temple Complex is housed in the largest yard (390 m2). Many stones were dislodged and some parts broke off during the earthquake, and civil engineers were brought in to investigate the characteristics of the soil under the temple using ground penetrating radar, bore samples, and standard penetration tests. The goal was to visually examine the soil layers, to determine soil bearing capacity and depth of groundwater, as well as the depth of bedrock. Recommendations were then made regarding the renovations and repair process. International aid Many countries and organizations offered foreign aid to the devastated region, but the actual amounts delivered/received often varied from these figures, as in the case of other disasters. Japan promised US$10 million, sent two medical teams and also announced that it will send troops to help out The United Kingdom offered four million pounds (US$7,436,800) Saudi Arabia promised US$5 million, plus food, medical equipment and tents, while the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait each pledged US$4 million The European Union offered three million euros (US$3,800,000) The United States offered $5 million; US military joins relief effort Australia offered 7.5 million Australian dollars (US$5,675,000) in aid relief, including 27 member medical team among over 80 personnel China offered $2 million U.S dollars Canada offered two million Canadian dollars (US$1.8 million) India put forward an aid package worth $2 million. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) donated US$1.6 million worth of emergency supplies to devastated areas, teaming up with Islamic Relief Worldwide who provided the transportation. In addition, local Indonesian LDS members prepared thousands of meals, hygiene kits, cots, mattresses, and blankets for those requiring medical attention. The Netherlands promised 1 million euros in May plus an extra 10 million euros one month later, Belgium has pledged $832,000, while Norway, France and Italy have offered either medical teams or relief supplies The Red Cross, Red Crescent, OXFAM, Plan International, Jesuit Refugee Service alongside other NGOs and UN agencies, including WFP and UNICEF, provided plastic sheeting, tools and building materials, and cash assistance to the victims. Japan and Malaysia are to send medical teams to the affected region Singapore offered humanitarian relief assistance in the form of a 35-member Armed Forces Medical Team, a 43-member Civil Defense Force Disaster Assistance and Rescue Team, as well as US$50,000 worth of emergency supplies The United Nations World Health Organization sent medicines and communications equipment, enough emergency health kits to last 50,000 people three months, and surgical kits for as many as 600 operations Vietnam offered 1,000 tons of rice to Indonesia. The Isle of Man offered £30,000 (US$56,291) to Indonesia King Abdullah II of Jordan ordered to dispatch a plane laden with humanitarian relief to alleviate the suffering of Indonesian earthquake victims that hit Java. The aid included blankets, medicines and other medical equipment. MERCY Malaysia sent 6 missions to Yogyakarta the first being sent on 28 May 2006. Datuk Dr. Jemilah Mahmood, President of MERCY Malaysia (Mission Leader) and Saiful Nazri, Programme Officer from MERCY Aceh Office went there on the first mission travelling by a special United Nations Humanitarian Air Services (UNHAS) flight from Banda Aceh along with other international organisations based in Aceh and two tonnes of medical supplies contributed by the international agencies from Aceh. The first team had secured ground logistics for the subsequent teams coming in from Kuala Lumpur. Reconstruction Applying lessons learned from the Aceh recovery from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the government of Indonesia promoted a community-driven approach in reconstruction from the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The government leveraged social capital to hasten the reconstruction process. In housing recovery for instance, both the government and NGOs introduced capacity building initiatives (e.g. socialization and on-the-spot training for the construction of earthquake-resistant housing such as penyuluhan and pelatihan teknis) and advocated for use of local materials (e.g., Merantasi). The Kecamatan Development Project (KDP) and the Urban Poverty Project (UPP) are examples NGOs supporting community-driven processes. The government was slow to implement assistance in reconstructing private houses, leading many homeowners to repair or rebuild their homes either by themselves or with community help. Reconstruction in some areas was aided by relief agencies, like the Red Cross Red Crescent. Villagers rebuilt their homes with extremely limited resources, using simple affordable materials. They turned to traditional materials, such as bamboo, because of the damage inflicted by collapsing brick walls. See also List of disasters in Indonesia List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Indonesia Sidoarjo mud flow References Sources External links M6.3 - Java, Indonesia – United States Geological Survey Indonesia earthquake – CNN Special Report An ancient wonder reduced to rubble – The Sydney Morning Herald UN health agency rushes aid to quake-struck parts of Indonesia – United Nations Rehabilitation of Prambanan World Heritage Site – UNESCO Java earthquake, 2006 2006 Java 2006 in Indonesia Earthquakes in Java Bantul Regency May 2006 events in Asia Yogyakarta Strike-slip earthquakes de:Java (Insel)#Geologie

5508143

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20the%20British%20Isles

List of earthquakes in the British Isles

The following is a list of notable earthquakes that have affected the British Isles. On average, several hundred earthquakes are detected by the British Geological Survey each year, but almost all are far too faint to be felt by humans. Those that are felt generally cause very little damage. Nonetheless, earthquakes have on occasion resulted in considerable damage, most notably in 1580 and 1884; Musson (2003) reports that there have been ten documented fatalities – six caused by falling masonry and four by building collapse. The causes of earthquakes in the UK are unclear, but may include "regional compression caused by motion of the Earth’s tectonic plates, and uplift resulting from the melting of the ice sheets that covered many parts of Britain thousands of years ago." Medieval reports of "earthquakes" that threw down newly built cathedrals may simply have been catastrophic failure of overloaded masonry, particularly towers, rather than actual tectonic events. Earthquakes See also Geology of England Geology of Great Britain List of volcanoes in the United Kingdom References Citations Bibliography BGS Historical earthquakes listing BGS Interactive UK earthquakes map Archives of the British Geological Survey R M W Musson, "Fatalities in British earthquakes". Astronomy & Geophysics. Vol. 44, p1 (2003) External links Historical UK earthquakes – BGS List of Earthquakes in the British Isles Q&A: UK's small-scale earthquakes Earthquakes in the United Kingdom United Kingdom Earthquakes Earthquakes earthquakes earthquakes

5517740

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1884%20Colchester%20earthquake

1884 Colchester earthquake

The Colchester earthquake, also known as the Great English earthquake, occurred on the morning of 22 April 1884 at 09:18. It caused considerable damage in Colchester and the surrounding villages in Essex. In terms of overall destruction caused it is certainly the most destructive earthquake to have hit the United Kingdom in at least the last 400 years, since the Dover Straits earthquake of 1580. Earthquake At 9:18 am the earthquake struck, centred mainly in the villages of Wivenhoe, Abberton, Langenhoe, and Peldon causing the surrounding area to rise and fall violently as the waves spread, lasting for around 20 seconds. Measuring 4.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, the effects were felt across England, as well as in northern France and Belgium. It is believed that the earthquake resulted from movement along a fault in the ancient Palaeozoic rocks that underpin most of Essex, causing waves to propagate through the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary layers. The British Geological Survey estimates that the 1884 earthquake's magnitude was only around 4.6 on the Richter magnitude scale, compared with 6.1 for the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake. Damage The earthquake damaged about 1,250 buildings, including almost every building in Wivenhoe and Abberton, and in settlements all the way to Ipswich. The medieval church in Langenhoe was significantly damaged, as were those in the villages of Layer-de-la-Haye, Layer Marney, Layer Breton, and Peldon. In Peldon, the local newspapers claimed that every building had been damaged in some way. The Guardian reported that the earthquake was greeted with terror by the people near Colchester. There are some reports that between three and five people were killed by the earthquake, but this has been disputed by other contemporary accounts and later analysis, which suggest that there were no fatalities directly caused by this event. The Times reported damage "in the many villages in the neighbourhood from Colchester to the sea coast", with many poor people made homeless, and estimated the cost of the disaster at £10,000. It did, however, mention the death of a child at Rowhedge, attributed to the earthquake. Mary Saunders, of Manningtree, drowned herself in the River Stour some days later. The large waves caused by the earthquake destroyed many small craft. Langenhoe Church was badly damaged. Masonry tumbled off the tower, crashing into the roof of the nave and chancel. The nearby rectory was also damaged. See also List of earthquakes in the British Isles List of historical earthquakes References Notes Bibliography Further reading External links The Great Colchester Earthquake The effects of the earthquake on the area of Eastern Essex south of the River Blackwater 1884 Colchester Colchester earthquake Colchester 1884 Colchester Colchester 1880s in Essex April 1884 events

5523844

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1931%20Dogger%20Bank%20earthquake

1931 Dogger Bank earthquake

The Dogger Bank earthquake of 1931 is the strongest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom since measurements began. It had a magnitude of 6.1 on the Richter magnitude scale, and it caused a shaking intensity of VI (Strong) to VII (Very strong) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The location of the earthquake in the North Sea meant that damage was significantly less than it would have been had the epicentre been on the British mainland. Earthquake The tremor began at around 1:30 am on 7 June 1931 with its epicentre located at the Dogger Bank, off the Yorkshire coast in the North Sea. The effects were felt throughout Great Britain as well as in Belgium and France. The earthquake resulted in damage at locations throughout eastern England. The coastal town of Filey in Yorkshire was worst hit, with the spire of a church being twisted by the tremor. Chimneys collapsed in Hull, Beverley and Bridlington, and Flamborough Head suffered crumbling of parts of its cliffs. It was also reported that a Hull woman died as a result of a heart attack caused by the quake. In London the head of the waxwork of Dr Crippen at Madame Tussauds fell off. Tsunami A small nondestructive tsunami wave was reported to have hit the east coast of England and other countries around the North Sea. See also List of earthquakes in 1931 List of earthquakes in the British Isles References Further reading External links Contemporary newspaper report (archived at the Wayback Machine) Dogger Bank Earthquake, British Geological Survey Earthquake records 1931 Dogger Bank Dogger Bank 1931 Dogger Bank 1931 disasters in the United Kingdom Dogger Bank June 1931 events

5569795

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580%20Dover%20Straits%20earthquake

1580 Dover Straits earthquake

Though severe earthquakes in the north of France and Britain are rare, the 1580 Dover Straits earthquake appears to have been one of the largest in the recorded history of England, Flanders or northern France. Its effects started to be felt in London at around six o'clock in the evening of 6 April 1580, being Wednesday in the Easter week. Location and magnitude A study undertaken during the design of the Channel Tunnel estimated the magnitude of the 1580 quake at 5.3–5.9 and its focal depth at 20–30 km, in the lower crust. The Channel Tunnel was therefore designed to withstand those tremors. Being relatively deep, the quake was felt over a large area and it is not certain where the epicentre was located. The Channel Tunnel study proposed three possible locations, two south of Calais and one offshore. The barycentre of the isoseismals with intensities IV to VII lies in the Boulonnais, 10 km east of Desvres, the barycentre of the VII isoseismal lies about 1 km northeast of Ardres, and the barycentre of the only pleistoseismal zone lies in the English Channel. The British Geological Survey estimates the magnitude to be 5.7–5.8 . Records The earthquake is well recorded in contemporary documents, including the "earthquake letter" from Gabriel Harvey to Edmund Spenser mocking popular and academic methods of accounting for the tremors. It fell during Easter week, an omen-filled connection that was not lost on the servant-poet James Yates, who wrote ten stanzas on the topic: Oh sudden motion, and shaking of the earth, No blustering blastes, the weather calme and milde: Good Lord the sudden rarenesse of the thing A sudden feare did bring, to man and childe, They verely thought, as well in field as Towne, The earth should sinke, and the houses all fall downe. Well let vs print this present in our heartes, And call to God, for neuer neede we more: Crauing of him mercy for our misdeedes, Our sinfull from heart for to deplore, For let vs thinke this token doth portend, If scourge nere hand, if we do still offend. Yates' poem was printed in 1582 in The Castell of Courtesy. English writer Thomas Churchyard, then aged 60, was in London when the quake struck and he drafted an immediate account which was published two days later. In his 2007 biography of Richard Hakluyt, historian Peter C. Mancall provides extensive extracts from Churchyard's 8 April 1580 pamphlet, A Warning to the Wyse, a Feare to the Fond, a Bridle to the Lewde, and a Glasse to the Good; written of the late Earthquake chanced in London and other places, the 6th of April, 1580, for the Glory of God and benefit of men, that warely can walk, and wisely judge. Set forth in verse and prose, by Thomas Churchyard, gentleman. Mancall notes that Churchyard's pamphlet provides a sense of immediacy so often lacking in retrospective writing. According to Churchyard, the quake could be felt across the city and well into the suburbs, as "a wonderful motion and trembling of the earth" shook London, and "Churches, Pallaces, houses, and other buildings did so quiver and shake, that such as were then present in the same were toosed too and fro as they stoode, and others, as they sate on seates, driven off their places." The English public was so eager to read about the quake that a few months later, Abraham Fleming was able to publish a collection of reports of the Easter Earthquake, including those written by Thomas Churchyard, Richard Tarlton (described as the writing clown of Shakespeare's day), Francis Schackleton, Arthur Golding, Thomas Twine, John Philippes, Robert Gittins, and John Grafton, as well as Fleming's own account. Published by Henry Denham on 27 June 1580, Fleming's pamphlet was titled: A Bright Burning Beacon, forewarning all wise Virgins to trim their lampes against the coming of the Bridegroome. Conteining A generall doctrine of sundrie signes and wonders, specially Earthquakes both particular and generall: A discourse of the end of this world: A commemoration of our late Earthquake, the 6 of April, about 6 of the clocke in the evening 1580. And a praier for the appeasing of Gods wrath and indignation. Newly translated and collected by Abraham Fleming. Shirley Collins cites ballad-writer Thomas Deloney as having written the broadside ballad "Awake Awake" about the earthquake, which she subsequently recorded on her 2016 album Lodestar. In the sleeve notes she states "Awake Awake is a fascinating survival of the penitential song written in 1580 by ballad-writer Thomas Deloney, when the Great Earthquake in London toppled part of old St Paul's Cathedral, Deloney taking it as a sign of God's displeasure. Over three hundred years later, in 1909, Ralph Vaughan Williams noted down this version from the singing of Mrs Caroline Bridges of Pembridge and it's in Mary Ellen Leather's (1912). A remarkable journey down through those many years." An adaptation of the original tune was subsequently put to the carol "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen" by Ralph Vaughan Williams. Impact Farther from the coast, furniture danced on the floors and wine casks rolled off their stands. The belfry of Notre Dame de Lorette and several buildings at Lille collapsed. Stones fell from buildings in Arras, Douai, Béthune and Rouen. Windows cracked in the cathedral of Notre Dame at Pontoise, and blocks of stone dropped ominously from the vaulting. At Beauvais, the bells rang as though sounding the tocsin. Many deaths were reported from Saint-Amand-les-Eaux. In Flanders, chimneys fell and cracks opened in the walls of Ghent and Oudenarde, killing several people. Peasants in the fields reported a low rumble and saw the ground roll in waves. On the English coast, sections of wall fell in Dover and a landslip opened a raw new piece of the White Cliffs. At Sandwich a loud noise emanated from the Channel, as church arches cracked and the gable end of a transept fell at St Peter's Church. Near Hythe, Kent, Saltwood Castle—made famous as the site where the plot was hatched in December 1170 to assassinate Thomas Becket—was rendered uninhabitable until it was repaired in the 19th century. In London, half a dozen chimney stacks and a pinnacle on Westminster Abbey came down; two children were killed by stones falling from the roof of Christ's Church Hospital. Indeed, many Puritans blamed the emerging theatre scene of the time in London, which was seen as the work of the Devil, as a cause of the quake. There was damage far inland, in Cambridgeshire, where stones fell from Ely Cathedral. Part of Stratford Castle in Essex collapsed. In Scotland, a local report of the quake disturbed the adolescent James VI, who was informed that it was the work of the Devil. There were aftershocks. Before dawn the next morning, between 4 and 5 o'clock, further houses collapsed near Dover due to aftershocks, and a spate of further aftershocks was noticed in east Kent on 1–2 May. Other earthquakes in the Dover Straits 198 years earlier there was a very similar event, the magnitude 5.8–6.0 1382 Dover Straits earthquake, with an estimated epicentre not far from that estimated for the 1580 event. Two later quakes in the Dover Strait, in 1776 and 1950, both thought to be around magnitude 4, were noted in the 1984 compilation by R.M.W. Musson, G. Neilson and P.W. Burton. None in this study occurred before 1727, but the same team devoted an article to the 1580 earthquake that year. The 2007 Kent earthquake was initially thought to have occurred in the Dover Straits, but later analysis showed it to have occurred directly under the town of Folkestone in Kent. See also Geology of the United Kingdom List of earthquakes in the United Kingdom List of earthquakes in France Notes and references External links Shaksper: The Global Shakespeare Discussion List, 2002 archives Friday, 26 April 2002, and following messages, which, taken together, compile references used to write this article. Geology shop: UK Earthquakes. Source for much detail in this article. European Historical Earthquakes Archive: the 1580 Dover Straits earthquake. Historical earthquakes studies on the earthquake with maps and macroseismic intensities. History of the English Channel Disasters in Kent History of Dover, Kent History of Calais 1580 1580 Earthquakes in Europe Natural disasters in Belgium 1580 in France 1580 in England 1580 in the Habsburg Netherlands 16th century in France 1580s earthquakes 1580 in science Strait of Dover

5618154

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20light

Earthquake light

An earthquake light also known as earthquake lightning or earthquake flash is a luminous optical phenomenon that appears in the sky at or near areas of tectonic stress, seismic activity, or volcanic eruptions. There is no broad consensus as to the causes of the phenomenon (or phenomena) involved. The phenomenon differs from disruptions to electrical grids – such as arcing power lines – which can produce bright flashes as a result of ground shaking or hazardous weather conditions. Appearance One of the first records of earthquake lights is from the 869 Sanriku earthquake, described as "strange lights in the sky" in Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku. The lights are reported to appear while an earthquake is occurring, although there are reports of lights before or after earthquakes, such as reports concerning the 1975 Kalapana earthquake. They are reported to have shapes similar to those of the auroras, with a white to bluish hue, but occasionally they have been reported having a wider color spectrum. The luminosity is reported to be visible for several seconds, but has also been reported to last for tens of minutes. Accounts of viewable distance from the epicenter varies: in the 1930 Idu earthquake, lights were reported up to from the epicenter. Earthquake lights were reportedly spotted in Tianshui, Gansu, approximately north-northeast of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake's epicenter. During the 2003 Colima earthquake in Mexico, colorful lights were seen in the skies for the duration of the earthquake. During the 2007 Peru earthquake lights were seen in the skies above the sea and filmed by many people. The phenomenon was also observed and caught on film during the 2009 L'Aquila and the 2010 Chile earthquakes. The phenomenon was also reported around the North Canterbury earthquake in New Zealand, that occurred 1 September 1888. The lights were visible in the morning of 1 September in Reefton, and again on 8 September. More recent appearances of the phenomenon, along with video footage of the incidents, happened in Sonoma County, California on August 24, 2014, and in Wellington, New Zealand on November 14, 2016, where blue flashes like lightning were seen in the night sky, and recorded on several videos. On September 8, 2017, many people reported such sightings in Mexico City after a 8.2 magnitude earthquake with epicenter away, near Pijijiapan in the state of Chiapas. Appearances of the earthquake light seem to occur when the quakes have a high magnitude, generally 5 or higher on the Richter scale. There have also been incidents of yellow, ball-shaped lights appearing before earthquakes. Instances of this phenomenon appear in videos taken seconds after a 7.1 magnitude earthquake in the city of Acapulco, Mexico, around 20:47 on 7 September 2021. The New York Times reported that "Videos from both Acapulco and Mexico City also showed the night sky lit up with electrical flashes as power lines swayed and buckled." A recent one was seen in Qinghai Province, China at 01:45 on 8 January 2022. Surveillance video of a local resident captured the moment. During the 2022 Fukushima earthquake the phenomena was captured on video from multiple angles. This phenomenon was observed around 1:18 on 22 September 2022 when a magnitude 6.8 aftershock of the 2022 Michoacán earthquake struck. Social media users including Webcams de México posted videos of blue lights which seemed to be radiating upward. This was reported in Mexico News Daily and included one of the videos. During the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, multiple lights appeared continuously in Kahramanmaraş and Hatay provinces. Later that year, blue light flashes were also seen in Agadir during the Marrakesh-Safi earthquake. Types Earthquake lights may be classified into two different groups based on their time of appearance: (1) preseismic earthquake light, which generally occur a few seconds to up to a few weeks prior to an earthquake, and are generally observed closer to the epicenter and (2) coseismic earthquake light, which can occur either near the epicenter ("earthquake‐induced stress"), or at significant distances away from the epicenter during the passage of the seismic wavetrain, in particular during the passage of S waves ("wave‐induced stress"). Earthquake light during the lower magnitude aftershock series seem to be rare. Possible explanations Research into earthquake lights is ongoing; as such, several mechanisms have been proposed. Some models suggest the generation of earthquake lights involve the ionization of oxygen to oxygen anions by breaking of peroxy bonds in some types of rocks (dolomite, rhyolite, etc.) by the high stress before and during an earthquake. After the ionisation, the ions travel up through the cracks in the rocks. Once they reach the atmosphere these ions can ionise pockets of air, forming plasma that emits light. Lab experiments have validated that some rocks do ionise the oxygen in them when subjected to high stress levels. Research suggests that the angle of the fault is related to the likelihood of earthquake light generation, with subvertical (nearly vertical) faults in rifting environments having the most incidences of earthquake lights. One hypothesis involves intense electric fields created piezoelectrically by tectonic movements of quartz-containing rocks such as granite. Another possible explanation is local disruption of the Earth's magnetic field and/or ionosphere in the region of tectonic stress, resulting in the observed glow effects either from ionospheric radiative recombination at lower altitudes and greater atmospheric pressure or as aurora. However, the effect is clearly not pronounced or notably observed at all earthquake events and is yet to be directly experimentally verified. During the American Physical Society's 2014 March meeting, research was provided that gave a possible explanation for the reason why bright lights sometimes appear during an earthquake. The research stated that when two layers of the same material rub against each other, voltage is generated. The researcher, Troy Shinbrot of Rutgers University, conducted experiments with different types of grains to mimic the crust of the Earth and emulated the occurrence of earthquakes. He reported that "when the grains split open, they measured a positive voltage spike, and when the split closed, a negative spike." The crack allows the voltage to discharge into the air which then electrifies the air and creates a bright electrical light when it does so. According to Shinbrot, they have produced these voltage spikes every single time with every material tested. While the reason for such an occurrence was not provided, Shinbrot referenced the phenomenon of triboluminescence. Researchers hope that by getting to the bottom of this phenomenon, it will provide more information that will allow seismologists to better predict earthquakes. Skepticism In 2016, podcaster Brian Dunning said he was skeptical that the phenomenon even existed, citing a lack of direct evidence. There is also a "staggering volume of literature... hardly any of these papers agree on anything... I'm forced to wonder how many of these eager researchers are familiar with Hyman's Categorical Imperative 'Do not try to explain something until you are sure there is something to be explained'." In 2016, freelance writer Robert Sheaffer wrote that skeptics and science bloggers should be more skeptical of the phenomenon. Sheaffer on his Bad UFO blog shows examples of what people claim are earthquake lights, then he shows photos of iridescent clouds which appear to be the same. He states that "It's truly remarkable how mutable "earthquake lights" are. Sometimes they look like small globes, climbing up a mountain. Sometimes they look like flashes of lightning. Other times they look exactly like iridescent clouds. Earthquake lights can look like anything at all, when you are avidly seeking evidence for them." See also Ball lightning Earthquake cloud Earthquake prediction Earthquake weather References External links Atmospheric ghost lights Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation Light sources

5835302

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Borujerd%20earthquake

2006 Borujerd earthquake

The 2006 Borujerd earthquake occurred in the early morning of 31 March in the South of Borujerd with destruction in Borujerd, Silakhor and Dorood areas of the Loristan Province in western Iran. The centre of the earthquake was in Darb-e Astaneh village south of the Borujerd City. The earthquake measured 6.1 on the moment magnitude scale. Earthquake This powerful earthquake shook the entire land of Loristan Province and most areas of Hamedan Province, Markazi Province and destroyed many villages in Khorramabad, Alashtar and Arak County as well. More than 180 aftershocks followed the main earthquake in April, May and June and people had to stay outside for several weeks. A lighter foreshock happened the night before, and people stayed outside overnight and this reduced the number of casualties significantly. However, the mainshock at 4:47 am on 31 March shook Borujerd, Dorud and other towns and villages on Silakhor Plain for more than 55 seconds. Damage More than 40 major historical monuments of Borujerd were destroyed by the earthquake and 30% of the historical downtown of the city (2.7 kmª) was ruined or damaged thoroughly. Other monuments damaged by the earthquake include: Jame Mosque of Borujerd (900 AD) Soltani Mosque of Borujerd Imamzadeh Ja'far, Borujerd Chalenchoolan Bridge Ghaleh Hatam Bridge Birjandi Old House of Borujerd Mesri Old House of Borujerd Imamzadeh Khalogh Ali Tekyeh Movassaghi Pahlavei High School Response Apart from UN agencies e.g. UNESCO and UNICEF, there are other international agencies functioning in the field, including MSF, Caritas Italy, Operation Mercy, ACH Spain and ACT Netherlands. See also 1909 Borujerd earthquake List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Iran References External links Darb e Astaneh (Silakhor) Earthquake Report: March 31, 2006; ML=6.1 – IIEES IFRC- Iran Doroud Earthquake, Information Bulletin no.3 – IFRC M 6.1 - western Iran – USGS Borujerd earthquake Borujerd earthquake 2006 Borujerd History of Lorestan Province Borujerd County Borujerd March 2006 events in Asia

5998814

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Pangandaran%20earthquake%20and%20tsunami

2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami

An earthquake occurred on July 17, 2006 at along a subduction zone off the coast of west and central Java, a large and densely populated island in the Indonesian archipelago. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.7 and a maximum perceived intensity of IV (Light) in Jakarta, the capital and largest city of Indonesia. There were no direct effects of the earthquake's shaking due to its low intensity, and the large loss of life from the event was due to the resulting tsunami, which inundated a portion of the Java coast that had been unaffected by the earlier 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that was off the coast of Sumatra. The July 2006 earthquake was also centered in the Indian Ocean, from the coast of Java, and had a duration of more than three minutes. An abnormally slow rupture at the Sunda Trench and a tsunami that was unusually strong relative to the size of the earthquake were both factors that led to it being categorized as a tsunami earthquake. Several thousand kilometers to the southeast, surges of several meters were observed in northwestern Australia, but in Java the tsunami runups (height above normal sea level) were typically and resulted in the deaths of more than 600 people. Other factors may have contributed to exceptionally high peak runups of on the small and mostly uninhabited island of Nusa Kambangan, just to the east of the resort town of Pangandaran, where damage was heavy and a large loss of life occurred. Since the shock was felt with only moderate intensity well inland, and even less so at the shore, the surge arrived with little or no warning. Other factors contributed to the tsunami being largely undetected until it was too late, and although a tsunami watch was posted by an American tsunami warning center and a Japanese meteorological center, no information was delivered to people at the coast. Tectonic setting The island of Java is the most densely populated island on Earth, and is vulnerable to both large earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, due to its location near the Sunda Trench, a convergent plate boundary where the Australian tectonic plate is subducting beneath Indonesia. Three great earthquakes occurred in the span of three years to the northwest on the Sumatra portion of the trench. The 2004 M9.15 Sumatra–Andaman, the 2005 M8.7 Nias–Simeulue, and the 2007 M8.4 Mentawai earthquakes produced the largest release of elastic strain energy since the 1957/1964 series of shocks on the Aleutian/Alaska Trench. The southeastern (Java) portion of the Sunda Trench extends from the Sunda Strait in the west to Bali Basin in the east. The convergence of relatively old oceanic crust is occurring at a rate of per year in the west portion and per year in the east, and the dip of the Benioff Zone (the angle of the zone of seismicity that defines the down-going slab at a convergent boundary) is around 50° and extends to a depth of approximately . Pre-instrumental events were the large to very large events of 1840, 1867, and 1875, but unlike the northwestern Sumatra segment, no megathrust earthquake has occurred on the Java segment of the Sunda Trench in the last 300 years. Earthquake The earthquake was the result of thrust faulting at the Sunda Trench. A rupture length of approximately (and an unusually low rupture velocity of per second) resulted in a duration of about 185 seconds (just over three minutes) for the event. The shock was centered from the trench, and about from the south coast of the island. A comparison was made with the earlier 2002 Sumatra earthquake, a M7.5 submarine earthquake of a similar size that also occurred along the Sunda Arc and at a shallow depth, but one that did not result in a tsunami. The large and damaging tsunami that was generated was out of proportion relative to the size of the event, based on its short-period body wave magnitude. The Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency assigned a magnitude of 6.8, and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) reported a similar value of 6.1 (both body wave magnitude) that were calculated from short-period seismic waves (1–2 seconds in the case of the USGS). The USGS then presented a moment magnitude of 7.2 that was calculated from 5–100-second surface waves, and Harvard University subsequently revealed that a moment magnitude of 7.7 had been resolved based on even longer 150-second surface waves. Intensity In tsunami prone regions, strong earthquakes serve as familiar warnings, and this is especially true for earthquakes in Indonesia. Previous estimates of the tsunami hazard for the Java coastline may have minimized the risk to the area, and to the northwest along the Sumatran coast, the risk is substantially higher for tsunami, especially near Padang. Previous events along the coast of Java in 1921 and again in 1994 illustrate the need for an accurate assessment of the threat. The July 2006 earthquake had an unusually slow rupture velocity which resulted in minor shaking on land for around three minutes, but the intensity was very light relative to the size of the tsunami that followed. The earthquake produced shaking at Pangandaran (where the M6.3 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake was felt more strongly) of intensity III–IV (Weak–Light), intensity III at Cianjur, and II (Weak) at Yogyakarta. Further inland and farther from the epicenter, intensity IV shaking made tall buildings sway in Jakarta, but at some coastal villages where many of the casualties occurred, the shaking was not felt as strong. An informal survey of 67 people that were present at the time revealed that in at least eight cases, individuals stated that they did not feel the earthquake at all (a typical M7.7 earthquake would have been distinctly noticed at those distances). The unusually low felt intensities, along with the short period body wave magnitudes, were components of the event that narrowed its classification into that of a tsunami earthquake. Type Tsunami earthquakes can be influenced by both the presence of (and lack of) sediment at the subduction zone, and can be categorized as either aftershocks of megathrust earthquakes, like the M7 June 22, 1932 Cuyutlán event in Mexico, or as standalone events that occur near the upper portion of a plate interface. Northwestern University professor Emile Okal imparts that in the aftershock scenario, they can occur as a result of stress transfer from a mainshock to an accretionary wedge or a similar environment with "deficient mechanical properties", and as standalone events they can occur in the presence of irregular contacts at the plate interface in a zone that lacks sediment. One of the initial characterizations of tsunami earthquakes came from seismologist Hiroo Kanamori in the early 1970s, and additional clarity materialized following the 1992 Nicaragua earthquake and tsunami, which was evaluated to have a surface wave magnitude of 7.0 when analyzing short period seismic signals. When longer period signals of around 250 seconds were investigated, the shock was reevaluated to have a moment magnitude of 7.6, with a hypothesis that the slow nature of the slip of the event may have concealed its substantial extent. Sediment was thought to have contributed to a slower rupture, due to a lubrication effect at the plate interface, with the result being an earthquake signature that had abundant long period seismic signals, which could be an important factor in the tsunami-generation process. Warning A tsunami warning system was not in operation at the time of the shock, but the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Hawaii) and the Japan Meteorological Agency posted a tsunami watch, based on the occurrence of a M7.2 earthquake. The bulletin came within 30 minutes of the shock, but there was no means to transmit the warning to the people on the coast that needed to know. Many of those who felt the earthquake responded by moving away from the shore, but not with any urgency. The withdrawal of the sea that exposed an additional of beach created an even more significant warning sign, but in some locations wind waves on the sea effectively concealed the withdrawal that signalled the approach of the tsunami. Tsunami The earthquake and tsunami came on a Monday afternoon, a day after many more people were present on the beach, due to a major national holiday. The waves came a few tens of minutes after the shock (and were a surprise, even to lifeguards) and occurred when the sea level was approaching low tide which, along with the wind waves, masked the initial withdrawal of the sea as the tsunami drew near. Most portions of the south Java coast saw runup heights of , but evidence on the island of Nusa Kambangan indicated that a peak surge measuring had occurred there, suggesting to researchers that the possibility of a submarine landslide had contributed to the magnitude of the tsunami in that area. Runup A portion of the southwest and south-central Java coast was affected by the tsunami, and resulted in around 600 fatalities, with a high concentration in Pangandaran. Two thousand kilometers (1,200 mi) to the southeast at the Steep Point area of western Australia, a runup of was measured, which was comparable to a similar runup in northern Oman from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, though in that case it was at a much greater distance of . Within three weeks of the event, scientists from five different countries were on the ground in Java performing a survey of the affected areas, including gathering runup (height above normal sea level) and inundation (distance the surge moved inland from the shore) measurements. The island of Nusa Kambangan () sits on the south coast of Java and is separated from the main island by a narrow strait. It is a large and mostly uninhabited nature reserve, and is referred to as the Alcatraz of Indonesia, due to the three high security prisons that are located at the town of Permisan. Of all the measurements taken during the post-tsunami survey, the highest runup heights () were seen on the island behind a beach, where hibiscus and pandanus plants, and large coconut trees were mangled and uprooted up to from the shore. The (sea floor) bathymetry in the area supported a proposition that a canyon slope failure or an underwater landslide may have contributed to or focused the tsunami energy at that location. Nineteen farmers and one prisoner were killed there, but the deep water port of Cilacap (just to the east) was protected by the island, although one large moored vessel made ground contact during the initial withdrawal. Damage Since the earthquake caused only minor ground movement, and was only lightly felt, all the damage that occurred on the island was due to the tsunami. Types of buildings that were affected were timber/bamboo, brick traditional, and brick traditional with reinforced concrete. Semi-permanent timber or bamboo structures that were based on a wooden frame were the most economical style of construction that were assessed following the disaster. A tsunami flow depth of usually resulted in complete destruction of these types of structures. A group of scientists that evaluated the damage considered the unreinforced brick construction as weak, because the performance of homes constructed in that style did not fare much better than the timber/bamboo variety. Hotels and some houses and shops that were of reinforced brick construction were far better off, because units that were exposed to a flood depth of were considered repairable. Many wooden cafes and shops within of the shore were completely removed by the tsunami at Pangandaran, and severe damage still occurred to unreinforced masonry that was within several hundred meters, but some hotels that were constructed well held up better. The villages of Batu Hiu and Batu Kara, both to the west of Pangandaran, experienced similar damage. Other severe damage was seen at Marsawah village, Bulakbenda, where all buildings had been removed down to their foundation within of the water line, and even further inland there were many buildings that were totally destroyed. Witnesses reported that waves were breaking several hundred meters inland at that location. Response Officials in Indonesia received information regarding the tsunami in the form of bulletins from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and the Japan Meteorological Agency, but wanted to avoid panic, and did not attempt to disseminate the advisories to the public. Virtually no time was available to make that sort of effort (had the intention been to communicate the danger with the public) because some community leaders were sent text messages with pertinent information only minutes prior to the arrival of the first waves. The tsunami affected the coast of Java comprising mostly fishing villages and beach resorts that were unscathed following the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, and was also only several hundred kilometers distant from the region that saw heavy destruction just several months prior during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. Trained research teams were already on the ground on Java responding to the May earthquake and began a survey of more than one hundred Muslim farmers, plantation laborers, and fishermen (or those with fishing-related occupations) that were affected by the tsunami. Almost two thirds of the group reported that they lived in permanent structures made of wood, brick, or cement, while the remainder lived in semi-permanent facilities made from earth or stone. The government was cited as the first responder for water, relocation and medical assistance, and helping with the deceased. For rescue, shelter, clothing, and locating missing people, individuals were listed as the primary provider, but 100% of those surveyed replied that the government should be responsible for relief. Most of those requiring aid stated that they were given effective assistance within 48 hours and that they were satisfied with the help. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Indonesia References Sources Further reading External links M7.7 – south of Java, Indonesia – United States Geological Survey In pictures: Indonesian tsunami – BBC News 'Stealth' Tsunami That Killed 600 In Java Last Summer Had 65 Foot High Wave – ScienceDaily A comparison study of 2006 Java earthquake and other Tsunami earthquakes – University of California, Santa Barbara Tsunami Event – July 17, 2006 South Java – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Deadly Java Tsunami Caused by Slow-Moving Quake – National Geographic Society Officials failed to pass on tsunami warning – The Guardian Indonesia’s 2 tsunami alert buoys were busted – NBC News Java, July 2006 in Indonesia Pangandaran Earthquakes in Indonesia Tsunamis in Australia Tsunamis in Indonesia July 2006 events in Asia Tsunami earthquakes Earthquakes in Java

5999209

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Java%20earthquake

2006 Java earthquake

The 2006 Java earthquake may refer to: 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami See also List of earthquakes in Indonesia

6067613

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Yanjin%20earthquake

2006 Yanjin earthquake

The 2006 Yanjin earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 4.9 on July 22 at 01:10 UTC (09:10 local time). This destructive shock took place in Yanjin County, Yunnan, China. Twenty-two were killed and 106 were injured. Damage Eight people were killed as a result of houses (usually wooden) collapsing and fourteen were killed from other reasons. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in China References 2006 Yanjin Yanjin Yanjin earthquake July 2006 events in China Geography of Zhaotong

6076570

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California%20Earthquake%20Prediction%20Evaluation%20Council

California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council

The California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council (CEPEC) is a committee of earthquake experts that reviews potentially credible earthquake predictions and forecasts. Its purpose is to advise the Governor of California via the California Office of Emergency Services (CalOES). As the acting state geologist of the California Geological Survey, Tim McCrink is currently chair of CEPEC. While it is little-known outside of the fields of earthquake science and emergency response, CEPEC has a big responsibility: The council convenes at the request of the California Emergency Management Agency (CalEMA) to decide whether an earthquake prediction or an incident, such as swarm of small earthquakes, is serious enough to merit a warning to emergency responders or even the public at large. CEPEC typically meets a couple of times a year, but is available 24-7. The members conduct a teleconference within several hours of a major temblor. From 1986 through 2016, CEPEC convened a total of 17 times to evaluate recent or ongoing seismic activity. For example, following the 2016 earthquake swarm at Bombay Beach, CEPEC released a statement to CalOES estimating that the probability of a magnitude 7 or larger earthquake on the San Andreas fault for the following week was between 0.03% and 1%. This advisory of the heightened risk led to the temporary closure of the city hall in San Bernardino. CEPEC also issued an advisory to CalOES following the 2019 M7.1 Ridgecrest earthquake, but this was not made public. CEPEC members include U.C. San Diego seismologist Duncan Agnew; James Brune of the University of Nevada Seismological Lab; Greg Beroza of Stanford University; Thomas Jordan of the University of Southern California; Morgan Page, a geophysicist with the U.S. Geological Survey in Pasadena; Tom Heaton, a professor of engineering seismology at Caltech in Pasadena; and California Geological Survey seismologist Rui Chen. In addition to evaluating earthquake hazard following notable changes in seismic activity, CEPEC is also tasked with evaluating earthquake predictions. For example, CEPEC evaluated the 2004 earthquake prediction by Keilis-Borok and a 2015 prediction following the La Habra earthquake and concluded that no action should be taken as a result of those predictions. Earthquakes did not occur in the space-time window of either prediction. As of 2019, CEPEC and the state of California have never advised any action be taken by the government or residents based on an earthquake prediction. References consrv.ca.gov signonsandiego.com External links CalOES FAQ about Earthquake Advisories Seismological observatories, organisations and projects Organizations based in California Earthquakes in California Earthquake engineering organizations

6135929

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1138%20Aleppo%20earthquake

1138 Aleppo earthquake

The 1138 Aleppo earthquake was among the deadliest earthquakes in history. Its name was taken from the city of Aleppo, in northern Syria, where the most casualties were sustained. The earthquake also caused damage and chaos to many other places in the area around Aleppo. The quake occurred on 11 October 1138 and was preceded by a smaller quake on the 10th. It is frequently listed as the third deadliest earthquake in history, following on from the Shensi and Tangshan earthquakes in China. However, the figure of 230,000 deaths reported by Ibn Taghribirdi in the fifteenth century is most likely based on a historical conflation of this earthquake with earthquakes in November 1137 on the Jazira plain and the large seismic event of 30 September 1139 in the Transcaucasian city of Ganja. Background Aleppo is located along the northern part of the Dead Sea Transform system of geologic faults, which is a plate boundary separating the Arabian plate from the African plate. The earthquake was the beginning of the first of two intense sequences of earthquakes in the region: October 1138 to June 1139 and a much more intense and a later series from September 1156 to May 1159. The first sequence affected areas around Aleppo and the western part of the region of Edessa (modern Şanlıurfa, Turkey). During the second an area encompassing north-western Syria, northern Lebanon and the region of Antioch (modern Antakya, in southern Turkey) was subject to devastating quakes. In the mid-twelfth century, northern Syria was a war-ravaged land. The Crusader states set up by Western Europeans, such as the Principality of Antioch, were in a state of constant armed conflict with the Muslim states of Northern Syria and the Jazeerah, principally Aleppo and Mosul. Geological setting The Near East region sits on a triple junction between the Arabian, African, and Eurasian plates. As such, this is one of the most tectonically active regions in the world. The Arabian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate causing the orogeny of the Caucasus Mountains and Anatolian Plateau. Complementing the subduction zone along the north are divergent boundaries near the Red and Arabian Seas, as well as transform boundaries to the west along roughly along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea from the Sinai Peninsula to the Syria-Turkey border. The Dead Sea Fault and the convergent boundary north of it have produced many notable seismic events both long before and after the Aleppo earthquake. Some of these were so traumatic that they found their way into myth and theology of ancient peoples such as the quake occurring during the Crucifixion of Christ, or the 1500 BCE event which destroyed the city of Jericho and subsequently saw it abandoned. In 1927, the Jericho earthquake caused approximately 500 deaths and extensive damage, in particular to holy sites throughout the Holy Land. Description A contemporary chronicler in Damascus, Ibn al-Qalanisi, recorded the main quake on Wednesday, 11 October 1138. He wrote that it was preceded by an initial quake on 10 October and there were aftershocks on the evening of 20 October, on 25 October, on the night of 30 October–1 November, and finishing with another in the early morning of 3 November. However, Kemal al-Din, an author writing later, recorded only one earthquake on 19–20 October, which disagrees with al Qalanisi's account. Given that al Qalanisi was writing as the earthquakes occurred and that accounts from other historians support a 10 or 11 October date, his date of 11 October is considered authoritative. Sources today believe that the initial quake had an intensity greater than 7, and that it was accompanied by a tsunami. These factors contributed to the 1138 Aleppo earthquake being named one of the deadliest of all time. The worst hit area was Harem, where Crusaders had built a large citadel. Sources indicate that the castle was destroyed and the church fell in on itself. The fort of Athareb, then occupied by Muslims, was destroyed. The citadel also collapsed, killing 600 of the castle guard, though the governor and some servants survived, and fled to Mosul. The town of Zardana, already sacked by the warring forces, was utterly obliterated, as was the small fort at Shih. The residents of Aleppo, a large city of several tens of thousands during this period, had been warned by the foreshocks and fled to the countryside before the main earthquake. However, many people did not take the warnings of the foreshocks seriously, and decided to stay. This mistake cost many people their lives because the next day (October 11) the main shock occurred which caused the collapse of many buildings, killing thousands of people. The walls of the citadel collapsed, as did the walls east and west of the citadel. Numerous houses were destroyed, with the stones used in their construction falling in streets. The cracks and holes in the foundations of the walls and buildings also caused further problems for the people of Aleppo. The holes allowed Crusaders and people from Muslim factions to invade the city, and another citadel in Aleppo was breached. Contemporary accounts of the damage simply state that Aleppo was destroyed, though comparison of reports indicate that it did not bear the worst of the earthquake. Other reports claim that Azrab, which is north of Aleppo, experienced the worst of the damage. Reports claim that the ground split in the middle, swallowing the village. This was most likely the result of a landslide from the earthquake. Reports also state that the main earthquake and its aftershocks were felt in Damascus, but not in Jerusalem. Accounts of men being swallowed by holes opening in the ground at Raqqa were erroneously attributed to the Aleppo earthquake, and based on the confused late twelfth-century account of Michael the Syrian. Economic and political effects The effects that the earthquake had were not limited to the direct destruction caused by the shocks. The shocks and the destruction resulted in a sort of domino effect on the economy and the government of Aleppo. First, most people's houses were completely destroyed, and their belongings along with it. The people who survived had to leave their homes, and many of them fled to the desert. Citadel was deserted and damaged, and about 60% of the urban fabric was destroyed. This mass destruction was expensive, and due to scarce revenue, there was not much reconstruction. The jobs and lives of people in the city were permanently altered. Also, new systems for the administration of buildings were implemented. This was their attempt to attract people back to the city and make more money, but it was never as successful as it had been in the past. Aleppo sat along the confluence on land trade routes from Africa and Asia coming into Europe, causing Aleppo to be the wealthy and coveted city it was. Following its destruction in the earthquake the trade from East to West stuttered till the city was rebuilt. This hiccup, along with the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, allowed for Italian merchant city-states like Venice, Pisa, and Genoa to enter onto the trade scene and start a shift toward maritime versus land-based supply. See also List of historical earthquakes List of earthquakes in Turkey List of earthquakes in the Levant References Aleppo earthquake 1138 Aleppo History of Aleppo 12th century in the Seljuk Empire Aleppo Earthquake, 1138 Earthquakes in Syria Tsunamis in Syria

6224059

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20Luzon%20earthquake

1990 Luzon earthquake

The 1990 Luzon earthquake struck the island of Luzon in the Philippines at 4:26 p.m. on July 16 (PDT) or 3:26 p.m. (PST) with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.7 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent) and produced a 125 km-long ground rupture that stretched from Dingalan, Aurora to Kayapa, Nueva Vizcaya. The event was a result of strike-slip movements along the Philippine Fault and the Digdig Fault within the Philippine Fault System. The earthquake's epicenter was near the town of Rizal, Nueva Ecija, northeast of Cabanatuan. An estimated 1,621 people were killed, most of the fatalities located in Central Luzon and the Cordillera region. Geology The Philippine archipelago represents a complex plate boundary between the Philippine Sea and Eurasian plates. To the east, oceanic lithosphere subducts westwards beneath the islands along the Philippine Trench. Off the west coast of Luzon, the Manila Trench accommodates eastward subduction. To its east is the East Luzon Trench, a convergent boundary that separates the Philippine Trench by a transform fault. The left-lateral strike-slip Philippine Fault System runs through the islands. It is one of the longest strike-slip faults in the world. Understanding of its geology and earthquake history is limited. It extends north–south for from Mindanao to northern Luzon. On Luzon, the fault branches into multiple splay segments including the northernly trending Digdig Fault. The event was one of the largest continental strike-slip earthquakes of the century. It was associated with a long surface rupture on the Philippine Fault System. Rupture occurred bilaterally, extending from the hypocenter, but most of the rupture occurred northwest for . About north of the epicenter, the largest slip was estimated at . Slip gradually decreased away from the zone. The Digdig Fault displayed of left-lateral displacement. Aftershocks occurred along a length of the fault. They displayed a range of focal mechanism including strike-slip, normal and thrust faulting. Impact The earthquake caused damage within an area of about 20,000 square kilometers, stretching from the mountains of the Cordillera Administrative Region and through the Central Luzon region. The earthquake was strongly felt in Metropolitan Manila, destroying many buildings and leading to panic and stampedes and ultimately three deaths in the National Capital Region, one of the lowest fatalities recorded in the wake of the tremor. The ceiling of a movie theater in Pasay reportedly collapsed pinning a number of moviegoers. The Southern Tagalog (nowadays Regions 4A (Calabarzon) and 4B (Mimaropa), and Aurora of Central Luzon) and Bicol Regions also felt the quake, but with low casualty figures. Then-president Cory Aquino, who was having a meeting with Senate leaders at Malacañang Palace in Manila, recounted that she hid under a long conference table during the earthquake. She later ordered the suspension of classes and the mobilization of relief agencies. Baguio The popular destination of Baguio, situated over 5000 feet above sea level, was among the areas hardest hit by the Luzon earthquake. The earthquake caused 28 collapsed buildings, including hotels, factories, and government and university buildings, as well as many private homes and establishments. The quake destroyed electric, water and communication lines in the city. The main vehicular route to Baguio, Kennon Road, as well as other access routes to the mountain city, were shut down due to landslides and it took three days before enough landslide debris was cleared to allow access by road to the stricken city. Baguio was isolated from the rest of the Philippines for the first 48 hours after the quake. Damage at Loakan Airport rendered access to the city by air limited to helicopters. American and Philippine Air Force C-130s evacuated many residents from this airport. Many city residents, as well as patients confined in hospital buildings damaged by the quake, were forced to stay inside tents set up in public places, such as in Burnham Park and in the streets. Looting of department stores in the city was reported. Among the first rescuers to arrive at the devastated city were miners from Benguet Corporation, who focused on rescue efforts at the collapsed Hotel Nevada. Teams sent by the Philippine government and by foreign governments and agencies likewise participated in the rescue and retrieval operations in Baguio. One of the more prominent buildings destroyed was the Hyatt Terraces Baguio Hotel, where at least eighty hotel employees and guests were killed, including at least four employees of the state-owned Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation which ran the casino. Three hotel employees, however, were pulled out alive after having been buried under the rubble for nearly two weeks, and after international rescue teams had abandoned the site convinced there were no more survivors. Luisa Mallorca and Arnel Calabia were extricated from the rubble 11 days after the quake, while hotel cook Pedrito Dy was recovered alive 14 days following the earthquake. All three survived in part by drinking their own urine and in Dy's case, rainwater. At that time, Dy's 14-day ordeal was cited as a world record for entombment underneath rubble. The United States Agency for International Development was sponsoring a seminar at the Hotel Nevada when the tremor struck, causing the hotel to collapse. 27 of the seminar participants, including one American USAID official, were killed in the quake. Among those who were pulled out alive from the ruins of the hotel was future senatorial candidate Sonia Roco, wife of politician Raul Roco, who was pulled out from the rubble by miners after 36 hours. Cabanatuan In Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, the tallest building in the city, a six-story concrete school building housing the Christian College of the Philippines, collapsed during the earthquake, which occurred during school hours. Around 154 people were killed at the CCP building. Unlike in Baguio, local and international journalists were able to arrive at Cabanatuan within hours after the tremor, and media coverage of the quake in its immediate aftermath centered on the collapsed school, where rescue efforts were hampered by the lack of heavy equipment to cut through the steel reinforcement of fallen concrete. Some of the victims who did not die in the collapse were found dead later from dehydration because they were not pulled out in time. A 20-year-old high school student, Robin Garcia, was later credited with rescuing at least eight students and teachers by twice returning under the rubble to retrieve survivors. Garcia was killed by an aftershock hours after the quake while trying to rescue more survivors, and he received several posthumous tributes, including medals of honor from the Boy Scouts of the Philippines and President Corazon Aquino's Grieving Heart Award for his heroic effort that brought the world's attention to the quake due to quick media coverage in the city, since most of the buildings were damaged save for the CCP building which was collapsed totally. In other areas of Nueva Ecija, a school in Guimba collapsed killing three students. In neighboring Nueva Vizcaya, at least 100 motorists and commuters were buried alive in landslides along the Nueva Vizcaya-Isabela Highway. Dagupan In Dagupan, about 90 buildings in the city were damaged, and about 20 collapsed. Some structures sustained damage because liquefaction caused buildings to sink as much as . The earthquake caused a decrease in the elevation of the city and several areas were flooded. The city suffered 64 casualties of which 47 survived and 17 died. Most injuries were sustained during stampedes at a university building and a theater. La Union Five municipalities in La Union were affected: Agoo, Aringay, Caba, Santo Tomas, and Tubao with a combined population of 132,208. Many buildings, including the Agoo Municipal hall, the Museo de Iloko, the parish church of Aringay, and the Basilica Minore of our Lady of Charity, collapsed or were severely damaged. 100,000 families were displaced when two coastal villages sank due to liquefaction. The province suffered many casualties leaving 32 people dead. Patterns of damage Based on preliminary analysis, cases and controls were similar in age and sex distribution. Similar proportions of cases and controls were inside buildings (74% and 80%, respectively) and outside buildings (26% and 20%, respectively) during the earthquake. For persons who were inside a building, risk factors included building height, type of building material, and the floor level the person was on. Persons inside buildings with seven or more floors were 35 times more likely to be injured. Persons inside buildings constructed of concrete or mixed materials were three times more likely to sustain injuries than were those inside wooden buildings. Persons at middle levels of multistory buildings were twice as likely to be injured as those at the top or bottom levels. The earthquake caused different patterns of damage in different parts of Luzon Island. The mountain resort of Baguio was most severely affected, it had a high population density and many tall concrete buildings, which were more susceptible to seismic damage. Relief efforts proved difficult as all routes of communication, roads, and airport access were severed for several days following the quake. These efforts were further hampered by daily rainfall. Baguio is home to a large mining company and a military academy; experienced miners and other disciplined volunteers played a crucial role in early rescue efforts. Rescue teams arriving from Manila and elsewhere in Luzon were able to decrease mortality from major injuries. Surgeons, anesthesiologists, and specialized equipment and supplies were brought to the area, and victims were promptly treated. Patients requiring specialized care (e.g., hemodialysis) not available in the disaster area were airlifted to tertiary hospitals. Damage was caused by landslides in the mountains and settling in coastal areas. Relief efforts in these areas were prompt and successful, partly because those areas remained accessible. On July 19, three days after the earthquake, the priority of relief efforts shifted from treatment of injuries to public health concerns. For example, numerous broken pipes completely disrupted water systems, limiting the availability of potable water, and refugees who camped in open areas had no adequate toilet facilities. Early efforts at providing potable water by giving refugees chlorine granules were unsuccessful. Most potable water was distributed from fire engines, and Department of Health (DOH) sanitarians chlorinated the water before it was distributed. Surveys of refugee areas showed few latrines; these had to be dug by the DOH. Aftermath The University of Baguio, which got struck by this earthquake, was rehabilitated, while the land where Hyatt Terraces stood remains abandoned, which gives an eerie reminder of the earthquake. In popular culture The earthquake is featured in the television documentary series by GRB Entertainment, aired on The Learning Channel and other television channels around the world, about natural disasters titled Earth's Fury (also known internationally as Anatomy of Disaster) in an episode entitled "Earthquake!",, the 50th anniversary special of GMA News and Public Affairs titled Limang Dekada in 2010, the 50th anniversary special of ABS-CBN titled Sa Mata ng Balita in 2003, and the 1996 documentary produced by Langley Productions titled The Amazing Video Collection: Natural Disasters. Scenes of the earthquake's destruction around Baguio, as well as reflections on Filipino people's capacity to endure and rebuild, also featured in a segment of 1994 collage film directed by National Artist Kidlat Tahimik titled Why is Yellow the Middle of the Rainbow?. See also List of earthquakes in 1990 List of earthquakes in the Philippines 1990 Bohol and 1990 Panay earthquakes - two other significant earthquakes in the Philippines the same year 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo 2022 Luzon earthquake Bibliography References External links EIRD overview The 1990 Baguio City Earthquake (Archived 2009-10-21) International notes Earthquake Disaster – Luzon, Philippines Rapid.Org.UK – Philippines earthquake Videos Earthquakes in the Philippines Luzon earthquake Luzon earthquake History of Nueva Ecija History of Baguio History of Pangasinan History of La Union Luzon earthquake Strike-slip earthquakes

6320375

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1944 San Juan earthquake

The 1944 San Juan earthquake took place in the province of San Juan, in the center-west area of Argentina, a region highly prone to seismic events. This moderate to strong earthquake (estimated moment magnitudes range from 6.7 to 7.8) destroyed a large part of San Juan, the provincial capital, and killed 10,000 of its inhabitants, 10% of its population at the time. One third of the province population became homeless. It is acknowledged as the worst natural disaster in Argentine history. The earthquake occurred at 8:52 pm on 15 January 1944 and had its epicenter located 30 km north of the provincial capital, near La Laja in Albardón Department. Some 90% of the buildings in the city were destroyed and those left standing suffered such damage that in most cases they had to be demolished. It is considered that the reason for such widespread destruction was the low quality of construction, rather than just the power of the earthquake. In 1944 many of San Juan's houses were made of adobe and the reconstruction programme prompted the creation of a building code that took into account contemporary knowledge of earthquakes and their effect on buildings. Stronger bricks were used, concrete single-story houses were erected and sidewalks and streets were made wider. Aid and reconstruction There was some debate as to whether it would be advisable to rebuild the city in the same place, or to take advantage of the situation to move it to a less earthquake prone location. The former alternative was adopted. At the start of the reconstruction, emergency homes were built for the population with funds from the national state. This was the first large-scale state-directed construction plan in Argentina, the first stages of which occurred under Peronist rule. Colonel Juan Perón, later to become president, had met his future wife Eva Duarte (Evita), during fundraising activities to help the victims. After the 1955 coup d'état ousted Perón, the reconstruction was continued under the de facto President Pedro Eugenio Aramburu. The earthquake caused many families to scatter in the confusion, and left around 1,000 orphaned children. According to historian Mark Healey, the issues surrounding the orphans and the nearly 100,000 homeless had a profound influence on the shaping of social legislation enacted during Perón's first term as president, two years later. The modern city As of 2006, San Juan has a population of around 400,000, and 63% of its approximately 90,000 homes, and 100% of its public institutional buildings, were built under seismic safety regulations. This, however, leaves almost a third of houses as non-seismic-resistant. A study of the seismic vulnerability of the city, conducted by the National University of San Juan in 2005, showed that 28% of the outlying neighborhoods present medium risk, and 20% of the city itself can be classified as high or very high vulnerability. See also List of earthquakes in 1944 List of earthquakes in Argentina Notes References Historia del país. El terremoto de San Juan . Universia Argentina. San Juan: identifican la vulnerabilidad sísmica. EIRD. Prevención Sísmica y Desarrollo Urbano. Diario de Cuyo. 15 January 2004. Aniversario del Terremoto del 44. Página/12. 7 August 2006. "Hubo un borramiento del pasado" (interview with historian Mark Healey). Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina 1944 San Juan, 1944 History of Argentina (1943–1955) San Juan January 1944 events

6321024

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Mendoza%20earthquake

2006 Mendoza earthquake

The 2006 Mendoza earthquake was a medium-intensity seismic movement in the province of Mendoza, Argentina. It took place at 11:03 AM (UTC-3) on 5 August 2006, and had a magnitude of 5.6 in the Richter scale. Its hypocenter was centered 23 km west southwest of San Martin, exactly at the town of Ugarteche, Luján de Cuyo, and at a depth of 25 km. The earthquake was felt in the provinces of Mendoza (V–VI in the Mercalli intensity scale), San Juan, San Luis (IV Mercalli), La Rioja, and Córdoba (III Mercalli). It damaged about 600 buildings in the Greater Mendoza metropolitan area (mostly either precarious or old), as well as causing brief interruptions in the supply of electric power and mobile phone communications. Only a few wounded people were reported; there were no fatalities. On the following day a new, a minor earthquake (magnitude 3.7) was recorded about 5 km from the previous location, at a depth of 90 km. It was felt as grade II–III in the Mercalli scale in the city of Mendoza. The area is the most seismically active in Argentina. This seismic event was the largest in 20 years; the 1985 Mendoza earthquake (magnitude 6.0) caused 6 casualties and damaged thousands of houses and was centered at Godoy Cruz, just 4 km south of Mendoza. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Argentina References La Nación. 5 August 2006. Un fuerte sismo sacudió a Mendoza. La Nación. 6 August 2006. Hubo unas 600 viviendas afectadas por el sismo. Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Seismic events: 2006-08-05 , 2006-08-06 . External links 2006 Mendoza, Argentina Mendoza earthquake Mendoza earthquake August 2006 events in South America

6330568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1985 Mendoza earthquake

The 1985 Mendoza earthquake occurred with medium intensity in the province of Mendoza, Argentina. It took place 7 minutes after midnight on 26 January 1985, and had a magnitude of 6.2 in the Richter scale. Its epicenter was located about 45 km southwest of Mendoza, the provincial capital, at the southern end of the region's pre-Andes range, and at a depth of 5 km. It was felt as grade VIII in the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake caused 6 deaths and about 100 injuries. In the affected Greater Mendoza area, where most of the provincial population is concentrated, one third of the buildings were built of adobe. Some 23,000 homes were destroyed or condemned, though the actual number might have been larger. Estimates vary between 50,000 and 100,000 people left homeless. A report released soon afterwards stated that the main reason why the event did not produce thousands of casualties was its short duration (less than 10 seconds). In addition, the fact that it was a summer Friday night might have led many people to be sitting outside their homes, chatting with their neighbors, rather than sleeping inside. References Stein, Enrique. May 1985. Informe sobre el terremoto de Mendoza del 26 de enero de 1985 (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. External links 1985 Mendoza, Argentina Mendoza, 1985 1985 in Argentina January 1985 events in South America Earthquakes in Argentina

6333521

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1861%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1861 Mendoza earthquake

The 1861 Mendoza earthquake occurred in the province of Mendoza, Argentina on 20 March at 11:30 PM. It had an estimated magnitude of 7.2 on the scale and an intensity of IX–X on the Mercalli scale. Its hypocenter was located at an estimated depth of . Tectonic setting The city of Mendoza lies just to the east of the Precordillera structural belt, at the eastern margin of the Andes mountain belt. The ongoing flat slab subduction of the Nazca Plate below the South American Plate is causing shortening in the over-riding plate that is concentrated in the Precordillera belt, with a rate of 4.5±1.7 mm per year, from GPS data. This shortening is expressed as active thrust faulting. The two active thrust faults near Mendoza are the Peñas Thrust and the Cal Thrust, with the latter reaching the surface inside the city. This zone is one of the most seismically active parts of the Andes. Earthquake The earthquake is thought to have been caused by rupture of the Cal Thrust. The estimated magnitude of 7.2 is consistent with the estimated slip rate and frequency of ruptures along this fault, which suggest vertical offsets in the range 0.8–1.0 m for the last three to four earthquakes. Damage The earthquake devastated the provincial capital, Mendoza, killing somewhere in the range of 6,000 to 12,000 people, although even higher numbers have been suggested, with thousands more being injured. Most of the buildings were destroyed, including the cabildo (colonial government house). Fires caused by rupturing of the gas supply for lighting in some stores lasted for four days. The obstruction of canals led to local flooding. The effects of liquefaction were widely reported and many large landslides were observed. The town was rebuilt in a nearby location, and the authorities moved to their new seat in 1863. The new constructions, which incorporated modern architectural styles, were markedly different from the old colonial buildings. Notable deaths Auguste Bravard See also List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Epicentro de los terremotos destructivos en Argentina (1692–2012) Listado de Terremotos Históricos. Further reading 1861 Mendoza, Argentina Mendoza, 1861 1861 in Argentina March 1861 events 1861 disasters in Argentina

6334924

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1977 San Juan earthquake

The 1977 San Juan earthquake, also known as Caucete earthquake, took place in the province of San Juan, Argentina, on 23 November at 06:26:26 AM. It measured 7.4 on the surface wave magnitude scale, and had a maximum perceived intensity of X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake caused fatalities and severe damage to buildings throughout the province, especially in the city of Caucete, where at least 65 people died. It also caused slight damage in the north of the Greater Mendoza metropolitan area. The effects of the earthquake were felt as far away as Buenos Aires, where people were awakened that Wednesday by the tremor. People left their houses at dawn in panic at the Argentinian capital, located at to the east southeast. Tectonic setting San Juan Province lies in an area where the South American Plate is affected by flat-slab subduction of the underlying Nazca Plate, the so-called Pampean flat-slab. The very shallow angle leads to a much greater degree of coupling between the subducting and overriding plates. The increased coupling leads to shortening of the crust of the South American Plate, causing active thrust tectonics and rapid uplift, forming the Sierras Pampeanas. The Pie de Palo range is one of the active structures, interpreted to be controlled by major thrust faults. The overall structure has been interpreted as both thin-skinned and thick-skinned. Earthquake The earthquake consisted of two sub-events, separated by about 20 seconds, treated by some seismologists as foreshock and mainshock. The observed focal mechanism was reverse faulting, on a north-south trending structure. From the mainshock alone, it was not possible to decide whether the fault responsible dipped to the west or east. Analysis of the aftershock sequence suggests that two separate faults moved during the earthquake, the earlier event on a segment to the north and the later one to the south. The fault segments have been interpreted as both alternating west and eastward-dipping faults or as an east-dipping fault in the hanging-wall of a larger west-dipping fault. There was no surface rupture associated with the earthquake and it is example of a blind thrust earthquake on thrust faults underlying the Pie de Palo range. Damage There was widespread damage in San Juan Province. The towns of Bermejo and Caucete were particularly badly affected. Many houses constructed of adobe or unreinforced masonry were either badly damaged or destroyed and very large areas were affected by liquefaction. More modern structures, built to earthquake resistant designs, in contrast showed little damage. At least 65 people were killed and a further 284 were injured. The extensive damage left many homeless, with estimates in the range 20,000 to 40,000. The area's wine industry was heavily impacted due to damage to both buildings and particularly wine storage tanks, reducing the wine storage capacity of the affected area by about 10 million litres. See also List of earthquakes in 1977 List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Listado de Terremotos Históricos — Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica 1977 Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina San Juan, 1977 San Juan Earthquake, 1977 Buried rupture earthquakes November 1977 events in South America

6335115

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948%20Salta%20earthquake

1948 Salta earthquake

The 1948 Salta earthquake took place in the Argentinian province of Salta on 25 August at The shock was 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale and had a maximum Mercalli Intensity of IX (Violent). Property damage and casualties occurred in several towns in the east and southeast of Salta, and also in northern Tucumán and Jujuy, affecting the capitals of both. It was the last major earthquake recorded in the Argentine Northwest until the 2010 Salta earthquake. See also List of earthquakes in 1948 List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Terremotos Históricos De La República Argentina – Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica Salta earthquake Earthquakes in Argentina Geology of Salta Province Salta, 1948 Salta earthquake

6335672

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1894%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1894 San Juan earthquake

The 1894 San Juan earthquake took place in the province of San Juan, Argentina, on 27 October 1894, at about 07:30 PM. It was the most powerful earthquake recorded in Argentina, with magnitude 7.5 on the surface wave magnitude scale. Its epicenter was located to the northwest of San Juan, approximately at , and at a depth of 30 km. The maximum perceived intensity for the earthquake was IX (Violent) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused severe damage and about 100 casualties in San Juan and the province of La Rioja, and also caused minor damage in Catamarca, Córdoba, San Luis and Mendoza, up to 500 km away from the epicenter. See also List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos . Further reading 1894 1894 in Argentina Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina San Juan, 1894 October 1894 events 1894 disasters in Argentina

6336667

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20earthquakes%20in%20Argentina

List of earthquakes in Argentina

This is a list of earthquakes in Argentina. Details are approximate for old events. Magnitude is measured in the Richter magnitude scale. Intensity is measured in the Mercalli intensity scale. Depth is given in miles. 1600-1899 20th century 21st century | 2023 Neuquen earthquake | 2023-07-17 | 03:05:10 UTC | 6.6 | ??? | | 166.1 (edit this into the infobox) See also List of earthquakes in Mendoza Province References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. Earthquakes Argentina Earthquakes

6336930

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949%20Tierra%20del%20Fuego%20earthquakes

1949 Tierra del Fuego earthquakes

The 1949 Tierra del Fuego earthquakes occurred slightly more than eight hours apart on 17 December. Their epicenters were located in the east of the Chilean Tierra del Fuego Province, close to the Argentine border on the island of Tierra del Fuego. The two shocks measured 7.7 and 7.6 on the moment magnitude scale and were the most powerful ever recorded in the south of Argentina and one of the most powerful in austral Chile. They were felt with intensities as high as VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and affected the settlements of Punta Arenas and Río Gallegos. See also List of earthquakes in 1949 List of earthquakes in Chile List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1949 1949 Tierra History of Tierra del Fuego History of Magallanes Region Presidential Republic (1925–1973) Tierra Del Fuego Earthquake, 1949 Tierra Del Fuego Earthquake, 1949 Tierra del Fuego, 1949 December 1949 events in South America

6339280

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1817%20Santiago%20del%20Estero%20earthquake

1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake

The 1817 Santiago del Estero earthquake took place in the province of Santiago del Estero, Argentina, on 4 July at about 05:30 PM. It was estimated to be 7.0 on the Richter magnitude scale. Its epicenter was at , at a depth of 30 km. The earthquake was felt with grade VIII in the Mercalli intensity scale in the provincial capital Santiago del Estero, where it caused grave damage. References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1817 Geography of Santiago del Estero Province Santiago del Estero, 1817 1817 in Argentina July 1817 events 1817 disasters in Argentina

6339372

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1782%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1782 Mendoza earthquake

The 1782 Mendoza earthquake took place in the province of Mendoza, Argentina, on 22 May 1782, at about 4 PM (UTC-3). It had an estimated magnitude of 7.0 in the Richter scale. Its epicenter was at , at a depth of 30 km. This was the first documented earthquake of many which would affect the provincial capital of Mendoza since its foundation. It was felt with grade VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and damaged several buildings, but did not produce casualties. See also 1920 Mendoza earthquake References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1782 1780s earthquakes 1782 natural disasters 1782 in the Spanish Empire

6339492

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863%20Jujuy%20earthquake

1863 Jujuy earthquake

The 1863 Jujuy earthquake took place in the province of Jujuy, Argentina on 15 January at about 11:00 (UTC-3). It had an estimated magnitude of 6.4 and its epicenter was at , at a depth of about . This earthquake had a felt intensity of VIII on the Mercalli intensity scale. Its magnitude and duration made it exceptionally destructive, causing damage to the cathedral, the Cabildo (colonial government house) and precarious homes in San Salvador de Jujuy, the provincial capital. See also List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1863 Geology of Jujuy Province Jujuy, 1863 Jujuy Earthquake, 1863 January 1863 events 1863 disasters in Argentina

6421384

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952%20San%20Juan%20earthquake

1952 San Juan earthquake

The 1952 San Juan earthquake took place on 11 June at 00:31:43 UTC in the province of San Juan, Argentina. It measured 6.8 on the moment magnitude scale with a depth of . The earthquake was felt in San Juan with a maximum of VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It caused damage in some locations in the south and west of the province, and a small number of casualties. See also List of earthquakes in 1952 List of earthquakes in Argentina References External links Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1952 Earthquakes in San Juan Province, Argentina San Juan, 1952 San Juan Earthquake, 1952 June 1952 events in South America

6421505

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920%20Mendoza%20earthquake

1920 Mendoza earthquake

The 1920 Mendoza earthquake took place in the province of Mendoza, Argentina, on 17 December at 6:59:49 p.m. It measured magnitude 6.0, and its epicenter was at , with a depth of 40 km. The earthquake was felt with grade VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale. It affected the provincial capital Mendoza, and caused material damage and numerous fatalities in several towns to the northeast. See also 1782 Mendoza earthquake List of earthquakes in 1920 List of earthquakes in Argentina List of historical earthquakes References Instituto Nacional de Prevención Sísmica. Listado de Terremotos Históricos. 1920 Mendoza, 1920

6628596

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%20Casiguran%20earthquake

1968 Casiguran earthquake

The 1968 Casiguran earthquake occurred on with a moment magnitude of 7.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). The thrust earthquake's epicenter was in Casiguran, Quezon (now part of Aurora province). A small non-destructive tsunami was generated and at least 207 people were killed. The majority of the deaths occurred in the collapse of a six-story building in Manila. Damage In Manila, many structures that suffered severe damage had been built near the mouth of the Pasig River on huge alluvial deposits. A number of buildings were damaged beyond repair while others only suffered cosmetic damage. 268 people were reported to have died during the collapse of the six-story Ruby Tower, located at the corner of Doroteo Jose and Teodora Alonzo Streets in the district of Santa Cruz. The entire building, save for a portion of the first and second floors at its northern end, was destroyed. Allegations of poor design and construction, as well as the use of poor-quality building materials arose. In the district of Santa Ana, one person was injured by debris from a damaged apartment building. Two more people from Aurora sub province and Pampanga died as a direct result of the quake. Around the town of Casiguran, there were several reports of landslides, the most destructive one at Casiguran Bay. Aftershocks The aftershock sequence throughout the month of August included many moderate shocks, including fifteen over 5.0 . The strongest of these occurred on August 3 with a 5.9 event that produced intensities of III–IV in Manila. Aftermath and legacy The former location of Ruby Tower in Santa Cruz district is now a memorial hall which stands today. See also 1990 Luzon earthquake 2022 Luzon earthquake List of earthquakes in 1968 List of earthquakes in the Philippines Notes References Sources External links Casiguran Earthquake - 02 August 1968 – Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology M7.6 - Luzon, Philippines – United States Geological Survey 1968 Casiguran Earthquake Casiguran earthquake Casiguran Earthquake History of Aurora (province) History of Manila August 1968 events in Asia

6872531

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Tajikistan%20earthquake

2006 Tajikistan earthquake

On July 29, the 2006 Tajikistan earthquake hit the Khatlon region of Tajikistan. The earthquake doublet killed three people and injured 19. Poor water and sanitation posed an ongoing risk to health, as did malaria, given its prevalence in the region and the fact that some people sleep outdoors without mosquito nets. Damaged roofs made from asbestos posed additional risks to health. Following an initial assessment mission of the earthquake affected areas on 29 July by the Minister for Emergency Situations, a second joint mission followed on 1 August, led by the Deputy Prime Minister and including the UN Country Team, WHO and humanitarian partners. WHO, in collaboration with the Ministry of Health, immediately activated other UN and international agencies and NGOs in response to the disaster. To date, more than ten health partners, including NGOs, UN and International agencies have worked together to provide 50,000 water purification tablets, 86 tents and essential household items, mosquito nets, soap, buckets and high energy biscuits and to ensure basic drugs and WHO has donated 1 NEHKit to support local health authorities in ensuring essential medications are available for affected communities and forwarded drug donation guidelines. Funding has been received from ECHO since January 2006, in support of WHO's work to 'strengthen and enhance the coordination of humanitarian health programmes' in Tajikistan. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in Tajikistan References External links M5.6 - Hindu Kush region, Afghanistan – United States Geological Survey 2006 earthquakes 2006 in Tajikistan 2006 disasters in Tajikistan 2006 Tajikistan July 2006 events in Asia

6890764

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect%20of%20the%202004%20Indian%20Ocean%20earthquake%20on%20Finland

Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Finland

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, by far the worst disaster in the number of lives lost during peacetime Finland, killed 179 Finns in Thailand and Sri Lanka, and caused widespread public debate and investigations into the actions of Finnish officials who were claimed to have failed to help their citizens in the affected areas. Overview The undersea megathrust earthquake was 9.1 to 9.3 on the moment magnitude scale and struck the Indian Ocean off the western coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It occurred on 26 December 2004 at 00:58:50 UTC (07:58:50 local time in Jakarta and Bangkok). Finnish citizens in the affected regions There were approximately 2300 Finnish citizens on package tours in Thailand, and 600 in Sri Lanka, at the time of the earthquake. The number of independent travellers has not been confirmed. By 31 May 2005, a total number of 179 Finns have been proclaimed dead as caused by the tsunami; as of October 2006, one adult and three children were still officially missing in the affected areas. One person went missing in Sri Lanka and 178 in Thailand. Eight Finnish casualties had resided in Phuket island, and 170 in Khao Lak beach, which was the area in Thailand hardest hit by the catastrophe. 106 Finns went missing from the hotel Blue Village Pakarang in Khao Lak. Among the dead were a Finnish executive at Pfizer, Harriet Eckstein, and a popular rock and jazz musician, Aki Sirkesalo. Among those who escaped was the future President of Finland, Sauli Niinistö, who saved himself from the tsunami wave by climbing onto a lamppost with his son in Khao Lak. Finnish government officials' actions The Finnish government officials were heavily criticised for their slow response to help those citizens affected by the events. There were a high number of travellers in the affected areas in need of information on lost relatives, help to find travel documents to get back home, and generally in need to get evacuated in an organised manner. In Finland, thousands of relatives needed information regarding family members that may have been in the area. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs received the most criticism, mostly by not providing enough emergency telephone services during Boxing Day and the days following. One of the reasons for the government's slow response, as has been claimed, was the general lack of information about the situation, and the lack of readiness to organise evacuation efforts in politically stable foreign locations. In Sweden, the country in Europe with the highest number of casualties as a result of the tsunami, widespread criticism towards the government led to the resignations of top politicians, but these consequences didn't occur in Finland. Diver instructors in rescue efforts In response for the need to coordinate rescue and evacuation efforts for Finnish people in Thailand, a group of Finnish scuba divers started collecting namelists of the ones missing and the ones in safe locations, and sending them as text messages to the homeland to be published in lists in the Sukellus.fi website. This operation was led by entrepreneurs Janne Miikkulainen and Jani Mäkinen from Raya Divers, a scuba diving firm based in Phuket, and by internet entrepreneur Alex Nieminen and journalist Petri Ahoniemi in Helsinki. Miikkulainen, Mäkinen and a crew of tourist agents also circulated hospitals and evacuation centers around Khao Lak and Phuket in order to find Finnish people and give them information about the situation. Janne Miikkulainen was awarded a Cross of Merit of the Order of the Lion of Finland for his work during and after the catastrophe. The others hosting the Sukellus.fi-website received a State information award. References External links Investigation report from the Finnish Accident Investigation Board Finland 2004 in Finland

6913374

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Game

Earthquake Game

The Earthquake Game was a college football game in which the crowd reaction after an important play registered on a seismograph. Played in front of a crowd of 79,431 at Louisiana State University's Tiger Stadium on October 8, 1988, the LSU Tigers upset No. 4 Auburn 7–6. Background The game pitted Southeastern Conference rivals Auburn and LSU and was one of the more notable games in the Auburn–LSU football rivalry. Along with national rankings, the game also proved to be of great significance to that season's eventual SEC title. The stadium was filled to capacity and the game was being broadcast on ESPN. The game The game was dominated by defense. LSU managed only one drive of over 10 yards in the first half. The only score of the first half was a field goal by Auburn's Win Lyle with 1:41 to go before halftime. LSU made it to the Auburn 23-yard line midway through the third quarter, but a clipping penalty moved the team out of field goal range. On Auburn's next possession, Lyle kicked another field goal with 10:18 left in the game to make the score 6–0. The play Auburn led 6–0 with less than two minutes left in the 4th quarter. LSU's quarterback Tommy Hodson drove the team down the field before throwing an 11-yard touchdown pass to Eddie Fuller on 4th down. The game's name resulted from the reaction of the crowd after the final pass, which registered as an earthquake by a seismograph located in LSU’s Howe-Russell Geoscience Complex around from the stadium. The seismograph reading was discovered the morning after the game by LSU seismologist Don Stevenson and student worker Riley Milner. Word of the seismograph reading reached The Daily Reveille and spread to the local media. Stevenson submitted the reading to the Louisiana Geological Survey to have it preserved. Stevenson displayed a copy of the reading on his office window on the LSU campus that was later observed by an ESPN news crew, which was on campus doing a story sometime prior to when Stevenson left LSU in the summer of 1991. The news crew decided to do a piece on what they dubbed "The Earthquake Game." This news story helped to add more attention to the event. Aftermath and legacy The win brought LSU's win–loss record to 3–2 on the season and a No. 19 ranking in the AP Poll. The team finished the regular season with an 8–3 record and lost to Syracuse in the Hall of Fame Bowl. Auburn dropped to 4–1 and to No. 12 in the poll. The game was the only one Auburn lost in the regular season. The team was defeated by Florida State in the Sugar Bowl. In games played by LSU at Tiger Stadium, the winning touchdown is included in a montage that is shown at the start of the 4th quarter. See also Similar seismic activity has been registered during other football games: 2011 NFL playoff game between the Seattle Seahawks and the New Orleans Saints 2013 Iron Bowl between Auburn and Alabama Seven times at Virginia Tech's Lane Stadium: first in 2011 against Miami, in 2015 against Ohio State, against Miami in 2016, against Clemson in 2017, against Notre Dame in 2018, against Miami in 2018, and against North Carolina in 2021. Three times at LSU since then. "Garthquake" happened on April 30th, 2022. Garth Brooks played Callin' Baton Rouge and the noise generated shook the Earth again. Then, on November 5th, 2022, LSU fans generated two earthquakes back to back. First when Jayden Daniels scored a touchdown on a 25 yard run in overtime. Then another earthquake three minutes later when Mason Taylor caught the game-winning two-point conversion. References 1988 Southeastern Conference football season Auburn Tigers football games LSU Tigers football games American football incidents October 1988 sports events in the United States 1988 in sports in Louisiana Nicknamed sporting events

6936562

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Gulf%20of%20Mexico%20earthquake

2006 Gulf of Mexico earthquake

The 2006 Gulf of Mexico earthquake occurred in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 10 at . The intraplate earthquake measured 5.9 on the moment magnitude scale and its epicenter was located about west-southwest of Anna Maria, Florida. The event was felt throughout much of the Gulf Coast of the United States and was the second earthquake of magnitude 5 or greater in the Gulf during 2006. Felt intensities, as measured on the Mercalli intensity scale, were as high as IV (Light) in Florida, with parts of Georgia at III (Weak). Characteristics The quake was reportedly felt along the gulf coast and as far north as Georgia. The earthquake was the strongest in the Gulf of Mexico in 33 years and was an intraplate earthquake, an event that takes place away from the borders of tectonic plates (where most tectonic activity takes place). Earthquakes in the Southeastern United States are not common, but several strong events have occurred in the region. In 1879 close to St. Augustine, Florida an earthquake damaged plaster and forced dishes off counters, and in South Carolina the 1886 Charleston earthquake caused severe damage and was responsible for the deaths of sixty people. The event occurred near the Cuba Fracture Zone and was well away from the edge of the North American Plate. Randy Cox, an associate professor of earth science at the University of Memphis in Tennessee stated that the source of strain was the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where seafloor spreading was causing compression of the North American Plate. A magnitude 5.2 event in February 2006 may have been associated with the same fault zone. The epicenter of the earthquake was too far offshore for it to be well covered by onshore seismographs and the event's characteristics are therefore poorly constrained. The focal mechanism indicated reverse faulting. The focal depth of between 14–31 km show that it occurred within the seismogenic zone, rather than on any of the many shallow growth faults in the area. The earthquake led to a reassessment of the geohazard for hydrocarbon exploration and production facilities in the Gulf. Several thousand people reported the event to the United States Geological Survey but none reported any damage from the 20 second earthquake. Items were knocked from shelves and seiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida where felt intensities were reported as high as IV, including Brooksville on the west coast, Titusville on the east coast, and Panama City on the panhandle. In Atlanta, Georgia, the intensity was reported to be at level III. See also List of earthquakes in 2006 List of earthquakes in the United States References External links Gulf of Mexico 2006 earthquakes Natural disasters in Florida Natural disasters in Louisiana Earthquakes in the United States Natural disasters in Alabama 2006 natural disasters in the United States 2006 in Florida 2006 in Louisiana 2006 in Alabama September 2006 events in the United States

7062469

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20scenario

Earthquake scenario

Earthquake scenario is a planning tool to determine the appropriate emergency responses or building systems in areas exposed to earthquake hazards. It uses the basics of seismic hazard studies, but usually places a set earthquake on a specific fault, most likely near a high-population area. Most scenarios relate directly to urban seismic risk, and seismic risk in general. Some earthquake scenarios follow some of the latest methodologies from the nuclear industry, namely a Seismic Margin Assessment (SMA). In the process, a Review Level Earthquake (RLE) is chosen that challenges the system, has a reasonable probability, and is not totally overwhelming. Scenarios have been developed for Seattle, New York City, and many of the faults in California. In general, areas west of the Rockies use urban earthquakes of M7 (moment magnitude), and eastern cities use an M6. Some eastern cities do not have an earthquake scenario. As an example, the Greater Toronto area in Ontario, Canada has a local seismicity with about as much a chance for an M6 as most of the moderate earthquake zones of Eastern North America (ENA), including New York City. As seen on the map, the RLE would be an M6 located in the western end of Lake Ontario. It could be suspected that the damage would follow the New York City scenario, with extensive damage to lifelines, and brick buildings on soft ground. Notes External links Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation Disaster preparedness

7135316

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20bomb

Earthquake bomb

The earthquake bomb, or seismic bomb, was a concept that was invented by the British aeronautical engineer Barnes Wallis early in World War II and subsequently developed and used during the war against strategic targets in Europe. A seismic bomb differs somewhat in concept from a traditional bomb, which usually explodes at or near the surface and destroys its target directly by explosive force; in contrast, a seismic bomb is dropped from high altitude to attain very high speed as it falls and upon impact, penetrates and explodes deep underground, causing massive caverns or craters known as camouflets, as well as intense shockwaves. In this way, the seismic bomb can affect targets that are too massive to be affected by a conventional bomb, as well as damage or destroy difficult targets such as bridges and viaducts. Earthquake bombs were used towards the end of World War II on massively reinforced installations, such as submarine pens with concrete walls several meters thick, caverns, tunnels, and bridges. Theory and mechanism of damage During development Barnes Wallis theorised that a highly aerodynamic, very heavy bomb with a delayed detonation would cause damage to a target through shock waves travelling through the ground, hence the nickname earthquake bombs. The airmen who dropped the bombs reported that the target structures stood undamaged by the detonation; "But then the crater collapsed, the ground shifted and the target collapsed". Later computer simulations reached the same conclusions; the significant part of the damage was done by generating a cavity in the ground. That cavity collapsing caused the ground to shift, hence the target's foundation to shift or break causing catastrophic structural damage to the target. The shifting ground caused any larger structure to become severely damaged, even if the bomb missed the target but created a crater near it. They were not true seismic weapons, but effective cratering weapons. Development An explosion in air does not transfer much energy into a solid, as their differing acoustic impedances makes an impedance mismatch that reflects most of the energy. Due to the lack of accuracy of bombing in the face of anti-aircraft defences, air forces used area bombardment, dropping large numbers of bombs so that it would be likely that the target would be hit. Although a direct hit from a light bomb would destroy an unprotected target, it was comparatively easy to armour ground targets with many yards of concrete, and thus render critical installations such as bunkers essentially bombproof. If the bomb could be designed to explode in water, soil, or other less compressible materials, the explosive force would be transmitted more efficiently to the target. Barnes Wallis' idea was to drop a large, heavy bomb with a hard armoured tip at supersonic speed (as fast as an artillery shell) so that it penetrated the ground like a ten-ton bullet being fired straight down. It was then set to explode underground, ideally to the side of, or underneath, a hardened target. The resulting shock wave from the explosion would then produce force equivalent to that of a 3.6 magnitude earthquake, destroying any nearby structures such as dams, railways, viaducts, etc. Any concrete reinforcement of the target would probably serve to enclose the force better. Wallis also argued that, if the bomb penetrated deep enough, the explosion would not breach the surface of the ground and would thus produce a cavern (a camouflet) which would remove the structure's underground support, thus causing it to collapse. The process was graphically described as a "trapdoor effect" or "hangman's drop". Wallis foresaw that disrupting German industry would remove its ability to fight, and also understood that precision bombing was virtually impossible in the late 1930s. The technology for precision aiming was developed during World War II, and Barnes Wallis' ideas were then shown to be successful (see for example the Bielefeld raid on 14 March 1945), considering the standards at the time. Wallis' first concept was for a ten-ton bomb that would explode some underground. To achieve this, the bomb would have had to be dropped from . The RAF had no aircraft at the time capable of carrying a ten-ton bomb load aloft, let alone lifting it to such a height. Wallis designed a six-engine aeroplane for the task, called the "Victory Bomber", but there was no support for an aircraft with only a single purpose. Wallis then took a different line in developing a means to destroy Germany's industrial structure with attacks on its supply of hydroelectric power. After he had developed the bouncing bomb and shown its possibilities, RAF Bomber Command were prepared to listen to his other ideas, even though they often thought them strange. The officer classes of the RAF at that time were often trained not in science or engineering, but in the classics, Roman and Greek history and language. They provided enough support to let him continue his research. Later in the war, Barnes Wallis made bombs based on the "earthquake bomb concept", such as the 6-ton Tallboy and then the 10-ton Grand Slam, although these were never dropped from more than about . Even from this relatively low altitude, the earthquake bomb had the ability to disrupt German industry while causing minimum civilian casualties. It was used to disable the V2 launch sites at La Coupole and Blockhaus d'Éperlecques, put out of action the V-3 cannon sites at Fortress of Mimoyecques, sink the battleship Tirpitz and damage the U-boats' protective pens at St. Nazaire, as well as to attack many other targets which had been impossible to damage before. One of the most spectacular attacks was shortly after D-Day, when the Tallboy was used to prevent German tank reinforcements from moving by train. Rather than blow up the tracks – which would have been repaired in a day or so – the bombs were targeted on a tunnel near Saumur which carried the line under a mountain. Twenty-five Lancasters dropped the first Tallboys on the mountain, penetrating straight through the rock, and one of them exploded in the tunnel below. As a result, the entire rail line remained unusable until the end of the war. The Bielefeld viaduct was only closed for brief periods by 54 raids dropping 3,500 tons; but in its first use on 14 March 1945 the "Grand Slam" destroyed whole sections of the viaduct. After World War II, the United States developed the T12 demolition bomb, which was designed to create an earthquake effect. Given the availability of nuclear weapons with surface detonating laydown delivery, there was little or no development of conventional deep penetrating bombs until the 1991 Gulf War. During the Gulf War, the need for a conventional deep penetrator became clear. In three weeks, a cooperative effort directed by the Armament Systems Division at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida developed the GBU-28 that was used successfully by F-111Fs against a deep underground complex not far from Baghdad just before the end of the war. The United States has developed a Massive Ordnance Penetrator, designed to attack very deeply buried targets without the use of nuclear weapons with the inherent huge levels of radioactive pollution and their attendant risk of retaliation in kind. Effectiveness Anglo-American bomb tests (Project Ruby) on the comparative effectiveness of large bombs against reinforced concrete structures were carried out in 1946. See also Bunker buster Compact Kinetic Energy Missile Grand Slam bomb Kinetic energy penetrator T-12 Cloudmaker Tallboy bomb References Anti-fortification weapons Aerial bombs World War II weapons Explosive weapons Barnes Wallis English inventions

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20Terror

Earthquake Terror

Earthquake Terror is a 1996 novel by Peg Kehret. It tells the tale of how a boy named Jonathan has to help his partially paralyzed six-year-old sister Abby, during an earthquake while their parents are at a hospital. Reception In his review for Childhood Education in 1997, J. Robert Dornish described the story as "absolutely riveting", noting that it is likely to affect the readers reactions to news reports of earthquakes. In another review for the School Library Journal, MaryAnn Karre, reviewing the audiobook version released in 2012 noted that "youngsters may find it hard to comprehend how the family could be so out of touch, but Peg Kehret wrote this story [in 1998] before cell phones became a necessity." References 1996 novels American young adult novels Environmental fiction books Works about earthquakes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Jose%20Earthquakes%20%281974%E2%80%931988%29

San Jose Earthquakes (1974–1988)

San Jose Earthquakes was a professional soccer club that played from 1974 to 1988. The team began as an expansion franchise in the North American Soccer League (NASL), and was originally set to play in San Francisco; but slow season ticket sales led to a late switch to San Jose's Spartan Stadium. The switch to sports-starved San Jose was an immediate hit, and the Earthquakes led the league with attendance over 15,000 per game in 1974, double the league average. The team's success led Spartan Stadium to be chosen as site of the first NASL Soccer Bowl in 1975. From 1983 to 1984, the team was known as the Golden Bay Earthquakes. During this time, it also played in the original Major Indoor Soccer League and in the NASL's indoor circuit, winning the first ever NASL indoor tournament in 1975. Their indoor games were first played at the Cow Palace and later at the Oakland Coliseum Arena. Following the collapse of the NASL in 1984, the team's name reverted to San Jose Earthquakes prior to joining the Western Soccer Alliance in 1985, where it played until the league's folding after the 1988 season. The name Earthquakes was created by general manager Dick Berg, but was criticized due to San Jose's proximity to the San Andreas Fault. Year-by-year Outdoor: Note: The team played as the Golden Bay Earthquakes in the 1983 and 1984 seasons. NASL and MISL Indoor Soccer In the winter of 1975, the NASL ran a two-tiered, 16-team indoor tournament with four regional winners meeting in a "final-four" style championship. Not only did San Jose host their region at the Cow Palace, but the final four as well. The Quakes swept through the tournament unscathed, defeating the Tampa Bay Rowdies 8–5 in the final to the delight of their fans. San Jose teammates Paul Child and Gabbo Garvic were named co-MVPs. In 1976, the Earthquakes again advanced to the final four before losing to the Rochester Lancers at the Bayfront Center in Florida. They would rebound the following day to win the 3rd Place match 5–2 over Dallas. The NASL would not begin playing full indoor seasons until 1979–80, but San Jose did not fare nearly as well in that format. The NASL canceled its 1982–83 indoor season. As a result, the Earthquakes along with Chicago and San Diego played in the MISL that winter. Note: The team played the 1982/83 and 1983/84 seasons as the Golden Bay Earthquakes. Head coaches Momčilo Gavrić (1974) Ivan Toplak (1974–1975) Momčilo Gavrić (1975–1978) Terry Fisher (1978–1979) Peter Stubbe (1979) Bill Foulkes (1980) Jimmy Gabriel (1981) Peter Short (1982) Joe Mallett (1982) Dragan Popović (1983–1984) Laurie Calloway (1985) Steve Litt (1986) Barney Boyce (1987–1988) Tomás Boy (1988) Tony Zanotto (1988) Honors Championships 1975 NASL indoor 1985 WACS 1987 WSA (runner-up) 1988 WSA (runner-up) NASL Division titles 1974 Southern Division, Pacific Conference 1975 Region 4 (indoor) 1976 West Regional (indoor) NASL Most Valuable Player 1975 Paul Child & Gabbo Garvic (indoor) 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 1984 Steve Zungul North American Player of the Year 1984 Branko Šegota Coach of the Year 1983 Don Popovic Leading Scorer 1974 Paul Child 36 points 1975 Paul Child (indoor) 31 points 1982–83 Steve Zungul (MISL) 122 points 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 119 points 1984 Steve Zungul 50 points 1987 Joe Mihaljevic 16 points Leading Goal Scorer 1974 Paul Child 15 goals 1975 Paul Child (indoor) 14 goals 1976 Juli Veee (indoor) 8 goals 1982–83 Steve Zungul (MISL) 75 goals 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 63 goals 1984 Steve Zungul 20 goals 1987 Joe Mihaljevic 7 goals Assists Leader 1983–84 Steve Zungul (indoor) 56 assists 1988 Dzung Tran 4 assists (tied with 2 others) All-Star First Team selections 1974 Paul Child 1976 António Simões 1983 Stan Terlecki, Steve Zungul 1984 Steve Zungul 1986 Chance Fry 1987 Barney Boyce, Tim Martin, Joe Mihaljevic, George Pastor, Robbie Zipp 1988 Tomás Boy, Abuelo Cruz All-Star Second Team selections 1981 George Best 1984 Branko Šegota 1986 Dzung Tran 1988 Chris Dangerfield, Dzung Tran All-Star Honorable Mentions 1974 Laurie Calloway, Dieter Zajdel 1976 Mark Liveric 1977 António Simões 1982 Vince Hilaire, Godfrey Ingram 1983 Mihalj Keri 1984 Fernando Clavijo Indoor All-Star/All-Tournament selections 1975 Paul Child, Gabbo Garvic 1976 Juli Veee 1980–81 George Best, Mike Hewitt 1983–84 Fernando Clavijo, Steve Zungul Indoor All-Star Game selections 1984 Fernando Clavijo, Steve Zungul (starters) U.S. Soccer Hall of Fame 1997 Johnny Moore 2003 Paul Child 2005 Fernando Clavijo Canadian Soccer Hall of Fame 2001 Gerry Gray 2002 Branko Šegota, Mike Sweeney 2009 Mike Stojanović 2011 Victor Kodelja Indoor Soccer Hall of Fame 2012 Don Popovic, Branko Šegota, Juli Veee, Steve Zungul 2014 Fernando Clavijo 2019 Stan Terlecki References External links NASL year-by-year standings MISL year-by-year standings Western Soccer League year-by-year standings North American Soccer League (1968–1984) teams Defunct soccer clubs in California Defunct indoor soccer clubs in the United States E San Jose Earthquakes Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–1992) teams Western Soccer Alliance teams Soccer clubs in California 1974 establishments in California 1988 disestablishments in California Association football clubs disestablished in 1988 Association football clubs established in 1974