Datasets:

memray

/

wiki-phrase-2021

like 0

In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points. Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in [[Stagira (ancient city)|Stagira]], [[Chalcidice]], about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]]. His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. While he was young, Aristotle learned about biology and medical information, which was taught by his father. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Kingship and the royal court|Macedonian monarchy]]. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]]. He probably experienced the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew [[Speusippus]], although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married [[Pythias]], either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]]. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards [[Persia]] was unabashedly [[Ethnocentricism|ethnocentric]]. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. If the ''[[Suda]]'' an uncritical compilation from the Middle Ages is accurate, he may also have had an ''[[eromenos|erômenos]]'', [[Palaephatus |Palaephatus of Abydus]].

308

Aristotle

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[On the Soul]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre." Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an [[Hagnothemis|unlikely claim]] made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and [[Eurymedon the Hierophant]] reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis|Chalcis, on Euboea]], at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student [[Antipater]] as his chief [[executor]] and leaving a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.

308

Aristotle

With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in [[mathematical logic]]. [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] stated in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.

308

Aristotle

What is today called ''Aristotelian logic'' with its [[Syllogism#Types|types of syllogism]] (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the ''[[Organon]]'' around 40 BC by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] or others among his followers. The books are: (1) ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' (2) ''[[On Interpretation]]'' (3) ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' (4) ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' (5) ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]'' (6) ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'') and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The ''Rhetoric'' is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the ''Topics''.

308

Aristotle

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name ''Metaphysics''. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (''theoretikē'') philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his ''Metaphysics'' (1026a16):

308

Aristotle

Aristotle examines the concepts of [[Substance theory|substance]] (''ousia'') and [[essence]] (''to ti ên einai'', "the what it was to be") in his ''Metaphysics'' (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called [[hylomorphism]]. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the [[Material substratum|substratum]], or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house, while the form of the substance is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.

308

Aristotle

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Problem of universals|universal]]. Aristotle's [[ontology]] places the universal (''katholou'') in [[particular]] (''kath' hekaston''), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what [[phenomena]] are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. Plato argued that all things have a [[Theory of forms|universal form]], which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the world of forms, a place where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.

308

Aristotle

With regard to the change (''[[Potentiality and actuality|kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' and ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'' 319b–320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: (1) growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; (2) locomotion, which is change in space; and (3) alteration, which is change in quality. The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[Dunamis|dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''poiein'') or 'be acted upon' (''paschein''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a [[final cause]] or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to [[Plato]] there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's immanent realism means his [[epistemology]] is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] from examples alongside [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]], whereas Plato relies on deduction from ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' principles.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics.

308

Aristotle

In his ''[[On Generation and Corruption]]'', Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by [[Empedocles]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Water (classical element)|Water]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], the divine substance of the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]], stars and planets.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the ''Physics'' (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in ''On the Heavens'' (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest, since Aristotle does not address [[friction]]. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster. This would imply the equation formula_1, incorrect in modern physics. Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens, while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places. In the ''Physics'' (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density, ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling: formula_2 Aristotle implies that in a [[vacuum]] the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this. [[Archimedes]] corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they [[Archimedes' principle|displace enough water]]; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not as Aristotle thought its elementary composition. Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the [[Early Modern]] period. [[John Philoponus]] (in the [[Middle Ages]]) and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by [[Carlo Rovelli]], who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium. Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval [[theory of impetus]].

308

Aristotle

Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term ''aitia'' is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here. (-) [[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino. (-) The [[formal cause]] is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing. (-) The [[efficient cause]] is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of [[developmental biology|how it develops from the egg]], and [[physiology|how its body functions]]. (-) The [[final cause]] (''telos'') is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies [[adaptation]] to a particular way of life.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle describes experiments in [[optics]] using a [[camera obscura]] in ''[[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]]'', book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small [[aperture]] that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image.

308

Aristotle

According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental things]], "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices.

308

Aristotle

In [[astronomy]], Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."

308

Aristotle

Aristotle was one of the first people to record any [[geology|geological]] observations. He stated that [[Uniformitarianism|geological change]] was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. The geologist [[Charles Lyell]] noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the [[Nile delta]] since the time of [[Homer]], and "the upheaving of one of the [[Aeolian islands]], previous to a [[volcanic eruption]]."' Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle and meteorology (including his major writings "Meteorologica"). For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff (“I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again”

308

Aristotle

Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of [[Lesbos]] and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', ''[[Movement of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'' are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on [[botany]] have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the [[catfish]], [[electric ray]], and [[frogfish]] in detail, as well as [[cephalopod]] such as the [[octopus]] and [[paper nautilus]]. His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of [[ruminant]], and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]]. He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function, so, among birds, the [[heron]], which lives in marshes with soft mud and lives by catching fish, has a long neck and long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas [[duck]] that swim have short legs and webbed feet. [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of [[evolution]]. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or [[Hybridisation (biology)|hybridizations]] could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a [[common descent|common ancestor]], or that one kind can [[speciation|change into another]], or that kinds can become [[extinction|extinct]].

308

Aristotle

Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term ''pepeiramenoi'' to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In ''Generation of Animals'', he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as [[genomics]]. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of [[biological rules|rules]] relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. [[Life expectancy|Lifespan]] increases with [[gestation period]], and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, [[fecundity]] decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of [[animal]], arranging these in the ''History of Animals'' in a graded scale of perfection, a ''[[scala naturae]]'', with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave [[viviparity|live birth]] to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above [[plant]], and these in turn were above minerals. see also: He grouped what the modern zoologist would call [[vertebrate]] as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder [[invertebrate]] as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing ([[mammal]]), and the egg-laying ([[bird]], [[reptile]], [[fish]]). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and [[crustacea|shelled]]) and the hard-shelled [[mollusc]] ([[bivalve]] and [[gastropod]]). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a [[placenta]] like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle, is [[convergent evolution]]. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this [[teleological]] view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's [[psychology]], given in his treatise ''[[On the Soul]]'' (''peri psychēs''), posits three kinds of [[soul]] ("psyches"): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have a rational soul. The human soul incorporates the powers of the other kinds: Like the vegetative soul it can grow and nourish itself; like the sensitive soul it can experience sensations and move locally. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the ''[[Nous#Aristotle|nous]]'' (intellect) and ''logos'' (reason). For Aristotle, the soul is the [[Hylomorphism#Body–soul hylomorphism|form]] of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and chemical transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].

308

Aristotle

According to Aristotle in ''On the Soul'', memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture ([[wikt:phantasm|phantasm]]) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when [[stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian , and thinking. Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience. Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and [[Contiguity (psychology)|contiguity]], described in his [[laws of association]]. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle describes sleep in ''On Sleep and Wakefulness''. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary. Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In ''De Anima'' iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, ''phantasia''.

308

Aristotle

One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as [[ethics]], [[politics]], [[economics]], and [[rhetoric]].

308

Aristotle

Aristotelian [[just war theory]] is not well regarded in the present day, especially his view that warfare was justified to enslave "natural slaves". In Aristotelian philosophy, the abolition of what he considers "[[natural slavery]]" would undermine civic [[freedom]]. The pursuit of freedom is inseparable from pursuing mastery over "those who deserve to be slaves". According to ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle's Politics'' the targets of this aggressive warfare were non-Greeks, noting Aristotle's view that "our poets say 'it is proper for Greeks to rule non-Greeks' ". Aristotle generally has a favourable opinion of war, extolling it as a chance for [[virtue]] and writing that "the leisure that accompanies peace" tends to make people "arrogant". War to "avoid becoming enslaved to others" is justified as self-defence. He writes that war "compels people to be just and temperate", however, in order to be just "war must be chosen for the sake of peace" (with the exception of wars of aggression discussed above).

308

Aristotle

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]''. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[arete (moral virtue)|aretē]]''), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronesis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher.

308

Aristotle

In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (''[[polis]]'') which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (''koinōnia''). The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with [[social contract]] theory, according to which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences." In ''[[Protrepticus (Aristotle)|Protrepticus]]'', the character 'Aristotle' states: As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather skeptical concerning democracy and, following Plato's vague ideas, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: To illustrate this approach, Aristotle proposed a first-of-its-kind mathematical model of voting, albeit textually described, where the democratic principle of "one voter–one vote" is combined with the oligarchic "merit-weighted voting"; for relevant quotes and their translation into mathematical formulas see.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle made substantial contributions to [[economics|economic thought]], especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', Aristotle addresses the city, [[property]], and [[trade]]. His response to criticisms of [[private property]], in [[Lionel Robbins]]'s view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall [[utility]] of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from [[human nature]]. In ''Politics'', Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of [[money]]. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or [[silver]]. Aristotle's discussions on [[retail]] and [[interest]] was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a [[profit (economics)|profit]]. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use. Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it".

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's ''Rhetoric'' proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ''[[ethos]]'' (an appeal to the speaker's character), ''[[pathos]]'' (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and ''[[logos]]'' (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: [[epideictic]] (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), [[Forensic rhetoric|forensic]] (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and [[Deliberative rhetoric|deliberative]] (speeches calling on an audience to make a decision on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical [[Proof (truth)|proofs]]: ''[[enthymeme]]'' (proof by [[syllogism]]) and ''[[paradeigma]]'' (proof by example). Aristotle writes in his ''Poetics'' that [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]], painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of ''[[mimesis]]'' ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term ''mimesis'' both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the ''mimesis'' is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that ''mimesis'' is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what [[Stephen Halliwell (academic)|Stephen Halliwell]] calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's analysis of procreation describes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive female element. On this ground, proponents of [[feminist metaphysics]] have accused Aristotle of [[misogyny]] and [[sexism]]. However, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his ''Rhetoric'' that the things that lead to happiness need to be in women as well as men.

308

Aristotle

More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher [[Bryan Magee]], "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of [[formal logic]], pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, writing in ''The Classical Tradition'', observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." [[Jonathan Barnes]] wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought".

308

Aristotle

Aristotle's pupil and successor, [[Theophrastus]], wrote the ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|History of Plants]]'', a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as [[carpel]] from ''carpos'', fruit, and [[pericarp]], from ''pericarpion'', seed chamber. Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned.

308

Aristotle

The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the [[Lyceum]] grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over [[Alexander the Great]] is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about [[Persian people|Persian]] customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"

308

Aristotle

After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]] and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not. Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, [[teleology]] (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and [[Galen]] until the Renaissance."

308

Aristotle

Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and [[Stephen of Alexandria]] in the early seventh century. [[John Philoponus]] stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the [[theory of impetus]] to explain his observations. After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and [[Michael of Ephesus]] reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by [[Anna Comnena]].

308

Aristotle

Aristotle was one of the most revered Western thinkers in early [[Islamic theology]]. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists and scholars. [[Averroes]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Alpharabius]], who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced [[Thomas Aquinas]] and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. [[Alkindus]] greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title "teacher" was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]) who were influenced by the tradition of [[Islamic philosophy]].

308

Aristotle

With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early [[medieval]] Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the ''Organon'' made by [[Boethius]]. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by [[Gerard of Cremona]], and from the original Greek, such as those by [[James of Venice]] and [[William of Moerbeke]]. After the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] Thomas Aquinas wrote his ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the [[Renaissance]]. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, [[Peter Abelard]], and [[John Buridan]] worked on Aristotelian logic. The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having A [[The tale of Phyllis and Aristotle|cautionary medieval tale]] held that Aristotle advised his pupil Alexander to avoid the king's seductive mistress, Phyllis, but was himself captivated by her, and allowed her to ride him. Phyllis had secretly told Alexander what to expect, and he witnessed Phyllis proving that a woman's charms could overcome even the greatest philosopher's male intellect. Artists such as [[Hans Baldung]] produced a series of illustrations of the popular theme. The Italian poet Dante says of Aristotle in ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'':

308

Aristotle

In the [[Early Modern]] period, scientists such as [[William Harvey]] in England and [[Galileo Galilei]] in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like [[Galen]], establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the [[circulation of the blood]], establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight.

308

Aristotle

The 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, ''arete'') of others. It was [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. The English mathematician [[George Boole]] fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of [[Boolean algebra|algebraic logic]] in his 1854 book ''[[The Laws of Thought]]''. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check [[Validity (logic)|validity]], and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two.

308

Aristotle

During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticized. The philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. The Dutch historian of science [[Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis]] wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist [[Peter Medawar]] could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film ''[[Alexander (2004 film)|Alexander]]'', while the "firm rules" of Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the ''Poetics'' in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]]. Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. [[Armand Marie Leroi]] has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while [[Tinbergen's four questions|Niko Tinbergen's four questions]], based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse [[animal behaviour]]; they examine [[function (biology)|function]], [[phylogeny]], [[mechanism (biology)|mechanism]], and [[ontogeny]].

308

Aristotle

The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s Royal Prussian Academy edition (''Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica'', Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.

308

Aristotle

Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]", intended for the public, and the "[[esoteric]]", for use within the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]] school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. [[Cicero]]'s description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today.

308

Aristotle

(-) Paintings Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], [[Justus van Gent]], [[Raphael]], [[Paolo Veronese]], [[Jusepe de Ribera]], [[Rembrandt]], and [[Francesco Hayez]] over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's [[fresco]] ''[[The School of Athens]]'', in the [[Apostolic Palace|Vatican's Apostolic Palace]], where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural [[vanishing point]], reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's ''[[Aristotle with a Bust of Homer]]'', too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic [[Jonathan Jones (journalist)|Jonathan Jones]] writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time." (-) Sculptures

308

Aristotle

The [[Aristotle Mountains]] in [[Antarctica]] are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book ''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]'', the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it ''Antarctica''. [[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles]] is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name.

308

Aristotle

'''''An American in Paris''''' is a jazz-influenced orchestral piece by American composer [[George Gershwin]] first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in [[Paris]] and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital in the ''[[Années folles]]''. Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus [[celesta]], saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in [[Carnegie Hall]], with [[Walter Damrosch]] conducting the [[New York Philharmonic]]. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write the [[Concerto in F]] following the success of ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'' (1924). He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer [[Deems Taylor]].

309

An American in Paris

Although the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by [[Maurice Ravel]]'s unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, "Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?" Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend [[E. Robert Schmitz|Robert Schmitz]], a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by [[Éva Gauthier]]. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother [[Ira Gershwin|Ira]] did after meeting Ravel. Ravel's high praise of Gershwin in an introductory letter to [[Nadia Boulanger]] caused Gershwin to seriously consider taking much more time to study abroad in Paris. Yet after he played for her, she told him she could not teach him. Boulanger gave Gershwin basically the same advice she gave all her accomplished master students: "What could I give you that you haven't already got?" This did not set Gershwin back, as his real intent abroad was to complete a new work based on Paris and perhaps a second rhapsody for piano and orchestra to follow his ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''. Paris at this time hosted many expatriate writers, among them [[Ezra Pound]], [[W. B. Yeats]], [[Ernest Hemingway]]; and artist [[Pablo Picasso]].

309

An American in Paris

Gershwin based ''An American in Paris'' on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works. Gershwin explained in ''[[Musical America]]'', "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere." The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose [[Ternary form|ABA format]]. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Les Six]]. This A section featured duple meter, singsong rhythms, and diatonic melodies with the sounds of oboe, English horn, and taxi horns. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American [[Blues]] and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster [[twelve-bar blues]]. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. "Moderato con grazia" is the last A section that returns to the themes set in A. After recapitulating the "walking" themes, Gershwin overlays the slow blues theme from section B in the final "Grandioso".

309

An American in Paris

Gershwin did not particularly like Walter Damrosch's interpretation at the world premiere of ''An American in Paris''. He stated that Damrosch's sluggish, dragging tempo caused him to walk out of the hall during a matinee performance of this work. The audience, according to Edward Cushing, responded with "a demonstration of enthusiasm impressively genuine in contrast to the conventional applause which new music, good and bad, ordinarily arouses." Critics believed that ''An American in Paris'' was better crafted than his [[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]. Some did not think it belonged in a program with classical composers [[César Franck]], [[Richard Wagner]], or [[Guillaume Lekeu]] on its premiere. Gershwin responded to the critics:

309

An American in Paris

''An American in Paris'' was originally scored for 3 [[flute]] (3rd doubling on [[piccolo]]), 2 [[oboe]], [[English horn]], 2 [[clarinet]] in [[soprano clarinet|B-flat]], [[bass clarinet]] in B-flat, 2 [[bassoon]], [[contrabassoon]], 4 [[French horn|horns]] in F, 3 [[trumpet]] in B-flat, 3 [[trombone]], [[tuba]], [[timpani]], [[snare drum]], [[bass drum]], [[Triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]], [[Woodblock (instrument)|wood block]], [[Ratchet (instrument)|ratchet]], [[cymbal]], low and high [[Tom-tom drum|tom-toms]], [[xylophone]], [[glockenspiel]], [[celesta]], 4 [[vehicle horn|taxi horns]] labeled as A, B, C and D with circles around them, [[alto saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]], [[baritone saxophone]], (all saxophones doubling soprano saxophones) and [[String section|strings]]. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the notes A, B, C and D, it has recently come to light that Gershwin's intention was to have used the notes A, B, D, and A. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C and D with circles, he was referring to the four horns and not the notes that they played. A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments, alto, tenor and baritone. The soprano saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments and the contrabassoon was also deleted. This became the standard performing edition until 2000, when Gershwin specialist [[Jack Gibbons]] made his own restoration of the original orchestration of ''An American in Paris'', working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in Campbell-Watson's revision; Gibbons' restored orchestration of ''An American in Paris'' was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000 by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian. [[William Merrigan Daly|William Daly]] arranged the score for piano solo; this was published by New World Music in 1929.

309

An American in Paris

On September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological [[Historical editions (music)|critical edition]] of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[University of Michigan]], were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process. The score to ''An American in Paris'' was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project was expected take 30 to 40 years to complete, but ''An American in Paris'' was planned to be an early volume in the series. Two [[urtext edition]] of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance. On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration, except that it upheld the deletion of the contrabassoon part, an alteration usually attributed to F. Campbell-Watson.

309

An American in Paris

''An American in Paris'' has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the [[Victor Talking Machine Company]] in 1929 with [[Nathaniel Shilkret]] conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the [[Philadelphia Orchestra]]. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief [[celesta]] solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D and a lower A. The radio broadcast of the September 8, 1937 Hollywood Bowl George Gershwin Memorial Concert, in which ''An American in Paris,'' also conducted by Shilkret, was second on the program, was recorded and was released in 1998 in a two-CD set. [[Arthur Fiedler]] and the [[Boston Pops Orchestra]] recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, [[Arturo Toscanini]] conducting the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]] recorded the piece for [[RCA Victor]], one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The [[Seattle Symphony]] also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before he made numerous edits resulting in the score as we hear it today. [[Harry James]] released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album ''One Night Stand,'' recorded live at the [[Aragon Ballroom (Chicago)|Aragon Ballroom in Chicago]] ([[Columbia Records|Columbia]] GL 522 and CL 522).

309

An American in Paris

In 1951, [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] released the musical film ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'', featuring [[Gene Kelly]] and [[Leslie Caron]]. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film was directed by [[Vincente Minnelli]], featured many tunes of Gershwin, and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the ''An American in Paris'' symphonic poem (arranged for the film by [[Johnny Green]]), costing $500,000.

309

An American in Paris

The '''Academy Award for Best Production Design''' recognizes achievement for [[art direction]] in [[art director#In film|film]]. The category's original name was '''Best Art Direction''', but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the [[85th Academy Awards]]. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since [[19th Academy Awards|1947]], the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film. The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the [[72nd Academy Awards|2000 Academy Award]] for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.

316

Academy Award for Best Production Design

The '''Academy Awards''', popularly known as '''the Oscars''', are awards for artistic and technical merit in the [[film industry]]. They are regarded as one of the most significant and prestigious awards in the entertainment industry. Given annually by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] (AMPAS), the awards are an international recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements, as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette as a trophy, officially called the "Academy Award of Merit", although more commonly referred to by its nickname, the "Oscar". The statuette depicts a knight rendered in the [[Art Deco]] style. The award was originally sculpted by [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] from a design sketch by [[Cedric Gibbons]]. AMPAS first [[1st Academy Awards|presented it in 1929]] at a private dinner hosted by [[Douglas Fairbanks]] in the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] in what would become known as the [[1st Academy Awards]]. The Academy Awards ceremony was first broadcast by radio in 1930 and was televised for the first time in 1953. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and is now televised live worldwide. It is also the oldest of the [[EGOT|four major annual American entertainment awards]]; its equivalents – the [[Emmy Award]] for television, the [[Tony Award]] for theater, and the [[Grammy Award]] for music – are modeled after the Academy Awards. They are widely cited as the most famous and prestigious competitive awards in the field of entertainment. The [[93rd Academy Awards]] ceremony, honoring the [[2020 in film|best films of 2020]] and [[2021 in film|of early 2021]], was held on April 25, 2021, (after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the [[impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema]]). As with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. The ceremony was broadcast on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]. It took place at the [[Dolby Theatre]] in Los Angeles, California, for the 19th consecutive year. Additionally, satellite location took place at the [[Union Station (Los Angeles)|Union Station]] also in Los Angeles. A total of 3,140 Oscar statuettes have been awarded since its inception in 1929.

324

Academy Awards

The [[1st Academy Awards|first Academy Awards]] presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]] with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. The cost of guest tickets for that night's ceremony was $5 ($ at 2020 prices). Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the film-making industry of the time, for their works during the 1927–28 period. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes. Winners were announced to media three months earlier. That was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00 pm on the night of the awards. This method was used until 1940, when the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' announced the winners before the ceremony began; as a result, the Academy has, since 1941, used a sealed envelope to reveal the names of the winners.

324

Academy Awards

The first Best Actor awarded was [[Emil Jannings]], for his performances in ''[[The Last Command (1928 film)|The Last Command]]'' and ''[[The Way of All Flesh (1927 film)|The Way of All Flesh]]''. He had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier; this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. At that time, winners were recognized for the entirety of their work done in a certain category during the qualifying period; for example, Jannings received the award for two movies in which he starred during that period, and [[Janet Gaynor]] later won a single Oscar for performances in three films. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, and professionals were honored for a specific performance in a single film. For the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held in 1957, the Best Foreign Language Film category, now known as [[Academy Award for Best International Feature Film|Best International Feature Film]], was introduced. Until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. Perhaps the most widely seen [[streaking|streaker]] in history was 34-year-old Robert Opel, who streaked across the stage of The Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles flashing a peace sign on national US television at the 46th Academy Awards in 1974. Bemused host David Niven quipped, "Isn't it fascinating to think that probably the only laugh that man will ever get in his life is by stripping off and showing his shortcomings?" Later, evidence arose suggesting that Opel's appearance was facilitated as a publicity stunt by the show's producer Jack Haley Jr. Robert Metzler, the show's business manager, believed that the incident had been planned in some way; during the dress rehearsal Niven had asked Metzler's wife to borrow a pen so he could write down the famous line, which was thus not the [[Ad libitum|ad-lib]] it appeared to be. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]]. From 1973 to 2020, all Academy Awards ceremonies have ended with the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. For 2021, this tradition was broken as the ceremony ended with the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]. Traditionally, the previous year's winner for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, while the previous year's winner for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress present the awards for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor. ''[[Parasite (2019 film)|Parasite]]'' became the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture at the [[92nd Academy Awards|February 9, 2020, award ceremony]].

324

Academy Awards

[[Tom Hanks]] announced at the [[92nd Academy Awards|2020 Oscar Ceremony]], the opening of the [[Academy Museum of Motion Pictures]] on December 14, 2020. The museum development started in 2017 under [[Kerry Brougher]], but is now led by Bill Kramer. The industry curated exhibits will be geared toward the history of motion picture, the art & science of film making, exhibiting trailblazing directors, actors, film makers, sound editors and more, and will house famous [[Cultural artifact|artifacts]] from acclaimed movies like [[Ruby slippers|Dorothy's Ruby Red Slippers]]. Because of [[COVID-19]], Academy president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson announced that for the [[93rd Academy Awards|2021 Oscar Ceremony]], [[Streaming service provider|streaming movies]] not shown in theaters would be eligible, though at some point the requirement that movies be shown in theaters would return.

324

Academy Awards

The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. Made of gold-plated [[bronze]] on a black metal base, it is 13.5 in (34.3 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lb (3.856 kg), and depicts a knight rendered in [[Art Deco]] style holding a [[crusades|crusader's]] sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians. Sculptor [[George Stanley (sculptor)|George Stanley]] (who also did the Muse Fountain at the [[Hollywood Bowl]]) sculpted [[Cedric Gibbons]]' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of [[Britannia metal]], a pewter-like alloy which is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. Due to a metal shortage during World War II, Oscars were made of painted plaster for three years. Following the war, the Academy invited recipients to redeem the plaster figures for gold-plated metal ones. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the [[C.W. Shumway & Sons]] Foundry in [[Batavia, Illinois|Batavia]], Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] and [[Emmy Award]]'s statuettes. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer [[R.S. Owens & Company]]. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to [[Walden, New York|Walden]], New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from [[3D-printed]] ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], New York–based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy and service existing Oscars that need replating.

324

Academy Awards

The Academy officially adopted the name "Oscar" for the trophies in 1939. However, the origin of the nickname is disputed. One biography of [[Bette Davis]], who was a president of the Academy in 1941, claims she named the award after her first husband, band leader Harmon Oscar Nelson. A frequently mentioned originator is [[Margaret Herrick]], the Academy executive secretary, who, when she first saw the award in 1931, said the statuette reminded her of "Uncle Oscar", a nickname for her cousin Oscar Pierce. Columnist [[Sidney Skolsky]], who was present during Herrick's naming in 1931, wrote that "Employees have affectionately dubbed their famous statuette 'Oscar.'" The Academy credits Skolsky with "the first confirmed newspaper reference" to ''Oscar'' in his column on March 16, 1934, which was written about that year's [[6th Academy Awards]]. The 1934 awards appeared again in another early media mention of ''Oscar'': a [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]] story. In the ceremonies that year, [[Walt Disney]] was the first to thank the Academy for his "Oscar" during his acceptance speech.

324

Academy Awards

To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled.

324

Academy Awards

Prior to 1950 Oscar statuettes were (and remain) the property of the recipient. Since then the statuettes have been legally [[encumbrance|encumbered]] by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for US$1. If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards predating this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In 1989 [[Mike Todd|Michael Todd's]] grandson tried to sell Todd's [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] Oscar for his 1956 production of ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (1956 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' to a movie prop collector. The Academy earned enforcement of its statuette contract by gaining a permanent injunction against the sale. In 1992, [[Harold Russell]] consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'' to auction in order to raise money for his wife's medical expenses. Though his decision caused controversy, the first-ever Oscar to be sold passed to a private collector on August 6, 1992 for $60,500 ($ today). Russell defended his action, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't." . In December 2011, [[Orson Welles]]' 1941 Oscar for ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' ([[Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay]]) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for US$861,542 ($ today). Some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury.

324

Academy Awards

In addition to the Academy Award of Merit (Oscar award), there are nine honorary (non-competitive) awards presented by the Academy from time to time (except for the Academy Honorary Award, the Technical Achievement Award, and the Student Academy Awards, which are presented annually): (-) [[Governors Awards]]: (-) The [[Academy Honorary Award]] (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette); (-) The [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg); (-) The [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); (-) The [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]]: (-) Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); (-) [[Scientific and Engineering Award]] (in the form of a bronze tablet); (-) [[Academy Award for Technical Achievement|Technical Achievement Award]] (annual) (in the form of a certificate); (-) The [[John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation]] (since 1978) (in the form of a medal); (-) The [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]] (since 1982); and (-) The Academy [[Student Academy Awards]] (annual). The Academy also awards [[Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting]].

324

Academy Awards

Since 2004, Academy Award nomination results have been announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. In 2021, the nominees are announced in March.

324

Academy Awards

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, maintains a voting membership of over 7,000 . Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. Actors constitute the largest voting bloc, numbering 1,311 members (22 percent) of the Academy's composition. Votes have been certified by the auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (and its predecessor [[Price Waterhouse]]) since the [[7th Academy Awards]] in 1935. The firm mails the ballots of eligible nominees to members of the Academy in December to reflect the previous eligible year with a due date sometime in January of the next year, then tabulates the votes in a process that takes thousands of hours. All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination or a member may submit a name based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. The 2007 release also stated that it has just under 6,000 voting members. While the membership had been growing, stricter policies have kept its size steady since then. In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%). In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its 6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013.

324

Academy Awards

According to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film must open in the previous calendar year, from midnight at the start of January 1 to midnight at the end of December 31, in [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]], California, and play for seven consecutive days, to qualify (except for the Best International Feature Film, Best Documentary Feature, and awards in short film categories). Additionally, the film must be shown at least three times on each day of its qualifying run, with at least one of the daily showings starting between 6 pm and 10 pm local time. For example, the 2009 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] winner, ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'', was actually first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the [[81st Academy Awards|2008 awards]], as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the [[82nd Academy Awards|2009 awards]]. Foreign films must include English subtitles, and each country can submit only one film for consideration in the International Feature Film category per year. Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40 minutes, except for short-subject awards, and it must exist either on a [[35mm movie film|35 mm]] or [[70 mm film]] print or in 24 frame/s or 48 frame/s [[progressive scan]] [[digital cinema]] format with a minimum projector resolution of 2048 by 1080 pixels. Since the [[90th Academy Awards]], presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of ''[[O.J.: Made in America]]'', an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and [[ESPN]], in that category in [[89th Academy Awards|2017]]. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film. The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection. The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list (regardless of any public exhibition or distribution), or a submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection. The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings. Additionally, a film must have been reviewed by a critic from ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[Time Out New York]]'', the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', or ''[[LA Weekly]]''. Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline; in case it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Then, each form is checked and put in a Reminder List of Eligible Releases.

324

Academy Awards

Awards in short film categories (Best Documentary Short Subject, Best Animated Short Film, and Best Live Action Short Film) have noticeably different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering a one-year period starting on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in ''either'' Los Angeles County ''or'' New York City during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of a number of competitive film festivals designated by the Academy, also without regard to prior public distribution. Finally, a film that is selected as a gold, silver, or bronze medal winner in an appropriate category of the immediately previous Student Academy Awards is also eligible (Documentary category for that award, and Animation, Narrative, Alternative, or International for the other awards). The requirements for the qualifying theatrical run are also different from those for other awards. Only one screening per day is required. For the Documentary award, the screening must start between noon and 10 pm local time; for other awards, no specific start time is required, but the film must appear in regular theater listings with dates and screening times. In late December, ballots, and copies of the Reminder List of Eligible Releases are mailed to around 6,000 active members. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories (i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc.). In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. In all major categories, a variant of the [[single transferable vote]] is used, with each member casting a ballot with up to five nominees (ten for Best Picture) ranked preferentially. In certain categories, including International Feature Film, Documentary and Animated Feature, nominees are selected by special screening committees made up of members from all branches. In most categories, the winner is selected from among the nominees by [[plurality voting]] of all members. Since 2009, the Best Picture winner has been chosen by [[instant runoff voting]]. Since 2013, re-weighted [[range voting]] has been used to select the nominees for the [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]].

324

Academy Awards

Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|marketing to awards voters]] for a movie in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other movie awards conferred in [[Oscar season]]. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members so as to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee ''[[The Hurt Locker]]'' was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner (''The Hurt Locker'' eventually won).

324

Academy Awards

The major awards are presented at a live televised ceremony, commonly in late February or early March following the relevant calendar year, and six weeks after the announcement of the nominees. It is the culmination of the film awards season, which usually begins during November or December of the previous year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent fashion designers of the day. [[Black tie]] dress is the most common outfit for men, although fashion may dictate not wearing a [[bow-tie]], and musical performers sometimes do not adhere to this. (The artists who recorded the nominees for Best Original Song quite often perform those songs live at the awards ceremony, and the fact that they are performing is often used to promote the television broadcast.) The Academy Awards is the world's longest-running awards show televised live from the U.S. to all time zones in North America and worldwide, and gathers billions of viewers elsewhere throughout the world. The Oscars were first televised in [[25th Academy Awards|1953]] by [[NBC]], which continued to broadcast the event until [[32nd Academy Awards|1960]], when [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] took over, televising the festivities (including the first color broadcast of the event in [[38th Academy Awards|1966]]) through [[42nd Academy Awards|1970]]. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has also produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets (especially those outside of the Americas) in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. A decade later, the rights were already being sold to 60 countries, and by [[56th Academy Awards|1984]], the TV rights to the Awards were licensed in 76 countries.

324

Academy Awards

The ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, since [[76th Academy Awards|2004]], to help disrupt and shorten the intense [[For Your Consideration (advertising)|lobbying and ad campaigns]] associated with [[Oscar season]] in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing TV ratings success coinciding with the [[NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament|NCAA Basketball Tournament]], which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. (In [[48th Academy Awards|1976]] and [[49th Academy Awards|1977]], ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite NBC's NCAA title game.) The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February [[sweeps]] period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of March to avoid a clash with the [[Winter Olympic Games]]. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is also to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of [[Passover]] and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. Advertising is somewhat restricted, however, as traditionally no movie studios or competitors of official Academy Award sponsors may advertise during the telecast. The production of the Academy Awards telecast currently holds the distinction of winning the most [[Emmy Awards|Emmys]] in history, with 47 wins and 195 nominations overall since that award's own launch in [[21st Academy Awards|1949]]. After many years of being held on Mondays at 9:00 pm [[Eastern Time Zone|Eastern]]/6:00 p.m [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]], since the [[71st Academy Awards|1999 ceremonies]], it was moved to Sundays at 8:30 pm ET/5:30 pm PT. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing TV viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers (as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail). Furthermore, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with [[National Football League]] playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020. Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the [[40th Academy Awards]] ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the [[Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.|assassination]] of [[Martin Luther King Jr.|Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]]. On March 30, 1981, the [[53rd Academy Awards]] was postponed for one day, after [[Attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan|the shooting]] of President [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in Washington, D.C.

324

Academy Awards

In 1993, an ''In Memoriam'' segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "[[popularity contest]]" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact; the applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. This segment was later followed by a commercial break. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15 minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' [[Oscar speech|acceptance speeches]] must not run past 45 seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show" – overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen [[news ticker|ticker]]. During the 2018 ceremony, host [[Jimmy Kimmel]] acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new [[jet ski]] to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night (a reward won by [[Mark Bridges (costume designer)|Mark Bridges]] when accepting his [[Academy Award for Best Costume Design|Best Costume Design]] award for ''[[Phantom Thread]]''). ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches. Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards has steadily dropped; the [[88th Academy Awards]] were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC through 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast.

324

Academy Awards

Historically, the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture award. More than 57.25 million viewers tuned to the telecast for the [[70th Academy Awards]] in 1998, the year of ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of US$600.8 million in the US, a box office record that would remain unsurpassed for years. The [[76th Academy Awards]] ceremony, in which ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' (pre-telecast box office earnings of US$368 million) received 11 Awards including Best Picture, drew 43.56 million viewers. The most watched ceremony based on [[Nielsen ratings]] to date, however, was the [[42nd Academy Awards]] (Best Picture ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'') which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970. By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings, despite how much critically acclaimed those films have been. The [[78th Academy Awards]] which awarded low-budget independent film ''[[Crash (2004 film)|Crash]]'' (with a pre-Oscar gross of US$53.4 million) generated an audience of 38.64 million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the [[80th Academy Awards]] telecast was watched by 31.76 million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independent film (''[[No Country for Old Men (film)|No Country for Old Men]]''). Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6 million viewers, the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4 million. That is the lowest viewership recorded by Nielsen since it started recording audience totals in 1974.

324

Academy Awards

The [[Academy Film Archive]] holds copies of every Academy Awards ceremony since the 1949 Oscars and material on many prior ceremonies, along with ancillary material related to more recent shows. Copies are held on a variety of film, video, and digital formats.

324

Academy Awards

In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the [[Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel]]. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the [[Ambassador Hotel (Los Angeles)|Ambassador Hotel]] on [[Wilshire Boulevard]] and the [[Millennium Biltmore Hotel|Biltmore Hotel]] in downtown Los Angeles. [[Grauman's Chinese Theatre]] in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the [[Shrine Auditorium]] in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The [[21st Academy Awards]] in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what had been the Academy's headquarters on [[Melrose Avenue]] in Hollywood. From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's [[Pantages Theatre (Hollywood)|Pantages Theatre]]. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the [[Majestic Theatre (Columbus Circle)|NBC International Theatre]] (1953) and then at the [[New Century Theatre|NBC Century Theatre]], after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. The Oscars moved to the [[Santa Monica Civic Auditorium]] in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], California, in 1961. By 1969, the Academy decided to move the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles, this time to the [[Dorothy Chandler Pavilion]] at the [[Los Angeles Music Center|Los Angeles County Music Center]]. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the ceremony returned to the Shrine. In 2002, Hollywood's [[Dolby Theatre]] (previously known as the Kodak Theatre) became the presentation's current venue.

324

Academy Awards

In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories (Drama and Comedy). At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories (Drama and Comedy/Musical). From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were likewise split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but rather be recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony. Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would indeed air all 24 categories live. This followed a number of proposals (among them, the introduction of a Popular Film category) that the Academy had announced but did not implement.

324

Academy Awards

The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed: (-) Best Casting: rejected in 1999 (-) [[Academy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Popular Film|Best Popular Film]]: proposed in 2018 for presentation at the 2019 ceremony; postponed until the 2020 ceremony at the earliest (-) Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012 (-) Best Title Design: rejected in 1999

324

Academy Awards

The Special Academy Awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole. They are not always presented on an annual basis.

324

Academy Awards

(-) [[Academy Honorary Award]]: since 1929 (-) [[Academy Scientific and Technical Award]] (three different awards): since 1931 (-) [[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]: since 1981 (-) [[Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]: since 1957 (-) [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]: since 1938 (-) [[Special Achievement Academy Award|Academy Special Achievement Award]]: from 1972 to 1995, and again for 2017

324

Academy Awards

Due to the positive exposure and prestige of the Academy Awards, many studios spend millions of dollars and hire publicists specifically to promote their films during what is typically called the "[[Oscar season]]". This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing than by quality. [[William Friedkin]], an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself". Tim Dirks, editor of [[American Movie Classics|AMC's]] [[filmsite.org]], has written of the Academy Awards: A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the [[whisper campaign]]. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other movies nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those that were involved in creating the movie. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against ''[[Zero Dark Thirty]]'' suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that ''[[Lincoln (film)|Lincoln]]'' distorts history.

324

Academy Awards

Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of movies to be awarded. The term '[[Oscar bait]]' was coined to describe such movies. This has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring 'Oscar bait' over audience favorites, or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed movies that depict current life issues.

324

Academy Awards

The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which shows us that only 6.4% of academy award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. More white actresses have won Oscars for [[Examples of yellowface|yellowface]] portrayals of Asian characters than actual Asian actresses. The [[88th Academy Awards|88th awards ceremony]] became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media with the [[hashtag]] #OscarsSoWhite, based on critics' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by the year 2020.

324

Academy Awards

Acting prizes in certain years have been criticized for not recognizing superior performances so much as being awarded for personal popularity, to make up for a "snub" for a work that proved in time to be more popular or renowned than the one actually awarded, or presented as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work.

324

Academy Awards

Following the [[91st Academy Awards]] in February 2019 in which the [[Netflix]]-broadcast film ''[[Roma (2018 film)|Roma]]'' had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a movie production and distribution studio could spend much more than typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The [[United States Department of Justice]], having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs.

324

Academy Awards

Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter [[Dudley Nichols]] (Best Writing in 1935 for ''[[The Informer (1935 film)|The Informer]]''). Nichols boycotted the [[8th Academy Awards]] ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career. [[George C. Scott]] became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'') at the [[43rd Academy Awards]] ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying, "I don't want any part of it." The third person to refuse the award was [[Marlon Brando]], who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's ''[[The Godfather]]''), citing the film industry's discrimination and mistreatment of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. At the [[45th Academy Awards]] ceremony, Brando sent actress and [[civil rights activist]] [[Sacheen Littlefeather]] to read a 15-page speech, detailing his criticisms, for which there was [[booing]] and [[cheering]] by the audience.

324

Academy Awards

Nine films have been disqualified before an official award ceremony because they violated the regulations: (-) ''[[The Circus (1928 film)|The Circus]]'' (1928) – The film was voluntarily removed by the Academy from competitive categories, to award [[Charlie Chaplin]] a special award. (-) ''[[Hondo (film)|Hondo]]'' (1953) – Removed from the Best Story ballot after letters from the producer and nominee questioned its inclusion in the category. (-) ''[[High Society (1955 film)|High Society]]'' (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the [[High Society (1956 film)|1956 movie]] of the same title. (-) ''[[The Godfather]]'' (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that [[Nino Rota|the score's composer]] had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture. (-) ''[[A Place in the World (film)|A Place in the World]]'' (1992) – Removed from the Best Foreign Language Film ballot after it was discovered that the country who submitted the film exercised insufficient artistic control. (-) ''[[Tuba Atlantic]]'' (2012) – Removed from the Best Live Action Short Film ballot when it was discovered that the film aired on television before its theatrical release. (-) ''[[Alone Yet Not Alone]]'' (2014) – The film's title song, "Alone Yet Not Alone", was removed from the Best Original Song ballot after [[Bruce Broughton]] was found to have improperly contacted other members of the academy's musical branch; this was the first time that a film was removed from a ballot for ethical reasons. One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar: (-) ''[[Young Americans (1967 film)|Young Americans]]'' (1969) – Initially won the award for Best Documentary Feature, but was later revoked after it was revealed that it had opened theatrically prior to the eligibility period.

324

Academy Awards

The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards: (-) [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA Awards]] (-) [[César Award]] (-) Nominees luncheon (-) [[Governors Awards]] (-) The 25th [[Independent Spirit Awards]] (2010), usually held in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to [[L.A. Live]] (-) The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at [[the Beverly Hills Hotel]], begun in 2002 and generally known as ''the ''party of the season, benefits the [[Motion Picture & Television Fund]], which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the [[San Fernando Valley]] (-) [[Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party]] airs the awards live at the nearby [[Pacific Design Center]] (-) The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue (-) The ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the [[Sunset Tower]] since 2009 (-) [[Ariel Award]] in Mexico

324

Academy Awards

It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have also been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as US$80,000. The value has risen to the point where the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Service]] issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status. Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, [[Videotelephony|videophone]], a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, weight-loss gummie candy and up to $25,000 worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich. Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer [[Adam & Eve (company)|Adam & Eve]] had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included [[Judith Hoag]], [[Carolyn Hennesy]], [[Kate Linder]], [[Chris Mulkey]], [[Jim O'Heir]], and [[John Salley]].

324

Academy Awards

From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing.

324

Academy Awards

The term "Oscar" is a registered trademark of the AMPAS; however, in the Italian language, it is used [[generic trademark|generically]] to refer to any award or award ceremony, regardless of which field.

324

Academy Awards

'''''Actresses''''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: '''''Actrius''''') is a 1997 [[Catalan language]] Spanish drama film produced and directed by [[Ventura Pons]] and based on the award-winning stage play ''E.R.'' by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]]. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996.

330

Actrius

In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress ([[Mercè Pons]]) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc ([[Núria Espert]]), the television star Assumpta Roca ([[Rosa Maria Sardà]]), and dubbing director Maria Caminal ([[Anna Lizaran]]).

330

Actrius

(-) [[Núria Espert]] as Glòria Marc (-) [[Rosa Maria Sardà]] as Assumpta Roca (-) [[Anna Lizaran]] as Maria Caminal (-) [[Mercè Pons]] as Estudiant

330

Actrius

''Actrius'' screened in 2001 at the [[Grauman's Egyptian Theatre]] in an [[American Cinematheque]] retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 [[Stockholm International Film Festival]].

330

Actrius

In ''Movie - Film - Review'', Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to ''[[All About Eve]]''", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with ''[[Rashomon]]''". He also wrote that ''[[The Guardian]]'' called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that ''[[The Evening Standard]]'' stated the film's "best moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". [[MRQE]] wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story."

330

Actrius

(-) 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at [[Butaca Awards]] for [[Ventura Pons]] (-) 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by [[Núria Espert]], [[Rosa Maria Sardà]], [[Anna Lizaran]], and [[Mercè Pons]] (-) 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at [[Goya Awards]], shared by [[Josep Maria Benet i Jornet]] and Ventura Pons

330

Actrius

'''''Animalia''''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]]. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket.

332

Animalia (book)

''Animalia'' is an [[alliteration|alliterative]] [[alphabet]] book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]] and [[armadillo]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify. As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture.

332

Animalia (book)

Julia MacRae Books published an ''Animalia'' [[colouring book]] in 2008. [[Abrams Books|H. N. Abrams]] also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year. H. N. Abrams published ''The Animalia Wall Frieze'', a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter. The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover.

332

Animalia (book)

A [[Animalia (TV series)|television series]] was also created, based on the book, which airs in the United States, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway and [[Venezuela]]. It also airs on [[Minimax (TV channel)|Minimax]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]. And recently in [[Greece]] on the channel [[ET1 (Greece)|ET1]]. The [[Australian Children's Television Foundation]] released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use. In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for [[iPad]] and [[iPhone]]/[[iPod Touch]].

332

Animalia (book)

''Animalia'' won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book. The [[Children's Book Council of Australia]] designated ''Animalia'' a 1987 [[Children's Book of the Year Award: Picture Book|Picture Book of the Year]]: Honour Book. Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named ''Animalia'' the 1988 Picture Book Winner.

332

Animalia (book)