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'''International Atomic Time''' ('''TAI''', from the French name '''''') is a high-precision [[Atomic clock|atomic]] [[coordinate time|coordinate]] [[time standard]] based on the notional passage of [[proper time]] on [[Earth]]'s [[geoid]]. It is the principal realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (with a fixed offset of [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]]). It is also the basis for [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. , when another [[leap second]] was added, TAI is exactly 37 seconds ahead of UTC. The 37 seconds results from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both [[Julian day]] and the [[Gregorian calendar]] are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with [[Universal Time]] at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth.

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TAI is a [[weighted average]] of the time kept by over 400 [[atomic clock]] in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are [[caesium clock]]; the [[International System of Units]] (SI) definition of the [[second]] is based on [[caesium]]. The clocks are compared using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] signals and [[two-way satellite time and frequency transfer]]. Due to the [[signal averaging]] TAI is an [[order of magnitude]] more stable than its best constituent clock. The participating institutions each broadcast, in [[real-time data|real time]], a frequency signal with [[timecode]], which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form ''UTC(NPL)'' in the UTC form, where ''NPL'' in this case identifies the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK]]. The TAI form may be denoted ''TAI(NPL)''. The latter is not to be confused with ''TA(NPL)'', which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in "Circular T", and is the [[canonical form|canonical]] TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC(''k'') (equivalent to TAI − TAI(''k'')) for each participating institution ''k''. The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA(''k''), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight, it is possible to discover errors in TAI and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT).

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Early atomic time scales consisted of [[quartz clock]] with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the [[National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)|National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL)]]. It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The [[United States Naval Observatory]] began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an [[Atomichron]] commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the [[National Bureau of Standards]], [[Boulder, Colorado]] on 9 October 1957. The [[International Time Bureau]] (BIH) began a time scale, T or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of [[VLF]] radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an [[Epoch (date reference)|epoch]] at the beginning of 1958 The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: "A3" in 1964 and "TA(BIH)" in 1969. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] and the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]] made a series of decisions which designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time (TAI). In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to [[gravitational time dilation]], and the combined TAI scale, therefore, corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at the [[geoid]] ([[mean sea level]]). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name ''EAL'' (''Echelle Atomique Libre'', meaning ''Free Atomic Scale''). The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for [[Barycentric Coordinate Time]] (TCB), [[Geocentric Coordinate Time]] (TCG), and [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the solar system. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s. The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC."

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UTC is a [[discontinuous]] time scale. It is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments, it is composed of segments that are mapped to atomic time. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971, the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated [[UT2]]. Afterward, these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate [[UT1]]. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale; the less frequent whole-second adjustments meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as [[navigation]] which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC.

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'''Altruism''' is the [[moral principle|principle]] and [[moral courage|moral practice]] of concern for [[happiness]] of other [[human kind|human beings]] or other animals, resulting in a [[quality of life]] both [[material]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]]. It is a traditional [[virtue]] in many cultures and a core aspect of various religious traditions and secular worldviews, though the concept of "others" toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. In an extreme case, altruism may become a synonym of selflessness, which is the opposite of [[selfishness]]. The word "altruism" was coined by the French philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] in French, as ''altruisme'', for an [[antonym]] of [[egoism]]. He derived it from the Italian ''altrui'', which in turn was derived from Latin ''alteri'', meaning "[[alterity|other people]]" or "somebody else". Altruism in [[Biology|biological]] observations in field populations of the day organisms is an individual performing an action which is at a cost to themselves (e.g., pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction), but benefits, either directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. Steinberg suggests a definition for altruism in the clinical setting, that is "intentional and voluntary actions that aim to enhance the welfare of another person in the absence of any quid pro quo external rewards". In one sense, the opposite of altruism is [[Spite (sentiment)|spite]]; a spiteful action harms another with no self-benefit. Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of [[loyalty]], in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether ''"true"'' altruism is possible in human psychology. The theory of [[psychological egoism]] suggests that no act of sharing, helping or sacrificing can be described as truly altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal [[gratification]]. The validity of this argument depends on whether [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|intrinsic rewards]] qualify as "benefits". The term ''[[altruism (ethics)|altruism]]'' may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with [[ethical egoism|egoism]], which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. [[Effective altruism]] is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others.

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The concept has a long history in [[Philosophy|philosophical]] and [[Ethics|ethical]] thought. The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding [[sociologist]] and [[philosopher of science]], [[Auguste Comte]], and has become a major topic for [[psychologists]] (especially [[evolutionary psychology]] researchers), [[evolutionary biologists]], and [[ethology|ethologists]]. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them.

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[[Marcel Mauss]]'s essay ''[[The Gift (essay)|The Gift]]'' contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: Alms are the fruits of a moral notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand, and of a notion of sacrifice, on the other. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and wealth of certain people who should rid themselves of it. This is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has been offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor and children.

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In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of [[Sociocultural evolution|social evolution]], altruism refers to behaviour by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In [[evolutionary psychology]] this may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as [[Charity (practice)|charity]], [[emergency aid]], help to coalition partners, [[Tip (gratuity)|tipping]], [[courtship]] gifts, production of [[Public good (economics)|public good]], and [[environmentalism]]. Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from [[evolutionary game theory]] a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: (-) [[Kin selection]]. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, and this has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was especially strong for firstborns, who are typically close to their families. (-) Vested interests. People are likely to suffer if their friends, allies, and similar social [[ingroup]] suffer or even disappear. Helping such group members may therefore eventually benefit the altruist. Making ingroup membership more noticeable increases cooperativeness. Extreme self-sacrifice towards the ingroup may be adaptive if a hostile [[Ingroups and outgroups|outgroup]] threatens to kill the entire ingroup. (-) [[Reciprocal altruism]]. See also [[Reciprocity (evolution)]]. (-) Direct [[Reciprocity (social psychology)|reciprocity]]. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they can and will reciprocate the help. The effective [[tit for tat]] strategy is one [[game theory|game theoretic]] example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return. (-) One consequence is that people are more cooperative if it is more likely that individuals will interact again in the future. People tend to be less cooperative if they perceive that the frequency of helpers in the population is lower. They tend to help less if they see non-cooperativeness by others and this effect tend to be stronger than the opposite effect of seeing cooperative behaviors. Simply changing the cooperative framing of a proposal may increase cooperativeness such as calling it a "Community Game" instead of a "Wall Street Game".

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(-) A tendency towards reciprocity implies that people will feel obligated to respond if someone helps them. This has been used by charities that give small gifts to potential donors hoping thereby to induce reciprocity. Another method is to announce publicly that someone has given a large donation. The tendency to reciprocate can even generalize so people become more helpful toward others in general after being helped. On the other hand, people will avoid or even retaliate against those perceived not to be cooperating. People sometimes mistakenly fail to help when they intended to, or their helping may not be noticed, which may cause unintended conflicts. As such, it may be an optimal strategy to be slightly forgiving of and have a slightly generous interpretation of non-cooperation. (-) People are more likely to cooperate on a task if they can communicate with one another first. This may be due to better assessments of cooperativeness or due to exchange of promises. They are more cooperative if they can gradually build trust, instead of being asked to give extensive help immediately. Direct reciprocity and cooperation in a group can be increased by changing the focus and incentives from intra-group competition to larger scale competitions such as between groups or against the general population. Thus, giving grades and promotions based only on an individual's performance relative to a small local group, as is common, may reduce cooperative behaviors in the group. (-) Indirect reciprocity. The avoidance of poor reciprocators and cheaters causes a person's [[reputation]] to become very important. A person with a good reputation for reciprocity has a higher chance of receiving help even from persons they have had no direct interactions with previously. (-) [[Strong reciprocity]]. A form of reciprocity where some individuals seem to spend more resources on cooperating and punishing than would be most beneficial as predicted by several established theories of altruism. A number of theories have been proposed as explanations as well as criticisms regarding its existence. (-) Pseudo-reciprocity. An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist. (-) [[Signalling theory|Costly signaling]] and the [[handicap principle]]. Since altruism takes away resources from the altruist it can be an "honest signal" of resource availability and the abilities needed to gather resources. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also be a signal of interactive and cooperative intentions since those not interacting further in the future gain nothing from the costly signaling. It is unclear if costly signaling can indicate a long-term cooperative personality but people have increased trust for those who help. Costly signaling is pointless if everyone has the same traits, resources, and cooperative intentions but become a potentially more important signal if the population increasingly varies on these characteristics.

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Hunters widely sharing the meat has been seen as a costly signal of ability and research has found that good hunters have higher reproductive success and more adulterous relations even if they themselves receive no more of the hunted meat than anyone else. Similarly, holding large feasts and giving large donations has been seen as ways of demonstrating one's resources. Heroic risk-taking has also been interpreted as a costly signal of ability. Both indirect reciprocity and costly signaling depend on the value of reputation and tend to make similar predictions. One is that people will be more helping when they know that their helping behavior will be communicated to people they will interact with later, is publicly announced, is discussed, or is simply being observed by someone else. This have been documented in many studies. The effect is sensitive to subtle cues such as people being more helpful when there were stylized eyespots instead of a logo on a computer screen. Weak reputational cues such as eyespots may become unimportant if there are stronger cues present and may lose their effect with continued exposure unless reinforced with real reputational effects. Public displays such as public weeping for dead celebrities and participation in demonstrations may be influenced by a desire to be seen as altruistic. People who know that they are publicly monitored sometimes even wastefully donate money they know are not needed by recipient which may be because of reputational concerns. Women have been found to find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When looking for a long-term partner, altruism may be a preferred trait as it may indicate that he is also willing to share resources with her and her children. It has been shown that men perform altruistic acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships which may be because they expect less success. People may compete for social benefit from a burnished reputation, which may cause [[competitive altruism]]. On the other hand, in some experiments a proportion of people do not seem to care about reputation and they do not help more even if this is conspicuous. This may possibly be due to reasons such as [[psychopathy]] or that they are so attractive that they need not be seen to be altruistic. The reputational benefits of altruism occur in the future as compared to the immediate costs of altruism in the present. While humans and other organisms generally place less value on future costs/benefits as compared to those in the present, some have shorter time horizons than others and these people tend to be less cooperative.

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Explicit [[extrinsic]] rewards and punishments have been found to sometimes actually have the opposite effect on behaviors compared to intrinsic rewards. This may be because such extrinsic, top-down incentives may replace (partially or in whole) intrinsic and reputational incentives, motivating the person to focus on obtaining the extrinsic rewards, which overall may make the behaviors less desirable. Another effect is that people would like altruism to be due to a personality characteristic rather than due to overt reputational concerns and simply pointing out that there are reputational benefits of an action may actually reduce them. This may possibly be used as derogatory tactic against altruists, especially by those who are non-cooperators. A counterargument is that doing good due to reputational concerns is better than doing no good at all. (-) [[Group selection]]. It has controversially been argued by some evolutionary scientists such as [[David Sloan Wilson]] that natural selection can act at the level of non-kin groups to produce adaptations that benefit a non-kin group even if these adaptations are detrimental at the individual level. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while there may instead prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (See also [[in-group favoritism]]). Group selection theory has been criticized by many other evolutionary scientists. Such explanations do not imply that humans are always consciously calculating how to increase their [[inclusive fitness]] when they are doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote altruistic behaviors. Every single instance of altruistic behavior need not always increase inclusive fitness; altruistic behaviors would have been selected for if such behaviors on average increased inclusive fitness in the ancestral environment. This need not imply that on average 50% or more of altruistic acts were beneficial for the altruist in the ancestral environment; if the benefits from helping the right person were very high it would be beneficial to err on the side of caution and usually be altruistic even if in most cases there were no benefits. The benefits for the altruist may be increased and the costs reduced by being more altruistic towards certain groups. Research has found that people are more altruistic to kin than to no-kin, to friends than to strangers, to those attractive than to those unattractive, to non-competitors than to competitors, and to members ingroups than to members of outgroup.

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The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]], which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]], such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoeba]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved in order to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success. Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics such by the Russian [[Zoology|zoologist]] and [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] in his 1902 book ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]'' and [[Ethics|Moral Philosopher]] [[Peter Singer]] in his book ''[[A Darwinian Left]]''.

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Jorge Moll and [[Jordan Grafman]], neuroscientists at the [[National Institutes of Health]] and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network (J.M.) provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]]. In their research, published in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] USA in October 2006, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic]] reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/[[septal region]]. These structures are intimately related to social attachment and bonding in other species. Altruism, the experiment suggested, was not a superior moral faculty that suppresses basic selfish urges but rather was basic to the brain, hard-wired and pleasurable. One brain region, the subgenual [[anterior cingulate]] cortex/[[basal forebrain]], contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in those with trait [[empathy]]. The same study has shown a connection between giving to charity and the promotion of social bonding. In fact, in an experiment published in March 2007 at the [[University of Southern California]] neuroscientist [[Antonio R. Damasio]] and his colleagues showed that subjects with damage to the [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] lack the ability to empathically feel their way to moral answers, and that when confronted with moral dilemmas, these brain-damaged patients coldly came up with "end-justifies-the-means" answers, leading Damasio to conclude that the point was not that they reached immoral conclusions, but that when they were confronted by a difficult issue – in this case as whether to shoot down a passenger plane hijacked by terrorists before it hits a major city – these patients appear to reach decisions without the anguish that afflicts those with normally functioning brains. According to [[Adrian Raine]], a clinical neuroscientist also at the University of Southern California, one of this study's implications is that society may have to rethink how it judges immoral people: "Psychopaths often feel no empathy or remorse. Without that awareness, people relying exclusively on reasoning seem to find it harder to sort their way through moral thickets. Does that mean they should be held to different standards of accountability?" In another study, in the 1990s, Dr. Bill Harbaugh, a [[University of Oregon]] economist, concluded people are motivated to give for reasons of personal prestige and in a similar fMRI scanner test in 2007 with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions of Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in cause in charity, such as a person's environment and values.

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The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines ''psychological altruism'' as "a motivational state with the goal of increasing another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with ''psychological egoism'', which refers to the motivation to increase one's own welfare. There has been some debate on whether or not humans are truly capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is brought to question. The [[social exchange theory]] postulates that altruism only exists when benefits to the self outweigh costs to the self. [[Daniel Batson]] is a psychologist who examined this question and argues against the social exchange theory. He identified four major motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle ([[principlism]]). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that [[empathy]]-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The ''[[empathy-altruism]] hypothesis'' basically states that psychological altruism does exist and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone who is suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with feelings of personal distress, which compel people to reduce their own unpleasant emotions. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid helping unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. Helping behavior is seen in humans at about two years old, when a toddler is capable of understanding subtle emotional cues. In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through [[prosocial behavior]] such as [[Helping behavior|helping]], comforting, [[sharing]], cooperation, [[philanthropy]], and [[community service]]. Research has found that people are most likely to help if they recognize that a person is in need and feel personal responsibility for reducing the person's distress. Research also suggests that the number of bystanders witnessing distress or suffering affects the likelihood of helping (the ''[[Bystander effect]]''). Greater numbers of bystanders decrease individual feelings of responsibility. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders.

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Many studies have observed the effects of [[volunteering|volunteerism]] (as a form of altruism) on happiness and health and have consistently found a strong connection between volunteerism and current and future health and well-being. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered were higher on life satisfaction and will to live, and lower in [[Depression (mood)|depression]], [[anxiety (mood)|anxiety]], and [[somatization]]. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health, but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over a 30-year period and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults ages 55+ found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. It is important to note that, while research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies have found that [[generosity]] increases linearly from sad to happy affective states. Studies have also been careful to note that feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has conversely negative effects on health and happiness. For example, one study on volunteerism found that feeling overwhelmed by others' demands had an even stronger negative effect on mental health than helping had a positive one (although positive effects were still significant). Additionally, while generous acts make people feel good about themselves, it is also important for people to appreciate the kindness they receive from others. Studies suggest that gratitude goes hand-in-hand with kindness and is also very important for our well-being. A study on the relationship happiness to various character strengths showed that "a conscious focus on gratitude led to reductions in negative affect and increases in optimistic appraisals, positive affect, offering emotional support, sleep quality, and well-being".

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"Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity". American Sociological Association.). The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the [[common good]] is a largely researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges [[public sociology]] saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable" ("Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity" ASA). This type of sociology seeks contributions that aid grassroots and theoretical understandings of what motivates altruism and how it is organized, and promotes an altruistic focus in order to benefit the world and people it studies. How altruism is framed, organized, carried out, and what motivates it at the group level is an area of focus that sociologists seek to investigate in order to contribute back to the groups it studies and "build the good society". The motivation of altruism is also the focus of study; some publications link the occurrence of moral outrage to the punishment of perpetrators and compensation of victims. Studies have shown that [[generosity]] in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate observed generosity of others.

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Pathological altruism is when altruism is taken to an unhealthy extreme, and either harms the altruistic person, or well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book ''[[Pathological Altruism]]''. Examples include [[Depression (mood)|depression]] and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, hoarding of animals, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid.

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Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Sikhism]], etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality.

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Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" ([[Dalai Lama]]). Still, the notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes our own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama). In the context of larger ethical discussions on moral action and judgment, Buddhism is characterized by the belief that negative (unhappy) consequences of our actions derive not from punishment or correction based on moral judgment, but from the law of karma, which functions like a natural law of cause and effect. A simple illustration of such cause and effect is the case of experiencing the effects of what one causes: if one causes suffering, then as a natural consequence one would experience suffering; if one causes happiness, then as a natural consequence one would experience happiness.

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The fundamental principles of [[Jainism]] revolve around the concept of altruism, not only for humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches the view of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' – to live and let live, thereby not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. It also considers all living things to be equal. The first [[Tirthankara]], [[Rishabhdev]], introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence and compassion for all living things. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence to progress the soul to this ultimate goal. A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviors. One's unconquered mind with anger, pride (ego), deceit, greed and uncontrolled sense organs are the powerful enemies of humans. Anger spoils good relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace and greed destroys everything. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride by humility, deceit by straightforwardness and greed by contentment. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation, one must practice the following ethical principles (major vows) in thought, speech and action. The degree to which these principles are practiced is different for householders and monks. They are: (1) Non-violence (Ahimsa); (2) Truthfulness (Satya); (3) Non-stealing (Asteya); (4) Celibacy ([[Brahmacharya]]); (5) [[Non-possession]] or non-materialism (Aparigraha); The "great vows" ([[Mahavrata]]) are prescribed for monks and "limited vows" ([[Anuvrata]]) are prescribed for householders. The house-holders are encouraged to practice the above-mentioned five vows. The monks have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it will be possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating the spiritual progress. The principle of nonviolence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every [[Soul (Jainism)|soul]] as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become ''Siddha'' ([[God in Jainism]]). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders.

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Altruism is central to the teachings of Jesus found in the [[Gospel]], especially in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the [[Sermon on the Plain]]. From biblical to medieval [[Christian traditions]], tensions between self-affirmation and other-regard were sometimes discussed under the heading of "disinterested love", as in the [[Paul the Apostle|Pauline]] phrase "love seeks not its own interests". In his book ''Indoctrination and Self-deception,'' Roderick Hindery tries to shed light on these tensions by contrasting them with impostors of authentic self-affirmation and altruism, by analysis of other-regard within creative individuation of the self, and by contrasting love for the few with love for the many. Love confirms others in their freedom, shuns propaganda and masks, assures others of its presence, and is ultimately confirmed not by mere declarations from others, but by each person's experience and practice from within. As in practical arts, the presence and meaning of love becomes validated and grasped not by words and reflections alone, but in the making of the connection. [[St Thomas Aquinas]] interprets 'You should love your neighbour as yourself' as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship" and quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves", he concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the [[common good]], the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thinks we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal [[Beatitudes|beatitude]]: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word Altruism, as stated above, [[Auguste Comte|Comte]] was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. 1 John 4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellowman, and that hatred of one's fellowman is the same as hatred of God. [[Thomas Jay Oord]] has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being.

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German philosopher [[Max Scheler]] distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence". Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love, ... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people's business". At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."

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In [[Islam]], the concept "''īthār''" (إيثار) (altruism) is the notion of "preferring others to oneself". For [[Sufism|Sufis]], this means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by [[Allah]] (i.e. God) on the human body, considered to be property of Allah alone. The importance of ''īthār'' lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; [[Islam]] considers those practicing ''īthār'' as abiding by the highest degree of nobility. This is similar to the notion of chivalry, but unlike that European concept, in ''īthār'' attention is focused on everything in existence. A constant concern for Allah results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world. This concept was emphasized by Sufis like [[Rabia al-Adawiyya]] who paid attention to the difference between dedication to Allah and dedication to people. Thirteenth-century Turkish Sufi poet [[Yunus Emre]] explained this philosophy as "''Yaratılanı severiz, Yaratandan ötürü''", that is, "We love the creature, because of The Creator." For many Muslims, ''īthār'' must be practiced as a religious obligation during specific Islamic holidays. However, ''īthār'' is also still an Islamic ideal to which all Muslims should strive to adhere at all times.

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Judaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. The famous Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. This is defined as [[Tzedakah|bestowal]], or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. [[Kabbalah]] defines God as the force of giving in [[existence]]. Rabbi [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] in particular focused on the 'purpose of creation' and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this upper force. Modern [[Kabbalah]] developed by Rabbi [[Yehuda Ashlag]], in his writings about the [[future generation]], focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to [[divinity]].

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Altruism is essential to the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed any one can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities like love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, truthfulness. The concept of ''seva'', or [[selfless service]] to the community for its own sake, is an important concept in Sikhism. The fifth [[Guru]], [[Arjun Dev]], sacrificed his life to uphold "22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity", the [[Guru Granth]]. The ninth Guru, [[Tegh Bahadur]], sacrificed his head to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, [[Bhai Kanhaiya]], attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them", replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." Under the tutelage of the Guru, Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism, which is still engaged today in doing good to others and in training new recruits for this service.

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In Hinduism Selflessness (Atmatyag), Love (Prema), Kindness (Daya) and Forgiveness (Kshama) are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "Manushyattva". Giving alms to the beggers or poor people is considered as a divine act or "Punya" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "Paapa" and will led them to heaven or "Swarga" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs. [[Swami Vivekananda]], the legendary Hindu monk, has said -"Jive prem kare jeijon, Seijon sebiche Iswar" (Whoever loves any living being, is serving god.). Mass donation of clothes to poor people (Vastraseva), or blood donation camp or mass food donation (Annaseva) for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies. [[Swami Sivananda]], an [[Advaita]] scholar, reiterates the views in his commentary synthesising Vedanta views on the [[Brahma Sutras]], a Vedantic text. In his commentary on Chapter 3 of the Brahma Sutras, Sivananda notes that karma is insentient and short-lived, and ceases to exist as soon as a deed is executed. Hence, karma cannot bestow the fruits of actions at a future date according to one's merit. Furthermore, one cannot argue that karma generates [[apurva]] or [[Merit (Buddhism)|punya]], which gives fruit. Since apurva is non-sentient, it cannot act unless moved by an intelligent being such as a god. It cannot independently bestow reward or punishment. However the very well known and popular text, the [[Bhagavad Gita]] supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) & "[[Nishkam Karma]]" or action without expectation / desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and very well received in Hindu literature and is central to Hindu morality.

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There exists a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is [[ethical egoism]], which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with [[utilitarianism]], which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants. A related concept in [[descriptive ethics]] is [[psychological egoism]], the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. [[Rational egoism]] is the view that [[rationality]] consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations).

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[[Effective altruism]] is a [[philosophy]] and [[social movement]] that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values. It is the broad, evidence-based and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or [[Charity (practice)|charity]]. Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]]. While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the [[nonprofit sector]], the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit. People associated with the movement include philosopher [[Peter Singer]], Facebook co founder [[Dustin Moskovitz]], Cari Tuna, [[Ben Delo]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]-based researchers [[William MacAskill]] and [[Toby Ord]], professional poker player [[Liv Boeree]], and writer [[Jacy Reese]].

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The genes [[OXTR]], [[CD38]], [[COMT]], [[DRD4]], [[DRD5]], [[IGF2]], [[GABRB2]] have been found to be candidate genes for altruism.

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'''Ayn Rand''' (; born '''Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum''';  – March 6, 1982) was a [[Russian-American]] writer and philosopher. She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system she named [[Objectivism]]. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play that opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1935. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, ''[[The Fountainhead]]''. In 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own [[Objectivist periodicals|periodicals]] and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated [[reason]] as the only means of acquiring knowledge and rejected [[faith]] and religion. She supported [[Rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] and rejected [[Altruism (ethics)|altruism]]. In politics, she condemned the [[initiation of force]] as immoral and opposed [[collectivism]], [[statism]], as well as [[anarchism]], instead supporting ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]], which she defined as the system based on recognizing [[individual rights]], including property rights. Although she was opposed to [[libertarianism]], seeing the ideology as anarchism, she is often associated with the modern libertarian movement. In art, Rand promoted [[romantic realism]]. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[classical liberals]]. Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews. Although there was some growth of academic interest in her ideas in the early 2000s, academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected her philosophy due to her polemical approach and lack of methodological rigor. The [[Objectivist movement]] attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. She has been a significant influence among libertarians and [[Conservatism in the United States|American conservatives]].

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Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February 2, 1905, to a [[Russian-Jewish]] bourgeois family living in [[Saint Petersburg]]. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum, a pharmacist, and Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan). Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten. At the prestigious , her closest friend was [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s younger sister, Olga; the two girls shared an intense interest in politics. She was twelve at the time of the [[February Revolution]] of 1917, during which she favored [[Alexander Kerensky]] over [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas II]]. The subsequent [[October Revolution]] and the rule of the [[Bolsheviks]] under [[Vladimir Lenin]] disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father's business was confiscated, and the family fled to the [[Crimean Peninsula]], which was initially under control of the [[White Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. While in high school there, she concluded that she was an [[atheist]] and valued [[reason]] above any other virtue. After graduating in June 1921, she returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving. After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing her to be in the first group of women to enroll at [[Petrograd State University]]. At the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of [[social pedagogy]], majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]]; she came to see their differing views on reality and knowledge as the primary conflict within philosophy. She also studied the philosophical works of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Able to read French, German and Russian, she also discovered the writers [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], [[Victor Hugo]], [[Edmond Rostand]], and [[Friedrich Schiller]], who became her perennial favorites. Along with many other bourgeois students, she was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which she did in October 1924. She then studied for a year at the State [[Tekhnikum|Technicum]] for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment, she wrote an essay about the Polish actress [[Pola Negri]], which became her first published work. By this time, she had decided her professional surname for writing would be ''Rand'', possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless excerpt of her birth surname in [[Cyrillic]] handwriting, and she adopted the first name ''Ayn'', either from the [[Finnic languages|Finnic]] name ''[[Aino (given name)|Aino]]'' or from the [[Hebrew]] word (''[[ayin]]'', meaning "eye").

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In late 1925, Rand was granted a [[Travel visa|visa]] to visit relatives in Chicago. She departed on January 17, 1926. When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of [[Manhattan]] that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films free of charge. She then left for Hollywood, California. In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director [[Cecil B. DeMille]] led to work as an [[Extra (acting)|extra]] in his film ''[[The King of Kings (1927 film)|The King of Kings]]'' and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on ''The King of Kings'', she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a [[Green card|permanent American resident]] in July 1929 and [[United States nationality law#Naturalization|an American citizen]] on March 3, 1931. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.

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Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' to [[Universal Studios]] in 1932, although it was never produced. This was followed by the courtroom drama ''[[Night of January 16th]]'', first produced by [[E. E. Clive]] in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1935. Each night a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on the jury's vote, one of two different endings would be performed. Rand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical ''[[We the Living]]'', was published in 1936. Set in [[Soviet Russia]], it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. She adapted the story as a [[The Unconquered (play)|stage play]], but producer [[George Abbott]]'s Broadway production was a failure that closed in less than a week. After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies. In a foreword to the 1959 edition, Rand stated that ''We the Living'' "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. ... The plot is invented, the background is not ..." Her novella ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, ''The Fountainhead''. It presents a vision of a [[dystopian]] future world in which [[totalitarian]] collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'. It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with ''We the Living'', Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies. During these early years of her career, Rand wrote other plays and short stories that were not produced or published during her lifetime, many of which were later published in ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]''.

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During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican [[Wendell Willkie]]. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had viewed pro-Willkie [[newsreels]]. This activity brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist [[Henry Hazlitt]], who introduced her to the [[Austrian School]] economist [[Ludwig von Mises]]. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman". Rand also became friends with libertarian writer [[Isabel Paterson]]. Rand questioned Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, ''[[The God of the Machine]]''. Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with ''The Fountainhead'', a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named [[Howard Roark]] and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the [[amphetamine]] [[Benzedrine]] to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings. ''The Fountainhead'' became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, Rand sold the film rights to [[Warner Bros.]] and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Afterwards she was hired by producer [[Hal B. Wallis]] as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the [[Academy Awards|Oscar]]-nominated ''[[Love Letters (1945 film)|Love Letters]]'' and ''[[You Came Along]]''. Rand also worked on other projects, including a never-completed nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called ''The Moral Basis of Individualism''.

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Rand extended her involvement with free-market and [[anti-communist]] activism while working in Hollywood. She became involved with the anti-Communist [[Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals]] and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist [[American Writers Association]]. A visit by Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a falling out between the two when Paterson made comments, which Rand considered rude, to valued political allies. In 1947, during the [[Second Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States [[House Un-American Activities Committee]]. Rand testified that the 1944 film ''[[Song of Russia]]'' grossly misrepresented conditions in the [[Soviet Union]], portraying life there as much better and happier than it was. She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as "futile". After several delays, the [[The Fountainhead (film)|film version]] of ''The Fountainhead'' was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end", and complained about its editing, acting, and other elements.

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Following the publication of ''The Fountainhead'', Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future [[Chair of the Federal Reserve]] [[Alan Greenspan]], a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later [[Nathaniel Branden]]) and his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and Barbara's cousin [[Leonard Peikoff]]. Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. She later began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, ''Atlas Shrugged'', as the manuscript was written. In 1954, Rand's close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the knowledge of their spouses. ''Atlas Shrugged'', published in 1957, was considered Rand's ''[[masterpiece|magnum opus]]''. Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of [[Objectivism]] and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a [[dystopia]] United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a [[welfare state]] government by going on [[Strike action|strike]] and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, [[John Galt]], describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of [[Mystery fiction|mystery]], romance, and science fiction, and it contains an extended exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Despite many negative reviews, ''Atlas Shrugged'' became an international bestseller. However, Rand was discouraged and depressed by the reaction of intellectuals to the novel. ''Atlas Shrugged'' was Rand's last completed work of fiction; it marked the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.

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In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for [[Objectivist periodicals]] that Rand edited. She later published some of these articles in book form. Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand. Some described NBI or the [[Objectivist movement]] generally as a [[cult]] or religion. Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. However, some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.

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Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as [[Yale]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Columbia University|Columbia]], [[Harvard]], and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. She also began delivering annual lectures at the [[Ford Hall Forum]], responding afterward to questions from the audience. During these appearances, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[military draft]] (but condemning many [[draft dodgers]] as "bums"), supporting Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]] of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages", saying [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonists]] had the right to develop land taken from [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]], and calling homosexuality "immoral" and "disgusting", while also advocating the repeal of all laws about it. She also endorsed several [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidates for President of the United States, most strongly [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[1964 United States presidential election|1964]], whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for ''The Objectivist Newsletter''. In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress [[Patrecia Scott]], whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended, Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, and NBI was closed. Rand published an article in ''The Objectivist'' repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company. Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976, she retired from writing her newsletter and, after her initial objections, she allowed an employee of her attorney to enroll her in [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]]. During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979. One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]]. At her funeral, a floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. In her will, Rand named Peikoff to inherit her estate.

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Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute". She considered Objectivism a [[systematic philosophy]] and laid out positions on [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], ethics, [[political philosophy]], and [[aesthetics]]. In metaphysics, Rand supported [[philosophical realism]], and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion. In epistemology, she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered [[axiom]], and [[reason]], which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses". She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' knowledge, including instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing. In her ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'', Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the [[analytic–synthetic dichotomy]]. In ethics, Rand argued for [[Rational egoism|rational]] and [[ethical egoism]] (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself". She referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her [[The Virtue of Selfishness|book of that title]], in which she presented her solution to the [[is-ought problem]] by describing a [[meta-ethical]] theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival ''qua'' man". She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held that the [[initiation of force]] was evil and irrational, writing in ''Atlas Shrugged'' that "Force and mind are opposites." Rand's political philosophy emphasized [[individual rights]] (including [[Private property|property rights]]), and she considered ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]] the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights. She opposed [[statism]], which she understood to include [[theocracy]], [[absolute monarchy]], [[Nazism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]], [[democratic socialism]], and dictatorship. Rand believed that natural rights should be protected by a constitutionally limited government. Although her political views are often classified as [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] or [[libertarian]], she preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with [[anarchism]]. She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in [[subjectivism]] that could only lead to collectivism in practice. In aesthetics, Rand defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered [[romanticism]] to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human [[free will]]. She described her own approach to literature as "[[romantic realism]]".

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Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, ethics, and discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force". She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy, stating: "I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not ''primarily'' an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."

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Rand was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, [[Thomas Aquinas]] and [[classical liberals]]. She acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and remarked that in the [[history of philosophy]] she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. In a 1959 interview with [[Mike Wallace]], when asked where her philosophy came from she responded: "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me. I devised the rest of my philosophy myself." In an article for the ''[[Claremont Review of Books]]'', political scientist [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]] criticizes her claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle, instead asserting that her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as [[John Locke]] and Friedrich Nietzsche. Rand did find early inspiration from Nietzsche, and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals, in passages from the first edition of ''We the Living'' (which Rand later revised), and in her overall writing style. However, by the time she wrote ''The Fountainhead'', Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas, and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed. Russian literature professor Adam Weiner claims that Rand's egoism was also influenced by the 1863 novel ''[[What Is to Be Done? (novel)|What Is to Be Done?]]'' by Russian author [[Nikolay Chernyshevsky]]. Rand considered her philosophical opposite to be [[Immanuel Kant]], whom she referred to as "the most evil man in mankind's history"; she believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest. Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.

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During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, ''We the Living'', was admired by the literary critic [[H. L. Mencken]], her Broadway play ''Night of January 16th'' was both a critical and popular success, and ''The Fountainhead'' was hailed by ''[[The New York Times]]'' reviewer [[Lorine Pruette]] as "masterful". Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic. However, they became bestsellers largely through word of mouth. The first reviews Rand received were for ''Night of January 16th''. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer. Rand believed that her first novel, ''We the Living'', was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner writes "it was the most reviewed of any of her works", with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work. Her 1938 novella ''Anthem'' received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues. Rand's first bestseller, ''The Fountainhead'', received far fewer reviews than ''We the Living'', and reviewers' opinions were mixed. Lorine Pruette's positive review in ''The New York Times'' was one that Rand greatly appreciated. Pruette called Rand "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", and stated that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time". There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications. Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel, such as one that called it "a whale of a book" and another that said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing". Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian". Rand's 1957 novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' was widely reviewed and many of the reviews were strongly negative. In ''[[National Review]]'', conservative author [[Whittaker Chambers]] called the book "sophomoric" and "remarkably silly". He described the tone of the book as "shrillness without reprieve" and accused Rand of supporting a godless system (which he related to that of the [[Religion in the Soviet Union|Soviets]]), claiming "From almost any page of ''Atlas Shrugged'', a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!. ''Atlas Shrugged'' received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer [[John Chamberlain (journalist)|John Chamberlain]], but Rand scholar [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein]] later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs", calling it "execrable claptrap" and "a nightmare"—they also said it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity".

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Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'', was similar to that for ''Atlas Shrugged'', with philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union", and author [[Gore Vidal]] calling her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality". Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers. In 2005, on the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth, [[Edward Rothstein]], writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'', referred to her fictional writing as quaint [[utopian]] "retro fantasy" and programmatic [[neo-Romanticism]] of the misunderstood artist while criticizing her characters' "isolated rejection of democratic society". In 2019, [[Lisa Duggan]] described Rand's fiction as popular and influential on many readers, despite being easy to criticize for "her cartoonish characters and melodramatic plots, her rigid moralizing, her middle- to lowbrow aesthetic preferences ... and philosophical strivings".

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Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with over 30 million copies sold (including 3.6 million purchased for free distribution to schools by the [[Ayn Rand Institute]]). In 1991, a survey conducted for the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's ''Atlas Shrugged'' was the second most popular choice, after the Bible. Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work. Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as [[Ira Levin]], [[Kay Nolte Smith]] and [[L. Neil Smith]]; and later writers such as [[Erika Holzer]] and [[Terry Goodkind]] have been influenced by her. Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist [[Steve Ditko]] and musician [[Neil Peart]] of [[Rush (band)|Rush]], although he later distanced himself. Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work. [[John A. Allison IV|John Allison]] of [[BB&T]] and [[Ed Snider]] of [[Comcast Spectacor]] have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas, while [[Mark Cuban]] (owner of the [[Dallas Mavericks]]) as well as [[John P. Mackey]] (CEO of [[Whole Foods]]) among others have said they consider Rand crucial to their success. Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media: on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows, as well as in movies and video games. She, or a character based on her, figures prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors. [[Nick Gillespie]], former editor in chief of ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'', remarked that "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist. Jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman run through the popular culture." Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, ''[[Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life]]'', was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature]]. ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand (film)|The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', a 1999 television adaptation of the [[The Passion of Ayn Rand (book)|book of the same name]], won several awards. Rand's image also appears on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States#R|1999]] [[Postage stamps and postal history of the United States|U.S. postage stamp]] illustrated by artist [[Nick Gaetano]].

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Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian", Rand has had continuing influence on [[right-wing politics]] and libertarianism. [[Jim Powell (historian)|Jim Powell]], a senior fellow at the [[Cato Institute]], considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with [[Rose Wilder Lane]] and [[Isabel Paterson]]) of modern [[American libertarianism]], and [[David Nolan (libertarian)|David Nolan]], one of the founders of the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]], stated that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist". In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist [[Brian Doherty (journalist)|Brian Doherty]] described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large" and historian Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right". The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives (often members of the Republican Party), despite Rand taking some positions that are atypical for conservatives, such as being [[pro-choice]] and an atheist. She faced intense opposition from [[William F. Buckley Jr.]] and other contributors for the conservative ''[[National Review]]'' magazine, which published numerous criticisms of her writings and ideas. Nevertheless, a 1987 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' referred to her as the [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]]'s "novelist laureate". Republican [[United States Congress|Congressmen]] and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels. She has also influenced some conservative politicians outside the US, such as [[Ayelet Shaked]], Israel's former [[Ministry of Justice (Israel)|Minister of Justice]] and co-founder of the [[New Right (Israel)|New Right]] party. The [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]] spurred renewed interest in her works, especially ''Atlas Shrugged'', which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis. Opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel. During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero [[John Galt]] appeared at [[Tea Party protests]]. There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the [[political left]], with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of [[Rational egoism#Ayn Rand|selfishness]] and [[free markets]], particularly through her influence on [[Alan Greenspan]]. In 2015, Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan, "Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb into the boiler room of the US economy". Lisa Duggan said that Rand's novels had "incalculable impact" in encouraging the spread of [[neoliberal]] political ideas. In 2021, [[Cass Sunstein]] said Rand's ideas could be seen in the tax and regulatory policies of the [[Trump administration]], which he attributed to "Rand's enduring influence ... from her fiction".

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During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars. When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in ''[[The Personalist]]''. One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], who argued that her [[meta-ethical]] argument is unsound and fails to solve the [[is–ought problem]] posed by [[David Hume]]. Other philosophers, writing in the same publication, argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case. Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Academic Mimi Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.

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Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased. In 2009, historian [[Jennifer Burns (writer)|Jennifer Burns]] identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, including "an explosion of scholarship" since the year 2000. However, as of that same year, few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study. The Fall 2020 update to the entry about Rand in the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' says that "only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously". Scholars of English and American literature have also largely ignored her work, although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s. Writing in the 1998 edition of the ''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', political theorist [[Chandran Kukathas]] summarizes the mainstream philosophical reception to her work in two parts. Her ethical argument, he says, is viewed by most commentators as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle's ethics. Her political theory, he says, "is of little interest", marred by an "ill-thought out and unsystematic" effort to reconcile her hostility to the state with her rejection of anarchism. Libertarian philosopher [[Michael Huemer]] argues that very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics, which he believes are difficult to interpret and lack logical coherence. He attributes the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist, noting that ''Atlas Shrugged'' outsells Rand's non-fiction works as well as the works of other philosophers of [[classical liberalism]] such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], or [[Frederic Bastiat]]. In the ''[[The Literary Encyclopedia (English)|Literary Encyclopedia]]'' entry for Rand written in 2001, [[John David Lewis]] declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation".

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Some scholars focus specifically on Rand's work. Rand scholars [[Douglas Den Uyl]] and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]], while stressing the importance and originality of her thought in a 1984 collection of academic articles about her ideas, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional". In that same volume, political writer and Rand scholar Jack Wheeler writes that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought". In 1987 [[Allan Gotthelf]], George Walsh and [[David Kelley]] co-founded the Ayn Rand Society, a group affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2012, the [[University of Pittsburgh Press]] launched an "Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies" series based on the proceedings of the Society. Gladstein, Gotthelf, [[Harry Binswanger]], [[John Hospers]], [[Edwin A. Locke]], [[Wallace Matson]], [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]], and [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]] have taught her work in academic institutions. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at [[Clemson University|Clemson]] and [[Duke University|Duke]] universities. Sciabarra co-edits ''[[The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]'', a nonpartisan [[peer-reviewed journal]] dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work. Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'', a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by [[Cambridge University Press]] in 2006. Although Rand maintained that Objectivism was an integrated philosophical system, philosopher Robert H. Bass argues in a 2006 journal article that her central ethical ideas are inconsistent and contradictory to her central political ideas.

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In 1985, Peikoff established the [[Ayn Rand Institute]], a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, philosopher [[David Kelley]] founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as [[The Atlas Society]]. In 2001, historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia. From 2002 to 2012, the charitable foundation of [[BB&T Corporation]] gave grants to more than 60 colleges and universities for teaching Rand's ideas or works. In some cases, these grants were controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.

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'''Fiction and drama:''' (-) ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (performed 1934, published 1968) (-) ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936, revised 1959) (-) ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938, revised 1946) (-) ''[[The Unconquered (play)|The Unconquered]]'' (performed 1940, published 2014) (-) ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) (-) ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957) (-) ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (1984) (-) ''[[Ideal (novel)|Ideal]]'' (2015) '''Non-fiction:''' (-) ''[[For the New Intellectual]]'' (1961) (-) ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' (1964) (-) ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (1966, expanded 1967) (-) ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969) (-) ''[[The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution|The New Left]]'' (1971, expanded 1975) (-) ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1979, expanded 1990) (-) ''[[Philosophy: Who Needs It]]'' (1982) (-) ''[[Letters of Ayn Rand]]'' (1995) (-) ''[[Journals of Ayn Rand]]'' (1997)

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'''Alain Connes''' (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, and a theoretical physicist, known for his contributions to the study of [[operator algebra]] and [[noncommutative geometry]]. He is a Professor at the [[Collège de France]], [[IHÉS]], [[Ohio State University]] and [[Vanderbilt University]]. He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982.

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Connes was an Invited Professor at the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] (2000).

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Alain Connes studies [[operator algebra]]. In his early work on [[von Neumann algebra]] in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective [[Von Neumann algebra#Factors|factor]]. He also formulated the [[Connes embedding problem]]. Following this, he made contributions in [[K-theory|operator K-theory]] and [[index theory]], which culminated in the [[Baum–Connes conjecture]]. He also introduced [[cyclic homology|cyclic cohomology]] in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of [[noncommutative geometry|noncommutative differential geometry]]. He was a member of [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki]]. Connes has applied his work in areas of [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]], including [[number theory]], [[differential geometry]] and [[particle physics]].

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Connes was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in 1982, the [[Crafoord Prize]] in 2001 and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. He was an [[invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|invited speaker at the ICM]] in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley and a [[plenary speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians|plenary speaker at the ICM]] in 1978 at Helsinki. He is a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and several foreign academies and societies, including the [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|Danish Academy of Sciences]], [[Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters|Norwegian Academy of Sciences]], [[Russian Academy of Sciences]], and [[National Academy of Sciences|US National Academy of Sciences]].

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(-) Alain Connes and [[Matilde Marcolli]], ''Noncommutative Geometry, Quantum Fields and Motives'', Colloquium Publications, American Mathematical Society, 2007, (-) Alain Connes, Andre Lichnerowicz, and Marcel Paul Schutzenberger, ''Triangle of Thought'', translated by Jennifer Gage, American Mathematical Society, 2001, (-) [[Jean-Pierre Changeux]], and Alain Connes, ''Conversations on Mind, Matter, and Mathematics'', translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Princeton University Press, 1998, (-) Alain Connes, ''Noncommutative Geometry'', Academic Press, 1994,

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'''Allan Dwan''' (born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan'''; 3 April 1885 – 28 December 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter.

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Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in [[Toronto]], Ontario, Canada, Dwan, was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan, née Hunt. The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on 4 December 1892 by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician. Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]].

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Dwan operated [[Flying A Studios]] in [[La Mesa, California]] from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On 12 August 1911, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the [[Flying A Studios]] origins in [[La Mesa, California]]. After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed 1922 ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]''. Dwan directed [[Gloria Swanson]] in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process [[Phonofilm]]. This short, also featuring [[Thomas Meighan]] and [[Henri de la Falaise]], was produced as a joke, for the 26 April 1925 "Lambs' Gambol" for [[The Lambs]], with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], Dwan directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) and ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938). Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, [[Victor Fleming]], who went on to direct ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone With the Wind]]'', and [[Marshall Neilan]], who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. He directed his last movie in 1961. He died in Los Angeles at the age of 96, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, Los Angeles|Mission Hills, California]]. Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 [[Hollywood Boulevard]]. Daniel Eagan of ''[[Film Journal International]]'' described Dwan as one of the early pioneers of cinema, stating that his style "is so basic as to seem invisible, but he treats his characters with uncommon sympathy and compassion."

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(-) ''[[The Gold Lust]]'' (1911) (-) ''[[The Picket Guard]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[The Restless Spirit]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[Back to Life (1913 film)|Back to Life]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[Bloodhounds of the North]]'' (1913) (-) ''[[The Lie (1914 film)|The Lie]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Honor of the Mounted]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Remember Mary Magdalen]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Discord and Harmony]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Embezzler (1914 film)|The Embezzler]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The End of the Feud]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Test (1914 film)|The Test]]'' (1914) (*writer) (-) ''[[The Tragedy of Whispering Creek]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Unlawful Trade]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Forbidden Room (1914 film)|The Forbidden Room]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[The Hopes of Blind Alley]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Richelieu (film)|Richelieu]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[Wildflower (1914 film)|Wildflower]]'' (1914) (-) ''[[A Small Town Girl]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[David Harum (1915 film)|David Harum]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[A Girl of Yesterday]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[The Pretty Sister of Jose (1915 film)|The Pretty Sister of Jose]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[Jordan Is a Hard Road]]'' (1915) (-) ''[[Betty of Graystone]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[The Habit of Happiness]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[The Good Bad Man]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[An Innocent Magdalene]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[The Half-Breed (1916 film)|The Half-Breed]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[Manhattan Madness (1916 film)|Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[Accusing Evidence]]'' (1916) (-) ''[[Panthea (1917 film)|Panthea]]'' (1917) (-) ''[[A Modern Musketeer]]'' (1917) (-) ''[[Bound in Morocco]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[Headin' South]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[Mr. Fix-It (1918 film)|Mr. Fix-It]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[He Comes Up Smiling]]'' (1918) (-) ''[[Cheating Cheaters (1919 film)|Cheating Cheaters]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[The Dark Star (1919 film)|The Dark Star]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[Getting Mary Married]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[Soldiers of Fortune (1919 film)|Soldiers of Fortune]]'' (1919) (-) ''[[In The Heart of a Fool]]'' (1920) also producer (-) ''[[The Forbidden Thing]]'' (1920) also producer (-) ''[[A Splendid Hazard (1920)|A Splendid Hazard]]'' (1920) (-) ''[[A Perfect Crime (film)|A Perfect Crime]]'' (1921) (-) ''[[The Sin of Martha Queed]]'' (1921) (-) ''[[A Broken Doll]]'' (1921) (-) ''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) (-) ''[[Zaza (1923 film)|Zaza]]'' (1923) (-) ''[[Big Brother (1923 film)|Big Brother]]'' (1923) (-) ''[[Manhandled (1924 film)|Manhandled]]'' (1924) (-) ''[[Argentine Love]]'' (1924) (-) ''[[The Coast of Folly]]'' (1925) (-) ''[[Night Life of New York]]'' (1925) (-) ''[[Stage Struck (1925 film)|Stage Struck]]'' (1925) (-) ''[[Gloria Swanson Dialogue]]'' (1925) short film made in [[Phonofilm]] for [[The Lambs]] annual "Gambol" held at [[Metropolitan Opera House (39th Street)|Metropolitan Opera House]] (-) ''[[Padlocked]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[Sea Horses]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[Summer Bachelors]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[Tin Gods]]'' (1926) (-) ''[[French Dressing (1927 film)|French Dressing]]'' (1927) (-) ''[[The Joy Girl]]'' (1927) (-) ''[[East Side, West Side (1927 film)|East Side, West Side]]'' (1927) (-) ''[[The Big Noise (1928 film)|The Big Noise]]'' (1928) (-) ''[[Frozen Justice]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[The Iron Mask]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[Tide of Empire]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[The Far Call]]'' (1929) (-) ''[[What a Widow!]]'' (1930) (-) ''[[Man to Man (1930 film)|Man to Man]]'' (1930) (-) ''[[Chances (1931 film)|Chances]]'' (1931) (-) ''[[Wicked (1931 film)|Wicked]]'' (1931) (-) ''[[While Paris Sleeps (1932 film)|While Paris Sleeps]]'' (1932) (-) ''[[Counsel's Opinion]]'' (1933) (-) ''[[Black Sheep (1935 film)|Black Sheep]]'' (1935) (-) ''[[Navy Wife (1935 film)|Navy Wife]]'' (1935) (-) ''[[High Tension (1936 film)|High Tension]]'' (1936)

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(-) ''[[15 Maiden Lane]]'' (1936) (-) ''[[One Mile from Heaven]]'' (1937) (-) ''[[Heidi (1937 film)|Heidi]]'' (1937) (-) ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[Suez (film)|Suez]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[Josette (1938 film)|Josette]]'' (1938) (-) ''[[The Three Musketeers (1939 film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) (-) ''[[The Gorilla (1939 film)|The Gorilla]]'' (1939) (-) ''[[Frontier Marshal (1939 film)|Frontier Marshal]]'' (1939) (-) ''[[Sailor's Lady]]'' (1940) (-) ''[[Young People (1940 film)|Young People]]'' (1940) (-) ''[[Trail of the Vigilantes]]'' (1940) (-) ''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer (-) ''[[Rise and Shine (film)|Rise and Shine]]'' (1941) (-) ''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) (-) ''[[Around the World (1943 film)|Around the World]]'' (1943) also producer (-) ''[[Up in Mabel's Room (1944 film)|Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) (-) ''[[Abroad with Two Yanks]]'' (1944) (-) ''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter (-) ''[[Brewster's Millions (1945 film)|Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) (-) ''[[Rendezvous with Annie]]'' (1946) (-) ''[[Driftwood (1947 film)|Driftwood]]'' (1947) (-) ''[[Calendar Girl (1947 film)|Calendar Girl]]'' (1947) (-) ''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer (-) ''[[The Inside Story (film)|The Inside Story]]'' (1948) (-) ''[[Angel in Exile]]'' (1948) (with [[Philip Ford (film director)|Philip Ford]]) (-) ''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) (-) ''[[Surrender (1950 film)|Surrender]]'' (1950) (-) ''[[Belle Le Grand]]'' (1951) (-) ''[[Wild Blue Yonder (film)|Wild Blue Yonder]]'' (1951) (-) ''[[I Dream of Jeanie (film)|I Dream of Jeanie]]'' (1952) (-) ''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) (-) ''[[Woman They Almost Lynched]]'' (1953) (-) ''[[Sweethearts on Parade (1953 film)|Sweethearts on Parade]]'' (1953) (-) ''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) (-) ''[[Passion (1954 film)|Passion]]'' (1954) (-) ''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) (-) ''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) (-) ''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) (-) ''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) (-) ''[[Slightly Scarlet (1956 film)|Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) (-) ''[[Hold Back the Night (film)|Hold Back the Night]]'' (1956) (-) ''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) (-) ''[[The River's Edge]]'' (1957) (-) ''[[Enchanted Island (film)|Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) (-) ''[[Most Dangerous Man Alive]]'' (1961)

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'''Algeria''', officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''', is a country in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]]. It is the [[List of African countries by area|largest country]] in [[Africa]] and the [[Arab world]], and is bordered to [[Algeria–Tunisia border|the northeast]] by [[Tunisia]]; to [[Algeria–Libya border|the east]] by [[Libya]]; to [[Algeria–Niger border|the southeast]] by [[Niger]]; to [[Algeria–Western Sahara border|the southwest]] by [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Western Sahara]]; to [[Algeria–Morocco border|the west]] by [[Morocco]]; and to the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The country has a semi-arid geography, with most of the population living in the fertile north and the [[Sahara]] dominating the geography of the south. Algeria covers an area of , with a population of 44 million, and is the [[List of African countries by population|ninth-most populous country]] in Africa. The capital and [[List of cities in Algeria|largest city]] is [[Algiers]], located in the far north, on the Mediterranean coast. Pre-1962 Algeria has seen many empires and dynasties, including ancient [[Numidia]], [[Phoenicia]], [[Punics|Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]], [[Rustamid dynasty|Rustamid]], [[Idrisid dynasty|Idrisid]], [[Aghlabids]], [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]], [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]], [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]], [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Zayyanids]], [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] and finally, the [[French colonial empire|French Colonial Empire]]. The vast majority of Algeria's population is [[Arab-Berber]], practicing [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]] and using the official languages of [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] and [[Berber languages|Berber]]. However, [[French language in Algeria|French]] serves as an administrative and education language in some contexts, and [[Algerian Arabic]] is the main spoken language. Algeria is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]], with local constituencies consisting of 58 provinces and 1,541 communes. Algeria is a [[regional power]] in North Africa, and a [[middle power]] in global affairs. It has the highest [[Human Development Index]] of all non-island African countries and one of the [[List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|largest economies on the continent]], based largely on energy exports. Algeria has the world's [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|sixteenth-largest oil reserves]] and the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|ninth-largest reserves]] of [[natural gas]]. [[Sonatrach]], the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa, supplying large amounts of [[natural gas]] to Europe. [[Algerian People's National Armed Forces|Algeria's military]] is one of the largest in Africa, and has the largest defence budget on the continent. It is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], [[OPEC]], the [[United Nations]], and the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], of which it is a founding member.

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Other forms of the name are: , ; ; ; ; . It is officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' (; , , ; , abbreviated as RADP).

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The country's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]] which in turn derives from the Arabic (, "The Islands"), a truncated form of the older (, "Islands of the Mazghanna Tribe"), employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi|al-Idrisi]].

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In the region of Ain Hanech ([[Saïda Province]]), early remnants (200,000 BC) of hominid occupation in [[North Africa]] were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]]. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of [[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Flake tool]] techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called [[Aterian]] (after the archaeological site of [[Bir el Ater]], south of [[Tébessa|Tebessa]]). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called [[Iberomaurusian]] (located mainly in the [[Oran]] region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the [[Maghreb]] between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called [[Berber people|Berbers]], who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa. From their principal center of power at [[Carthage]], the [[Carthaginians]] expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a [[Phoenicia]] presence existed at [[Tipasa]], east of [[Cherchell]], [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]]) and [[Rusicade]] (modern [[Skikda]]). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. By the early 4th century BC, Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the [[Mercenary War|Revolt of the Mercenaries]], Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the [[First Punic War]]. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the [[Punic Wars]]. In 146 BC the city of [[Carthage]] was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in [[Numidia]], behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay [[Mauretania]], which extended across the [[Moulouya River]] in modern-day [[Morocco]] to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilisation, unequalled until the coming of the [[Almohads]] and [[Almoravids]] more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of [[Masinissa]] in the 2nd century BC.

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After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]]. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] was the bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] (modern-day Annaba, Algeria), located in the Roman province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. The Germanic [[Vandals]] of [[Geiseric]] moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived [[Leptis Magna]] was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous [[Amazigh|Laguatan]] who had been busy facilitating an [[Amazigh]] political, military and cultural revival. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.

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After negligible resistance from the locals, [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the [[Rustamids]], [[Aghlabids]], [[Fatimids]], [[Zirids]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]], [[Almohads]] and the [[Abdalwadid]]. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century. During the [[Middle Ages]], North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah Ibn Quraysh]], the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the great Sufi masters [[Abu Madyan|Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)]] and [[Sidi El Houari]], and the Emirs [[Abd al-Mu'min|Abd Al Mu'min]] and [[Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan|Yāghmūrasen]]. It was during this time that the [[Fatimids]] or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, Hejaz and the Levant, boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of [[Arabs]] and [[Levant]] extending from Algeria to their capital state of [[Cairo]]. The [[Fatimid caliphate]] began to collapse when its governors the [[Zirids]] seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic [[Taghribat Bani Hilal|Tāghribāt]]. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero [[Khalifa al-Zanati|Khālīfā Al-Zānatī]] asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero [[Abu Zayd al-Hilali|Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī]] and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The [[Zirid]], however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous [[Berber people|Amazigh]] tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as [[Fatimid Caliphate]] made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Egypt]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, Tihamah, [[Hejaz]] and [[Yemen]]. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. The [[Berber people|Amazighs]] historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, [[Sanhadja]], [[Houara]], [[Zenata]], [[Masmuda|Masmouda]], [[Kutama]], Awarba, and [[Berghwata]]). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.

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Several [[Berber people|Amazigh]] dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Emirate of Tlemcen|Ifranid]], [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammadid]], [[Almohad]], [[Merinid]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Abdalwadid]], [[Wattasid]], [[Meknassa]] and [[Hafsid]] dynasties. Both of the [[Hammadid]] and [[Zirid]] empires as well as the [[Fatimid]] established their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. The [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]] ruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. The [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]] captured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region. The [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] which was created and established by the Kutama Berbers conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East. '''List of Empires/Dynasties created by the [[Berber people|Berber]] people ''' (-) [[Emirate of Tlemcen|Ifranid Dynasty]] (-) [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa Dynasty]] (-) [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid Dynasty]] (-) [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadid Dynasty]] (-) [[Fatimid Caliphate]] (-) [[Taifa of Alpuente]] (-) [[Taifa of Granada]] (-) [[Kingdom of Ait Abbas|Kingdom of Beni Abbes]] (-) [[Kingdom of Kuku]] (-) [[Kingdom of Tlemcen]] There reigned in [[Ifriqiya]], current Tunisia, a [[Berbers|Berber]] family, [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], somehow recognising the suzerainty of the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph of [[Cairo]]. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The [[Fatimid]] state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge. Between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]] were living [[Bedouin]] tribes expelled from [[Arabia]] for their disruption and turbulent influence, both [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the [[Nile Valley]] since the nomads would often loot. The then [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] vizier devised to relinquish control of the [[Maghreb]] and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the [[Fatimid]] treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance. Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in [[Cyrenaica]], where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in [[Ifriqiya]] by the [[Gabès Governorate|Gabe]] region. The [[Zirid]] ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of [[Kairouan]], his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the field.

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The flood was still rising, and in 1057, the Arabs spread on the high plains of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] where they gradually choked [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qalaa of Banu Hammad]], as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper [[Algiers]] and [[Oran]] plains. Some were forcibly taken by the [[Almohads]] in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century the Arabs were in all of [[North Africa]], with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions which remained entirely Berber. The influx of [[Bedouin]] tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural [[Arabization]] of the Maghreb and in the spread of [[nomad]] in areas where [[agriculture]] had previously been dominant. [[Ibn Khaldun]] noted that the lands ravaged by [[Banu Hilal]] tribes had become completely arid desert. In the early 16th century, [[Spain]] constructed fortified outposts ([[presidio]]) on or near the Algerian coast. [[Spain]] took control of few coastal towns like [[Mers el Kebir]] in 1505; [[Oran]] in 1509; and [[Tlemcen]], [[Mostaganem]] and [[Ténès]] in 1510. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet.

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The region of Algeria was partially ruled by [[Ottomans]] for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the [[Spain|Spaniards]] but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the ''Bani Ziyad'' dynasty, to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Tlemcen]], Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultan gave him the title of [[beylerbey]] and a contingent of some 2,000 [[janissaries]]. With the aid of this force, [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Hayreddin]] conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792). The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son [[Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa)|Hasan]], who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an [[Agha (Ottoman Empire)|agha]]. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659. [[Plague (disease)|Plague]] had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42. In 1671, the [[taifa]] rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of [[Dey]]. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the [[divan]], a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ''[[ojaq]]''; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the [[pasha]] in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire. The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the [[Kabylie]]. The Kabyles were the only people in North Africa who were never conquered by the Ottomans.

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The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]]. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. They often made raids, called [[Ghazi (warrior)|Razzias]], on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slave markets]] in North Africa and other parts of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In 1544, for example, [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] captured the island of [[Ischia]], taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of [[Lipari]], almost the entire population. In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, [[Turgut Reis]], enslaved the entire population of the [[Malta|Maltese]] island of [[Gozo]]. Barbary pirates often attacked the [[Balearic Islands]]. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of [[Formentera]]. The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic. In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] pirate [[Jan Janszoon]] sailed as far as [[Iceland]], [[Turkish Abductions|raiding and capturing slaves]]. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from [[Sale, Morocco|Salé]] in [[Saadi dynasty|Morocco]] had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the [[Faroe Islands]]. Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the [[Spanish Navy]] bombarded Algiers in [[Bombardment of Algiers (1783)|1783]] and [[Bombardment of Algiers (1784)|1784]]. For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]]. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, much of the city and its fortifications were destroyed and most of the Algerian fleet was sunk. In 1792 the Regency of Algiers conquered the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795. In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "licence tax" in exchange for safe harbour of their vessels. Attacks by Algerian pirates on [[United States|American]] merchantmen resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]], which ended the attacks on U.S. ships. A year later, a combined [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Anglo]]-[[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet, under the command of [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombarded Algiers]] to stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful, although Algerian piracy would continue until the French conquest in 1830. Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in [[Morocco]]. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century.

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Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|captured Algiers]] in 1830. Historian [[Ben Kiernan]] wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830." French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action. The population of Algeria, which stood at about 2.9 million in 1872, reached nearly 11 million in 1960. French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country. The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest. The [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]] by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872. On September 17, 1860, [[Napoleon III]] declared "Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination." During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonized until after the [[Mokrani Revolt|Mokrani revolt]] in 1871. From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and ''département'' of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] [[immigrants]], who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]].'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]], and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the [[White Africans of European ancestry|European share]] was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], Algeria came under [[Vichy France|Vichy control]] before being liberated by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in [[Operation Torch]], which saw the first large-scale deployment of [[Military history of the United States during World War II|American troops]] in the [[North African campaign]].

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Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]]. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began after the publication of the [[Declaration of 1 November 1954]]. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harki]] and their dependants were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|Front de Libération Nationale]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|severe reprisals]]. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like [[Alistair Horne]] and [[Raymond Aron]], state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians. The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]]. Some estimates put the Algerian death toll during the French colonial rule at over 10 million.

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The number of European ''[[Pied-Noir]]'' who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the [[Oran massacre of 1962]], in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city, and began attacking civilians. Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale ([[FLN (Algeria)|FLN]]) leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Morocco's claim to [[Greater Morocco|portions of western Algeria]] led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963. Ben Bella was [[1965 Algerian coup d'état|overthrown in 1965]] by [[Houari Boumédiène]], his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]]; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He [[collective farming|collectivised]] agriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive. [[Extraction of petroleum|Oil extraction]] facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialisation within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of [[Arabisation]] in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam. The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]]. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.

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In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (Algeria)|High Council of State]] was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil [[insurgency]] between the Front's armed wing, the [[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria|Armed Islamic Group]], and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of [[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|civilian massacres]]. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding [[Air France Flight 8969]], a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997. Algeria held [[Algerian presidential election, 1999|elections in 1999]], considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won by President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a [[Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999|referendum]], under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The [[Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] (GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government. Bouteflika was re-elected in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2004|April 2004 presidential election]] after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the [[Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation]], which was approved in a [[Algerian national reconciliation referendum, 2005|referendum in September 2005]]. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces. In November 2008, the [[Algerian Constitution]] was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential elections]], and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.

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A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]]. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|mass protests]] against his candidacy for a fifth term in office.

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Since the 2011 breakup of [[Sudan]], and the creation of [[South Sudan]], Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] form with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of [[Aures]] and [[Tébessa|Nememcha]] occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is [[Mount Tahat]] (). Algeria lies mostly between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[37th parallel north|37°N]] (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9°W]] and [[12th meridian east|12°E]]. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape ending with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; farther south, there is the Sahara desert. The [[Hoggar Mountains]] (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of [[Tamanghasset]]. Algiers, [[Oran]], [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.

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In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as in some years. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has [[erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to .

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The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]], [[jackal]], and [[gazelle]], although it is not uncommon to spot [[fennecs]] (foxes), and [[jerboas]]. Algeria also has a small [[African leopard]] and [[Saharan cheetah]] population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the [[Barbary stag]], inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. [[Barbary macaque]] are the sole native monkey. Snakes, [[monitor lizard]], and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of [[rodent]] throughout the [[semi arid]] regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the [[Barbary lion]], [[Atlas bear]] and [[West African crocodile|crocodile]]. In the north, some of the native flora includes [[Macchia]] scrub, [[Olive|olive trees]], [[oak]], [[cedrus|cedars]] and other [[Pinophyta|conifers]]. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ([[Aleppo pine]], [[juniper]], and [[evergreen oak]]) and some deciduous trees. [[Ficus|Fig]], [[eucalyptus]], [[agave]], and various [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grow in the warmer areas. The [[grape vine]] is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. [[Acacia]] with wild [[olive]] are the predominant flora in the remainder of the [[Sahara]]. Algeria had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries. [[Camel]] are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, [[scorpion]], and numerous insects.

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Elected politicians have relatively little sway over Algeria. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders"), known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), actually rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man might have been [[Mohamed Mediène]], the head of military intelligence, before he was brought down during the [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|2019 protests]]. In recent years, many of these generals have died, retired, or been imprisoned. After the death of General [[Larbi Belkheir]], Previous president [[Bouteflika]] put loyalists in key posts, notably at [[Sonatrach]], and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely, until he was brought down in 2019 during [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|protests]]. The head of state is the [[President of Algeria]], who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. The [[2019 Algerian presidential election|most recent presidential election]] was planned to be in April 2019, but [[2019 Algerian protests|widespread protests]] erupted on 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April. [[Abdelmadjid Tebboune]], an independent candidate, was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019. Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune as president, citing demands for comprehensive reform of the political system. Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the [[Algerian Army|army]], the [[Council of Ministers of Algeria|Council of Ministers]] and the [[High Security Council]]. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Algerian parliament is [[bicameral]]; the lower house, the [[People's National Assembly]], has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the [[Council of the Nation]], has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the [[Constitution of Algeria|constitution]], no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects. Parliamentary elections were last held in [[2017 Algerian legislative election|May 2017]]. In the elections, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] lost 44 of its seats, but remained the largest party with 164 seats, the military-backed [[National Rally for Democracy (Algeria)|National Rally for Democracy]] won 100, and the Muslim Brotherhood-linked [[Movement of Society for Peace|Movement of the Society for Peace]] won 33.

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Algeria is included in the European Union's [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Herve Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations," when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have been an obstacle to tightening the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.

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The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the [[Territorial Air Defence Forces]]. It is the direct successor of the [[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2012. Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10 billion). Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from [[Russia]], with whom they are a close ally. In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]] and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two [[Kilo class submarine|636-type]] diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.

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Algeria has been categorised by [[Freedom House]] as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labelled "partly free." In December 2016, the ''Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor'' issued a report regarding violation of [[media freedom]] in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on [[freedom of the press]]; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the [[Broadcast media|media]] and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government, some media organisations' licenses are cancelled. Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government. [[LGBT rights in Algeria|Homosexuality]] is illegal in Algeria. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison. [[Human Rights Watch]] has accused the Algerian authorities of using the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] as an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part of [[social distancing]].

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Algeria is divided into 58 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]'') and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital city|seat]], which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are

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Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the [[World Bank Group|World Bank]]. Algeria's currency is the [[Algerian dinar|dinar]] (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain. Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions. A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23 billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286 billion, 40% of which will go to human development. Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173 billion in [[foreign currency reserves]] and a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. In addition, Algeria's [[List of countries by external debt|external debt]] is extremely low at about 2% of GDP. The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178 billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues. Algeria has not joined the [[WTO]], despite several years of negotiations.

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Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|10th-largest reserves of natural gas]] in the world and is the [[List of countries by natural gas exports|sixth-largest gas exporter]]. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had of proven [[natural gas reserves|natural-gas reserves]]. It also ranks [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th in oil reserves]]. Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position. Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43.2 million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion. The Algerian national oil company is [[Sonatrach]], which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements. Access to [[biocapacity]] in Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.

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Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.

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Despite a decline in total [[unemployment]], youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21.5% among the 15–24 age group. The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21.5% for those aged between 15 and 24. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).

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The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria including [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town; and [[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanized [[oasis]]; and the [[Casbah]] of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Site]] is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range.

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The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the [[Algeria East–West Highway|East-West Highway]], a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, highway, linking [[Annaba]] in the extreme east to the [[Tlemcen]] in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the [[Trans-Sahara Highway]], which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], and [[Tunisia]].

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Algeria has a population of an estimated 44 million, of which the vast majority are [[Arab-Berber]] ethnically. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]] or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15. Between 90,000 and 165,000 [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] from Western Sahara live in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps]], in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 [[Palestinian refugee]], who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In 2009, 35,000 [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] migrant workers lived in Algeria. The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation.

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Indigenous [[Berbers]] as well as [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], various [[Sub-Saharan Africans]], and [[French people|French]] have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] was spoken by these [[Aragon]] and [[Castilian people|Castillian]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants deep into the 18th century, and even [[Catalan language|Catalan]] was spoken at the same time by [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued. Despite the dominance of the Berber ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the [[Kabylie]] region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the [[Chenouas|Shenwa people]] of North Algeria. During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960) [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population who became known as ''[[Pied-Noir]]''. They were primarily of French, [[Spanish people|Spanish]] and [[Italian people|Italian]] origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.

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[[Modern Standard Arabic]] and [[Berber language|Berber]] are the official languages. [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. [[Berber language|Berber]] has been recognised as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of [[Kabylie]]. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Although [[French language|French]] has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers, and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria's colonial history]]. It can be regarded as a [[lingua franca]] of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French, in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French, and some television programs are broadcast in the language. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial [[Algerian Arabic]] is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27–30%.

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[[Islam]] is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIA ''[[World Factbook]]'' estimate, and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2020. There are about 290,000 [[Ibadi]] in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]]. Estimates of the [[Christianity in Algeria|Christian population]] range from 20,000 to 200,000 Algerian citizens who are Christians predominantly belong to [[Protestant]] groups, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures. Algeria has given the [[Muslim]] world a number of prominent thinkers, including [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis]], [[Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem]], [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Mohamed Arkoun]].

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In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians (1.13 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was limited to 92% of the population in urban areas and 80% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, but only 82% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress toward its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause [[tuberculosis]], [[hepatitis]], [[measles]], [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]]. The poor generally receive health care free of charge. Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.

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Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78.7%. Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five. Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was [[Algiers Province]] at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was [[Djelfa Province]] at 35.5%. Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The [[University of Algiers]], founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). TWenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in [[Arabic]] like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the [[University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene]], the [[University of Mentouri]] Constantine, and [[University of Oran]] Es-Senia. The [[University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd]] in Tlemcen and [[University of Batna]] Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.

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Below is a list of the most important Algerian cities:

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Modern Algerian literature, split between [[Classical Arabic|Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Tamazight]] and [[French Language|French]], has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine]] and [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of [[Amnesty International]], and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views. [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. The works of the [[Senussi|Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of [[Emir Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis|Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. Contemporary [[Algerian cinema]] is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.

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Algerian painters, like [[:fr:Mohamed Racim|Mohamed Racim]] or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of [[M'hamed Issiakhem]], [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[Bachir Yelles]], appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.

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The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the [[Numidia]] and [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman Africa]] era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionised the Arab world literature, with authors like [[Ahmad al-Buni]], [[Ibn Manzur]] and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], who wrote the [[Muqaddimah]] while staying in Algeria, and many others. [[Albert Camus]] was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957 he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]]. Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the ''Algerian trilogy'' of [[Mohammed Dib]], or even ''Nedjma'' of [[Kateb Yacine]] novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include [[Mouloud Feraoun]], [[Malek Bennabi]], [[Malek Haddad]], [[Moufdi Zakaria]], Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, [[Mouloud Mammeri]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Assia Djebar]]. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are [[Rachid Boudjedra]], [[Rachid Mimouni]], [[Leila Sebbar]], [[Tahar Djaout]] and [[Tahir Wattar]]. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, ''the swallows of Kabul'' and ''the attack'' of [[Yasmina Khadra]], ''the oath of barbarians'' of [[Boualem Sansal]], ''memory of the flesh'' of [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''.

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[[Chaabi (Algeria)|Chaâbi music]] is a typically Algerian musical genre characterized by specific rhythms and of Qacidate (popular poems) in Arabic dialect. The undisputed master of this music is [[El Hadj M'Hamed El Anka]]. The Constantinois [[Andalusian classical music|Malouf]] style is saved by musician from whom [[Mohamed Tahar Fergani]] is a performer. Folk music styles include [[Bedouin music]], characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida (poems); Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the [[Aurès Mountains]]. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. [[Souad Massi]] is a rising Algerian folk singer. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include [[Manel Filali]] in [[Germany]] and [[Kenza Farah]] in France. Tergui music is sung in [[Tuareg languages]] generally, [[Tinariwen]] had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in [[Sétif]] and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, [[Raï]] music is a style typical of western Algeria. [[Hip hop music|Rap]], a relatively recent style in Algeria, is experiencing significant growth.

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Algeria