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biblio-vt-24-tabuti | # Ethnoveterinary medicines for cattle (Bos indicus) in Bulamogi county, Uganda: plant species and mode of use
John R. S. Tabuti, Shivcharn S. Dhillion ${ }^{\text {b, c }}$ and Kaare A. Lye
#### Abstract
Livestock rearing is a key economic activity of Uganda and contributes 7.3\% of the Gross Domestic Product ([World Bank, 1993, NEMA, 1998 and MAAIF and MFPED, 2000]). Of all the livestock that are raised in Uganda, cattle are the most important in terms of economic value ([World Bank, 1993]). The size of the cattle herd in Uganda is estimated to be growing ( [NEMA, 1998]), but diseases seriously hamper production from cattle. Epidemic diseases such as rinderpest, and endemic ones like foot and mouth and tick borne diseases normally afflict cattle in Uganda. The clinical service of the public veterinary service is believed to be inefficient and seen to have minimal effect on animal health ([World Bank, 1993]). In many developing countries, farmers and herders rely on ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) to treat their livestock because the western-based veterinary healthcare system is inefficient due to poor staffing or because western veterinary drugs are expensive ([McCorkle et al., 1996]). EVM is a system of maintaining animal health and curing diseases of animals that is based on folk beliefs and traditional knowledge (TK), skills, methods and practices ( [Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989]). Ethnoveterinary medicine knowledge like all other TK systems is transmitted orally from generation to generation (e.g. [McCorkle, 1986, Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989, McCorkle et al., 1996, Dold and Cocks, 2001 and Ngoroi et al., 2001]), and like the other TK systems, it is disappearing because of rapid socio-economic, environmental and technological changes. This means therefore, that local knowledge of ethnoveterinary healing must be documented and conserved through systematic studies before it is lost forever. To date there has been no systematic recording of veterinary cures in Uganda. Systematic studies on EVM in Uganda are justified for three important reasons, they can: (i) generate concise information which can be used to develop livestock healing practices and methods that are locally suited to Uganda, (ii) if developed systematically EVM can be a key veterinary resource, and (iii) can also add useful new drugs to the modern veterinary pharmacopoeia (see [McCorkle, 1986 and Dhillion et al., 2002]). The main objective of this study was to document the plants used to treat cattle in Bulamogi county.
### 1.1. Study area and the people
Bulamogi county is found in Kamuli district of Uganda between $33^{\circ} 20^{\prime}-33^{\circ} 38^{\prime} \mathrm{E}$ and $0^{\circ} 58^{\prime}-1^{\circ} 18^{\prime} \mathrm{N}$ at an altitude of 1052-1098 m ([Uganda Government, 1963]). It covers an area of ca. $870 \mathrm{~km}^{2}$. Within Bulamogi county are five subcounties, viz. Nawalkoke, Gadumire, Namwiwa, Bumanya and Namugongo. Within each subcounty are several parishes, each made up of a number of villages.
Bulamogi has four major land use categories: non-uniform small-scale farmland (67.4\%), wetlands (16.4\%) dominated by Cyperus papyrus, woodlands (3.6\%) dominated by Albizia zygia-Combretum spp.-Hyparrhenia rufa association, and Albizia zygia-Combretum gueinzii-Brachiaria decumbens association, grasslands (2.6\%) dominated by Sorghastrum rigidifolium. All other categories including bushlands take up less than $1 \%$ of the land area, and the remainder of the area is open water ([Langdale-Brown, 1959 and Forest Department, 1997]). The people of Bulamogi are an agricultural community who practise subsistence crop agriculture as their main livelihood ([Anonymous, 2000]). Livestock husbandry is very important in the community, and traditionally wealth has been assessed basing on the number of livestock, especially cattle, owned by an individual. Indeed tax assessment is still based on the number of domestic animals owned, although cash crops are increasingly forming the basis for tax assessment. More than $95 \%$ of the community rear livestock, and the cattle herd is estimated at 75,000 animals ( [Tabuti et al., in preparation]). The cattle herd of Bulamogi comprises of indigenous short horned Zebu (Bos indicus). There are five western veterinary trained doctors, one in each subcounty.
## 2. Methods
Fieldwork for this study was carried out between June 2000 and June 2001. We used semi-structured interviews, questionnaires, and direct observations to collect the data ([Martin, 1995]). Prior to any contact with the local people, the study and its objectives were introduced to the County Officer-this introduction was always repeated when entering a new administrative area (e.g. a subcounty or a village).
Five key informants were interviewed using a semi-structured interview schedule consisting of a checklist of questions. Household respondents were chosen through stratified sampling. In each subcounty, a respondent was randomly chosen from at least one village from each parish in the subcounty. In this way, 126 household respondents were interviewed. We administered a questionnaire consisting of a mixture of open- and close-ended questions in face-to-face interviews. Some of the farmers were reluctant to show us their local methods of treating | [] | 0 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-vt-24-tabuti | cattle. The questions asked focused on determining: (i) which cattle diseases are known in the community and (ii) how these diseases are treated. Interviews were conducted in the local language, the Ki-lamogi. The interviews were supplemented by direct observations. Plant voucher specimens were collected and are deposited at the Makerere University Herbarium.
Data from the field study were reviewed and all incomplete responses were excluded. This left 100 valid respondents. The data were then analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively; responses from open-ended questions were grouped into classes that expressed similar ideas while percentages, based on valid responses only, were calculated from close-ended questions.
# 3. Results and discussion
### 3.1. Plant species used to treat cattle
Thirty-eight plant species distributed in 37 genera and 28 families are used to treat cattle. Two species were unidentified (Table 1). Most of these plant families are dicotyledonous except Anthericaceae, Araceae, Asparagaceae, Bromeliaceae, and Musaceae. The families with the largest number of plant species used to treat cattle are Fabaceae with five species and Euphorbiaceae with three. The families Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Solanaceae are represented by two species each. The rest of the plant families have one species each. The two families Fabaceae and Euphorbiaceae have the highest diversity of species used to treat cattle diseases probably because they contain relatively more species than other plant families in the area. | [] | 1 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-vt-24-tabuti | Table 1. Plant species used to treat cattle, their habit, status, disease treated, plant parts used, and mode of preparation and administration
| NV | Clorophytum comosum Thumb.) Jacq.** | nalwebe | V(002), | barks infusion + salt |
| :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
| $\begin{aligned} & 119 \\ & 40 \end{aligned}$ | Steganotaenia araliacea** | kibundubun du | east coast fever calf <br> (Theileriosis) | Roots, infusion, VO. 500 $\mathrm{ml}, 2 \mathrm{X} /$ Day |
| NV | Aristolochia elegans Mast. <br> Aristolochiaceae | mukumya, masanda | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | leaves, infusion, VO. |
| $\begin{aligned} & 014 \\ & 50 \end{aligned}$ | Asparagus racemosus Willd.** | mukila gwango | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | roots infusion, 15 I. + salt |
| $\begin{aligned} & 016 \\ & 00 \end{aligned}$ | Balanites aegyptiaca <br> (L.) Del.** | mulugunyu | Abdominal pain | roots infusion |
| $\begin{aligned} & 011 \\ & 70 \end{aligned}$ | Ananas comosus <br> (L.) Merr.** | nanansi | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | leaves, infusion, VO. |
| $\begin{aligned} & 085 \\ & 00 \end{aligned}$ | Maytenus senegalensis** | muwaiswa | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | roots infusion, 125 ml 2 X / day for calf |
| $\begin{aligned} & 058 \\ & 30 \end{aligned}$ | Euphorbia tirucalli** | mukone | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | aerian part burn swollen area, sap on the burned zone |
| NV | Sinadenium grantii Hook. F.** | nandele | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | aerian part, sap is smeared at the swollen part |
| $\begin{aligned} & 000 \\ & 10 \end{aligned}$ | Abrus precatorius** | | cataract | seeds, RNS. |
| $\begin{aligned} & 123 \\ & 40 \end{aligned}$ | Tephrosia vogelii ** | muluku | -skin desease <br> -wound | leaves, rubbed on skin leaves, sap applied on wounds specialy when infested with maggots |
| $\begin{aligned} & 124 \\ & 00 \end{aligned}$ | Tetradenia riparia** | kiyongobela | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | leaves, infusion, VO. for calf |
| $\begin{aligned} & 015 \\ & 70 \end{aligned}$ | Azadirachta indica ** | neem | Skin desease | leaves, RNS. |
| $\begin{aligned} & 089 \\ & 20 \end{aligned}$ | Musa paradisiaca var paradisiaca ** | matooke, bigogo | - east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) <br> -measles | beer from fruit, VO., warm infusion from leaves + salt and potash |
| NV | Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae** | jojokelo | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | parts above the ground, infusion, VO. |
| NV | Sarcocephalus latifolius (Smith) Bruce** | mutamatam a | diarrhoea | roots, infusion, 500 ml to calf in once a day |
| $\begin{aligned} & 100 \\ & 00 \end{aligned}$ | Physalis peruviana <br> L.** | ntuntunwe | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | leaves + milk of the mother cow |
| $\begin{aligned} & 116 \\ & 50 \end{aligned}$ | Solanum incanum** | ntonka | cataract | fruit, sap mixed with powder from burnt snail shell, local application - <br> - sap + salt in eyes - - <br> sap mixed with cassava flour, local application |
| NV | Strychnos innocua Del.** | muhondo | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | roots, infusion, 300-500 $\mathrm{ml} ., \mathrm{VO}$. |
| $\begin{aligned} & 033 \\ & 40 \end{aligned}$ | Clerodendrum myricoides** | mukuza nyana | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | leaves, infusion, RNS. |
| 025 | Carissa edulis** | mutwoga | east coast fever | - roots mixed in warm | | [] | 2 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-vt-24-tabuti | | 35 | | | (Theileriosis) | banana beer, VO. to calf -roots of Carissa edulis, Acacia seyal, infusion, VO. |
| :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
| NV | Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae) | pompo | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | whole plant + roots <br> Oncoba spinosa, infusion |
| $\begin{aligned} & 128 \\ & 00 \end{aligned}$ | Vernonia amygdalina ** | lubilili | cough, <br> diarrhoea, <br> measles | leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, Chenopodium opulifolium, Senna occidentalis, infusion, VO. <br> roots see Senna occidentalis and also Harrisonia abyssinica <br> leaves, infusion see also Chenopodium opulifolium |
| $\begin{aligned} & 016 \\ & 00 \end{aligned}$ | Balanites aegyptiaca** | mulugunyu | east coast fever (Theileriosis) <br> measles | roots, infusion from Balanites aegyptiaca, Jatropha curcas, Gardenia ternifolia, VO. 500 ml once a day <br> roots, infusion from Balanites aegyptiaca + leaves of Chenopodium opulifolium and Cannabis sativa + salt, VO., 20l. in 4 days |
| $\begin{aligned} & 023 \\ & 10 \end{aligned}$ | Cannabis sativa** | njaye | east coast fever (Theileriosis) <br> measles | leaves decoction - - leaves infusion + roots Securidaca longipedunculata, VO. 125 ml / day <br> leaves see Chenopodium opu <br> Balanites aeg. <br> Lantana camara |
| $\begin{aligned} & 0293 \\ & 0 \end{aligned}$ | Chenopodium opulifolium ** | namuvu | measles,** <br> cough,** | leaves infusion + salt, VO. $500 \mathrm{ml} /$ day during 7 days - - leaves of Chenopodium opulifolium, Cannabis sativa, Vernonia amygdalina + salt + powder soap of OMO, infusion, VO See also Balanites aeg. Lantana camara <br> leaves of Vernonia amygdalina, Chenopodium opulifolium, Senna | | [] | 3 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-vt-24-tabuti | | | | | diarrhoea | occidentalis, infusion, VO. <br> leaves see Senna occidentalis |
| :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
| $\begin{aligned} & 074 \\ & 90 \end{aligned}$ | Jatropha curcas** | kilowa | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | Roots see Balanites aeg |
| $\begin{aligned} & 026 \\ & 40 \end{aligned}$ | Senna occidentalis ** | kasagalyans asi | diarrhoea <br> cough | leaves see Vernonia amygdal <br> leaves see Vernonia amy |
| $\begin{aligned} & 001 \\ & 70 \end{aligned}$ | Acacia seyal var fistula ** | mufuwanduz i | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | roots see Carissa edulis |
| $\begin{aligned} & 007 \\ & 80 \end{aligned}$ | Albizia coriaria Oliv. (Mimosoideae) ** | musita | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | roots, decoction, infusion 2 X / day --- roots, decoction, + concentrated milk --- infusion of roots of Albizia coriaria, Oncoba spinosa --- infusion of roots of Albizia coriaria, Milicia excelsa, Securidaca longipedunculata, VO. To calf, 500 ml .: day --- infusion of roots of Albizia coriaria,, Clerodendrum myricoides, VO. In 1 day in the morning |
| NV | Oncoba spinosa Forsk. (Flacourtiaceae)** | mubeye | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | Roots, fruits, infusion, RNS. - - dried fruit tied around neck of calf to act as prophylactic - - see Pistia stratiotes and Albizia coriaria |
| NV | Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.Berg (Moraceae)** | mvule | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | Infusion made from young leaves with swelling + salt - - see Albizia coriaria |
| $\begin{aligned} & 112 \\ & 90 \end{aligned}$ | Securidaca longipedunculata** | mukondwa | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | roots from fresh roots or pre-prepared powder + salt, VO. for calf +/- 1 I. - - see Albizia coriaria, Cannabis sativa |
| $\begin{aligned} & 093 \\ & 60 \end{aligned}$ | Oxygonum sinuatum (Meisn.) Dammer (Polygonaceae) | nkenge | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | part above the ground, see Harrisonia abyssinica |
| $\begin{aligned} & 061 \\ & 20 \end{aligned}$ | Gardenia ternifolia** | lukoole | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | Roots see Balanites aegytiaca |
| $\begin{aligned} & 032 \\ & 20 \end{aligned}$ | Citrus limon** | niimu | east coast fever (Theileriosis) | leaves mixed with other Citrus sp, décoctio, VO. as prophylactic | | [] | 4 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-vt-24-tabuti | | NV | Citrus sp. | buniimu | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | leaves mixed with other <br> Citrus sp, décoctio, VO. <br> as prophylactic |
| :-- | :-- | :-- | :-- | :-- |
| 065 <br> 60 | Harinsonia <br> abyssinica** | lushaike | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) <br> diarrhoea | roots, infusion - - <br> decoction + above <br> ground part of Oxygonum <br> sinuatum, VO. 200 ml, 3 <br> X / day, during 5 days <br> roots of Harinsonia <br> abyssinica, Vernonia <br> amygdalina + salt, VO. <br> 20 l. |
| 079 <br> 20 | Lantana camara** | kapanga | measles | leaves of Lantana <br> camara, Chenopodium <br> opulifolium, Cannabis <br> sativa, VO., 125 ml. |
| 033 | Clerodendrum <br> **myricoides | mukuza <br> nyana | east coast fever <br> (Theileriosis) | Leaves infusion - - - see <br> Albiziz coriaria |
| | | | | |
The species Vernonia amygdalina, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cannabis sativa, Chenopodium opulifolium, Senna occidentalis, Tephrosia vogelii, Musa«paradisiaca and Harrisonia abyssinica are used to treat more than one cattle ailment. All plant species used as veterinary medicine except Ananas comosus, Boerhavia diffusa, Musa«paradisiaca L. var. paradisiaca and Pistia stratiotes, are also used to treat human diseases (see [Tabuti et al., 2003]). Use of similar plants to cure both animal and human diseases is common practice in traditional medicine (see [Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989]). Some of the plants inventoried here have other uses in the community; for example, some are used in human medicine, or as food, while others are used as firewood. Generally, efforts aimed at conserving plants can be improved if the species selected for conservation have many different uses, as multiple uses can motivate people to conserve species ([Aguilar and Condit, 2001 and Etkin, 2002]).
The main attributes of the plants used to treat cattle are that the plants grow wild (76.3\%), are indigenous to Africa (68.4\%) and are mainly shrubs (60.5\%; Fig. 1). The most frequently employed plant parts are roots ( $37.5 \%$ ) followed by leaves ( $27.5 \%$ ). Fruits are also used to some extent ( $10.0 \%$ ). The practice of exploiting perennial plant parts, such as roots of relatively slow growing woody species, can result in a decline in both, the size and distributions of populations of the exploited species, and ultimately result in the local extinction of these populations ([Cunningham, 1993, Sheldon et al., 1997 and Dhillion and Amundsen, 2000]). Presently data on rates and patterns of plant harvesting are lacking for Bulamogi, and we cannot estimate the effect of exploitation on plant population.
# 3.2. Common cattle diseases and conditions
The local people identified 33 different diseases and conditions of cattle (Table 2). Respondents failed to mention some other cattle diseases, viz. Lumpy skin disease, Babesiosis (bloody urine), Orf (contagious exathema), scours (diarrhoea in calves), and Cowdriosis (heart water); and these were instead provided by Dr. Paul Mawadri, the Veterinary Doctor of Gadumire Subcounty. Some of the diseases mentioned by farmers in this study indicated symptoms of diseases. The naming of diseases by local people when compared to the western veterinary medicine system, at times did not distinguish between diseases and symptoms of diseases. This is because local disease nomenclature is based on symptoms of diseases, whereas under western veterinary science, diseases are named according to aetiological information ([McCorkle, 1986, Delehanty, 1996 and Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989]). As a consequence, several uniquely named animal-health problems may allude to the same disease | [] | 5 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-vt-24-tabuti | when defined by western veterinary science, or conversely, certain local terms may encompass several different diseases. For example, fever the first clinical sign for most diseases; anaemia a symptom of the diseases red water and anaplasmosis; or diarrhoea which is present in trypanosomiasis, rinderpest, anaplasmosis and heart water ( [Pratt and Gwynne, 1977]) are regarded as distinct diseases by the local community of Bulamogi. For this reason the disease conditions provided by the above-mentioned veterinarian, Dr. Mawadri, may have been included under some other all over embracing local disease names. | [] | 6 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-vt-24-tabuti.pdf |
biblio-hs-35-sawadogo | # Traditional West African pharmacopeia, plants and derived compounds for cancer therapy
Wamtinga Richard Sawadogo ${ }^{\text {a,b }}$, Marc Schumacher ${ }^{\text {a }}$, Marie-Hélène Teiten ${ }^{\text {a }}$, Mario Dicato ${ }^{\text {a }}$, Marc Diederich ${ }^{\text {a,c, }}$<br>${ }^{a}$ Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire de Cancer, Hôpital Kirchberg, 9, rue Edward Steichen, L-2540 Luxembourg, Luxembourg<br>${ }^{b}$ Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), 03 BP 7192 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso<br>${ }^{c}$ College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
## A R T I C E I N F O
Article history:
Received 14 June 2012
Accepted 19 July 2012
Available online 28 July 2012
Keywords:
West Africa
Medicinal plants
Anticancer
Traditional medicine
Natural compounds
## A B STRACT
Traditional pharmacopeia is strongly involved in the continuous search for the well being of African populations. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that $80 \%$ of the population of developing countries relies on traditional medicine for their primary care needs. Medicinal plants are the major resource of this folk medicine where several species are used for the treatment of diseases with an inflammatory and/or infectious component as it is the case of old wounds, skin diseases and malfunctions affecting internal organs such as liver, lung, prostate and kidney. Many of these pathologies described by practitioners of traditional medicine have similarities with certain cancers, but the lack of training of many of these healers does not allow them to establish a link with cancer. However, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological surveys conducted by several researchers allowed to identify plants of interest for cancer treatment. Most scientific investigations on these plants demonstrated an anti-inflammatory or antioxidant effect, and sometimes, antiproliferative and cytotoxic activities against cancer cells were reported as well. The emergence of resistance to cancer chemotherapy has forced researchers to turn to natural products of plant and marine origin. In the West African sub-region, research on natural anti-cancer molecules is still in its infancy stage because of very limited financial resources and the scarcity of adequate technical facilities. However, several plants were investigated for their anticancer properties through north-south or south-south partnerships. In this review, we will review the role of West African traditional pharmacopeia in cancer treatment as well as medicinal plants with anti-cancer properties.
(c) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
## Contents
1. Introduction ..... 1226
2. Traditional medicine and cancer treatment ..... 1226
2.1. Place and role of West African traditional medicine in cancer treatment ..... 1226
2.2. Integration of traditional medicine in health systems ..... 1227
3. West African medicinal plants and their phytochemicals with anticancer properties ..... 1227
3.1. Plants with anticancer properties ..... 1227
3.2. Phytochemicals with anticancer properties ..... 1231
3.2.1. Sesquiterpenes ..... 1232
[^0]
[^0]: Abbreviations: CDC2, cell division control protein 2 homolog; CDC25C, M-phase inducer phosphatase 3; DMBA, dimethylbenzen( $\alpha$ )anthracene; DLD1, human colorectal carcinoma; EBV-EA, Epstein-Bar Virus Early Antigen in Raji cell line; GST, glutathione S transferase; GSH, glutathione; JNK, Jun N-terminal kinases; MDR, multidrug resistance; NAD(P)H, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase; PARP, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; P-gp, P-glycoprotein; P12, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1; PI3 kinase/Akt, phosphoinositol-3-kinase; PKC, protein kinase C; PP2A, protein phosphatase 2; p38 MAP kinases, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases; P450CYP3A2, hepatic expression of cytochrome P450; P450CYP2C11, male-specific P450; TPA, 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate; TPM4-ALK, tropomyosin alpha-4 chain-anaplastic lymphoma kinase; UDP-GT, glucuronosyl S-transferase; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.
2 Corresponding author at: Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire de Cancer, Hôpital Kirchberg, 9, rue Edward Steichen, L-2540 Luxembourg, Luxembourg, Tel.: +352 2468 4040; fax: +352 2468 4060.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Diederich). | [] | 0 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hs-35-sawadogo.pdf |
biblio-hs-35-sawadogo | 3.2.2. Diterpenes ..... 1232
3.2.3. Triterpenes ..... 1235
3.2.4. Steroids ..... 1236
3.2.5. Alkaloids ..... 1236
3.2.6. Polyphenols ..... 1236
4. Concluding remarks ..... 1237
Acknowledgements ..... 1237
References ..... 1237
## 1. Introduction
The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified cancer among non-communicable diseases, which are responsible for $63 \%$ of deaths worldwide [1]. Cancer is characterized by an uncontrolled proliferation of abnormal cells that can affect other organs of the body. This leads to the phenomenon of metastasis, which is the leading cause of death by cancer [2]. The World Bank income groups estimated that the incidence of 12.7 million new cancer cases in 2008 [3] will rise to 21.4 million by 2030, and low or middle-income countries will be the most affected with nearly two thirds of all cancer diagnoses [4]. Already in 2008, WHO had estimated that nearly $70 \%$ of cancer deaths occurred in these countries [5]. Particularly in low-income countries, the cancer-associated chronic infections are the cause of $18 \%$ of the global cancer burden. The principal infectious agents are human papillomavirus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus and Helicobacter pylori, which have been largely stopped through vaccination and awareness among highincome populations, but not in many low-resource countries [5]. West Africa is composed of mostly poor countries where cancer is an emergent disease. In 2008, men in the African Region had more than double of the rate of liver cancer while women in this region had the highest incidence of cancer of the cervix uteri worldwide. According to WHO estimates, $80 \%$ of the rural population of this region has almost exclusively uses traditional medicine for its needs of primary health care [6]. This massive use of traditional medicine, composed mainly of medicinal plants, is related to cultural and economic reasons. This is why WHO encourages countries of this region to promote and integrate traditional medical practices in their health system [7], [8]. The valuation of folk medicine passes necessarily through the initial investigation of phytochemical and pharmacological properties of natural substances and the evaluation of their level of toxicity [9], [10]. Secondarily, the traditional healers and herbalists should be educated on the rational use of natural substances in order to preserve species in danger of disappearing. Africa is one of the continents where the highest rate of deforestation in the world was reported [11]. Besides drought and bush fires, uncontrolled exploitation of plants whose therapeutic effect is known represents a threat to species survival. Among these species, we note particularly plants used in cancer treatment. Many of these plants have been studied but there is very little review to assess the level of study of each plant. According to Ameenah [11], the knowledge of African traditional medicine is still poorly recorded, but the rapid loss of the natural habitats of many plants due to anthropogenic activities justifies the fact that the documentation of medicinal uses of African plants is becoming increasingly urgent [11]. This review aims to improve this situation by providing an update on West African plants with anticancer properties whether crude extracts, fractions or isolated and semi-synthesized molecules were investigated.
## 2. Traditional medicine and cancer treatment
WHO defines traditional medicine as the sum of the knowledge, skills, and practices whether explicable or not, used in the
prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness. It is considered that herbal medicines include herbs, herbal materials, herbal preparations and finished herbal products, which contain as active ingredients parts of plants, or other plant materials, or combinations [12]. The general term "cancer" applies to a large group of diseases that can affect any part of the body. Therefore, cancer is found in several systems (circulatory, lymphatic, digestive, urinary, reproductive) as well as skin [13], [14]. Because of technological advances, the diagnosis of cancer is easier in modern medicine but not in the traditional. It is well known that cancer is poorly defined in terms of folklore and traditional medicine [15], [16]. According to surveys conducted by Abubakar and his colleagues among the Hausa and Fulani tribes, the concepts and etiology of cancer in traditional medicine are complex and are not always compatible with modern medical practices [17]. This can be justified by the fact that most of the healers of folk medicine are not educated to establish an adequate link between symptoms and type of pathology, which does not allow a proper clinical diagnosis; in addition, diagnostic tools are totally absent. In this context, what may be the contribution of traditional medicine to the treatment of cancer?
### 2.1. Place and role of West African traditional medicine in cancer treatment
African traditional medicine provided the bulk of the coverage of health needs of populations during the pre-colonial period in the absence of modern Western medicine. According to global statistics in 2008, the West Africa has about 15 physicians per 100,000 inhabitants while in France the ratio is 322 for the same number of inhabitants [18]. Moreover, a resident of West Africa spends between $\$ 10$ and $\$ 40$ for medical care per year, whereas in France this sum is $\$ 4719$ (more than 100 times) [19]. In this context of extreme poverty and severe shortage of health workers in these developing countries, the contribution of traditional medicine in the fight against diseases, especially cancer, is an important asset for the well being of people. Interest in the traditional medicine can be explained by the fact that it is an integral part of the culture of the people who use it [7], [8], and also by the economic challenge: on one side, the pharmaceutical drugs are not accessible to the poor and the other side, the richness and diversity of the flora of West Africa are an inexhaustible source of remedies against several diseases. Indeed, on 300,000 plant species recorded in the world, more than 200,000 live in the tropical countries of Africa and elsewhere [20]. The rich flora of West Africa is linked to two different environments: the rain forest along the coast and the savannah in the hinterland [21]. It is well known that plants are significant sources of drugs and particularly antitumor molecules [15], [22]. According to WHO, $25 \%$ of pharmaceutical drugs are made from plants that were first used in traditional medicine [23]. In several countries of West Africa, traditional healers claim their ability to treat cancer by herbal preparations, mineral or animal substances [7], [17], [24], [25]. The traditional treatment protocol is often influenced by social and cultural habits of the locality of the healer, but in general, this treatment | [] | 1 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hs-35-sawadogo.pdf |
biblio-hs-35-sawadogo | takes into account the ethical aspects and excludes practices that affect patient's compliance [17], [26]. The material used in West African traditional medicine for cancer treatment is of terrestrial origin (mineral, animal or vegetable). Substances of marine origin are almost nonexistent because of weak possibilities of exploring the seabed. In general, medicinal plants are the mainstay of treatment; mineral and organic substances can sometimes be added as supplements [27]. The recipes offered by traditional healers are often multi-components, prepared with two or three plants. The mode of preparation may be by decoction, concoction, infusion, aqueous or alcoholic maceration, and powders added to food or drinks [17], [28]. Sometimes poultices are used for external applications in the treatment of some cancers (skin, breast, etc.) [7]. The mode of administration is very varied: oral, anal or dermal washing for aqueous or alcohol extracts, and inhalation for volatile substances [27], [29]. Many practitioners of traditional medicine offer herbal recipes that are supposed to treat cancer, but no ethnomedical evidence is established for most of them. This ethnomedical evidence is the result of a randomized clinical study comparing treatment with the traditional recipe to that of modern medicine. Failing to make a comparison, the evolution of health of several patients to healing should be obvious. It requires collaboration between a western trained physician and indigenous healers [30], crucial point that cannot be solved without a clear political will of each country to integrate traditional medicine into their health system. Another palliative strategy is to create an interactive forum between researchers and practitioners of traditional medicine to establish a relationship of mutual trust [7], [31]. These forums help to explain to traditional healers, signs and symptoms of cancer and the modern approach to its treatment. Sometimes the recipes offered by traditional healers do not show obvious anticancer properties in the pharmacological assessment and this can be explained by several reasons. To be valid, the pharmacological investigation must meet the mode and period of harvest of the plant, and the method of preparation and administration of the recipe given by the traditional healer. Some recipes are mixed with mystical practices that are not scientifically exploitable [11], [26], [27]. In addition, the oral administration submits the various substances to the effects of digestive metabolism leading to secondary metabolites that are not available in the in vitro experiment. Another justification, not unimportant, is the ascent of quackery and scams in traditional medicine. Previously, traditional healers did not seek to enrich themselves by practicing traditional medicine; they were a resort for the well being of the population. However, nowadays, many people, claiming healers, are greedy for money and they offer all kinds of recipes that, according to them, can cure any kind of disease. With the emergence of cancer in low-income countries, many false healers make it as an opportunity to get rich on the backs of the sick. These recipes are very expensive but without any relief for the patient. This is why many African countries have taken steps to regulate the practice of traditional medicine in order to integrate it into their health system.
### 2.2. Integration of traditional medicine in health systems
Since 1978, the WHO at its 31st Assembly has recommended countries to make a complete inventory of medicinal plants, evaluation of their efficacy and safety and a standardization of the active products [32]. WHO has reported some critical problems that impede the integration of traditional medicine in the majority of countries [33]:
- Public demands on folk medicine exceeds the expertise and resources of health authorities.
- Inadequate regulation and registration for herbal products and other traditional therapies.
- Lack of training for research in traditional medicine.
To solve these problems, the traditional medicine team of WHO provided technical guidelines, standards, and methodologies and facilitates the exchange of information among member states in order to enhance traditional medicine integration in each country [33]. Moreover, WHO supports national programs of research and training in order to ensure a comprehensive evaluation of the traditional systems of medicine and to allow an active cooperation with the modern health care system. In this way, the integration of traditional medicine with research and training can lead to a complementary treatment, allowing the patient to benefit from both therapies improved treatment at lower cost. This is a path of development and promotion of traditional medicine products, but cannot succeed without political will of each country to integrate traditional medicine into their national health system. In Ghana (from West Africa) for example, the authorities have decided to introduce a postgraduate diploma course in traditional medicine at its premier medical school at "Korle Bu" in order to formally train doctors and other health professionals in traditional medicine [26]. Another example is Nigeria where the integration of traditional medicine since 1960 is discussed with great interest of traditional healers and doctors [34]. Recent studies have shown that both parties are arranged for collaboration and integration of traditional medicine in the health system of this country [8], [35]. In most countries of West Africa, research on medicinal plants has been integrated into the research programs of universities and research center. Some countries like Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali and Nigeria have created the center of traditional medicine where research and/or primary care are made with products from local plants. These national commitments have enabled the development and production of herbal medicines, which are authorized for sale by the ministry of health, but these products are generally intended for the treatment of malaria, hypertension and sickle cell disease [36], [37], [38], [39], [40]. The cancer research is still in early stage in West Africa [41]. This is due to the scarcity of technical facilities suitable for the realization of anti-cancer tests and limited financial resources allocated to research in West African countries. Thus, most research conducted on the anticancer activity of plants are made in collaboration with laboratories in developed countries. It is therefore evident that the integration of traditional medicine in national health systems is not sufficient to solve the problem of cancer. North-south collaboration is essential at this stage for a recovery and maximum exploitation of the potentialities of traditional medicine in the field of cancer care.
## 3. West African medicinal plants and their phytochemicals with anticancer properties
Natural compounds exhibit numerous biological activities and recent research provided insight into the cancer hallmarks efficiently inhibited by molecules extracted from various origins [42], [43], [44], [45], [46], [47]. Investigation of anti-cancer properties of West Africa medicinal plants can be classified into two levels: the first level involves preliminary research that helped to highlight the anticancer activity of crude extracts or fractions of medicinal plants (Table 1). The second level involves advanced research performed to isolate natural anti-cancer molecules (Table 2).
### 3.1. Plants with anticancer properties
Approximately twenty-five plants of West Africa, distributed in 18 families, showed an interesting anti-cancer activity (Table 1). The plant families that are most representative are Mimosaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Annonaceae with two plants each. Analysis of the results of our literature search shows that only $30 \%$ of these plants have been extensively studied, leading to the isolation of | [] | 2 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hs-35-sawadogo.pdf |
biblio-hs-35-sawadogo | Table 1
West African medicinal plants with anticancer properties.
| Plants | Traditional use | Part used | Extract | Phytochemicals | Anticancer properties | References |
| :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
| Acacia macrostachya (Mimosaceae) | Decoction is used to treat inflammation and cancer | Root barks | Methanol | Di and triterpenes, saponins, tannins, anthraquinones, alkaloids | Antiproliferative effect again KB cells ( $95 \%$ at $10 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | [101] |
| Acalypha wilkesiana (Euphorbiaceae) | Concoction to treat inflammation and breast tumor | Whole plant | Ethyl acetate and hexane | Saponins, tannins, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids and phlobatannins. | Apoptosis in U87MG and A549 through induction of DNA SSBs and DSBs | $[102-104]$ |
| Aconthospermum hispidum (Asteraceae) | Poultice and decoction to treat cancer | Flowering shoots | Methanol | Alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins, saponins | Significant cytotoxicity on: MCF-7 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=13.5 \pm 1.0 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), $\mathrm{Cl2}$ $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=13.5 \pm 0.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right.$ ) and COR-L23 cells ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=8.8 \pm 0.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[7,105]$ |
| Annona senegalensis (Annonaceae) | Skin cancer and leukemia | Stem barks Leaves | Hydrodistillation | Flavonoids, anthocyanosides, saponosides, tannins, triterpenes and steroids | Total essential oil induce a high cytotoxicity effect again: A549 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) <br> HT29 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=10 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) <br> MCF-7 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) <br> RPMI ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=20 \mathrm{ng} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) <br> U251 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[106,107]$ |
| Balanites aegyptiaca (Balanitaceae) | Treatment of inflammation, diabetes and parasitic diseases | Kernel and galls | Aqueous maceration, Methanol | Cardiac glycosides, tannins, anthraquinons, saponins, triterpenes and steroidal glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids. | Cytotoxicity effect on a panel of cancer cell lines (A549, U373, PC-3, Bx-PC3, LoVo, MCF7), strong antioxidant activity | $[108-112]$ |
| Calotropis procera (Apocynaceae) | Treatment of ulcers, tumor, snake bites, malaria and piles | Root barks and latex | Methanol | Cardenolides, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, alkaloids | High antiproliferative effect on a panel of cancer cell lines (Hs683, U373, HCT-15, LoVo, A549, HL-60, SF295, MDA-MD-435) | $[80,113-116]$ |
| Cajanus cajan (Fabaceae) | Poultice and concoction to treat cancer | Leaves | Methanol | Steroids, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins | Significant cytotoxicity on: MCF-7 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=16.08 \pm 1.0 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) and COR-L23 cells $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9.8 \pm 0.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[7,117]$ |
| Detarium microcarpum (Papilionaceae) | Decoction is used to treat anemia | Stem barks | Methanol | Phenolics, flavonoids, saponins, triterpenes, steroids and glycosides | Inhibition of growth of MDA-MB 231 cells $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=14.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[118-120]$ |
| Dorstenia psilirus (Moraceae) | Treatment of rheumatism and snakebites | Roots | Methanol | Polyphenol, phenol, flavonoids, saponins, triterpenes and glycosides | Significant cytotoxicity again: MiaPaCa2 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CCRF-CEM $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CEM/ADR5000 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.7 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[121,122]$ |
| Echinops giganteus (Compositae) | Treatment of heart and gastric troubles | Rhizome | Methanol | Polyphenols, flavonoids, triterpenes, phenols, tannins, anthraquinones, alkaloids, anthocyans | High cytotoxicity again: MiaPaCa2 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CCRF-CEM $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=6.6 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CEM/ADR5000 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[121,123,124]$ |
| Holarrhena floribunda (Apocynaceae) | Treatment of snake bites | Stem | Ethanol | Alkaloids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, tannins | Inhibition of growth of: MDA-MB 231 cells $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> A-549 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=3.4 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> KB ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) <br> SK-MEL28 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[118,125]$ |
| Imperata Cylindrical (Gramineae) | Treatment of inflammation diseases | Roots | Methanol | Saponins, steroids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids, tannins and flavonoids | High cytotoxicity again: MiaPaCa2 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=12.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CCRF-CEM $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=8.4 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CEM/ADR5000 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[121,126-128]$ |
| Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiacea) | Treatment of fever and infectious diseases | Whole plant | n-Hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol | Alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, tannins, steroids | High inhibition of cancer cells growth by hexane extract: $15178 \mathrm{y}\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.8 \pm 0.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} /\right.$ $\mathrm{mL})$ <br> PC12 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=5.7 \pm 0.6 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> Hela $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.7 \pm 0.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[129-132]$ | | [] | 3 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hs-35-sawadogo.pdf |
biblio-hs-35-sawadogo | | Khuya senegalensis (Meliaceae) | Treatment of inflammation diseases | Stem barks | Methanol | Alkaloids, flavonoids, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, saponins, steroids, tannins, terpenoids | Strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, High inhibition of growth of: HT-29 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.0 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> HCT15 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> HCA7 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.2 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ after 24 h treatment with strong inhibition of the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 in these cell lines. The extract blocks cell cycle progression and inhibits selectively COX-2 expression levels in HCA7 and HT29 | $[133-137]$ |
| :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
| Lantana ukambensis (Verbenaceae) | Decoction is used to treat cancer | Whole plant | Methanol and Methylene chloride | Saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, steroids, anthraquinons, alkaloids | Antiproliferative effect again KB cells ( $94 \%$ at $10 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[101]$ |
| Ozorou insignis (Anacardiaceae) | Decoction to treat inflammation, Infusion to increase lactation in women after childbirth | Stems and Roots | Methanol | Saponins, tannins, triterpenoids, steroids, flavonoids | Inhibition of growth of MDA-MB 231 cells $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=14.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[101,118]$ |
| Parkia biglobosa (Mimosaceae) | Infusion to treat dental caries | Stem barks | Methanol | Cardiac glycosides, tannins, alkaloids, triterpenes and steroids | Inhibition of growth of MDA-MB 231 cells $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=13.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[118,138,139]$ |
| Piper capense (Piperaceae) | Sleep inducing and anthelmintic | Seeds | Methanol | Alkaloids, phenols, saponins, tannins, sterols, triterpenes | Significant cytotoxicity again: MiaPaCa2 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=8.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CCRF-CEM $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.03 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CEM/ADR5000 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=6.56 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[121,123]$ |
| Trichelia emetica (Meliaceae) | Treatment of abdominal pains, dermatitis, inflammation, Breast pain | Leaves, root and stem barks | Methanol, ethanol, Aqueous decoction | Steroids, triterpenoids, coumarins | Growth inhibition effect toward S180 and MCF-7 cell lines | $[50,140,141]$ |
| Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae) | Treatment of scabies, ulcers and wounds | Seeds, root and stem barks | Methanol | Saponins, steroids, alkaloids, tannins, cardiac glycosides, anthraquinones | Cytotoxicity effect against T98G, MDA-MB231, A375 and HCT116 cell lines. | $[74,137,142,143]$ |
| Ximenia americana (Olacaceae) | Internal wounds, gastric ulcer, uterine cancer, dermatitis | Root barks | Aqueous <br> decoction | Alkaloids, anthraquinones, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids | High cytotoxicity again: MCF-7 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.7 \mu \mathrm{~g}\right.$ ) <br> $\mathrm{mL})$ <br> BV173 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CC531 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=3.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> U87-MG $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> K562 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=11 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> SKW3 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=20 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[25,138,144,145]$ |
| Xylopia aethiopica <br> (Annonaceae) | Wounds and skin infections | Seeds | Methanol | Alkaloids, phenols, saponins, tannins, triterpenes | High cytotoxicity again: MiaPaCa2 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=6.86 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CCRF-CEM $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=3.91 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CEM/ADR5000 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=7.4 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[121,123]$ |
| Zinziber officinalis (Zingiberaceae) | Treatment of cancer and infectious diseases | Rhizome | Methanol | Alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, phenols, tannins, flavonoids, triterpenoids, steroids | Significant cytotoxicity again: MiaPaCa2 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=16.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CCRF-CEM $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=8.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ <br> CEM/ADR5000 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=6.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | $[121,146,147]$ | | [] | 4 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hs-35-sawadogo.pdf |
biblio-hs-35-sawadogo | Table 2
Anticancer molecules isolated from West African plants.
| Molecule | Nature and origin | Pharmacological properties | References |
| :--: | :--: | :--: | :--: |
| Acetoxyjatropholone | Diterpene from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC50 of $2.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ | [67], [129] |
| Balanitin-6/7 | Steroidal saponin from Balanites eagyptiaca | Significant growth inhibition of: A549 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), U373 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} /$ $\mathrm{mL}), \mathrm{PC}-3\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right), \mathrm{Bx}-\mathrm{PC} 3\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.2 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$, LoVo ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), $\mathrm{MCF}-7\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=2.6 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$, depletion of (ATP) leading to major disorganization of the actin cytoskeleton in A549 and U373 cells. | [109], [148] |
| Butyrospermol acetate and cinnamate | Triterpenes from Butyrospermum parkii or Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae) | Significant inhibition of EBV-EA activation induced by TPA. High inhibition of topic inflammation with $\mathrm{ID}_{50}$ of 0.7 and $0.2 \mu \mathrm{~mol} /$ ear respectively. | [74] |
| Curcusone A, B, C, D | Diterpene from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC $_{50}$ of $0.2 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ for curcusone A and B, 0.08 for curcusone C and $0.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ for curcusone D. | $[66], [129]$ |
| 15-Epi-4E-jatrogrossidentadion | Diterpene from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC $_{50}$ of $0.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ | $[67], [129]$ |
| 2-Hydroxy-isojatrogrossidion and 2-epi-hydroxyisojatrogrossidion | Diterpenes from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC $_{50}$ of $0.2 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ for each compound. | $[67], [129]$ |
| Jatropholone | Diterpene from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC $_{50}$ of $7.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ | $[67], [129]$ |
| 4Z and 4Ejatrogrossidentadion | Diterpenes from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC $_{50}$ of 0.6 and $2.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ respectively | $[67], [129]$ |
| Kurubasch aldehyde | Sesquiterpenoid from Trichilia emetic (Meliaceae) | High inhibition of the proliferation of murine sarcoma S180 cancer cells with IC $_{50}$ of $7.4 \mu \mathrm{M}$. <br> Reduction of breast cancer cells (MCF-7) proliferation with IC $_{50}$ of $78 \mu \mathrm{M}$. | [50] |
| Longistylin A | Hydroxyl stylbene from Cajanus cajan | High cytotoxicity again: MCF-7 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=5.2 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}), \mathrm{C} 32\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=3.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$, COR- <br> L23 ( $\left.\mathrm{IC}_{50}=5.0 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$, HepG2 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.7 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), 16HBE40 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=2.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), AB42J-B13 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=0.7 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), CCR-CEM ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9.8 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), CEM/ADR5000 $\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=10.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | [7] |
| Longistylin C | Hydroxyl stylbene from Cajanus cajan | High cytotoxicity again: MCF-7 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=4.4 \pm 0.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), C32 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=4.1 \pm 0.4 \mu \mathrm{~g} /$ $\mathrm{mL}$ ), COR-L23 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=2.8 \pm 0.3 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), HepG2 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=1.6 \pm 0.4 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), 16HBE40 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=2.4 \pm 0.05 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ), AB42J-B13 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=4.5 \pm 0.2 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | [7] |
| Lupeol acetate and cinnamate | Triterpenoid saponins from Vitellaria paradoxa | Significant inhibition of EBV-EA activation induced by TPA. High inhibition of topic inflammation with $\mathrm{ID}_{50}$ of 0.54 and $0.15 \mu \mathrm{~mol} /$ ear respectively. | [74] |
| Multidione | Diterpene from Jatropha curcas | Cytotoxic on L5178y cells with IC $_{50}$ of $5.5 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ | $[67], [129]$ |
| $2^{\prime \prime}$-Oxovoruscharin | Cardenolide from Calotropis procera | High antiproliferative effect on: Hs683 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=8 \mathrm{nM}$ ) <br> U373 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=15 \mathrm{nM}$ ) <br> $\mathrm{HCT}-15\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=16 \pm 5 \mathrm{nM}\right)$ <br> LoVo ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=10 \mathrm{nM}$ ) <br> A549 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=74 \mathrm{nM}$ ) <br> Inhibition of the $\mathrm{Na}^{+} / \mathrm{K}^{+}$-ATPase pump with $\mathrm{IC}_{50}$ of 75 nM . | [80] |
| Pinostrobin | Flavanone from Cajanus cajan | Significant cytotoxicity again: CCRF-CEM ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=10.2 \pm 1.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) Low cytotoxicity on Vero cells (CC50 $>100 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) | $[7], [149]$ |
| Parkioside B | Triterpenoid saponin from Vitellaria paradoxa | Antiproliferative effect again: T98G ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=2.9 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) MDA-MB231 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=9.6 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) A375 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=2.7 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}$ ) $\mathrm{HCT} 116\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=14.1 \mu \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mL}\right)$ | [142] |
| Riprosimin | Lectin from Ximenia Americana | High cytotoxicity on HeLa cell lines with $\mathrm{IC}_{50}$ of 1.1 pM | [150] |
| UNBS1450 | Semi-synthetic derivative of 2-oxovoruscharin from Calotropis procera | Inhibitory potential on $\mathrm{Na}^{+} / \mathrm{K}^{+}$-ATPase isozymes. <br> Induction of apoptotic cell death (K562, U937, Jurcat) at low dose (nM). Inhibition of NFkB pathway activation | $[81], [151]$ |
| Uscharin and voruscarin | Cardenolides from Calotropis procera | High antiproliferative effect on: Hs683 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=4 \mathrm{nM}$ ) <br> U373 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=40$ and 32 nM ) <br> $\mathrm{HCT}-15\left(\mathrm{IC}_{50}=28\right.$ and 27 nM$)$ <br> LoVo ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=10$ and 17 nM ) <br> A549 ( $\mathrm{IC}_{50}=25$ and 9 nM ) <br> Inhibition of the $\mathrm{Na}^{+} / \mathrm{K}^{+}$-ATPase pump by uscharin with $\mathrm{IC}_{50}$ of 68 nM . | |
A375: human malignant melanoma cell line, A549: Lung carcinoma cell line, AB42J-B13: rat pancreatic cell line, B16F1: mousse melanoma, BV173: human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line, Bx-PC3: pancreas cancer cell line, C32: amelanotic melanoma cell line, CC531: rat colon cancer cell line, CCRF-CEM: leukemia cell line, CEM/ADR5000: leukemia cell multidrug resistant, COR-L23: large cell of lung carcinoma, DLD1: human colorectal carcinoma, EBV-EA: Epstein-Bar Virus Early Antigen in Raji cell line, HCA7: human colonic carcinoma cell line, HCT116: human colon carcinoma cell line, HCT15: human colon adenocarcinoma cell line, Hela: human cervix carcinoma cell line, HepG2: human hepatocellular liver carcinoma cell line, HL-60: human promyelocytic leukemia cell line, HS683: human neuronal glioma cell line, HT29: human colon adenocarcinoma grade II cell line, 16HBE40: human bronchiolar cell line, Jurcat: human T-cell leukemia cell line, K562: human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line, KB: human nasopharynx carcinoma cell line, L5178y: mousse lymphoma cell line, LoVo: colon cancer cell line, MCF-7: breast adenocarcinoma cell line, MDA-MB231: mammary carcinoma cell line, MiaPaCa2: human pancreatic carcinoma cell line, PC-3: prostate cancer cell line, PC12: rat adrenal medulla pheochromocytoma cell line, RPMI: human multiple myeloma cell line, S180: murine sarcoma cell line, SF295: central nervous system cancer cell line, SK-Mel28: melanoma cell line, SKW3: human acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell line, T98G: human glioblastoma multiforme cell line, TPA: 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate, U251: human glioma cell line, U373: glioblastoma cell line, U87MG: grade IV human glioblastoma cell line, U937: histiocytic lymphoma cell line. | [] | 5 | http://www.ethnopharmacologia.org/prelude2020/pdf/biblio-hs-35-sawadogo.pdf |
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